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# $' ( .) Proposition 6 p, q, r,... ' ( .)
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IV. Tautologies Contradictions

Proposition P ( p, q, r,...) .)Tautologies N$ P ( p, q, r,...)

'= -/, - p, q, r,... (M)Y:S -
Proposition < 0V
: D# 1! )= +
Proposition P ( p, q, r,...) .) Contradiction N$ P ( p, q, r,...)

'= -/, - p, q, r,... (M)Y:S -
Proposition < 0V
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5!6 7
0V,
p p p p p p
1 0 0 1
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0 1 0 1
0 1 0 1
00V ( proposition p p Tautology Proposition p p Contradiction+
- (# $) ' 6

5!6 7 ) Proposition p p Tautology+

0V,
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R 00V, ( p ( p q ) Tautology+
'U X Proposition ( p q ) ( p q ) Tautology
Contradiction?
V. (Logical Equivalence)
)> propositions P ( p, q, r ,...) ,Q ( p, q, r ,...) R$# t
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5!6 7 ) ( p q) r ( p r ) ( q r )
M0V,
p q r pq ( p q) r pr qr ( p r) (q r)
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0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0
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0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
- (# $) ' 7

R 00V -/, ( ( p q) r ( p r ) ( q r )
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VI. % &' !
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2. ( p q ) r p ( q r ) , ( p q ) r p ( q r )
3. p q q p, p q q p
4. p ( q r ) ( p q ) ( p r ) , p ( q r ) ( p q ) ( p r )
5. p f p, p t p
p t t, p f f
6. p p t , p p f
t f , f t
7. ( p q ) p q, ( p q ) p q ( DemorgensLaw )
8. p ( p q ) p, p ( p q ) p
9. p q p q q p
10. p q ( p q ) ( q p ) ( p q ) ( q p ) ( q p ) ( p q )
11. ( p q ) ( q r ) ( p r ) , ( p q ) ( q r ) ( p r )
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p q pq
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Argument p q, q p is fallacy (S 3)
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'0# Propositions
( p1 p2 .... pn ) Q Tautology+
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- (# $) ' 9

/ ' o})Proposition ( p q ) ( q r ) ( p q ) Tautology
( p q ) ( q r )
p q r pq qr ( p q) (q r ) pr
( p r)
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
1 1 0 1 0 0 0 1
1 0 1 0 1 0 1 1
1 0 0 0 1 0 0 1
0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
0 1 0 1 0 0 1 1
0 0 1 1 1 1 1 1
0 0 0 1 1 1 1 1
00V -/, ( Proposition ( p q ) ( q r ) ( p r ) Tautology +

R ( Argument p q; q r p r is valid
5!6 7 ` Argument W 'N
S1 : MNPQ N < MNPQ : N #
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q : '' MNPQ : N # ''
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p q; q r p r is valid

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- (# $) ' 10

R Q ' Proposition ( p q ) p q
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00V ( p q ) p q # Tautology () Argument ( p q ) p q is

fallacy

R Argument S1 ; S 2 S is fallacy
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2
2
. x 9 = 0 $: '0# x = 3 ; x = 3
2
- (# $) ' 21

3
). ( x + 5)( 2x 3) = 0 $: '0# x= ; x=5
2
. x = 2 ; x = 5 $: '0# x 2 3 x 10 = 0
1
. x = 3 ; x = $: '0# 2 x2 + 5x 3 = 0
2
7
.x ; x 4 $: '0# 2 x 2 + 15 x 28 0
2
. x 2 ; x 4 $: '0# x 2 x 8 0
2
. x + x 6 < 0 $: '0# x < 2 ; x > 3

2
. x 5 ; x 1 $: '0# x2 4 x 5 0
1
. 2 x 5 x + 2 > 0 $: '0# x>2; x<
2
2
d . x + 6 x 7 0 $: '0# x 7 ; x 1
2
??).0 'M I = 3 'UP5!6 7 k: R o})
). n Sd < y = n +1 SR+
). '= -/ x ( f ( x ) = 4 x 5 IM +
2
- (# $) ' 22

