Basic Protection 2015

PPS T
Power System
Protection Training
www.powersystemprotection.com.au
BASIC
POWER SYSTEM
PROTECTION
Welcome
Thank you for your interest in our training seminars. We trust that the
attached documentation will be of assistance in your career development.
Please feel free to contact us should you like to consider attending one of
our public seminars, or to arrange for an in-house seminar, even for a
small team of your colleagues.
For in-house presentations, please note that travel to you simply involves
an economy plane flight. And the advantage of an in-house seminar is that
we can mix and match modules from all of our presentations and hence
customize to meet your specific needs.
Regards,
Power System Protection Training
enquiries@powersystemprotection.com.au
Liability
Power System Protection Training accepts no direct nor consequential
liability in any manner whatsoever, to any party whosoever, who may rely
on or reference the information contained in these pages. Information
contained in these pages is provided as general reference only, without
any specific relevance to any particular intended or actual reference to or
use of this information. Any person or organisation making reference to, or
use of this information, is at their sole responsibility under their own skill
and judgement.
No Waiver, No Licence
Whilst the information herein has been made available to you, free of any
charge, commitment or obligation, Power System Protection Training
grants absolutely no waiver of Copyright nor grants any licence in any
manner whatsoever to any party in relation to this information.
In-House Seminars
In-house seminar costs will vary depending on

attendee numbers and your individual
circumstances. However, by organising your
own in-house seminar :
You can expect :

Savings of between 40% and 65%.
Plus you eliminate travel and
accommodation expenses for all of your
attendees.
We provide:
Seminar presentation
All seminar handout material, notes, folders, CDs, etc
Laptop Computer and Data Projector
Note that we guarantee that all seminars will be presented personally by
our principal engineer and seminar author, Barrie Moor
Each attendee receives:

Seminar presentation
Hard copy manual with all presentations, plus supporting technical
papers
CD with all printed material, plus considerable extra material and tools,
including:
pdf of seminar colour slides 2 per page
additional technical papers
tools for sequence component analysis of single, double and three
phase faults
tools for grading of IDMT overcurrent relays
tools for distance relay calculations, apparent impedance calculations,
fault resistance, mho and offset mho characteristic load limits
Certificate of attendance
You provide:
Seminar conference room (preferably on-site, within your own facilities)
Whiteboard
Any catering for lunch and tea breaks
To discuss your requirements, or to obtain a firm price quotation,

please contact us at:
BASIC POWER SYSTEM PROTECTION SEMINAR SYNOPSIS
Slide 1 Slide 2
Basic Disclaimer
Power System Protection z The material presented in this module is for Educational
purposes only.
z This module contains a summary of information for the
protection of various types of electrical equipment. Neither the
author, nor anyone acting on his behalf, makes any warranty or
representation, express or implied, as to the accuracy or
completeness of the information contained herein, nor assumes
Barrie Moor any responsibility or liability for the use or consequences of the
use of any of this information.
z The practical application of any of the material contained herein
bmoor@powersystemprotection.com.au must be in accordance with legislative requirements and must
give due regard to the individual circumstances.
www.powersystemprotection.com.au
Slide 3
Course Synopsis
z Fundamental Concepts of Protection Design

z Fault Calculations
z Over Current & Earth Fault Protection
z VTs & CTs
z Fundamentals of Distance Protection
z Fundamentals of Protection Signalling
z Fundamentals of High Impedance Differential Protection
z Fundamentals of Transformer Biased Differential Protection
z Fundamentals of Busbar Biased Differential Protection
z Fundamentals of Feeder Differential Protection
z Auto Reclosing
z Capacitor Bank Protection
Power System Protection Training : 2015 www.powersystemprotection.com.au

BASIC POWER SYSTEM PROTECTION FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES
Slide 1 Slide 2
Basic I assume you know

Power System Protection z CT : To provide a replica of the system current flow
to the protection relay
z VT : To provide a replica of the system voltage to the

FUNDAMENTAL protection relay
PRINCIPLES
z Ohms Law
V = I . R .. V=I.Z
An Introduction
Slide 3 Slide 4
Basic Power System Protection What Is a Fault?
z Protection is not for the prevention of power system z Can be the departure of the power system or one of
faults - this is a design function its components from the normal operating condition
z Rather, it is for the detection & removal of faults OR
z More often due to failure of insulation between parts

of the system that are normally operating at different
potentials

Slide 5 Slide 6
Why quickly remove faults Safety : Dont Try This at Home !!
z Safety
z Protect HV plant from damage
z Only trip failed plant
z Maintain system stability
z Not introduce system constraints
z Minimise consequential damage
z Back-up for CB Fail
z Comply with Acts & Regulations
Slide 7 Slide 8
So, is Protection like an Insurance Policy ?? Reliability, Dependability & Security
z Reliability : degree of certainty that the protection scheme will

operate as intended
z But there are two failure modes
Failure to operate when required
Operation when not required
z Dependability
The measure of certainty that the scheme will operate
z Not insurance !! z And we must consider
power system aspects such correctly for all faults for which it is intended to operate
z But there are similarities
as z Security
z Some aspects are
Value of equipment The measure of certainty that the scheme will not operate
Compulsory incorrectly for all faults for which it is not intended to operate
Importance of equipment
Optional Consequences of a fault

Slide 9 Slide 10
Dependability vs Security Dependability
z Although called upon infrequently, relays must

operate, as designed, for faults in their zone. To
ensure this, attention must be paid to:
z As the system becomes more dependable, its
tendency to become less secure increases z quality of workmanship
z Generally protection design favours high z quality of components
dependability, typically requiring z works testing
At least 2 protection systems capable of detecting every z maintenance
fault
At least 2 CBs capable of tripping for every fault
Slide 11 Slide 12
Security Dependability vs Security
z Protection must remain inoperative when there is not z Which one should we favour?
a fault in its zone. It must be immune to: z To judge this, we need to consider:
electrical noise the probability of the fault
normal human activities e.g. testing the consequences of failure to trip for the fault
vibration the probability of a spurious trip
loss / restoration of auxiliary DC voltage to relay the consequences of that trip
loss of input quantity to relay z Technological advances, however, can results in
relay component failure simultaneous improvements in speed, sensitivity,
dependability & security

Slide 13 Slide 14
Protection System Components Redundancy
z The success of a single protection system to detect

z Relays and clear a fault cannot be guaranteed
z Current Transformers z A second, fully redundant, protection system will
DIST
dramatically improve overall system reliability
z Voltage Transformers
z Limited by economic constraints
z Circuit Breakers
z DC Power Supplies
z Secondary Circuitry (Wiring, Links and Fuses)
z Protection Signalling Systems
Slide 15 Slide 16
Duplication : Protection Relays Duplication : Protection System
z Duplicate Main (or duplicate primary) Protection z DC Supplies

Separate batteries for the two protection systems
Duplicate high speed relays : both operate
Single, well maintained battery, and separately fused supplies to the
Main 1 & Main 2 Transgrid two protection systems
X & Y Powerlink z CTs & VTs
A & B Ausgrid Separate secondary windings for the two protection schemes
Set 1 & Set 2 Electranet z CBs
z Main & Local Backup Protection Separate trip coils for the two protection schemes
Single high speed relay with a slower back-up relay z Hence

X protection, supplied from the X battery, is connected to the
Normally only the high speed relay will operate
X CT & VT supplies and trips the CB X trip coil via the X battery
z Main & Remote Backup Protection Y protection, supplied from the Y battery, is connected to the
Single protection only is installed Y CT & VT supplies and trips the CB Y trip coil via the Y battery
Backed up by slower remote protection installation(s) z And then, to cover the (remote) possibility of a CB failing to clear,
we also implement a CB Fail scheme

Slide 17 Slide 18
Sensitivity Speed
z The relay should operate to cover the full range of z Required speed depends on:
fault conditions in its own zone load of circuits
z Sometimes need to provide several different types of voltage level
protection to a single zone in order to cover all faults z Examples of relay speed requirements:
z But, nevertheless, it may still be not feasible to 20msec at 300kV
provide a protection system that will detect all faults
Up to several seconds on 11 kV circuits
z Circuit breaker operating times must be included in
calculating total clearing times
Slide 19 Slide 20
AEMC Requirements
(Australian Energy Market Commission) Western Power Requirements
z National Electricity Rules : NER

Automatic Access Standards
To maintain system stability
To not constrain inter or intra regional power flows Maximum Fault Clearance Times (milliseconds)
Maximum Fault Clearance Times (milliseconds) Local End Remote End CBF Local CBF Remote
System Voltage kV Faulted End Remote End Breaker Fail 220 & 330kV 100 140 270 315
400kV 80 100 175 66 & 132kV 115 160 310 355
250kV to < 400kV 100 120 250
>100kV to < 250kV 120 220 430
100kV As necessary to prevent plant damage and meet

stability requirements

Slide 21
Overlapping Protection Zones

The ART of Protection
Fault Detection & Coverage
z The art of protection is being able to:

Discriminate between faults on different parts of the power
system
Discriminate between faults and the general operational state
of the power system
z Protection schemes are arranged in zones, with each relay
looking after a particular zone.
A protection relay should operate only for faults in its own
zone
z Two basic philosophies
Unit Protection
Non-Unit Protection
Overlapping Protection Zones Overlapping Protection Zones
TYPICAL ARRANGEMENT OF OVERLAPPING ZONES OF PROTECTION TYPICAL ARRANGEMENT FOR OVERLAPPING ZONES OF PROTECTION
NO BLIND SPOT WITH CT's ON EACH SIDE OF BREAKER WITH BLIND SPOTS DUE TO CT's ON ONE SIDE OF CIRCUIT BREAKER ONLY

Slide 25 Slide 26
Basic Unit Protection

Power System Protection z Operates on comparison of quantities at the zone
boundary
z The boundaries of operation of unit protection are:

exactly identifiable, usually by CT location
UNIT PROTECTION independent of system configuration
independent of generation pattern
independent of relay setting
Slide 27 Slide 28
Unit Protection Unit Protection
z There is no need for time grading unit protection with

other protection
z There is virtually no need for regular review of
settings
Differential
Relay z It does not place restrictions on load transfer
z It does not provide remote backup for adjacent
zones of protection
z a means of communicating the boundary conditions
to the relay is required
Differential Differential
Relay Relay
Communication System

Slide 29 Slide 30
Basic Non-Unit Protection

Power System Protection z One or more boundaries of operation are
indeterminate, and are dependent on:
the system configuration,
(the amount of transmission plant in service)
NON - UNIT the generation pattern
PROTECTION the load
the relay setting
Non Unit Protection Non Unit Protection

Relay may see Relay may see
as far as here as far as here
Relay may only Relay may only
see to here Nominal see to here Nominal
Reach Reach
z Relay operation in this area is uncertain z Relay operation in this area is uncertain
Current Relay Distance
Current Relay
Relay
Due to relay inaccuracy Due to relay inaccuracy
Due to system data inaccuracy Due to system data inaccuracy
V
Inaccuracy is further affected by
Z= Distance relay reach is un-affected
changes in fault current levels
I by changes in fault current levels
z Simple current relays are best suited to z Distance relays are well suited to
distribution system applications where applications where fault levels may vary
fault levels do not change significantly

Slide 33 Slide 34
Non-Unit Protection Basic

z May provide backup for adjacent zones
Power System Protection
z Simple - no communications required
time graded with other protection
reviewed regularly to ensure adequate fault coverage
and discrimination with other protection BACK-UP
z It often puts load restrictions on the plant it is PROTECTION
protecting
z Signalling schemes are required to meet code times Remote Back-up Protection
for remote end fault clearance
Local Back-up Protection
Blind Spot Protection
Back-up Protection Back-up Protection A
z Failure of a CB to clear a fault due to

Failure of protection scheme z Fault occurs on feeder B-E
D
Remote backup works well on radial Protection at E trips CB
Failure of DC system systems, typically 33kV and below.
z
Failure of CB itself This is how the protection of the z Failure at B

supply to your house works !! Relay fail
z Remote Back-up B C
DC system fail
Fault cleared remotely via remote protection
CB fail
z Local Back-up
Local backup is strongly recommended z Relays trip feeders at A and D
Fault cleared locally via: for meshed systems 66kV and above, z Fault now cleared
2nd protection scheme and at 100kV and above it is basically
mandatory to meet the National z Total loss of supply to B
z Duplicate Protection Electricity Rules. z Total loss of supply to C
z Main and Backup Protection z Interconnectors all tripped E
Circuit breaker LBU or CBF protection z No additional systems required
z Based on a simple current check and timer system z Cheap and nasty !!

