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Guide For Using Lead As Radiation Shielding
Guide For Using Lead As Radiation Shielding
to the use of
l ead
for radiation
shielding
FOREWORD
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
TABLE OF CONTENTS
RADIATION SHIELDING..............................................................1
Introduction ........................................................................1
Sources of Radiation.................................................................1
Types and Characteristics of Radiation ................................................. 1
Characteristics of Shielding...........................................................1
APPENDIX
A. RADIATION PROTECTION AT WALL OPENINGS FOR DUCT OR PIPE .............. 20
B. GENERAL PROPERTIES OF LEAD ......................................................... 24
RADIATION SHIELDING
FORM USE
Lead Bricks
Table 2 - Commercial lead sheets Lead bricks are produced in a wide range of sizes in
the plain and the interlocking styles, and are normally
Weight in Pounds for
produced from 4 per cent antimonial lead alloy, which
Thickness a 1 Square Foot Section
Millimeter Nominal Actual is harder than pure lead, and more resistant to damage.
I nches equivalent Weight Weight Lead bricks are also more resistant to damage than,
1/64 0.40 1 0.92 e.g., concrete.
3/128 0.60 1 1/2 1.38
1/32 The unique design of the interlocking type permits
0.79 2 1.85
5/128 1.00 21/2 2.31 mating surfaces to interlock, thus preventing the
3/64 1.19 3 2.76 leakage of radiation. Any rays that penetrate the first
7/128 1.39 3 1/2 3.22 angle of the interlocking joint will actually strike an
- 1.50 - 3.48
1/16 1.58 4 3.69 equal or greater depth of lead than the straight thick-
5/64 1.98 5 4.60 ness of the wall.
3/32 2.38 6 5.53 Lead bricks are manufactured to extremely accurate
- 2.5 - 5.80 tolerances, and as a result of recent production im-
- 3.0 - 6.98
1/8 3.17 provements, can be obtained with the almost complete
8 7.38
5/32 3.97 10 9.22 absence of porosity.
3/16 4.76 12 1 1.06 The smooth surfaces of lead bricks allow for easier
7/32 5.55 14 1 2.9
decontamination of the shield from radioactive dust.
1/4 6.35 16 1 4.75
1/3 8.47 20 1 9.66 Typical standard sizes of interlocking brick are 3 to
2/5 1 0.76 24 23.60 1 3 inches long, 3 to 5 inches thick, and 2 inches high.
1/2 1 2.70 30 29.50
The standard size of plain brick (non-interlocking) is
2/3 1 6.93 40 39.33
1 25.40 60 59.00 usually 2 x 4 x 8 inches. However, both types are
Notes: manufactured in an ample range of special sizes to
I . The density of commercially rolled lead is 11.36 g/cm 3 . meet any requirements.
2. The commercial tolerances are +-0.005 i nches for lead up to
7/128 and +-1/32 for heavier sheets.
Concrete or Cinder Block
Another form of space shielding construction is a
concrete or cinder block with an unperforated sheet of
Lead Plastic Composites
lead anchored at its center. The two halves of the
With minor variations, lead plastic composites are
block are approximately 2" smaller in both directions
available in the following forms:
than the sheet lead. Thus the sheet lead extends past
Sheet Material A lead powder and plastic mixture the outer edges of the block on all sides. When a wall is
core between two sheets of plastic. This material is constructed of these blocks the lead in each block
suitable for protective aprons and is available in a overlaps that in all adjoining blocks by 1" providing a
variety of thicknesses for various energy levels. continuous lead lining.
Lead Shielded Doors and Door Frames Lead Glass
Lead laminated doors are available for both new and To provide viewing of the patient in the x-ray room
existing structures. The standard door is constructed while providing protection to the operator, lead glass
utilizing a single layer of sheet lead in the center equal viewing windows can be furnished in the barrier. It is
in thickness to that in the wall in which the door is to produced 1/4 inch thickness which is equivalent to 1.5
be installed. The sheet lead extends to the edges of the mm sheet lead.
door. Solid wood cores on either side of the sheet lead Lead glass can be installed in multiple layers so as to
are held together utilizing poured lead dowels 1 1/2" provide a lead equivalency to the lead in the wall in
from all edges and 8" on center. Lead lined doors can which it is installed.
be provided in any face veneer desired.