/ 2
- (# $) ' 23

1 ! 2
?.R W 'N 3 'UP1Q= t = -/, -
! <
). G(Vl= (
R Ml 'U< -'U
> q: M a
'U % +
/ 0 P G(Vl (
R Ml 'U -'U
> q:
q G(Vl (
R MlM a'U %
( .( p )= .( q )=1
). M pq .( p q )=+
). MS x S# $ x2 < 0 x + 1 = 0 +
/ 0 P MS x S# $ x2 < 0
q MS x S# $ x +1 = 0
( .( p )=1 .( q )=0
). M pq .( p q )=1+
). '=S a b
: # M$ a + b a + b a b a b
/ 0 P '=S a b
: # M$ a +b a + b
q '=S a b
: # M$ a b a b
( .( p )=1 .( q )=1
). M pq .( p q )=1+
). ? Sd 6: : -+
/ 0 P ? Sd
q ? 6: : -
( .( p )=1 .( q )=
). M pq .( p q )=+
). '=S
= m n < 2n S
= R 2n + 1 S = +
/ 0 P '=S
= m n < 2n S
= R
q '=S
= m n < 2n + 1 S =
- (# $) ' 24

( .( p )=1 .( q )=1
). M pq .( p q )=1+
). '=S a, b # $ ab < </ a, b =
{x / a x b} </
a, b =
{x / a < x < b}
/ 0 P '=S a, b # $ ab < </
a, b =
{x / a x b}
q '=S a, b # $ ab < </
a, b =
{x / a < x < b}
( .( p )=1 .( q )=1
). M pq .( p q )=1+
). a b Sd hbY < a + b a b 7 Sd\bY#
a + b #3=\+
/ 0 P a b Sd hbY < a + b a b 7
Sd\bY#
q a b Sd hbY < a + b #3=\

( .( p )=1 .( q )=1
). M pq .( p q )=1+
).
: 4 <= A, B, C, D, E F> X 4bY' ( ##
'p # $'p>SM MS <= M : bY+

: 4 !'p ' ( z %=: l X T > : rm 0}G
4bY+ 'N>N z
S
\ )

: 4 B
: 4 >
X = %R$'p SbY

: 4 F
: 4 > (
X = %R$'p SbY

: 4 A
: 4 > (
X = ' : m a $
' >: :

: 4 B
: 4 >
X X $' : m a $
(=
R
- (# $) ' 25

: 4 C
: 4 > 'X > 6:
: ' : m a $
R$R
#!
\ z )
: 4 C
: 4 >
X =M
W +
: 4 D
: 4 > 0
X # M W
4 }- #X 2 +
: 4 F
: 4 >
X X $M W

R +
: 4 MY=> X 6M > r?
/ 0 m mW $ (0V,
R W 'N
Y X $ ( = = 0# ' > 6:
A 0 0 0 1 0 0
B 0 0 0 0 1 0
C 1 0 0 0 0 0
D 0 0 1 0 0 0
E 0 1 0 0 0 0
F 0 0 0 0 0 1
R Q A:>
X =
B :> 0
X # 4 }- #X 2
C:>Y
D:> (
X = 4 }- #X 2
E:>
X X $
R
F:> 'X > 6:

R
).Y:N t S-'p ($> 5'

S M}4
> ><= A , B c+
A ) aY:k 'b a-^# $M 5'
m+
B ) aY:k 'b a-^# $M 5'

m 6
:
}/= +
C ) <
: }/= + l z 0'U N
=
( %
\ )A C B + # ?
- (# $) ' 26

/ 0 p aY:k 'b a-^# $M 5'

m
q
: }/=
3 A , C 6 , B
( p , ( p q ) , ( r q )
p 6 ( p q ) < ( q ( ' q < (
( p q ) 7 # )+
q 6 ( r q) < ( r ( ' r < (
( r q ) )+

R # M) #
).: 4<=
> # $?
> 12 $
> 12
> 12 (
R K
$ %:
: Y, M%:
: Y 'P ?Y+

: # 2 , : M%: : bY Y, %:
Y+
: 2 $, $%: Y, %: 'P $ Y+
% %
= :MY=(
\ ) j !>
= : 4
MY=M S +
/ 0 x, y, z S%: zbY- $
% (
=
R K
$ "( x = 22), ( x = y 2) , ( x = z + 1) "

"( x y ) ( z y ) , ( y = z + 3) ( y = z 3) , ( z = 25) "
"( z < x ) , ( x = 23) , ( y = x + 3) "
3 j
= : 4MY=M S \ ` K0 >

R K
(i ) ( x = 22) , ( x = y 2) , ( x = z + 1)
( x = 22) ( x = 23) ( y = x + 3)
l:#X ( x = y 2 ) ( y = x + 3) % !>
- (# $) ' 27