Slide 37 Slide 38
Remote Backup Remote Backup
z Protection equipments at substations remote from z Settings are:

the fault are called upon to clear the fault time consuming to calculate
z Economical no extra schemes are required often need review
z The entire substation where the breaker or often not able to be made sensitive enough to achieve
protection fails is lost remote coverage for all fault locations
z Generally slow (400msec minimum to 5 sec) infeed is a problem
z Provides backup for a failed CB sensitive to system configuration
z Provides backup for a failed protection scheme sensitive to system expansions
z Provides backup for blind spot (dead zone) faults
Slide 39
Back-up Protection A
Local Backup Protection z Fault occurs on feeder B-E

z Protection at E trips CB D
z Failure at B is extremely unlikely
Duplicate or back-up relays
z A scheme for locally detecting and dealing with
Secure DC system
failure of a circuit breaker to clear a fault z But what if the CB itself fails at B B C
z Sometimes called CB Fail Protection Implement a CB Fail scheme
CBF trips the next line of CBs
z Needs to be very secure, as it generally trips more
z Requires that we have duplicate
than one circuit breaker perhaps an entire busbar or main/back-up relaying system
or even an entire substation. z Requires that we have duplicate
The CBF scheme monitors
or a secure DC system current flow through the CB.
z Requires CBF system If this continues for too long
Just a simple current check after the CB should have
and timer relay system. E tripped, backup tripping of the
next line of CBs is initiated.
z Good value for money and not
nasty !!

Slide 41 Slide 42
Simple Local Backup CB Auxiliary Contact CB Aux

Contact
Scheme for Local Backup

PROT PROT
TRIP CB TRIP CB
Trip Coil Trip Coil
Timer Timer
Include CB status
in the LBU trip
CBF Aux circuit logic CBF Aux
Trip Relay Trip Relay
This scheme relies on
the primary protection
relay to reset and timer
to cease once the fault
Trip Back-up Trip Back-up
is cleared CB #1 CB #1
Trip Back-up Trip Back-up

CB #2, etc CB #2, etc
Slide 43 Slide 44
Current Check Relay

CB auxiliary contact for Local Backup for Local Backup
PROT CURRENT
z Advantages: TRIP CHECK CB
Trip Coil
The reset time of the relay plays no role, since the timer
resets as soon as the breaker opens Timer
It works with low level faults, such as incipient faults in
transformers, as long as they are seen by the protection
CBF Aux
It is easy to set - only a timer setting is required Trip Relay
z Disadvantages:
Does not provide for the case where the CB mechanism
Include Current
Check status in the
opens but fails to clear the fault LBU trip circuit logic Trip Back-up
Provides no blind spot protection CB #1
z Alternative ??
Trip Back-up
Use a current check facility to confirm that CB has CB #2, etc
interrupted the current flow

Slide 45 Slide 46
Current Check Relay for Current Check Relay for

Local Backup Protection Local Backup Protection
z Uses an overcurrent check relay to detect that z Advantages:

current has stopped flowing Operates to clear faults where the CB mechanism
ie. Not just that the CB has operated, but that it has operates but where the fault is not cleared.
interrupted the flow of current Provides blind spot protection
z Overcurrent check relay must be specially designed Easy to set - does not depend on the reset times of any of
to have a fast reset time the protection relays that initiate CB Fail.
z Setting may be above load to provide additional z Disadvantages:
security It may not operate for low level faults
z To set below load, special design is required, such In such cases, both current check and CB aux contact
as to energize the CB Fail relay's DC supply only on may also be used
operation of the protection relay
Slide 47 Slide 48
Local Backup Protection Basic

z Limits the outage to a local bus
z Fast - 200msec or less, excluding CB time
z Settings are:
simple to calculate
quite forgiving BLIND SPOT
rarely need to be reviewed PROTECTION
not unduly sensitive to system configuration or
generation pattern Dead Zone Protection
not unduly sensitive to system expansions Small Zone Protection

Slide 49 Slide 53
Blind Spot Protection Blind Spot Fault
z A blind spot is a section of line or bus where a fault will BZ

not be cleared completely by the protection that first Prot
detects the fault
z Easily identified:
All CTs located on the same side of the Circuit Breaker
A blind spot fault then applies to faults occurring between
that circuit breaker and the current transformers
z Also known as:
Dead Zone Fault
Small Zone Fault
Fdr Fdr
Prot Prot
Slide 54
Overcurrent check relay for

Blind Spot Protection Blind Spot Coverage feeder 3
2 Bus Zone Diff
feeder 4
1 Bus Zone
relay trip
trip coil
+ contacts
CB 'A' - Distance Distance
z Depend on CT position o/c check

C
1 bus
B
2 bus
relay contact timer
z Blind Spots occur when CTs are on One Side of CB A
z Blind Spots really should have coverage via two o/c check cb fail auxiliary
relay contactrelay
FAULT Distance Distance
protection systems OVERCURRENT 1 Bus Zone Diff

CHECK RELAY
Duplicate remote protection schemes feeder 2
Intertrip feeder 1
Duplicated CB Fail Functions within the duplicated Plant Remote
End CB
Protection Relays
CB FAILCIRCUIT USING OVERCURRENT
z And since the subsequent CB trip is actually a primary CHECK RELAY CONTACTS
Distance
protection operation it should be backed up! (Ditto for CB's B & C)
D

Slide 56 Slide 57
Basic Trip Circuit Monitoring

Power System Protection z To monitor
Trip circuit voltage supply
Trip circuitry wiring
CB Trip Coil continuity
z Supervision current to be sufficiently low enough to prevent any
TRIP CIRCUIT possibility of nuisance tripping of CB only a few milliamps.
In operation when CB is Closed and also Open
MONITORING z
z May include short time delay
To prevent spurious alarm operation during CB operation
z TCM relay contacts must not be connected to follower relay
sensitive or opto inputs
Opto inputs may be inadvertently activated by the TCM current
Slide 58 Slide 59
Trip Circuit Monitoring Trip Circuit Monitoring

CB Closed CB Operating : Intermediate State
PROT 52A PROT 52A

52T 52T
52B 52B
300 ms
delay

Slide 60 Slide 61
Trip Circuit Monitoring Trip Circuit Monitoring

CB Open : Protection Trip still Active CB Open : Protection Reset
PROT 52A PROT 52A

52T 52T
52B 52B
Slide 62
Trip Circuit Monitoring

CB Closed : Trip Circuit Faulty
PROT 52A
52T
52B
300 ms
ALARM
delay

BASIC POWER SYSTEM PROTECTION FAULT CALCULATIONS
Slide 1 Slide 2
Basic Basic Calculations : 3 Phase Fault

ZS ZL
VS VR IF
FAULT CALCULATIONS
An Introduction
VS L N
IF = VRL N = I F Z L
ZS + ZL
Slide 3 Slide 4
Basic Calculations : Ph - Ph Fault Basic Calculations : Earth Fault
IF
IF
VS ZS ZL VS ZS ZL
Multiple return
paths
= I3PH * 3 / 2
VS LL VS LN
IF = IF =
2 (Z S + Z L ) Z S + Z L + ZG

Slide 5 Slide 6
Classical Fault Study Basic

z Pre-fault voltages set to 1/0
z Pre-fault load currents ignored
z Transformers on system voltage tap
(eg. 132/66kV to match system voltages,
even if transformer nominal tap is say 132/69kV)
z Shunt impedances ignored (Shunt capacitors, etc)
z Zero ohms fault resistance FAULT CALCULATIONS
z This is adequate for setting of protection relays
Relay setting calculations will all be on the basis of the
Introduction to:
same fault level data, and hence coordination is achieved
C factor of 1.1 may be applied in determining equipment
Per Unit Quantities
ratings
Slide 7 Slide 8
System Impedances
and Fault Calculations Per Unit Values
z Transformers
Voltages reflected via turns ratio
Currents reflected inversely to turns ratio
Impedances reflected via (turns ratio)2
z Select system voltage = 1pu
z Select a convenient power rating, typically 100 MVA = 1 pu
z Hence for a 132/66kV Transformer:
On the 132kV side 1 pu voltage = 132 kV
On the 132kV side 1 pu current = 437.4 A
On the 132kV side 1 pu impedance = 174.24
z Transformers
Voltages reflected via turns ratio On the 66kV side 1 pu voltage = 66 kV
Currents reflected inversely to turns ratio
Impedances reflected via (turns ratio)2

Slide 10 Slide 11
Actual impedances reflect across
transformers by the turns ratio2.
But the Base Impedance also
varies according to Voltage2. NB !!
Hence the pu impedance does not NB !!
Per Unit Values change across the transformer. Per Unit Values
z Based on our selection of 100MVA base, and considering the example z So, with the same base MVA
of the132/66kV transformer
z And base voltage equal to system voltage
On the 132kV side 1 pu current = 437.4 A z Per Unit impedances remain the same across the transformer

On the 66kV side 1 pu impedance = 43.56 11kV 132kV 66kV
z So, for example, an impedance of 17.424 on the 132kV side would
have a per unit impedance of 0.1 pu.
z Via the transformer (turns ratio)2, this equates to 17.424/22 = 4.356
when referred to the 66kV side again 0.1 pu.
z That is, while actual impedances transfer by (turns ratio)2, the per unit
impedance does not change across the transformer !!!
Slide 12 Slide 13
NB !! Per Unit Quantities

NB !!
Per Unit Values 100 MVA Base
z So, with the same base MVA Vph-ph (kV) Current Impedance
500 115.47 2500
z And base voltage equal to system voltage
400 144.34 1600
z Per Unit impedances remain the same across the transformer 330 174.95 1089
10pu@11kV
10pu@11kV==52500A
52500A 10pu@132kV
10pu@132kV==4374A
4374A 10pu@66kV
10pu@66kV==8748A
8748A 275 209.95 756.25
220 262.43 484
132 437.39 174.24
110 524.86 121
11kV 132kV 66kV 66 874.77 43.56
33 1749.55 10.89
0.01 0.02 0.03 0.02 0.02 22 2624.32 4.84
11 5248.64 1.21
6.6 8747.73 0.4356
3.3 17495.46 0.1089
VV==1.0
1.0pu
pu ZZTOT ==0.1
0.1pu
pu IIFAULT ==10.0
10.0pu
pu 0.415 139120.55 0.00172225
TOT FAULT

Slide 14 Slide 15
Basic Sequence Components

Power System Protection z Sequence component analysis is based on a simple
summation principle
z The effects of a complicated unbalanced current flow
through the power system can be analysed as the
summation of a number of simpler balanced current
FAULT CALCULATIONS flows.
Introduction to:
Sequence Components
Phase Currents Vectors

200
Ia := rect( 100 , 0 deg) + 60 Ia = 160 ang( Ia) = 0 deg Ia = 160
ang ( Ia) = 0 deg

100
Ib := rect( 100 , 120 deg) 30 Ib = 117.898 ang( Ib) = 132.731 deg
Ib = 117.898
0 ang ( Ib) = 132.731 deg

Ic := rect( 100 , 120 deg) 30 Ic = 117.898 ang( Ic) = 132.731 deg
Ic = 117.898
100
ang ( Ic) = 132.731 deg
Phase and Neutral Currents
200
200
200 100 0 100 200
IA
IB
IC
100
Positive Sequence Current Vectors Negative Sequence Current Vectors

200 100
Amps
0 IA1 = 130 IA2 = 30
ang ( IA1) = 0 deg ang ( IA2) = 0 deg

100 50
IB1 = 130 IB2 = 30

100
ang ( IB2) = 120 deg
0 ang ( IB1) = 120 deg 0
IC2 = 30
IC1 = 130
200 100 50
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
ang ( IC1) = 120 deg ang ( IC2) = 120 deg
msec
IA 200 100
IB 200 100 0 100 200 100 50 0 50 100
IC IA1 IA2
Ineut IB1 IB2
IC1 IC2

