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Microprocessor PDF
Microprocessor PDF
MICROPROCESSOR
SEMICONDUCTORS &
DIODES
ELECTRICAL CONDUCTIVITY
In order of conductivity: superconductors,
conductors, semiconductors, insulators
conductors: material capable of carrying
electric current, i.e. material which has
mobile charge carriers (e.g. electrons,
ions,..) e.g. metals,
liquids with ions (water, molten ionic
compounds), plasma
insulators: materials with no or very few free
charge carriers; e.g. quartz, most covalent
and ionic solids, plastics
semiconductors: materials with conductivity
between that of conductors and insulators;
e.g. germanium Ge, silicon Si, GaAs, GaP,
InP
superconductors: certain materials have
zero resistivity at very low temperature.
ENERGY BANDS IN SOLIDS:
In solid materials, electron energy levels
form bands of allowed energies, separated
by forbidden bands
valence band = outermost (highest) band
filled with electrons (filled = all states
occupied)
conduction band = next highest band to
valence band (empty or partly filled)
gap = energy difference between
valence and conduction bands, = width of
the forbidden band
Note:
TRANSISTORS AND
AMPLIFIERS
TRANSISTORS
(bipolar) transistor = combination
of two diodes that share middle
portion, called base of transistor;
other two sections: emitter'' and
collector;
usually, base is very thin and lightly
doped.
two kinds of bipolar transistors: pnp
and npn transistors
pnp means emitter is p-type,
base is n-type, and collector is p-
type material;
in normal operation of pnp
transistor, apply positive voltage to
emitter, negative voltage to
collector;
TRANSISTORS
OPERATION OF PNP TRANSISTOR
if emitter-base junction is forward biased,
holes flow from battery into emitter, move
into base;
some holes annihilate with electrons in n-
type base, but base thin and lightly doped
most holes make it through base into
collector,
holes move through collector into negative
terminal of battery; i.e. collector current
flows whose size depends on how many
holes have been captured by electrons in
the base;
this depends on the number of n-type
carriers in the base which can be
controlled by the size of the current (the
base current) that is allowed to flow from
the base to the emitter; the base current is
usually very small; small changes in the
base current can cause a big difference in
the collector current;
PNP TRANSISTOR
PNP TRANSISTOR
if emitter-base junction is forward biased,
holes flow from battery into emitter, move
into base;
some holes annihilate with electrons in n-
type base, but base thin and lightly doped
most holes make it through base into
collector,
holes move through collector into negative
terminal of battery; i.e. collector current
flows whose size depends on how many
holes have been captured by electrons in
the base;
this depends on the number of n-type
carriers in the base which can be
controlled by the size of the current (the
base current) that is allowed to flow from
the base to the emitter; the base current is
usually very small; small changes in the
base current can cause a big difference in
the collector current;
PNP TRANSISTOR
Operation as amplifier
Transistor acts as amplifier of base
current, since small changes in base
current cause big changes in
collector current.
transistor as switch: if voltage applied to
base is such that emitter-base junction is
reverse-biased, no current flows through
transistor -- transistor is off
therefore, a transistor can be used as a
voltage-controlled switch; computers use
transistors in this way.
Field-effect Transistor (FET)
In a pnp FET, current flowing
through a thin channel of n-
type material is controlled by
the voltage (electric field)
applied to two pieces of p-
type material on either side
of the channel (current
depends on electric field).
Many different kinds of FETs
FETs are the kind of transistor
most commonly used in
computers.
Field-effect Transistor (FET)
SCRs and Their Characteristics
The silicon controlled rectifier (SCR) is
a four-layer pnpn device with three
leads, the anode, gate, and cathode.
An SCR will not conduct until the
forward breakover voltage is
reached, even though its anode-
cathode is forward-biased.
The gate current in an SCR controls
the forward breakover voltage.
Once an SCR turns on, the gate loses
all control.
The only way to turn an SCR off is to
reduce the anode current below the
holding current,
SCRs and Their Characteristics
A silicon controlled rectifier
(SCR) is a four-layer pnpn
device.
Fig. 32-3 (a) shows the
basic construction of an
SCR, and Fig. 32-3 (b)
shows the schematic
symbol.