R ( i ) % K
> S +
( ii ) ( x = 22) , ( x = y 2) , ( x = z + 1)
( x = 22) ( x = 23) ( y = x + 3)
3 ( y = x + 3) ( x = z + 1)
() ( y = z + 4)
R ( ( y = z + 3) ( y = z 3) )
(1)
( ( x = 22 ) ( x = z + 1) ) ( z = 25) ( 2)
(1) ( 2 ) I =) j
= M > # $k: K\
m m

R ( ii ) % K
> > S +
( iii ) ( x = 22) , ( x = y 2) , ( x = z + 1)
( x = y 2) ( y = x + 3) ( x = 23)
( ( x = y 2 ) ( x = 23) ) ( y = 25)
( y = x + 3) ( z < x )
( ( z < x ) ( x = 23) ) ( z = 25)
( z = 25) ( ( x y ) , ( z y ) , ( y = z + 3) )
( ( y = z + 3) ( y = 25) ) ( z = 22)
l z ( x = 23, y = 25, z = 22) kk = m m# $) j

= : 4MY= M> S +

R $%: Y %: Y %: Y+
). 3 'UP0V -/, R o}I=)
). p (q r ) ( p q) ( p r )
). p (q r ) ( p q) ( p r )
/ 'M I =00V -/,
). p (q r ) ( p q) ( p r )
- (# $) ' 28

0V -/,
p q r qr pq pr p (q r ) ( p q) ( p r )
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
1 1 0 1 1 0 1 1
1 0 1 1 0 1 1 1
1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 1 1 1 0 0 0 0
0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
00V -/, ) p (q r ) ( p q) ( p r ) M -/
,
R bY +
R Q p (q r ) ( p q ) ( p r )
). p (q r ) ( p q) ( p r )
0V -/,
p q r qr pq pr p (q r ) ( p q) ( p r )
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
1 1 0 0 1 1 1 1
1 0 1 0 1 1 1 1
1 0 0 0 1 1 1 1
0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0
0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
00V -/, ( p (q r ) ( p q) ( p r )
- (# $) ' 29

).
: $, (Validity)-Argument W 'N
). ( p q) ( p q)
/ ( p q) ( p q)
0V -/,
p q pq pq ( p q) ( p q)
1 1 1 1 1
1 0 0 1 1
0 1 0 1 1
0 0 0 0 1
00V ( ( p q) ( p q) Tautology

R ( p q ) ( p q )
). ( p q) q
/ ( p q) q
0V -/,
p q pq ( p q) q
1 1 1 1
1 0 0 1
0 1 0 1
0 0 0 1
00V ( ( p q) q Tautology

R ( p q) q
- (# $) ' 30

). p q p q

/ p q p q

0V -/,
p q p q pq pq pq [ p q ] p q
1 1 0 0 0 1 0 1
1 0 0 1 0 0 0 1
0 1 1 0 0 0 0 1
0 0 1 1 1 0 1 1
00V p q p q Tautology

R p q p q +

).
( (
)
p q ) p q p
/ ( p q ) ( p q ) p

0V -/,
p q pq pq pq ( p q) ( p q) ( )
( p q ) p q p
1 1 1 1 0 0 1
1 0 0 1 0 0 1
0 1 0 1 0 0 1
0 0 0 0 1 0 1
00V (

( p q ) ( p q ) p Tautology

R

( p q ) ( p q ) p +
{ ( q p ) ( p q )} ( q p ) p

). p
/ ({ p ( q p ) ( p q )} ( q p )) p
0 U = ({ p ( q p ) ( p q )} ( q p ) ) p
A = (q p) B = ( p q ) C = (q p)
- (# $) ' 31

0V -/,
p q p q A p A B [ p A] B C ({[ p A] B} C ) U
1 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 1
1 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 1
0 1 1 0 1 0 1 1 1 1 1
0 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 1 1 1
00V ( ({ p ( q p ) ( p q )} ( q p )) p Tautology

R ({ p ( q p ) ( p q )} ( q p )) p +
).
( p q ) q p

/ ( p q ) q p 0V -/,
p q pq ( p q) q ( p q ) q ( p q ) q p
1 1 1 1 0 1
1 0 0 0 1 1
0 1 1 1 0 1
0 0 1 1 0 1
00V ( ( p q ) q p Tautology