Slide 19 Slide 21
Sequence Components Sequence Components
z Positive Sequence
ABC I1 I2 I0
Equal in magnitude V1
I1
120 degrees apart
z Negative Sequence
AC B IA
Equal in magnitude V2
I2
120 degrees apart
z Zero Sequence
I phase
ABC
Equal in magnitude
IB
In phase
V0
I0
IC
Slide 22 Slide 23
Sequence Networks Positive Sequence Currents
V1 = 1 / 0 V2 = 0 V0 = 0
Source Source Source

Negative Sequence Network
Positive Sequence Network
Zero Sequence Network
Z1s Z2s Z0s
Relay Relay Relay

Location Location Location
Z1f Z2f Z0f

z Balanced currents sum to zero
I1 Fault I2 Fault I0 Fault
Location Location Location Positive sequence currents
In = 0

Slide 24 Slide 25
Negative Sequence Currents Zero Sequence Currents
z Balanced currents sum to zero z Balanced currents sum to zero

Positive sequence currents Positive sequence currents
Negative sequence currents Negative sequence currents
In = 0 Zero sequence currents sum to 3.Io In =In3.Io
=0

BASIC POWER SYSTEM PROTECTION OVER CURRENT PROTECTION
Slide 1 Slide 2
Basic Fuses
Power System Protection z Performance effectively
follows I2t law
Pre Arcing time
Arc time
OVER CURRENT z Fuse Fuse grading

requires that the total I2t of
PROTECTION the smaller fuse be less
than the pre-arcing I2t of the
Fuses larger fuse
Over Current Protection
Earth Fault Protection
Slide 3 Slide 4
Fuses and Dropout Fuse

Bullrush Curves and TRV
z Discrimination between fuse maximum

total I2t z In inductive circuits,
links is achieved when the total
I2t of the minor fuse link does transient recovery voltage
minimum
not exceed the pre-arcing I2t of pre-arcing (TRV) will be maximum at
the major fuse link I2t
z But note that this applies only current zero.
for high speed operation where z Expulsion process
there is no heat dissipation
ie. I2t adiabatic performance deionises gases them as
z As a starting point, a current well as removing them
rating ratio between fuses of
1.6 - 2 is probably OK from arc area
(but this depends on the specific
fuse design)
100
125
160
200
250
32
35
40
50
63
80
Fuse Rating

Slide 5 Slide 6
Fuses & TRV Performance Current Limiting Fuses (HRC Fuses)

Current
interrupted at
Fuse is designed to insert a large resistance
2
Current lags natural z

Voltage by 90 1.5
current zero Hence, prospective level of fault current is reduced
deg
1
And zero crossing of the current and voltage will be
reasonably in phase
System
Voltage
0.5
z Fuse element is completely surrounded with filler material,
0
typically silica sand
Arc energy melts the sand, thus inserting the required high
resistance
0.5
Fuse Voltage
1 z But this design may have difficulty interrupting low level overloads.
Overcome by
1.5
TRV across
blown fuse M Effect designs
2
0 0.002 0.004 0.006 0.008 0.01 0.012 0.014 0.016 0.018 0.02 0.022 0.024 element
Circuit Voltage
Fuse Voltage
Current
Slide 7 Slide 8
Tin for M Effect low
overload fuse performance
See later
Current Limiting Fuses Current Limiting Fuses

Slide 9 Slide 10
Current Limiting Fuses

M Effect for low level overloads Basic
z M Effect : A.W. Metcalf - 1939
OVER CURRENT
PROTECTION
Slide 11 Slide 12
Over Current Protection Discrimination by Time
z Over Load Protection z Setting chosen to ensure CB nearest to the fault

Operation to the thermal capability of plant opens first
z Over Current Protection z Often referred to as
Primarily for clearance of faults Independent Definite Time Delay Relay
Some measure of over load protection may be z Timing intervals selected to ensure upstream relays
provided do not operate before CBs trip at fault location
z Disadvantage
Longest fault clearing time occurs in section closest
to the power source where fault level is the highest

Slide 13 Slide 14
Discrimination by Time Discrimination by Current
z Apply where fault current varies with fault location

due to intermediate impedance
z Set to operate at current values so that only relay
RELAY A RELAY B RELAY C
nearest to fault trips its CB
z Difficulties
TIME
RELAY A
Same fault level at the end of one zone and the start
of the next
0.4 secs
RELAY B
Fault levels vary with changing source impedance
(eg. As generators come on and go off line)
0.4 secs
RELAY C
CURRENT
Slide 15 Slide 16
Discrimination by Current Discrimination by Current
FDR OC B
HV OC A
RELAY A RELAY B
FDR OC
z Significant difference between

currents seen for Faults A & B
Relay A cannot distinguish And a fault here for FDR OC
between a fault here, for which it should not z Set HV OC to 1.3 x maximum
which it needs to operate operate through current for LV Fault
FDR OC

Slide 17 Slide 19
Discrimination by Time & Current Inverse Over Current Relays
z Time of operation inversely proportional to fault

current
IAmax IBmax ICmax
Faster operating times at higher fault levels
RELAY A RELAY B RELAY C Faster operating times for faults nearer to the source
z Curves generally plotted in log - log or
log(current) linear(time) format
TIME
Time and current

RELAY A coordination
Instantaneous
RELAY B element
RELAY C ICmax IBmax IAmax
CURRENT
Slide 20 Slide 21
Discrimination with
Inverse Time Over Current Relays Standard Characteristics to IEC 60255
Relay Characteristic
0.14 TMS
Standard Inverse (SI)
I0.02 1
IAmax IBmax ICmax
RELAY A RELAY B RELAY C
Very Inverse (VI)

13.5 TMS
Inverse time and I 1
TIME
RELAY A
RELAY B current coordination
80 TMS
Instantaneous Extremely Inverse (EI)
RELAY C
element I2 1
120 TMS
Long Time (LTI)
ICmax IBmax IAmax
I 1
CURRENT

Slide 23
IDMT Relay Grading Curves
100
Electro Mechanical Relays

10
disc.
FLUX PRODUCED BY INPUT CURRENT
L FLUX PRODUCED BY SHADING LOOP
Seconds
k I (1-k) I
1 SHADING LOOP
DISC DISC
TAPPED
0.1 COIL - L
100 1 .10
3
1 .10
4 I
Fault Current
Standard Inverse
Very Inverse FLUX PRODUCED BY INPUT
Etremely Inverse
Long Time Inverse
Slide 24 Slide 25
Electro Mechanical Relays Electro Mechanical Relays

Construction Inverse Definite Minimum Time
Time multiplier Trip Contacts disc. z Current sensitivity selected by Plugs on the magnetic circuit
(TMS) Settings and Higher sensitivity selected via more turns
(continuous adjustable) Flag ie. Same Ampere Turns operating quantity
more turns = less current
z Magnetic circuit saturates at extreme over current
Limits the minimum operating time
Typically around 20x plug setting
Hence IDMT performance : DM = definite minimum
Shaded Pole
z Time coordination via Time Multiplier setting
Moving Contact Adjusted the starting point of the induction disk wrt the fixed trip contact
Often called Lever Setting
Current (Plug) z Electronic and Microprocessor relays simply emulate the

Trip Contacts Settings Electromechanical relay functionality

Slide 26 Slide 27
Relay Coordination Procedure Relay Coordination Procedure

Current Setting Time Multiplier Setting
z Start with selection of relay characteristic z Coordinate relays via time multipliers to achieve
As far as possible, use relays of the same appropriate grading margins
characteristic Determine, under various system configurations, the
z Choose current settings values of short circuit current that will flow through
each protective device
Determine maximum load current limitations
Set relays to give minimum operating time at
Determine starting current requirements maximum fault currents
As far as possible, select operating current of each Check performance (discrimination) at lower fault
upstream relay greater than that of the successive levels
downstream relay z Plot and coordinate relay curves on log/log or
log/linear format
Plot to a common current base (across transformers)
Standard Inverse Relay Grading Curves Standard Inverse Relay Grading Curves
100 4
Adjust TMS to However, these curves are all

achieve time 3.5 different shapes, so we need
coordination
many drawing templates.
3
If we have
10
sufficient
2.5 margin here
Seconds
Seconds
2 Then with the same

characteristic, we tend to
have greater margin at
lower currents due to
1.5
1 divergence of the curves
And since we are usually interested in 0.5

operating times of 3 seconds or less,
we may get a better perception if we
0.1
use
3 a linear axis for time . 4 3 4
100 1 .10 1 10 100 1 .10 1 .10
Fault Current Fault Current

Slide 32
Standard Inverse Relay Grading Curves
100
Whereas, these curves are all

the same shape, so we need
only one drawing template. Grading of Parallel Elements
10
z Maximum through fault level occurs when both
transformers are in service
Seconds
z But the maximum individual transformer current flows

when the 2nd transformer is OOS
z Need to consider both conditions when grading relays
1
20MVA Fdr_1 OC
100A HV OC 3 Fault Levels
800A FLC 2 Tx IN : 10000A
0.3TMS 1 Tx IN : 7500A
100A 300A FLC

33kV 11kV
Fdr_2 OC
0.1TMS SI 400A
TMS 0.2
0.1 HV OC 3 Fault Levels
3 4
100 1 .10 1 .10 20MVA 2 Tx IN : 16000A
Fault Current 1 Tx IN : 12000A
0.14 TMS
Feeder 1
n (
Relay_2 := SI Fdr2_Plug , Fdr2_TMS , I2
n ) SI( Fdr2_Plug , Fdr2_TMS , Imax) = 0.421
Relay Characteristic SI( P , TMS , I) :=
I
0.02 Feeder 2
n (
n ) SI( Fdr1_Plug , Fdr1_TMS , Imax) = 0.832 _T = 0.411
1
P
Tx OC Grading (11kV Base Currents)
3
Grade Fdr_1 OC over Fdr_2 OC at the maximum through fault level of 10kA Imax:= 10000
Set Fdr_1 OC above maximum feeder load of 800A 2.8
and check against maximum fault level of 10kA
2.6
2.4
Given data for Feeder 2 Fdr2_Plug := 400 Imax
= 25 2.2
Fdr2_TMS := 0.2 Fdr2_Plug
2
Tripping time at maximum fault level Fdr2_Tmin := SI( Fdr2_Plug , Fdr2_TMS , Imax) Fdr2_Tmin = 0.421
1.8
Imax 1.6
So select settings for Feeder 1 Fdr1_Plug := 1000 = 10
Fdr1_Plug 1.4
Required tripping time Fdr1_Tmin := Fdr2_Tmin + 0.4 Fdr1_Tmin = 0.821 1.2
Assume TMS = 1.0 1

Fdr1_TMS_1 := SI( Fdr1_Plug , 1.0, Imax)
0.8
This would result in a tripping time of Fdr1_TMS_1 = 2.971
0.6
Fdr1_Tmin
Hence we can calculate the required TMS to achieve the required tripping time Fdr1_TMS := 1
Fdr1_TMS_1 0.4
0.2
Fdr1_TMS = 0.276
0
3 4 5
100 1 .10 1 .10 1 .10
Round Up Fdr1_TMS := round ( Fdr1_TMS + .003, 2) Fdr1_TMS = 0.28 Fdr 2 OC
Fdr 1 OC

Feeder 1 (
n n ) SI( Fdr1_Plug , Fdr1_TMS , Imax) = 0.769
Tx HV (
Relay_3 := SI Tx_HV_Plug, Tx_HV_TMS, I3
n n)
SI( Tx_HV_Plug, Tx_HV_TMS, Imax) = 1.187 _T = 0.418
Tx OC Grading (11kV Base Currents)