The SCR has three external
leads: the anode,
cathode, and gate.
SCRs and Their Characteristics
Triacs
A triac is a bi-directional
thyristor used to control the
power in ac circuits.
A triac has two leads
designated MT1, and MT2 or A1
and A2.
A triac has a gate lead which is
used to control its conduction.
A triac is equivalent to two SCRs
in parallel.
Triacs
TRIACS
Unijunction Transistors
The unijunction transistor (UJT) is a
three-terminal semiconductor device
that has only one p-n junction.
The unijunction transistor (UJT) has two
base leads, B1 and B2 and an emitter
(E) lead.
The interbase resistance, RBB of a UJT is
the resistance of its n-type silicon bar.
The ratio RB1/(RB1 + RB2) is called the
intrinsic standoff ratio, designated .
UJTs are used in conjunction with SCRs
and Triacs to control their conduction
angle.
Unijunction Transistors operation
The unijunction transistor (UJT) is a
three-terminal semiconductor device
that has only one p-n junction.
The unijunction transistor (UJT) has two
base leads, B1 and B2 and an emitter
(E) lead.
The interbase resistance, RBB of a UJT is
the resistance of its n-type silicon bar.
The ratio RB1/(RB1 + RB2) is called the
intrinsic standoff ratio, designated .
UJTs are used in conjunction with SCRs
and Triacs to control their conduction
angle.
Unijunction Transistors symbol
UNIJUNCTION TRANSISTORS
CHARACTERISTICS
Negative resistance is illustrated
in the emitter characteristic
curve shown in Fig. 32-12.
DIGITAL ELECTRONICS
DIGITAL
Digital system is known as
any
electronic system that
handle and
process electrical signals in
the form of
0s and 1s, no more analog
signals
used here.
Logic gates
A logic gate is an elementary
building block
of a digital circuit. logic gate is
an electronic
circuit can perform specific
processing on the input
signals.
Logic gates have two inputs
and one output.
Basic logic gates
A Y
0 1
1 0
BASIC LOGIC GATES
A B Y
0 0 0
0 1 0
1 0 0
EX-OR GATE
A B Y
0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 0
A B Y 1 1 0
0 0 1
0 1 0
1 0 0
NAND GATE
A B Y
0 0 1
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 0
Boolean algebra basics
logic operations symbols:
OR: (+) Plus symbol, e.g.:Y=
A+B
AND: (.) Dot symbol, e.g.:
Y=A.B
NOT: () a bar is drawn above
the letter, e.g.: Y= .
XOR: ( ) Plus symbol
surrounded with a circle, e.g.:
Y=A B.
Boolean algebra basics
. Commutative
e.g. A+B = B+A, A.B = B.A.
2. Associative
e.g. A+(B+C) = (A+B)+C =
A+B+C,
(B.C) = (A.B).C = A.B.C.
3.Distributive
e.g. A (B+C) = AB + AC.
Boolean algebra basics
A+1= 1.
A+0= A.
A.0= 0. A+ B= A+B.
A=A.
A.1= A.
A+A= A. -De Morgan's law:
A+= 1.
A.A= A.
A. = 0.
A+AB= A.
THE 8085 MICROPROCESSOR
ARCHITECTURE & INTERFACING
The 8085 and Its Buses
The 8085 is an 8-bit general purpose
microprocessor that can address 64K Byte of
memory.
It has 40 pins and uses +5V for power. It can
run at a maximum frequency of 3 MHz.
The pins on the chip can be grouped into 6
groups:
Address Bus.
Data Bus.
Control and Status Signals.
Power supply and frequency.
Externally Initiated Signals.
Serial I/O ports.
The Address and Data Busses
The address bus has 8 signal lines A8 A15
which are unidirectional.
The other 8 address bits are multiplexed
(time shared) with the 8 data bits.
So, the bits AD0 AD7 are bi-directional and
serve as A0 A7 and D0 D7 at the same time.
During the execution of the instruction, these lines carry
the address bits during the early part, then during the
late parts of the execution, they carry the 8 data bits.
In order to separate the address from the data,
we can use a latch to save the value before the
function of the bits changes
The Control and Status Signals
There are 4 main control and status signals. These are:
ALE: Address Latch Enable. This signal is a pulse that become 1
when the AD0 AD7 lines have an address on them. It
becomes 0 after that. This signal can be used to enable a
latch to save the address bits from the AD lines.