R ( p q ) q p +
). p
( q p ) q
/ p ( q p ) q 0V -/,
p q q p p ( p q) p ( q p ) q p ( q p ) q
1 1 1 1 0 0 1
1 0 0 0 1 1 1
0 1 0 1 0 0 1
0 0 0 1 0 1 1
00V ( p ( q p ) q Tautology

R p ( q p ) q +
- (# $) ' 32

).( p q) (r q ) (r p)
/ ( p q ) ( r q ) ( r p )
0V -/,
p q r p q pq rq r p ( p q) ( r q ) U
1 1 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 1
1 1 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 1
1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 1
1 0 0 0 1 0 1 1 0 1
0 1 1 1 0 1 0 1 0 1
0 1 0 1 0 1 1 1 1 1
0 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
0 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
00V ( ( p q) (r q ) (r p) Tautology

R ( p q ) ( r q ) ( r p ) +
). ( p r ) ( p q ) ( r q )
/ ( p r ) ( p q ) ( r q )
0V -/,
p q r q r pq r q pr ( p q ) (r q ) U
1 1 1 0 0 0 1 1 1 1
1 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1
1 0 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 1
1 0 0 1 1 1 1 0 1 1
0 1 1 0 0 1 1 1 1 1
0 1 0 0 1 1 0 1 1 1
0 0 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 1
0 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
00V ( ( p r ) ( p q ) ( r q ) Tautology
- (# $) ' 33

R ( p r ) ( p q ) ( r q ) +
). {( p q ) ( r p ) q} r
/{( p q ) ( r p ) q} r
0 A = {( p q ) ( r p ) q}

0V -/,
p q r q r pq r p ( p q ) ( r p) A U
1 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 1
1 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 1
1 0 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 1
1 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 0 1
0 1 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 1
0 1 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 1
0 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 1
0 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 0 1
00V ) {( p q ) ( r p ) q} r Tautology

R {( p q ) ( r p ) q} r +
{( p q ) ( r p ) ( q p ) r } p
).
{( p q ) ( r p ) ( q p ) r } p
0 A = ( p q ) ( r p ) , B = ( q p ) r
- (# $) ' 34

0V -/,
p q r pq r p A q p B A B A B U
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 1
1 1 0 1 1 1 1 0 0 1 1
1 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 1 0 1
1 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 1 0 1
0 1 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 0 1
0 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 1
0 0 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 0 1
0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 1
00V ) { ( p q ) ( r p ) ( q p ) r } p Tautology
R {( p q ) ( r p ) ( q p ) r } p
+
). 'M = 3k$ =
1 3 5 2009 2011 1
). 'M I =) .... <
2 4 6 2010 2012 2013
1 3 5 2009 2011
/ 0 a = .....
2 4 6 2010 2012
2 4 6 2010 2012
0 b = ......
3 5 7 2011 2013
( a<b
a2 < ab
a2 < 1
2013
a< 1
2013
1 3 5 2009 2011 1

R
.... <
2 4 6 2010 2012 2013
1 < 1 3 5 7 ..... 99 < 1

).)
15 2 4 6 8 100 10
2 3 5 7 99
/ 0 p = ..... (1)
3 4 6 8 100
2 4 6 8 100
( p < .... ( 2)
3 5 7 9 101
- (# $) ' 35

1 2 4 6 98
p > .... ( 3)
2 3 5 7 99
: (1) ( 2)
1 1 1
( p2 < < < % p< ( 4)
101 100 10
: (1) ( 3)
1 1 1
( p2 > > < ( 5) % p>
200 225 15
1 1
0 ( 4) ( 5) ( < p<
15 10

R 1 1 3 5 7
< .....
99 1
<
15 2 4 6 8 100 10
1 1 1 1
).o} I =) S = + 3 + 3 + ...... + <3
2 3 2 4 3 ( n +1) n n
/ o} I =) S
1 1 1 1
= + 3 + 3 + ...... + <3
2 3 2 4 3 ( n +1) n n
` k (
1 1 = 3 k +1 3 k
3
k 3 k +1 3 k ( k +1)
( k +1) 3 k 3
3
3
=

( k +1) 3 ( k +1) + 3 k ( k +1) + 3 k 2
2
3k

1 1 = 1
3
k 3 k +1
( k +1) ( k +1) ( k +1) +
2
3k 3 +3k 3
k2

1 1
# >

( k +1) 3 ( k +1) + 3 k ( k +1) + 3 k 2

k ( k +1) 33 ( k + 1)
2 2
3k

1 1 1
( >
33 k ( k + 1)( k + 1)
2
3
k 3
k +1
- (# $) ' 36

1 1 1
3 >
3
k k + 1 3 ( k + 1) 3 k
1 1 1
< 3
( k +1) 3 k 3 k 3 k +1
k =1 < %
1 < 3 1 1