3
Grade Transformer HV OC under the maximum current condition, namely with one transformer OOS
2.8
Imax := 12000
2.6
20000000
FLC_33kV:= FLC_33kV= 350 130 % FLC_33kV= 455 Set Tx_HV_Plug := 500
3 33000 2.4
Allow for 33/11kV ratio Tx_HV_Plug := 3 Tx_HV_Plug
2.2
Tx_HV_Plug = 1500 2
Fdr Tripping time at maximum fault level Fdr1_Tmin := SI( Fdr1_Plug , Fdr1_TMS , Imax) Fdr1_Tmin = 0.769 1.8
1.6
Transformer HV OC Tx_HV_Tmin:= Fdr1_Tmin + 0.4 Tx_HV_Tmin = 1.169
1.4
Assume TMS = 1.0 Tx_HV_TMS_1 := SI( Tx_HV_Plug, 1.0, Imax)
1.2
This would result in a tripping time of Tx_HV_TMS_1 = 3.297
1
Tx_HV_Tmin
Hence we can calculate the required TMS to achieve the required tripping time Tx_HV_TMS := 1
Tx_HV_TMS_1 0.8
Tx_HV_TMS = 0.355 0.6
Round up Tx_HV_TMS := round ( Tx_HV_TMS + .003, 2) Tx_HV_TMS = 0.36 0.4
0.2
0
3 4 5
100 1 .10 1 .10 1 .10
Fdr 2 OC
Fdr 1 OC
Tx HV OC
Slide 37 Slide 38
Basic Earth Fault Protection

Power System Protection z Implement more sensitive protection responding only to
residual current of the system
z Low settings are permissible and beneficial
Earth faults are the most frequent
Earth faults may be limited by earth fault resistance
EARTH FAULT Earth faults may be limited by neutral earth impedance
PROTECTION
z Typical settings 20 - 40% x FLC
z Time grade in the same manner as for phase OC relays

Slide 39 Slide 40
Earth Fault Protection Not suitable for

2:1:1 Current
Basic
applications
(Transformer HV
current in the case of
Star/Delta or Delta/Star
through phase/phase
faults)
EF Prot DIRECTIONAL
OC OVER CURRENT
OC EF Prot
PROTECTION
OC
OC
EF Prot
OC
Slide 41 Slide 42
Directional Over Current Relays

Directional Over Current Relays Application to Parallel Feeders
z Extra discrimination may be achieved by making the OC OC

response of the relay directional when current can Fdr 1
flow in both directions

z Achieved via voltage (polarising) connections to the
A B
relay Fdr 2
OC OC
z Digital and numeric relay achieve phase
displacements via software
z Apply directional relays at the feeder receiving ends
z EM & Static relays require suitable connection of
input quantities to the relay Typically set to 50% of FLC, TMS = 0.1
Grade below non-directional relays at the source end

VOLTAGE TRANSFORMERS
BASIC POWER SYSTEM PROTECTION CURRENT TRANSFORMERS
Slide 1 Slide 2
Basic AS60044 : Specification of VTs

Power System Protection z Protection VTs to operate between
V = 0.05 pu
V = Voltage Factor : FV pu
Rated Voltage Factor Rated Time System

VOLTAGE 1.2 Continuous Phase earth in effectively earthed
TRANSFORMERS 1.5 30 s
neutral system
1.2 Continuous Phase earth in non- effectively

earthed neutral system w e/f tripping
Specification to AS60044.1 1.9 30 s
1.2 Continuous Phase earth in isolated neutral
system
1.9 8h
Slide 3 Slide 4
AS60044 : Specification of VTs Basic

Protection Class Ratio error Phase displacement
(percent) (minutes)
Percentage voltage Percentage voltage
2 5 100 FV 2 5 100 FV VOLTAGE

TRANSFORMERS
3P 6.0 3.0 3.0 3.0 240 120 120 120
Transient Performance
6P 12.0 6.0 6.0 6.0 480 240 240 240

Slide 5 Slide 6
Magnetic Voltage Transformer

VT Fundamentals Energisation & De-energisation
z Magnetic VTs z Minimal problems with magnetic VT transient performance

Transient effects typically short term
HV systems
z Energisation
z Capacitor VTs Flux Doubling depending on POW switching
EHV systems OK since VTs are designed to operate at low flux densities
(also minimises errors in normal operation)
z Requirements of VT plus Relay
z De-energisation
In Zone Faults Flux cannot immediately decay to zero
Out of Zone Faults z Primary Fault
Switching Collapse of voltage on fault occurrence
Recovery of voltage on fault clearance
Slide 7 Slide 8
Capacitor Voltage Transformer Voltage Divider Principles
z Use a voltage divider principle to reduce system HV Voltage across RH varies

with current supplied to
voltage to a lower level VT burden, ZL
RH
z And then use a lower ratio transformer to
provide final step down ratio to protection relay V N:1
provide galvanic isolation
z Voltage divider implemented via capacitors RL . V RL ZL
z Loading effects eliminated via series tuning choke RH + RL
Resistive losses heating effects

Performance varies with load burden

Slide 9 Slide 10
Thevenin Equivalent Circuit Capacitor Voltage Transformers : CVTs
Equivalent to
resistors in CH
parallel !! Intermediate VT voltage
source reduces as
RL.RH burden current X
RL+RH increases => errors !! V N:1
CH . V CL ZL
CH + CL
RL.V ZL
RL+RH
Resistive losses nil

Performance at 50Hz does not vary with load burden
Slide 11 Slide 12
CVT Thevenin Equivalent Circuit CVT Thevenin Equivalent Circuit
Capacitive divider and series Capacitive divider and series

Equivalent to tuning choke with identical tuning choke with identical
capacitors in impedance at 50Hz. impedance at 50Hz.
parallel !! Impedances cancel. Impedances cancel.
CVT loading effects eliminated
CH+CL CH+CL
X X
CH.V ZL CH.V CH.V ZL

CH+CL CH+CL CH+CL

Slide 14 Slide 15
CVT Transient Performance CVT Transient Performance
z Resonances z Resonant effects minimised via simple resistive

Low frequency transient response between damping
z Intermediate VT magnetising branch
z Thevenin equivalent of main capacitors High Frequency
CH+CL
X
High frequency transient response between
z Tuning choke
RP XP XS RS
z Capacitance of intermediate VT
CH.V XM RM CM N2ZL
ZL
CH+CL
Low Frequency
Slide 16 Slide 17
Basic CT Connections & Polarity

P1 P1
I1 S1 I1 S1
I2 I2
CURRENT
TRANSFORMERS
S2
Specification to AS60044.1 S2
and P2 P2
Comparison with AS1675

Slide 18 Slide 19
Specification of CTs to AS1675 Specification of CTs AS1675

(Superseded by AS60044.1) Comparison with AS60044.1
Class P CTs Composite To convert P Class specification to IEC Specification

Compositeerror
z
error z
Equivalent to IEC P Class CTs %
%at ataccuracy
accuracy
z General purpose protection CT limit
limitcurrent
current Composite
Not usually used in HV systems AS1675 Class P CT Error
Not usually used in high speed
Secondary 400/5 5 P 60 F 20
differential systems Secondary
ref
refvoltage
voltage
Suitable for slower speed systems
at
atALF
ALF
where perhaps a few cycles of
distorted output will not seriously IEC Class P CT
affect relay performance (eg IDMT & Accuracy 400/5 15 VA Cl 5 P 20
Def Time relays) Accuracy
limit
limitfactor
factor
z Not generally intended for applications
requiring good transient performance
z Turns compensation is permissible
5 P 60 F20
Slide 20 Slide 21
Specification of CTs AS1675 Specification of CTs AS1675

Comparison with AS60044.1 Comparison with AS60044.1
z To convert P Class specification to IEC Specification z To convert P Class specification to IEC Specification
Accuracy
AS1675 Class P CT Limit Factor AS1675 Class P CT
400/5 5 P 60 F 20 400/5 5 P 60 F 20
Terminal Voltage
IEC Class P CT IEC Class P CT Specified
400/5 15 VA Cl 5 P 20 400/5 15 VA Cl 5 P 20 at FAULT Current
Connected Burden
Specified
at LOAD Current

Slide 23
10% increase in voltage
requires a 50% increase in
magnetising current
Class PX CTs : AS60044.1
z Applications requiring good Magnetising

Magnetising
transient performance current
currentat
atknee
knee
High accuracy high speed
point
pointvoltage
voltage
schemes
z General CT
CTknee
knee
point
pointvoltage
voltage
Jointless core wound from
continuous strip
CT
CTinternal
internal
Turns for each section of the resistance
winding to be uniformly resistance
distributed
Turns compensation not
permissible
800/1 0.1 PX 800 R4
Typical 1A CT Specification Figures

Slide 24 Slide 25
Voltage = 1 Volt per turn
Resistance = 5 m per turn
Magnetising current = 80 Ampere Turns
CTs with For example : 800/1 0.1 PX 800 R4
Multiple Tappings Basic
z Because the Class PX CT has a uniformly wound 2400
secondary winding, it may be possible to utilise
intermediate ratios
z For CT with n terminals, .n.(n-1) ratios may be
2000
available
CT specified as 2400/2000/800/1
May also provide 400/1200/1600/1 1200/1
z Beware of simple interpolation between ratios but CURRENT
in general
Resistance Ratio (number of turns)
TRANSFORMERS
Voltage Ratio (number of turns) 800
Magnetising current 1/Ratio (inverse of turns)
z Recommended to confirm performance of Transient Performance
intermediate ratios with the manufacturer
z CT continuous rating
Rating of primary conductor
Rating of secondary : perhaps 2 x In

Slide 26
Primary Transient Fault Current
DC Offset in the fault current waveform System Parameters R 1 L .1

L
= 0.1 sec . L = 31.416
R
. L
= 88.177 deg = 31.416
R
90. deg = 1.823 deg
z Faults occurring away from voltage peak will result in
2
DC offset in the fault current waveform
z Up to 100% DC offset is possible 1
z DC offset may be positive or negative 0
z DC offset will decay exponentially, based on the time 1

constant of the HV power system
2
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1 0.12 0.14 0.16 0.18 0.2
AC Component SECONDS
DC Component
Slide 28
V
DC Offset in the fault current waveform
z DC component of the fault current will magnetise the

CT core
z If the CT core becomes fully magnetised (ie. above
its knee point) it cannot transform the primary current
H Imag
to a proportional secondary quantity.
z CT terminal voltage is low based on E = N d/dt
z i.e. CT Voltage will be simply enough to drive CT
secondary current through the connected burden.
z But in specifying a high flux capability we, by
default, will have a high voltage capability
z That is : The high knee point occurs because
of flux requirements, not voltage requirements.

Slide 31
Total Flux : AC Component plus DC Component
CT Specification to provide for

X
( AC + DC ) = AC peak 1 + power _ system Total Flux : AC & DC Components
R power _ system
PEAK
X 1
CT Flux (times
35
( AC+ DC ) = AC peak 1 +
R1
AC component)
30
PEAK
For purely sinusoidal quantities, the VT voltage and

25
z
20
flux requirements are directly related
15
Vmax
10
max =
5
N
0
z So, we can effectively specify the AC & DC flux

requirements by specifying the proportional AC
5
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
AC Flux
AC Flux
sinusoidal voltage requirements
Seconds
DC Flux
DC Flux
Total Flux
Totla Flux
Slide 32 Slide 33
Specify CT Voltage requirement to provide

for the AC & DC Flux requirements CT Transient Performance
X 1 z CT must cope with exponentially decaying DC

( AC + DC ) = AC peak 1 + component of fault current
R1
PEAK
z Normal practice is to allow transient factor of (1 + X/R)

X1 X1
1 + 1 +
At Relaying Point
VKNEE = VAC VKNEE = VAC
peak peak R1 rms rms R1 Or at Zone 1 Reach Point
z Beyond the scope of our discussion
To provide for the AC &
Component
DC Components
only
CT saturation, after relay operation, may be acceptable
Modern microprocessor based relay algorithms may
1 + ( RCT (+RCT
I I FAULT X
VKNEE = FAULT
VKNEE =

+ RLEADS
RLEADS + RRELAY ) )
+ RRELAY accommodate some CT saturation
CTRATIO R
CTRATIO