When designing the shield system for the door, it
will also be necessary to plan for shielding continuity Lead-Filled Acrylic Sheet
at the door frame. The method selected to shield the
door frame will depend upon the method of wall Another material available for viewing windows in
shielding installed, that is whether the lead was applied radiation barriers is a lead-filled acrylic sheet. Adding
to the wall surface or used internally in the wall during up to 30 per cent by weight of lead to acrylic resin does
construction. not affect the resins mechanical properties or trans-
It is important to remember that the lead in the door parency after long exposure to gamma radiation levels.
frame must overlap the lead in the wall and be con- The product can be easily fabricated with only slight
tinuous on one side to the door stop surface to achieve modifications of the thermoforming and machining
effective shielding. methods used for conventional acrylics.
APPLICATIONS OF LEAD FOR RADIATION SHIELDING SYSTEMS
Leaded Glass, Sheet and Bricks Special clothing should be worn when there is a
Leaded Plastics possibility of contamination with hazardous amounts
of radionuclides. The degree of protection required is
Lead Clad Building Material
a function of the quantity, type, and nature of the
Lead Laminated Panels radiation, as well as the design of the available fa-
Lead Shot cilities.
Lead Sheet and Foil For low and medium level work, coveralls, caps,
gloves and either special shoes or shoe covers are sug-
gested.
The following sections provide some additional in-
For close or contact work with radioactive materials
formation on the more important lead shield materials.
emitting radiation of low penetrating power, shielded
In lead brick shield systems, most of the shield is
clothing such as leather, eye protection or leaded
built from standard interchangeable wall units, with gloves and aprons may be used to increase allowable
special units available for the installation of tools and exposure time. Leather and rubber are effective
i mplements for remote handling.
against most beta radiation, while fabrics loaded with a
Leaded glass bricks can also be made part of the
high atomic number material such as lead are used for
system so that work being conducted may be viewed
shielding against scattered x-rays in fluoroscopy. At
directly without any loss in overall shielding effi-
the higher energy levels, the great increase in weight
ciency.
and the loss in flexibility which would be necessary to
Mobile Lead Screen Lead sheet and various lead
shield against gamma rays rule out the use of shielded
laminates may be used in some applications of port-
garments.
able shielding where the erection of a lead brick wall is
not the most convenient method. Such specially de-
signed shields are used in medical and industrial appli-
cations of radioactive isotopes.
A typical mobile shield would consist of an un- Gamma Ray Shielding in Laboratories
pierced lead sheet, laminated with a resilient adhesive Values prepared by the National Bureau of Stan-
between two plywood panels and covered with a varie- dards may be used to determine the required thick-
ty of surfaces, finishes, such as wood veneer, mylar or nesses for shielding from gamma ray sources in the
plastic. Usually the screen is provided with a metal laboratory. In practice such calculations should be
trim on all edges, in addition to the normally supplied made only under the direction of a qualified expert;
mobile mounts and casters. the resulting installation may subsequently require
If required, mobile lead screens can be furnished measurements of actual radiation levels obtained.
with a view window of lead glass of equal shielding
capacity as the screen panel.
Lead Blankets In order to permit maintenance and
inspection of a nuclear installation, it is necessary to
provide a barrier that will reduce the gamma radiation
to an acceptable level. Even though the reactor is not
operating when a nuclear plant is shut down, a sig-
nificant amount of gamma radiation remains in the
components of the cooling system. One way to permit
the maintenance personnel to reach the necessary
DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION
Method
lead sheet on the walls and that applied for ceiling pro-
tection. This precaution is required as the rays travel
in a straight line at an angle to the walls and ceiling.
Soldered or burned seams are permissible providing
that the lead equivalent of the joint is not less than the
barrier thickness required; and that the !ap joint is one-
half inch or twice the sheet thickness, whichever is
greater.
Viewing Windows
Lead glass viewing windows for patient observation
Figure 10 from a control room or control booth are available in
Typical Method of Installing Lead Lined Lath. sizes ranging from 12 i n. b y 12 in., to 36 i n. by 48 in.
The frame is constructed of solid lead welded in one
piece, splayed on four sides for one side angle view-
ing. An alternate type of frame is constructed from
Radiation Protection at Barrier Openings steel and lined with sheet lead. A horizontal trapped
When the protective barrier is penetrated by any opening is provided in the bottom of the frame for
opening, special problems are encountered since they voice transmission.
cannot be simply covered with sheet lead, and could The frames are constructed to provide a minimum of
result in discontinuity of the shielding systems. 3/8 in. overlap at all points of the perimeter of the lead
The complicated problem of reflection of the ray glass. Removable lead stops are provided for glazing in
should be solved in the early design stages and the re- the field. Multiple lead glass layers (approximately 1/4
sulting designs incorporated into the construction. For in. thick equals 1.5 mm sheet lead) are used to achieve
LEAD LINED DOOR
Figure 11
Typical Construction of A Lead Lined Door.