2 3 2
1 1 1
k = 2< % < 3
3 2 3 3
33 2
1 1 1
k = 3< % < 3
43 3 3 3 3 4
------------------------------------
------------------------------------
------------------------------------
1 1 1
k =n< % < 3
( n +1) 3 n 3 n 3 n +1
1
S < 3 1 3 <3
n + 1
1 1 1 1

R S = + 3 + 3 + ...... + <3
2 3 2 4 3 ( )
n + 1 nn
).) S a +b+c = 0 < a3 + b3 + c3 = 3abc

/ ) S a +b+c = 0 < a3 + b3 + c3 = 3abc
0 P 6: # $M a, b c
( P ( x ) = x3 ( a + b + c ) x2 + ( ab + bc + ac ) x abc
3 a, b, c kk $ = N > P ( x) = 0
( a3 ( a + b + c ) a2 + ( ab + bc + ac ) a abc = 0 (1)
c3 ( a + b + c ) c2 + ( ab + bc + ac ) c abc = 0 ( 2)
b3 ( a + b + c ) b2 + ( ab + bc + ac ) b abc = 0 ( 3)
(1) + ( 2) + ( 3) (
( )
a3 + b3 + c3 ( a + b + c ) a 2 + b2 + c 2 + ( ab + bc + ac )( a + b + c ) 3abc = 0
- (# $) ' 37

# a + b + c = 0 a3 + b3 + c3 = 3abc

R a 3 + b3 + c3 = 3abc
).) 3 2 + 5 + 3 2 5 S !
/ ) 3 2 + 5 + 3 2 5 S !
0 x = 3 2 + 5 + 3 2 5
( x 3 2 + 5 3 2 5 = 0
3 a + b + c = 0 < % a 3 + b 3 + c 3 = 3abc
( ) (
( x3 2 + 5 2 5 = 3x 3 2 + 5 ) ( )( 2 5 )
( ) ( )
x 3 2 + 5 2 5 = 3x 3 4 5
x ( 2 + 5 ) ( 2 5 ) = 3x
3
x3 ( 2 + 5 ) ( 2 5 ) + 3x = 0
x 3 + 3x 4 = 0
( x 1) ( x 2 + x + 4 ) = 0
3 x ; x 2 + x + 4 > 0
( x 1 = 0 x = 1

R 3
2+ 5 + 3 2 5 =1 S !
1 1 1
). M a + b + c = 0 ) 2 + + 2 2 2 =0
a + b2 + c 2 b +c + a c +a +b
2 2 2
1 1 1
/ M a + b + c = 0 ) + 2 2 + 2 =0
a + b + c b + c + a c + a2 + b2
2 2 2 2
3 a + b + c = 0 a + b = c
- (# $) ' 38

a 2 + 2ab + b2 = c 2
a 2 + b2 c 2 = 2ab
a 2 + 2ac + c 2 = b 2
a 2 + c 2 b 2 = 2ac
b2 + c 2 + 2bc = a 2
b 2 + c 2 a 2 = 2bc
1 1 1 1 1 1
+ 2 2 2 + 2 2 2 =
b +c a c + a b a +b c
2 2 2
2bc 2ac 2ab
=
(a + b + c)
2abc
1 1 1

R + + =0 ; abc 0
a 2 + b2 + c2 b2 + c 2 + a 2 c2 + a 2 + b2
a b c
). a + b + c = 0 < ) + + =1
ab + a + 1 bc + b + 1 ac + c + 1
a b c
/ a + b + c = 0 < ) + + =1
ab + a + 1 bc + b + 1 ac + c + 1
1
3 abc = 1 a =
bc
1
1 1 1 b bc
( 2 + 2 2 2+ 2 2 2= bc + +
a +b +c b +c +a c +a +b + + 1 bc + b + 1 bc + b + 1
2 2 1 1
c bc
1 + b + bc
=
1 + b + bc
=1
a b c

R a+b+c = 0 < + + =1
ab + a + 1 bc + b + 1 ac + c + 1
). % 0 < x1 < x2 < ....... < x12

x1 + x2 + x3 + .... + x9 x1 + x2 + x3 + ..... + x12
) + <7
x3 + x6 + x9 x4 + x8 + x12
/ % 0 < x1 < x2 < ....... < x12

x1 + x2 + x3 + .... + x9 x1 + x2 + x3 + ..... + x12
) + <7
x3 + x6 + x9 x4 + x8 + x12
- (# $) ' 39