DISTANCE PROTECTION
BASIC POWER SYSTEM PROTECTION FUNDAMENTALS OF PERFORMANCE
Slide 1
V
Healthy Conditions:- = Zline + Zload
I
Basic
I
Zs Z line
V Z load
DISTANCE
PROTECTION
Fundamentals of Performance
Slide 4
V
Fault Conditions:- = Z fault
I
Distance Relay Zones
I
Zs Z line ZONE 3
TIME
Z fault ZONE 2
ZONE 3
ZONE 1
V Z load ZONE 2
LOCATION
DIST
ZONE 1
DIST DIST
LOCATION
ZONE 1
ZONE 2
TIME
ZONE 3
DISTANCE RELAY TIME DISCRIMINATION

DISTANCE PROTECTION
Slide 5 Slide 6
Time and Reach Coordination

Distance Relay : Basic Scheme of Distance Relays
Reach Time Reach Time

Coordination Coordination Coordination Coordination
ZONE 1
Zone 3
MEASURER
Zone 2 Zone 2
ZONE 2
ZONE 2
MEASURER
TIME
DELAY >1 TRIP Zone 1 Zone 1
ZONE 3
ZONE 3 TIME
MEASURER DELAY
K DIST DIST L DIST DIST M
Basic Scheme
Slide 7 Slide 8
Non-Switched Distance Relay Zone Switched Distance Relay

X
Z3 ZONE 3
A-E B-E C-E A-B B-C C-A
Fdr Z1/2
ZONE 1 ZONE 2 ZONE 3
Z1
A-E B-E C-E A-B B-C C-A A-E B-E C-E A-B B-C C-A A-E B-E C-E A-B B-C C-A
R ZONE 2 ZONE 3
TIMER TIMER
ZONE 1
A-E B-E C-E A-B B-C C-A ZONE REACH
SWITCHING NETWORK
ZONE 2 ZONE 3
TIMER TIMER
TRIP
NON-SWITCHED DISTANCE RELAY OPERATION

TRIP

DISTANCE PROTECTION
Slide 9 Slide 10
Fully Switched Distance Relay
STARTERS
A B C E
VOLTS
A ZONE 2 ZONE 3 STARTER
B TIMER TIMER TIMER
C
N
CURRENT VOLTAGE INCREASE INCREASE

A & IMPEDANCE IMPEDANCE
B CURRENT SETTING SETTING
C SWITCHING TO TO
N NETWORK ZONE 2 REACH ZONE 3 REACH
VOLTS CURRENT
MEASURER
TRIP
Slide 11 Slide 17
Primary & Secondary Impedances
z Vsecondary = Vprimary / VTratio
z Isecondary = Iprimary / CTratio
Vsec ondary Vprimary CTratio

=
Isec ondary I primary VTratio
CTratio
Zsec ondary = Z primary
VTratio

DISTANCE PROTECTION
Slide 18 Slide 19
Simple Distance Relay Comparator Simple Distance Relay Comparator
z So, firstly, provide a ZSEC replica impedance within the relay to IX IZ V

V
establish the relays zone of operation
A real element of resistive and inductive components in an
electromechanical relay
An algorithm in a microprocessor based relay
z And measure VSEC from the VT
z And measure ISEC from the CT
z The actual fault impedance will be given by VSEC / ISEC I IR
z If VSEC / ISEC < ZREPLICA, fault is in the zone and relay trips
z Pass CT secondary current (I) thru relay replica impedance Z
z If VSEC / ISEC > ZREPLICA, fault is out of zone and relay restrains
This develops a relay internal, or replica voltage IZ
z But, how can we easily perform the V / I calculation and comparison
So, the R / X diagram has become a IR / IX voltage diagram, with
with Z
I simply being a constant of proportionality (Note: I at 0)
Slide 20 Slide 21
Mho Circle Comparator Induction Cup Angle Comparator
z Consider the quantities

X
S1 = I.Zr - V
I.Zr
S2 = V S1 = IZ - V
z And set the operating criteria to
be the angle between these
quantities, not their magnitude
I2
S1
z Select 90 as the criteria
z Remember that the diameter of
a circle always subtends 90 at
S2 = V
I1
S2
the circumference Direction of rotation
depends on the phase
z We have thus established a angle between S1 & S2,
circular characteristic, R
either to open or close
with diameter of : I.Zr
the trip contacts
Induction Cup Comparator

DISTANCE PROTECTION
Slide 22
Typical Zones of Protection : Mho Circles

Distance Relay Operation X
z Distance relay does not

Mho Circles
Store Current I
Store Voltage V
Compute ratio V/I
Determine this to be impedance to the fault
Check to see if this impedance is less than some preset value
Trip or not trip accordingly
z Distance relay simply
Trips if the operating quantity lies inside the trip zone
Restrains if the operating quantity lies outside the trip zone R
Operates in a simple GO / NO GO mode
Slide 26
Typical Zones of Protection : Quadrilaterals
X Quadrilaterals Basic
DISTANCE RELAY
COMPARATORS
- and 3 faults
R -g faults

DISTANCE PROTECTION
Slide 27 Slide 28
This equation is correct for - Correct for - faults
faults, but fails for 3 faults And also for 3 conditions
Distance Relay Comparator Phase Phase Comparator

Phase-Phase & 3 Phase Faults and 3 Phase Performance
Ia ZL A
Va Vab V VA VB
= 2 ZL Z= =
Ib Ia I IA IB
Vb
ZL
AB
Vab VA 3 30
Vc
ZL
= ZL =
2 Ia IA 3 30
VA
z Phase Phase Equation Vab =
= ZL IA
C B
z Correctly measures for both: Ia Ib
phase phase faults z Hence this - comparator also correctly detects 3 faults
For - faults, the phase currents are 180 out of phase
three phase faults Vab

= ZL For 3 faults, the phase currents are 120 out of phase
z Consider a 3 case Iab Using this - current algorithm computes both cases correctly
Slide 29 Slide 30
Distance Relay Comparator

Earth Faults Distance Relay Comparator Connections
Ia ZL
Va V = I ZL + In Z G
ZL Z ZONE 1 ZONE 2 ZONE 3
Vb V = I ZL + In G ZL
ZL A-E B-E C-E A-B B-C C-A A-E B-E C-E A-B B-C C-A A-E B-E C-E A-B B-C C-A
ZL
Vc
ZG
In ZG = const = Ko
ZL ZONE 2
TIMER
ZONE 3
TIMER
Phase V V
Voltage
V = I ZL + In Ko ZL Z1 = Z1 =
Relay V I + 3 TRIP
K 0 I0 I
ZL = Measures half of the phase-
[I + Ko In]
Measures
V = [I + Ko In] ZL
phase loop impedance.
Residually NON-SWITCHED
Measures feeder impedance to fault point. DISTANCE RELAY OPERATION
Also measures correctly
Compensated 3.Ko.Io allows for earth return current flow. under 3 phase conditions.
Phase Current

BASIC POWER SYSTEM PROTECTION PROTECTION SIGNALLING
Slide 1 Slide 2
Basic Distance Relay Zone Discrimination

ZONE 3
TIME
ZONE 2
ZONE 3
ZONE 1
ZONE 2
PROTECTION DIST
LOCATION
ZONE 1
SIGNALLING DIST DIST

LOCATION
ZONE 1
ZONE 2
TIME
ZONE 3
DISTANCE RELAY TIME DISCRIMINATION
Slide 3 Slide 5
AEMC Requirements
(Australian Energy Market Commission) Protection Signalling
z National Electricity Rules : NER z Analogue

Automatic Access Standards

z Digital
To maintain system stability
To not constrain inter or intra regional power flows
z Communications Bearers
Microwave
Maximum Fault Clearance Times (milliseconds) Fibre Optics (OPGW & ADSS)
System Voltage kV Faulted End Remote End Breaker Fail Radio
400kV 80 100 175 Cable Carrier
250kV to < 400kV 100 120 250
Power Line Carrier
External Communications Network
>100kV to < 250kV 120 220 430
100kV As necessary to prevent plant damage and meet

stability requirements

Slide 6 Slide 7
Protection Signalling Equipment Protection Signalling Schemes
z External stand alone equipment z Permissive Intertripping

Duplex operation Under Reaching
Single signal Over Reaching
Multiple signals z Blocking Intertripping
Maintenance aspects z Direct Intertripping
z Built into protection relays z Series Intertripping
Duplex operation
Multiple signals
Maintenance aspects
Slide 8 Slide 9
Permissive Underreaching Permissive Underreaching
PIS
z PUTT : Permissive Underreaching Transfer Trip
ZONE 1 z Permissive signal sent via the Zone 1
MEASURER
underreaching element
ZONE 2 z Simply implemented
ZONE 2
MEASURER
TIME
DELAY
>1 TRIP No concerns since a signal is only sent when the fault
is actually on the protected feeder
PIR &
ZONE 3
ZONE 3 TIME
MEASURER DELAY

Slide 10 Slide 11
Permissive Overreaching Permissive Overreaching
z POTT : Permissive Overreaching Transfer Trip

PIS
z Permissive signal sent via the Zone 2 overreaching
ZONE 2 ZONE 2
MEASURER TIME element
DELAY
z Not simply implemented
Concerns exist since a signal may be sent when the
PIR & >1 TRIP fault is beyond the protected feeder
ZONE 1
MEASURER
ZONE 3
ZONE 3 TIME
MEASURER DELAY
Slide 12 Slide 13
Blocking Signalling Distance Relay Blocking Scheme
z Local end relay has Zone 2 set to trip in fast time. ZONE 2 ZONE 2
MEASURER TIME
z Remote end relay sends a signal to inhibit this fast Zone 2 trip. DELAY
ZONE 3
ZONE 2
TIME SHORT
NORMAL ZONE 2 TIME
DELAY
ZONE 1 FAST ZONE 2
BR & >1 TRIP
LOCATION
DIST
A B
ZONE 1
MEASURER
ZONE 3
ZONE 3 TIME
Reverse looking Blocking Zone MEASURER DELAY
REVERSE
LOOKING BS
Signal sent from B to 'Block' ZONE 4
the fast Zone 2 of relay A

Slide 14 Slide 15
Blocking Signalling Considerations Basic

z Blocking delay timer coordination - Fast Z2
coordination delay setting must allow time for receipt
of blocking signal
z For security, 2 signals are sent
Different signalling paths PROTECTION
Hence optimising security SIGNALLING
z Guard fail scheme provides security in the case of
communication system failure Direct Intertripping
For security, fast Zone 2 tripping is automatically Series Intertripping
disabled upon failure of the communications
infrastructure.
Slide 16 Slide 17
Direct Intertrip Series Intertrip
z Trips remote CB directly z Trips remote CB directly

z Used where security not paramount z Security paramount
Two signals are sent and the remote end CB is tripped upon
A single signal is sent and the remote end CB is receipt of BOTH signals
tripped upon receipt of just this single signal
Increased security over direct intertripping
z Single DIT for back-up protection applications Reduced reliability compared with direct intertripping
(eg. CB fail protection) z Single SIT for back-up protection applications
z Duplicate DIT for primary protection applications (eg. CB fail protection)
(eg. Line end transformer protection) Two signals over separate paths
X uses one signalling path z Duplicate SIT for primary protection applications
(eg. Line end transformer protection)
Y uses a separate signalling path
X uses two signals over one signalling path
Y uses two signals over a second signalling path

HIGH IMPEDANCE
BASIC POWER SYSTEM PROTECTION BUSBAR DIFFERENTIAL PROTECTION
Slide 1 Slide 2
!!!
Basic Bus Zone Protection Requirements
Power System Protection Dependability
E
z
L
Must trip for all in-zone faults
z Discrimination
P
Must not trip for any out-of-zone faults
HIGH IMPEDANCE z Security
M
DIFFERENTIAL Against all sources of mal-tripping
I
PROTECTION Dependability & Security
Busbar Protection
and
Galvanically Connected Plant
z S
Speed of operation
As quickly as possible
Internal Fault External Fault
RELAY RELAY
ALL
ALLCTs
CTsselected
selectedto
tobe
bethe
thesame
sameratio
ratio
Currents
Currentsthus
thusbalance
balance

HIGH IMPEDANCE
Slide 6 Slide 7
So, what we are doing is performing
a simple CT summation.
The relay then only detects or sees
the spill or mismatch current.
3 Phase CT Connections Current Mismatch
z All CTs must be the same ratio