Figure 12 Reinforced Lead Lined Back.
Ventilation Louvers
Where ventilation is required in either walls or
doors, lightproof louvers of solid lead are available.
The louvers are constructed of inter-locking lead chan-
nels the same thickness as the lead used in the surface
where it is to be mounted. A continuous flange is pro-
vided for surface mounting.
The design of louver allows approximately a 30 per
cent air flow. Refer to Figure 11 which illustrates a
typical lead ventilation louver installed in a lead lined
door.
Rough-in Frame
Manual Interlock
Support Bracket
Roughing-in details
Figure 16
Thru-wall film-transfer cabinets.
RADIATION PROTECTION AT WALL OPENINGS FOR DUCT OR PIPE
Harrison D. Goodman* and George Hollands**
The purpose of these data sheets is to acquaint the termines extent of shielding, materials for shielding
air conditioning engineer with the means for shielding (usually lead or concrete) and the thickness of the
ductwork and other openings that penetrate protective shielding material. After the radiological physicist has
barriers around radiation facilities, particularly X-ray done the basic design for this shielding, the protective
rooms. barrier contractor provides the required shielding for
Protection against radiation from X-ray tube, cyclo- the openings.
tron, radium or other radioactive material is primarily
a question of shielding to reduce the level of radiation Role of Engineer
to a safe or specified amount, of maintaining safe dis- Design of ductwork, piping, etc., should anticipate
tances from the rays, and/or of limiting the time of ex- some of the problems encountered both in the design
posure. and installation of shielding. Also, coordination
The prime consideration in preventing penetration between air conditioning contractor and shielding
of rays is density of the shielding material. Lead is the fabricator can best be achieved by understanding and
densest of any commonly available. Where space is at forethought on the part of the air conditioning de-
a premium, particularly in modern buildings, and signer.
where utmost radiation protection is demanded, lead is Figures 1-4 give some idea of the area of shielding
i nvariably used. Lead is useful, especially where required around ductwork. They show various duct in-
neutrons and gamma rays are concerned, in that it stallations which penetrate the protective barrier for
does not itself become contaminated and emit harmful walls or partitions of X-ray rooms. Lead shielding is
rays. used to cover these openings, the approximate extent
Lead, usually in sheet form, is used to line the walls, of which is indicated in terms of simple equations in-
floor and often the ceiling of rooms containing radia- volving the opening dimensions and wall thickness.
tion facilities. Openings through the barrier for air These are Conservative estimates, which will aid the
ductwork, piping, service boxes, conduit, etc., require
air conditioning designer to understand what to expect
shielding, usually obtained by a lead barrier around or
behind these building utilities of sufficient coverage as to the area of shielded ductwork. The radiological
physicist actually determines for each case the lead
and thickness to prevent penetration of these rays.
thickness and the exact amount of shielding required.
Note in Fig. 4 that the protective shielding deals
Determining Shielding Dimensions
with primary radiation, while Figures 1-3 show protec-
Shielding of duct and other openings in the protec- tion against scattered or secondary radiation. Primary
tive barrier of radiation facilities depends on energy of radiation comes directly from the source; scattered
radiation, orientation of the beam, dimensions and radiation has been deviated in direction; and secon-
l ocation of opening in the protective barrier, dary radiation is emitted by an irradiated material.
geometrical relationship between the radiation source Primary radiation requires more protection because its
and opening, and geometrical relationship between energy level is higher.
opening and persons, materials or instruments to be
protected. The complexity of these factors requires Fabrication and Installation
the services of a radiological physicist, who de- Sheet lead is not structurally self-supporting, so
must be mounted to prevent sagging by its own weight.
For lead thicknesses up to 3.5 mm, sheet lead can be
readily shaped around round and small rectangular
* Mr. Goodman, formerly with Meyer, Strong and Jones ducts, say 24-inch maximum diameter or width, with
now has his own consulting practice in New York City. He all joints overlapped at least 1/2 inch. To hold these lead
has a masters degree in mechanical engineering from the sheets in place, 1-inch wide iron bands should be
University of Wisconsin, where he specialized in heat placed around the periphery of the duct on approx-
transfer, and is a licensed professional engineer. i mately 12-inch centers, care being taken not to cut in-
to the lead when the bands are bolted up.