RD: Read. Active low.
WR: Write. Active low.
IO/M: This signal specifies whether the operation is a memory
operation (IO/M=0) or an I/O operation (IO/M=1).
S1 and S0 : Status signals to specify the kind of operation being
performed .Usually un-used in small systems.
Frequency Control Signals
There are 3 important pins in the
frequency control group.
X0 and X1 are the inputs from the
crystal or clock generating circuit.
The frequency is internally divided
by 2.
So, to run the microprocessor at 3
MHz, a clock running at 6 MHz
should be connected to the X0
and X1 pins.
ALE
Latch
AD7-AD0 A7- A0
D7 - D0
RAM
Input Buffer WR
Address CS
Lines
Address CS
Lines
Output Buffer RD
Output Buffer RD
Date
Data Lines Lines
8085
CS
A15-A8
ALE
A9- A0 1K Byte
Latch Memory
AD7-AD0 A7- A0 Chip
WR RD IO/M D7 - D0
RD WR
Interfacing the 8155
The 8155 is a special chip
designed to work with the
8085 to demonstrate the
interfacing of the 8085.
the 8155 has 256 bytes of
RAM, 2 programmable I/O
ports and a timer.
It is usually used in systems
designed for use in
university labs.
Traffic light controller
Stepper motor controller
In the PM type stepper motor, a permanent
magnet is used for rotor and coils are put on
stator. The stepper motor model which has 4-
poles is shown in the figure on the left. In case of
this motor, step angle of the rotor is 90 degrees.
As for four poles, the top and the bottom and
either side are a pair. coil, coil and coil, coil
correspond respectively. For example, coil and
coil are put to the upper and lower pole. coil
and coil are rolled up for the direction of the
pole to become opposite when applying an
electric current to the coil and applying an
electric current to the coil. It is similar about
and , too.
The turn of the motor is controlled by the
electric current which pours into , , and . The
rotor rotational speed and the direction of the
turn can be controlled by this control.
STEPPER MOTOR CONTROLLER
STEPPER MOTOR CONTROLLER
TEMPERATURE CONTROLLER
To accurately control process temperature
without extensive operator involvement, a
temperature control system relies upon a
controller, which accepts a temperature sensor
such as a thermocouple or RTD as input. It
compares the actual temperature to the
desired control temperature, or setpoint, and
provides an output to a control element. The
controller is one part of the entire control
system, and the whole system should be
analyzed in selecting the proper controller. The
following items should be considered when
selecting a controller:
Type of input sensor (thermocouple, RTD) and
temperature range
Type of output required (electromechanical
relay, SSR, analog output)
Control algorithm needed (on/off, proportional,
PID)
Number and type of outputs (heat, cool, alarm,
limit)
TEMPERATURE CONTROLLER
There are three basic types of controllers: on-
off, proportional and PID. Depending upon the
system to be controlled, the operator will be
able to use one type or another to control the
process.
On/Off Control
An on-off controller is the simplest form of
temperature control device. The output from
the device is either on or off, with no middle
state. An on-off controller will switch the output
only when the temperature crosses the setpoint.
For heating control, the output is on when the
temperature is below the setpoint, and off
above setpoint. Since the temperature crosses
the setpoint to change the output state, the
process temperature will be cycling continually,
going from below setpoint to above, and back
below. In cases where this cycling occurs
rapidly, and to prevent damage to contactors
and valves, an on-off differential, or hysteresis,
is added to the controller operations.
TEMPERATURE CONTROLLER
This differential requires that the
temperature exceed setpoint by a certain
amount before the output will turn off or
on again. On-off differential prevents the
output from chattering or making fast,
continual switches if the cycling above
and below the setpoint occurs very
rapidly. On-off control is usually used
where a precise control is not necessary,
in systems which cannot handle having
the energy turned on and off frequently,
where the mass of the system is so great
that temperatures change extremely
slowly, or for a temperature alarm. One
special type of on-off control used for
alarm is a limit controller. This controller
uses a latching relay, which must be
manually reset, and is used to shut down a
process when a certain temperature is
reached
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