CT MARSHALLING z Nevertheless, there will be some mismatch due to:
CT Manufacturing Variations
Inequality of CT Burdens
CT Saturation
A through fault on a particular plant item exposes the CT on
that item of plant to maximum fault current
z Worst possible mismatch is thus:
A through fault, with total saturation of the CT on that faulted
plant
While all other CTs transform perfectly
DIFF RELAY
Slide 8
External Fault
External Fault & CT Saturation CT Saturates :

Magnetising branch
impedance becomes zero
External Fault
Rlead
Rct High
RELAY
Impedance
Relay
Rlead
RELAY
15000A 5000A 5000A 5000A

VRELAY = IFAULT (R CT + R LEADS )

HIGH IMPEDANCE
Slide 10
CTs will saturate under internal fault conditions.
But relay operation is assured provided absolutely all
CTs meet the requirement
Internal Fault
Setting Voltage and Margins
z Fault current comprises

AC Component
DC Component
z Hence, employ a DC Stabilised Relay High
RELAY
Impedance
No additional margin on the setting is required Relay
z And considering 0% / 100% CT saturation case
This in an unrealistically extreme case
100% safety margin is automatically built in
z So, no additional safety margin on setting is required
VKNEE 2 VRELAY
Slide 12 Slide 13
CT Selection Magnetising
Magnetising Summary
current
currentat
atknee
knee
point
pointvoltage
voltage
z All CTs must be the same ratio z Ensure Stability under through faults
CT
CTknee
VRELAY = IFAULT (R CT + R LEADS )
The use of ratio correction CTs knee
point
pointvoltage
voltage
(RCCTs) is discouraged
z All CTs to have Vk 2.Vsetting CT
CTinternal
internal
resistance z Ensure Operation for genuine in-zone faults
This is an absolute MUST resistance
Preferably Vk 5.Vsetting VKNEE 2 VRELAY Preferably
Preferably55times
relay
timestotooptimise
relayperformance,
performance,but
optimise
but22isisthe
the
z Need to know absolute
absolute minimumtotoensure
minimum
reliable
ensure
reliablerelay
relayoperation
operation
Knee Point voltage Beware of short cut methods

CT Resistance
0.1 PX 500 R3 z
VKNEE
z Class Requirements Do not simply set VRELAY =
The use of Class PX CTs is highly recommended 2

BASIC POWER SYSTEM PROTECTION TRANSFORMER PROTECTION
Slide 1 Slide 3
Basic Types of Fault

Power System Protection z Phase-ground faults - from winding to core or winding to tank
z Phase-phase faults - between windings
z Interturn faults - between single turns or adjacent layers of the
same winding (Buchholz)
z Local hotspots caused by shorted laminations
TRANSFORMER z Low level internal partial discharges (moisture ingress or design
problems)
PROTECTION z Tapchanger faults (often housed in a separate tank)
z Arcing contacts
z Bushing faults (internal to the tank)
z Terminal faults (external to the tank, but inside the transformer
zone)
Slide 4 Slide 5
Gas Sample
Float
Buchholz Protection Alarm Pressure Relief Device (Qualitrol)

Trip
Float
z Two floats in the relay: To Tank To Conservator z Spring assisted pressure relief devices
Upper float z Relieves pressure impulses due to massive internal fault
z detects accumulation of gas conditions.
BUCHHOLZ RELAY
z detects loss of oil z Helps prevent the tank bursting or splitting
z Incipient faults z Relay contacts are also connected to trip the transformer.
Partial discharge
Winding & core overheating
Bad contacts and joints
z Since pressure waves travel with a finite velocity, they may
rupture the tank locally before the pressure wave has reached
z May alarm only or may be set to trip
the pressure relief device, if it is some distance away. Several
Lower float units may therefore be required on larger transformers.
z detects surge in oil < 100ms
z although it does take a finite time for
pressure waves to initiate Buchholz
tripping

Slide 6 Slide 7
Basic Transformer Protection Basic

z Fuses
Transformers without CBs
Perhaps to a few MVA
z Overcurrent & Earth Fault Protection
Transformers with CBs
Perhaps 5 - 50MVA TRANSFORMER
z Differential Protection PROTECTION
Transformers > 10MVA
z Fast
z Can be sensitive Biased Differential Protection
z May detect terminal faults also
Slide 8 Slide 9
IT IS NOT THE P1/S1 OR P2/S2
ORIENTATIONS THAT ARE
IMPORTANT, BUT THE
PREFERENCE FOR THE
AWAY SIDES OF THE CTs
TO CONNECT TO THE RELAY
Differential Protection Differential Protection of Transformers
132/66kV
CURRENT FLOWS CURRENT FLOWS
INTO PLANT OUT OF PLANT
P1 P2
100A 100/1 200/1 200A
S1 S2
TRIPPING ELEMENT
DETECTS ONLY THE
CURRENT FLOWS CURRENT FLOWS
INTO RELAY OUT OF RELAY
MIS-MATCH CURRENT
1A 1A
Differential
Relay TRIP
SIDE OF CT AWAY TRIP SIDE OF CT AWAY
FROM PROTECTED
FROM PROTECTED
PLANT CONNECTS ELEMENT PLANT CONNECTS ELEMENT
TO RELAY TO RELAY BIAS or BIAS or
RESTRAINT RESTRAINT
ELEMENT ELEMENT

Slide 10 Slide 11
Inrush Current on
Transformer Differential Mismatch Energisation of Transformer
z Transformer turns ratio & tap changing

z CT Mismatch
z Inrush on energisation (2nd harmonic)
z Some CT Saturation on through faults
z Transformer phase shifts
z Earth fault (neutral) currents
TRIP
ELEMENT
Slide 12 Slide 13
Second Harmonic on Inrush Unbalance Currents
z Transformer inrush current on energization. z Mismatched CTs

Inrush current produces a current from the energizing CTs do not exactly compensate for transformer turns
side only, appearing as an internal fault. ratio
Inrush current magnitude can be as great as a through Transformer turns ratio changes with tap changing
3 phase fault. Implement a biasing restraint system
This current is characterized by the appearance of z Magnetizing current in the CTs, especially as some
second harmonics, so additional restraint can be saturation due to DC fault current sets in.
based on this 2nd harmonic signature The amount of bias is increased under heavy through
fault conditions to compensate for possible CT
Relay setting below the 2nd harmonic level is required saturation
(Ratio of 2nd harmonic to fundamental)

Slide 14 Slide 15
Bias Differential Protection Transformer Current Flows
z There must be a path for the current to flow

P1
S1
P1
S1 z There must be an Ampere Turns balance
z If there is current flowing in one winding
Bias Windings
There must be current in the coupled winding
z If there is no current flowing in one winding
Operating
Winding
There can be no current in the coupled winding
z Allow for Transformer turns ratio

z Allow for Transformer phase shifts
z Eliminate neutral currents from the relaying system
Slide 16 Slide 17
Transformer Current Flows Transformer Current Flows
z Star / Star Transformer : LV Earth Fault z Star / Star Transformer : LV Earth Fault
But, suppose we dont have an upstream power system earth
Current flows in corresponding HV winding However, consider the effect of adding a delta connected tertiary winding
Appears as EF on the HV system also HV line current flows in a 2:1:1 ratio
No neutral current on the HV system (There is no path for current flow)

Slide 19 Slide 20
Transformers, Neutral Current

Transformer Current Flows and Differential Protection
z Star / Star Transformer : LV Earth Fault z Star/Star transformers, with a delta tertiary winding:
Retain the delta connected tertiary winding
Will have a mismatch between neutral current flows on the
But, lets reinstate the generator earth
HV & the LV windings
Now we do have some neutral current flow on the HV system
It is thus necessary to exclude neutral current from the
differential relay protection algorithms
z Star/Star transformers, without a delta tertiary winding:
May still have a mismatch between neutral current flows on
the HV & the LV windings
The transformer tank can act as a low quality tertiary delta
winding
It is thus always necessary to exclude neutral current from
the differential relay protection algorithms
Slide 21 Slide 22
Transformer Current Flows Transformer Current Flows
z Delta / Star Transformer : LV Earth Fault z Delta / Star Transformer : LV phase to phase fault
Current in corresponding HV winding only Current in 2 LV windings
Appears as phase to phase fault from the perspective Current in 2 HV windings
of the HV system Appears as 2:1:1 fault on the HV system

Slide 23 Slide 24
Transformer Current Flows CT Connections and Ratios
z Star / Delta Transformer : LV phase to phase fault z Star/Delta and Delta/Star transformers have a 30 degree phase
Current in all 3 LV windings shift
Current in all 3 HV windings z Compensate with CTs connected opposite to the transformer
connections. ie:
Appears as 2:1:1 fault on the HV system
Star connected CTs on the delta side of the transformer
Delta connected CTs on the star side of the transformer
z Phase shift compensated
z Neutral currents flowing in the transformer star windings are
also prevented from entering the relaying system
z But how do we get the correct delta connection for our CTs ???
Slide 25 Slide 26
Determination of CT Connection Determination of CT Connection
Yd11 Dy11
D11
D11 D1
D1
Diff Prot Diff Prot

CT Primary is star connected CT Primary is star connected
CT secondary is D11 connected CT secondary is D1 connected
Overall connection is thus YD11 Overall connection is thus YD1

Slide 27 Slide 28
Star/Delta and Delta/Star Transformers

CT Connection Summary CT YD11 Connections
z Transformer HV is STAR connected

A
HV CTs : DELTA connected S2
B
S1
HV CTs : EQUAL to the transformer phase shift

LV CTs : Star connected D11
D11
S1
B
A
S2
S2 C
S1
z Transformer LV is STAR connected
C
LV CTs : DELTA connected
D11 A phase output is at "11 o'clock"
LV CTs : OPPOSITE to the transformer phase shift
A phase "S1" connects to B phase "S2"
HV CTs : Star connected B phase "S1" connects to C phase "S2"
C phase "S1" connects to A phase "S2"
Slide 29
Away side of CTs connected to relay.
Hence, transformer current in or out
corresponds to relay current in or out
A1 A2 a2 a1
P1 P2 P2 P1
CT YD1 Connections S1 S2 S2 S1
A A
S2 S2
S1 B C S1
S1
D1
D1 B
S1 Bias Windings
A A
S2 S2
S2 C B S2
A B C Operating
S1 S1 B Windings
C C
Notice that the
D11 A phase output is at "11 o'clock" D1 A phase output is at "1 o'clock" connections for
the Delta windings
A phase "S1" connects to B phase "S2" A phase "S2" connects to B phase "S1"
B phase "S1" connects to C phase "S2" B phase "S2" connects to C phase "S1" are the same !!
C phase "S1" connects to A phase "S2" C phase "S2" connects to A phase "S1" Away side of CTs connected to relay.
Hence, transformer current in or out
corresponds to relay current in or out.