** Mr. Hollands is chief engineer, in charge of design of
radiation shielding materials and equipment, for Bar-Ray When lead thickness is greater than 3.5 mm or duct
Products, Inc., Brooklyn, N.Y. He is a member of ASTM, width exceeds 24 inches, lead shielding should be
Society for Nondestructive Testing, Acoustical Society of laminated on a plywood or similar structural core,
America and American Institute of Physics. which is made in sections or panels to conform to the
sides of the duct. The laminated sections are Medical Installations
mechanically fastened at the seams and corners. The extent of the protective barrier for medical in-
These joints are lapped with sheet lead angles or lead stallations is summarized below so that the air condi-
strips, the width of which is twice the thickness of the tioning designer can tell whether ducts or pipes run-
lead, but not less than 1/2 i nch in any case. Nails, bolts, ning through such spaces are likely to be a
screws or other fasteners used to secure the lead sheet problem. For medical radiographic and fluoroscopic
or panel must be covered with lead of thickness equal rooms the lead shielding generally does not extend
to the lead sheet. Lead headed nails may be used as above a line 7 ft., 0 in. from the finished floor; and if
shown in Fig. 5. the service lines and ducts can be located above this
For lead shielding of 1.0 mm or less, flexible leaded line, shielding around them is obviously unnecessary.
vinyl sheets can be used for easy forming to complex For X-ray therapy rooms, lead shielding may extend to
shapes and contours. The flexible leaded vinyl sheets the ceiling or structural slab. The ceiling or slab above
can be applied in layers where heavier than 1.0 mm
and the floor may also be lead lined, depending upon
lead shielding is required. If the duct has a flexible output of the machine and other conditions. For in-
connection or is made of a flexible material, the flexi- dustrial X-ray work, wall shielding may extend to the
ble vinyl sheets could be applied over it more readily ceiling. Both ceiling and floor in some cases will re-
than other forms of shielding. quire lead lining.
Duct hangers are best installed on the outside of the For shielding in supervoltage rooms, special condi-
lead shielding so that the hanger rods or straps do not tions may apply. In any event, the radiological
have to pierce the shielding. The lead shielding adds physicist should be consulted to design the proper pro-
considerably to the weight of the duct and the hangers tection. Where concrete is considered for the shielding
should be substantial, with such adequate anchoring in material, it is often more practical to use lead of
the slab above as fish plates. For rectangular ducts, equivalent value for the shielding of openings. Where
trapeze hangers would be the most practical. For de- recesses occur in concrete barriers for equipment,
sign purposes, estimate each 1/16 inch of lead at 4 lb. lead backing, equivalent to the thickness of the con-
per sq. ft. crete removed, should be provided.
Tests for radiation leakage are usually made after
the room is finished and the equipment is installed. It
is very important to install all shielding properly during
the course of construction because of the expense in
Bibliography
making corrections to the finished protective barrier.
Moreover, equipment such as dampers should never Of the many publications available on the subject of
be put in the shielded section of the ductwork, as re- radiation protection, these two are the most useful:
pairs to this equipment would be very costly if the 1. Medical X-ray Protection Up to Three Million
shielding must be dismantled. Volts, Handbook No. 76, National Bureau of Stan-
A simple way to avoid penetration of the protective dards, 1961;
barrier's lead lining by pipes or wires is to offset them
as close behind the lead lining as possible so that they 2. Radiation Protection, Lead Industries Associa-
tion, 292 Madison Avenue, New York, N.Y.
can be backed with a lead sheet of sufficient size to
prevent passage of the rays at any angle. This lead In addition, the New York City Health Department
patch method is also used for electric switch boxes publishes the New York City Health Code require-
located in the wall. ments dealing with radiological hazards (Article 175).
RADIATION PROTECTION AT WALL OPENINGS FOR DUCT OR PIPE
- Duct opening,
W wide xH high
Lead shielding on
ductwork is similar
to that shown on
Fig. 1
Scattered Primary
or radiation
secondary Lead shielding around three-
(useful
radiation exposed sides of duct
beam)
rays
Note: If fire dampers are required in duct
penetrating this partition or wall, the
access door in the duct for setting the
fusible link should be located inside
the X-ray room
Scattered
or secondary
radiation rays
Figure 3. Plan view of radius elbow in ductwork running Figure 5. Construction of laminated panel enclosure around
through partition of X-ray room, exposed to secondary or scat- shielded ductwork.
tered radiation.
APPENDIX B