External LV Phase Earth Fault Internal LV Phase Earth Fault

A1 A2 a2 a1 A1 A2 a2 a1
P1 P2 P2 P1 P1 P2 P2 P1
S1 S2 S2 S1 S1 S2 S2 S1
Bias Windings Bias Windings
A B C Operating A B C Operating
Windings Windings
z Protection Scheme remains balanced z Protection Scheme trips

HV 0:1:1 (HV looks like a phase phase fault) HV 0:1:1 (HV looks like a phase phase fault)
LV 0:0:1 (LV is actually a single phase fault) Relay will indicate a phase-phase event
External LV Phase Phase Fault Internal LV Phase Phase Fault

A1 A2 a2 a1 A1 A2 a2 a1
P1 P2 P2 P1 P1 P2 P2 P1
S1 S2 S2 S1 S1 S2 S2 S1
Bias Windings Bias Windings
A B C Operating A B C Operating
Windings Windings
z Protection Scheme remains balanced z Protection Scheme trips

HV 1:2:1 (HV has a 2:1:1 current distribution) HV 1:2:1 (HV has a 2:1:1 current distribution)
LV 0:1:1 (LV is actually a phase phase fault) Relay will indicate a 3 phase event

Slide 37 Slide 38
Delta CTs and Ratio Selection Basic

z CT ratios must allow for the
1 / 0 1/-240
fact that current flowing into
the relay from the delta = 1.732 /-30
connected CTs is 3 times
0
-2 4
1/
the CT secondary current
0
1/
z Hence, a standard 1A CT will TRANSFORMER
result in relay current of 3
times the CT secondary
1 / -120 PROTECTION
current
z Thus, CTs with ratios such as Modern Microprocessor based
1000/0.577 are, for this
Differential Relays
reason, quite common.
Slide 39 Slide 40
Modern Microprocessor Relays Modern Microprocessor Relays
z All CTs connected in Star

IA RELAY = IA IC
P1 P1
S1 S1
z Relay has to process phase shifts P1 P1
z Relay has to remove neutral current S1 S1
P1
S1 S1
P1 IBRELAY = IB IA
ICRELAY = IC IB
P1 P1
S1 S1
P1 P1
S1 S1
P1 P1
S1 S1
IARELAY 1 0 1 IA
1
IB
RELAY = 1 1 0 IB
3
ICRELAY 0 1 1 IC

Slide 43
Modern Microprocessor Relays

IA RELAY 1 0 1 IA
1
1 1 0 IB
D1 IB
RELAY
ICRELAY
=
3
0 1 1 IC
Modern Microprocessor Relays
z All CTs can now be connected in Star

IA RELAY 1 1 0 IA Relay internal processing adjusts for phase angle
1
1 1 IB
D11 IB
RELAY
ICRELAY
=
3
0
1 0 1 IC
Relay internal processing rejects neutral current
(zero sequence) components
z CT ratios mismatches can also now be
IA RELAY 2 1 1 IA
accommodated
1
D12 RELAY 3 1 2 1 IB
IB
ICRELAY
=
1 1 2 IC
Internal processing within relay then adjusts CT
current to match transformer turns ratio
CTs can be fine tuned to match middle tap position
Allows for more sensitive relay settings
Slide 45
Transformer Bias Differential Protection
4
Summary :
Differential 3.5
Differential Protection Schemes
Current Transformer
Transformer
Internal
InternalFault
Fault
3 Protection
Diff := I1 + I2 ProtectionTrips
Trips
2.5
2 OPERATE
OPERATE
Through
ThroughFault
Faultwith
with
1.5 CT
CTSaturation
Saturation
RESTRAIN
RESTRAIN
1
HZ Diff
0.5 Relay
Through
ThroughFault
Fault
Mismatch
Mismatchdue
duetotoCT
CTRatios
Ratios&& LZ Biased Diff
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 Transformer
Transformer5Tap
4.5 TapChanging
5.5
Changing6 Relay
Relay only measures CT
15% Differential Setting spill (mismatch) current.
I1 + I2
25% Differential Setting Bias Current Bias :=
35% Differential Setting 2
Relay measures all CT
currents and determines
the mismatch.

LOW IMPEDANCE
Slide 2 Slide 3
Basic Low Impedance Busbar Protn

Power System Protection z Utilises Bias Restraint
1 x 3 phase input for every item of plant
z Often applied as a retrofit
LOW IMPEDANCE z Expensive
BUSBAR DIFFERENTIAL z Are not simple schemes
PROTECTION z Provide for poor quality and/or mismatched CTs
Increased operating current pickup
Reduced knee point for increase in bias
Increased bias slope
Slide 5 Slide 6
LZ Busbar Bias Differential Characteristic Special Features
Internal Fault
z Provide for multiple bus zones
Operating One relay covers (say) up to 6 zones
Current
Do not need separate CTs where zones overlap
TRIP
ZONE Do not need separate CTs for Master & Check Zones
Increased z Allow for dynamic switching of bus zones
operating
current pickup Requires Isolator status (a & b) inputs
Increased bias z Provide CB Fail and CB Fail Bus Trip Facilities
slope
Reduced knee
point for
increase in bias
Through Fault
Bias Current

LOW IMPEDANCE
Slide 7 Slide 9
Multiple Bus Zones Dynamic Switching of Bus Zones
Feeder and coupler Two separate BZ

CTs for BZ1 scheme schemes
Feeder CTs for

overall check zone
Feeder and coupler

CTs for BZ2 scheme
Check
zone
Slide 10 Slide 11
Dynamic Switching of Bus Zones Dynamic Switching of Bus Zones
Diameter closed.
Single BZ scheme for
entire substation
Bus 2 disconnector
now open.
BZ schemes
reconfigured OK.
Check Check
zone zone

LOW IMPEDANCE
Slide 12 Slide 13
Bus Zone CB Fail Protection CB Fail Protection & CBF Bus Tripping
z CB Fail for a bus zone fault z CB Fail for a plant fault (eg feeder fault)
Fault on bus Plant protection detects fault and initiates tripping of its
CB(s)
CB Failure detected by BZ relay inbuilt CBF feature
Plant protection also initiates BZ relays inbuilt CBF feature
BZ relay initiates tripping of remote CB(s) (via opto input)
z Remote end CBs for plant connected to bus CB Failure detected by BZ relay inbuilt CBF feature
z Next bus for coupler or section CB failure BZ relay knows what bus the plant is connected to
BZ relay knows what other plant is connected to that bus
BZ relay initiates CBF Bus Trip of required CBs
z Especially important for switched busbars
BZ relay is the only system that knows the busbar
topology !!

BASIC POWER SYSTEM PROTECTION FEEDER DIFFERENTIAL PROTECTION
Slide 2 Slide 3
Pilot Wire Relaying:

Basic Limitations and Requirements
Power System Protection z Pilot Length
Pilot Cost
Pilot Wire Resistance
z Must not exceed relay design limitations
z But, add separate (padding) resistors to bring the pilots to the relay
FEEDER
manufacturers design value (say 1000 ohms)
Pilot Wire Capacitance
DIFFERENTIAL z May disable relay operation : circulating current scheme
PROTECTION z
z May unstabilise relay operation : opposed voltage scheme
Relays at each feeder end tripping local CBs for
Strong infeed
Weak infeed
Pilot Wire Protection Zero infeed
z Two Elements
Operating element - trips relay on mismatch
Bias element - restrains relay on through current
Slide 4 Slide 5
Pilot Wire Relaying: Pilot Wire Relaying:

Circulating Current Scheme Circulating Current Scheme
R R R R
O O O O
z Through current results in relay current circulating between line end relays z Through current results in relay current circulating between line end relays
z Feeder fault current results in current flowing in the relay operating
elements
z And the effect of Pilot capacitance ??
Desensitises or even disables the relay operating elements

Slide 6 Slide 7

Summation Transformer Summation Transformer This arrangement ensures
correct operation under
2:1:1 current distributions
z Allows comparison of composite quantity A

FAULT RELATIVE
z Must trip for all internal faults 1.25
TYPE PICK-UP
z Must be stable for all external faults B
z Various sensitivities ..... OK 1 A-B 0.8A
C
B-C 1.0A
C-A 0.44A
A-B-C 0.51A
3 A-N 0.19A
B-N 0.25A
C-N 0.33A
N
SUMMATION TRANSFORMER
Slide 8 Slide 9

Pilot Wire Supervision Over Current Check
z Simply monitor pilot integrity z Prevent tripping due to pilot damage

Does not prevent mal / non tripping z O/C Check pickup setting must be above load
z Circulating Current Schemes current
Open pilot trips on load Select 120% setting
Shorted pilot never trips z Include E/F Check for sensitivity
Select 20% setting
A

B
restraint restraint
winding winding
operating operating
winding winding
summation pilot wire relay pilot wires pilot wire relay summation
transformer transformer

Slide 10 Slide 11
Basic Digital Current Differential Protection

Power System Protection z Digital Communications
z Individual measurements per phase
z Channel delay automatically compensated
FEEDER z Data security checks
DIFFERENTIAL CRC & Parity bits
PROTECTION
Feeder Digital Current

Differential Protection
Slide 12
Current Differential Protection:

Data Synchronisation RELAY
A
RELAY
B
Curre
tA1 nt Ve
ctors
z How can the local and remote end data samples by tB1
synchronised tA2
tp1
tA1
z GPS
(tA * TA1 td )
tB2
tB*
z Ping Pong Topology tA3 td tp1 = tp 2 =
tB3*
2 tB3
Asynchronous Samples
tA4
Synchronised Samples ctors
nt Ve
tp2 Curre tB4
tA5 td
tA* tA1
tB3
tB5
Relay ping-pong system
tA6 determines that it needs a sample
at tB3, whereas samples exist at
tA3 and tA4 choose the closest. tB6

Slide 15 Slide 16
Data alignment Current Differential Protection:

For non-synchronised schemes Data Synchronisation
Adjust
Adjustthe
thenon-
non-
synchronised
synchronised
samples
samplesvia
via z Ping Pong Topology
relay
relay
computation
computation Asynchronous Samples
algorithm
algorithm z Relay selects nearest available and uses the Ping Pong to
adjust the non-synchronised samples via its computation
Remote
relay algorithm
samples
Local Synchronised Samples
relay
samples z Ping Pong system aligns the samples which can then be
compared directly
Both systems require equal send and receive times (paths)
z GPS Synchronisation
Truly Synchronised Samples (time tagged)
Send and receive times (paths) do NOT have to match
Ping Pong Back-up
Slide 18
IX IY
IDIFF = IX + IY + IZ
X Y IBIAS = 0.5 (IX + IY + IZ ) Current Differential Protection:
Alpha Plane Representation
IZ
DIFFERENTIAL
CURRENT
Z Feeder
Feeder k2
k2=100%
k2=100%
Fault
FaultEvent
Event z Some relays now use the ratio of remote to local end
feeder currents to define their characteristic
TRIP
TRIP z This will ideally be -1 under through load and
through fault conditions
NO
NOTRIP
TRIP
k1
k1=30%
k1=30% Through
Through
IS1=0.2 Load
Loador
or
IS1=0.2pu
IS1 pu
Fault
FaultEvent
Event
IS2 pu
IS2=2.0 BIAS CURRENT
IS2=2.0 pu

Slide 19 Slide 20
Alpha Plane: Alpha Plane:

Restrain Zone Requirements Trip Zone Requirements
z Restrain Zone must, as a minimum, be adjusted to z Trip Zone must, as a minimum, be adjusted to
provide for magnitude and angular deviation for provide for magnitude and angular deviation for
Line charging current non-homogeneous
CT saturation power systems
pre-fault angular
separation between
the local and remote end
power systems
CT saturation
Slide 21 Slide 22
Alpha Plane: Alpha Plane:

Restrain & Trip Zone Requirements SEL311L Recommendation
z Relay trip region needs to expand z Trip Zone to ensure correct

to accommodate angle variation tripping for all in-zone faults
under in-zone fault conditions. z Restrain Zone to ensure
z Similarly, the restrain zone needs stability for all external load
to expand to ensure stability and fault conditions
under through load and fault
conditions. z 195 recommended
SEL advises that this allows 35
z That is, allow for variations and of margin for other sources of
simultaneously increase both error
zones to achieve the optimum.

BASIC POWER SYSTEM PROTECTION AUTO RECLOSING
Slide 1 Slide 2
Basic Application
Power System Protection z Most faults are single phase
z Single phase faults tend to be transient
z Hence, an automatic reclosure is often provided to
To restore faulted feeders to service
To restore the system to normal levels of security
z But usually not where the following plant may be affected
Cables
AUTO RECLOSING Transformers
z Or where the initial protection operation may have involved
EHV Systems backup for
CB Fail Event
HV Systems Blind Spot Event
Distribution Systems Failure of a remote protection scheme
Slide 3 Slide 4
Dead Time Reclaim Time
z Time delay between operation of protection and initiation z Time delay following autoreclosure during which
of CB close - has to provide for another fault is considered to be re-occurrence of the
Fault clearance original fault
Dissipation of ionised air Not to be set too short as reoccurring faults may not
Trapped charge on faulted feeder be properly identified
Effects of parallel feeders & mutual coupling Not to be set too long as totally independent faults
Effects of parallel phases & mutual coupling (SPAR) may be incorrectly identified as reoccurrence of the
z Beware of AR effects on nearby power stations original fault
AR onto multiphase fault to be avoided until oscillations of z To prevent multiple reclosures onto permanent faults
the generator shaft have subsided perhaps
z 5 seconds for double phase to ground faults
z To ensure the CB capability for Trip - Close - Trip
z 10 seconds for three phase faults sequences cannot be exceeded

Slide 5 Slide 6
EHV Auto Reclosing HV & Distribution Auto Reclosing
z SPAR and/or TPAR z Typical HV Autoreclosing

z Typically only single shot TPAR for all faults : SPAR very rare
z Trip 3 pole and lockout if AR is unsuccessful Typically, only single shot
z SPAR for 1 phase faults z Typical Distribution Autoreclosing

Typically, both ends reclose without any checks Always TPAR
z TPAR for 2 & 3 phase faults Usually multiple reclosures
Often including live line and/or sync check to May include sectionalisers
implement a master/slave topology
Slide 7 Slide 8
Distribution System Auto Reclosing

Basic Fault Clearance Times
Power System Protection z Longer fault clearance times
Fault damage (eg. arc burning) can cause a transient fault
to become permanent
z Longer fault clearance times
Slow clearance can allow a semi-permanent fault to burn
clear
AUTO RECLOSING z Hence, can we
Trip quickly on the initial event, thus minimising the
possibility of an otherwise transient fault becoming
Distribution Systems and permanent
Multiple Reclosure And then trip slowly on reclosure to perhaps allow semi
Considerations permanent faults to burn clear

Slide 9 Slide 10
Distribution System Auto Reclosing Distribution System Auto Reclosing

Connected Load Type Multiple Reclosure Schemes
z We need to also consider our customers z High speed tripping of upstream CB results in minimal fault damage
and minimises the possibility of transient faults becoming
z Industrial Customers permanent
Dead times must allow expensive, complex or z But protection discrimination is lost
dangerous processes to become fully disconnected Downstream faults may result in the rapid and non-selective
before restoring supply tripping of upstream circuit breakers
z Domestic Customers But, auto reclose then returns supply to all customers
Simple restoration of supply is of prime importance z Multiple reclosures are usually implemented
Autoreclose delay is chosen to optimise protection High speed tripping of upstream CB is inhibited after reclosure
performance, minimise fault damage, and to On reclosure, permanent faults will be tripped by slower,
automatically and quickly return supply to as many selective and time coordinated downstream schemes, ensuring
customers as possible discrimination
Slower tripping may cause permanent fault to become transient
Slide 11 Slide 12
Distribution System Auto Reclosing Distribution System Auto Reclosing

Sectionalisers Sectionalisers
CB CB
Recloser Sectionaliser Sectionaliser Recloser Sectionaliser Sectionaliser
N=3 N=2
z Applies to radial distribution systems z Fault occurs N = 1

Trip
z Feeder fault is cleared at the Recloser No action by sectionalisers
z Sectionaliser Auto Reclose
Cannot clear fault current z Fault re-occurs N = 2
But counts the number of recloses Trip
N = 2, so sectionaliser opens during the AR dead time
And sectionalises the feeder during the open dead
Auto reclose
time
z System restores, but with faulted section isolated

Slide 13 Slide 14
Auto Reclosing and Safety

Basic SEF Protection
Power System Protection z Distribution system sensitive earth fault protection
Detects very low level earth faults
These pose a significant danger to the public
These are rarely transient events
Faults to trees, fences, even to dry roads
AUTO RECLOSING SEF Long time clearance : 10 or more seconds
z Recommendations are:
Distribution Systems and Auto Reclose Reclaim time to be set longer than SEF
Safety Considerations protection times
SEF protection trips should inhibit or block any
subsequent auto reclosing sequences.
Slide 15 Slide 16
Auto Reclosing and Safety Auto Reclosing and Safety

Fire Considerations (Vic Black Saturday) Fire Considerations (Vic Black Saturday)
z Of special relevance to distribution and SWER z In times of fire risk:

systems Protection operations need to be high speed
z Longer fault clearances increase the likelihood of fire z If Autoreclosing is ON
ignition. Second shot, slow protection tripping should be
avoided
z High speed autoreclosure also increases the
Autoreclosing dead times should be extended
likelihood of fire ignition (30 secs or more)
The initial event may not cause fire ignition, but it z Autoreclosing should be turned OFF
predisposes dry forest fuel to ignition on subsequent
Periods of extreme fire risk
events (reclosure)
Locations with extreme consequences
Probability of fire ignition is perhaps 3 times greater on
reclosure than on the initial event

BASIC POWER SYSTEM PROTECTION CAPACITOR BANK PROTECTION
Slide 1 Slide 2
Capacitor Bank
Basic Protection
Power System Protection z Overcurrent & Earthfault protection
IDMT
INST
z Balance protection
CAPACITOR BANK z Over voltage protection
PROTECTION
Slide 3 Slide 4
Capacitor Bank Capacitor Bank

Ratings In-Rush Current
z Maximum continuous operation at 110% Voltage z Add these sinusoidal quantities

But the system typically operates 1.05pu voltage or Steady state (load) current
higher Inrush from the system
Thus typically specify capacitor bank to provide for this Inrush from adjacent banks
Eg. A 20MVar 33kV bank would be specified and
z
purchased as 24MVar at 36kV
Maximum continuous operation at 130% Current
2
( ) (
2
ITOT _ RMS = IL + e 1t ISYS _ RMS + e 2 t IADJ _ RMS )
2
(Extra component on current is to allow for harmonics) z This is a worst case solution
1 z As an absolute worst case approach, use this
Zc = current in determining IDMT O/C relay TMS Settings
2 freq C

In-Rush Current - System In-Rush Current - Adjacent Banks
Slide 7 Slide 8
Capacitor Bank In-Rush Current Capacitor Bank

Protection Considerations In-Rush Current Limitation
z Effect of inrush on protection may be eliminated by

using stabilised relays
(ie. not sensitive to higher frequency components)
IDMT OC Protection
z Probably no problems in any case z Series Reactor(s) installed to limit inrush current
z Typically set to 150%, 0.1 0.2 TMS May be installed at line potential
High set (Inst) OC Protection May be installed at neutral potential, one per phase, above the star
z Should be stabilised point
z And even then, 1 or 2 cycle time delay may be z Apply to (n-1) banks to limit inrush from adjacent banks
necessary z Apply to all banks to limit inrush from the system
Also limits outrush to system faults
z Inrush current may also be limited by POW switching

Slide 9 Slide 10
Capacitor can elements may have
separate individual fuses. In this case,
an element failure results in that
Capacitor Bank element going open circuit.
Capacitor Bank
Components Or capacitor can elements may be un-
fused, perhaps with just a single
Typical Design
external can fuse. In this case, an
element failure results in that element
remaining as a short circuit
Slide 11 Slide 12
Again, but now based on a
We can determine the effect current flow calculation, we
of 1, 2, 3, etc. elements can determine the effect of 1,
Capacitor Bank failing, and set relay alarm
and trip levels accordingly Capacitor Bank 2, 3, etc. elements failing,
and set relay alarm and trip
Balance Protection And, remember that, based
Balance Protection levels accordingly
on the can fusing, element

failure will result in open or
short circuited elements.
z Unbalance detected by z Monitor unbalance neutral
simple neutral displacement current
voltage measurement
z These schemes are unaffected
z But this will also be sensitive by system unbalances
to system voltage unbalances
Steady state z Relay null-points can be Current
Balance
During faults adjusted to allow for unbalance
z To compensate for any current within a healthy bank
system voltage unbalance Perfect balance probably
Monitor and compare with cannot be achieved
terminal voltage un-balances Set as part of commissioning
Voltage
Implement a time delay to Displacement
process
allow system faults to clear Current
Balance

Slide 13 Slide 14
Balance Protection Capacitor Bank

Phase Segregated Scheme Construction and Failure Mode
In this example, with internal and separately
fused elements, element failure will result in
A B C open circuited elements.
1 Capacitor
Can
Balance
Balance
Balance
Balance
Protection
Internally Fused One Phase of a

Capacitor Can 36kV, 24MVAr Capacitor Bank
1 Capacitor
Can
Slide 15 Slide 16
Capacitor Bank Capacitor Bank

Balance
Protection
Balance Protection Principles Over Voltage Protection

Internally Fused One Phase of a
Capacitor Can 36kV, 24MVAr Capacitor Bank
z When initially commissioned, zero current flows via balance protection z To trip the bank if the continuous voltage capability (110%) is
z On failure of one element in one can, a small current is now detected exceeded
The parallel elements in that can also now have a small over voltage
z To protect the system from over voltage due to the capacitor
condition
banks
Hence, all other things being equal, the most likely subsequent failure
is another element in the same row in the same can z Coordinate with any nearby generator under excitation
Unbalance current subsequently increases and is detected protection
z Trip before 10% overvoltage on the parallel cans small time delay Trip capacitors to reduce system voltage before any
Typically about 50% of elements failed generator protections may operate
z Alarm at half this value small time delay z Staged tripping recommended
Typically about 25% of elements failed
To prevent wide spread capacitor tripping and hence
z Unbalance current is very small maybe <1A primary
prevent a subsequent under voltage event from occurring
CT ratio typically 1 / 1A
CT does not need a protection class specification, in fact a eg. Where more than one bank is installed at a substation
measurement class CT should probably be specified eg. Where banks are installed a nearby substations


Basic Protection 2015

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Basic Protection 2015

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

PPS T

In-house seminar costs will vary depending on

You can expect :

Each attendee receives:

To discuss your requirements, or to obtain a firm price quotation,

z Fundamental Concepts of Protection Design

Power System Protection Training : 2015 www.powersystemprotection.com.au

Basic I assume you know

z VT : To provide a replica of the system voltage to the

Basic Power System Protection What Is a Fault?

z Rather, it is for the detection & removal of faults OR

z More often due to failure of insulation between parts

Power System Protection Training : 2015 www.powersystemprotection.com.au

Why quickly remove faults Safety : Dont Try This at Home !!

So, is Protection like an Insurance Policy ?? Reliability, Dependability & Security

z Reliability : degree of certainty that the protection scheme will

Power System Protection Training : 2015 www.powersystemprotection.com.au

Dependability vs Security Dependability

z Although called upon infrequently, relays must

Security Dependability vs Security

Power System Protection Training : 2015 www.powersystemprotection.com.au

Protection System Components Redundancy

z The success of a single protection system to detect

Duplication : Protection Relays Duplication : Protection System

z Duplicate Main (or duplicate primary) Protection z DC Supplies

Single high speed relay with a slower back-up relay z Hence

Power System Protection Training : 2015 www.powersystemprotection.com.au

z National Electricity Rules : NER

400kV 80 100 175 66 & 132kV 115 160 310 355

250kV to < 400kV 100 120 250

>100kV to < 250kV 120 220 430

100kV As necessary to prevent plant damage and meet

Power System Protection Training : 2015 www.powersystemprotection.com.au

Overlapping Protection Zones

z The art of protection is being able to:

Overlapping Protection Zones Overlapping Protection Zones

Power System Protection Training : 2015 www.powersystemprotection.com.au

Basic Unit Protection

z The boundaries of operation of unit protection are:

Unit Protection Unit Protection

z There is no need for time grading unit protection with

Power System Protection Training : 2015 www.powersystemprotection.com.au

Basic Non-Unit Protection

Non Unit Protection Non Unit Protection

Power System Protection Training : 2015 www.powersystemprotection.com.au

Non-Unit Protection Basic

Back-up Protection Back-up Protection A

z Failure of a CB to clear a fault due to

Failure of CB itself This is how the protection of the z Failure at B

Power System Protection Training : 2015 www.powersystemprotection.com.au

Remote Backup Remote Backup

z Protection equipments at substations remote from z Settings are:

Local Backup Protection z Fault occurs on feeder B-E

Power System Protection Training : 2015 www.powersystemprotection.com.au

Simple Local Backup CB Auxiliary Contact CB Aux

Scheme for Local Backup

Trip Back-up Trip Back-up

Current Check Relay

Power System Protection Training : 2015 www.powersystemprotection.com.au

Current Check Relay for Current Check Relay for

z Uses an overcurrent check relay to detect that z Advantages:

Local Backup Protection Basic

Power System Protection Training : 2015 www.powersystemprotection.com.au

Blind Spot Protection Blind Spot Fault