3 x1 < x2 < x3 < x1 + x2 + x3 < 3x3

x4 < x5 < x6 < x4 + x5 + x6 < 3x6
x7 < x8 < x9 < x7 + x8 + x9 < 3x9
x1 + x2 + x3 + .... + x9 < 3 ( x3 + x6 + x9 )
x + x2 + x3 + ... + x9
1 < 3 (1)
x3 + x6 + x9
6 x1 < x2 < x3 < x4 < x1 + x2 + x3 + x4 < 4 x4
x5 < x6 < x7 < x8 < x5 + x6 + x7 + x8 < 4 x8

x9 < x10 < x11 < x12 < x9 + x10 + x11 + x12 < 4 x12
x1 + x2 + x3 + .... + x12 < 4 ( x4 + x8 + x12 )

x + x + x + .... + x12
1 2 3 < 4 ( 2)
x4 + x8 + x12
0 (1) ( 2)
x1 + x2 + x3 + .... + x9 x1 + x2 + x3 + ..... + x12

( + <7
x3 + x6 + x9 x4 + x8 + x12
). ?). xy S = < x+y S

= R
). xy S = < xy S = +
?). ) xy S = < x+y S

= R
0 x = 2k + 1 y = 2l + 1 ; k , l
( x + y = 2k + 1 + 2l + 1
= 2k + 2l + 2
= 2(k + l + 1) S
= R
). xy S = < xy S =
0 x = 2m + 1 y = 2n + 1 ; m, n
( xy = ( 2m + 1)( 2n + 1)
= 2(2mn + m + n) + 1 S =
- (# $) ' 40

@). 'M I =:
k >N
). %Sd> 4bY p, q & r ) 3 p , 3 q & 3 r # > -S
>: r rX S g+
/ p, q & r Sd> 4bY) 3 p , 3 q & 3 r # > -S
>: r rX S g
5M) 3 p , 3 q & r -S >: r rX

3
< MS a,b, c d # $3 p = a, 3 q = a + bd , 3 r = a + cd
q3 p 3r 3 p
3
( d = =
b c
c ( 3 q 3 p ) = b( 3 r 3 p )
c 3 q c 3 p ) = b 3 r b 3 p)
(b c) 3 p = b 3 r c 3 q
0 , S = "
#
> $ = b c, = c, = b
(
3 p = 3 r + 3 q
3 p = 3r + 3 2 3 r 2 q + 3 2 3 rq 2
(
3 p = 3q + 3r + 3 3 r 2 q 3 r + 3 q )
3 p = 3q + 3r + 3 3 3 pqr
3 pqr = p q r
3 3 3
3
k:>N ' F?
> S ! # F
> S !

R 3 p,3 q & 3
r # > -S >: r rX S g
).o} I =) a; b ( ea + eb 2 ea +b
/ o} I =) a; b ( ea + eb 2 ea +b
0 p : a; b ; ea + eb 2 ea +b
p : a; b ; ea + eb < 2 ea +b
( e a + eb 2 e a + b < 0
- (# $) ' 41

2
ea eb < 0 kN
: >

p :

R a; b , ea + eb 2 ea +b
).) m S !( m # N 'x )
/ ) m S !( m # N 'x )
5M) m S !
a
m= # $ a b d hbY
b
a2
m= < % a 2 = mb2
b2
( a2 6: : - m < a 6: : - m #
(
a = km
k m2 = mb2
2
m2 k 2
b2 =
m
b = mk 2
2
( b2 6: : - m m m# ) a b d hbY

R m S !
). 'M I =:
k > m m
).) S = m n $: mn # 6: : - 3 < m
n 7# 6: : - 3 # +
/ 0 p : mn # 6: : - 3
q : m n # 6: : - 3
p : mn 6: : - 3
- (# $) ' 42

q : m n 6: : - 3
m = 3k n = 3l
< mn = 3k 3l
mn = 3 ( 3kl )
( q p

R pq
).) n # 6: : - 5 < n 7# 6: : - 5 #
2
/ 0 p : n2 # 6: : - 5
q : n # 6: : - 5
p : n2 6: : - 5
q : n 6: : - 5
n = 5k n2 = 25k 2 <
nn = 5k 5k
( )
n2 = 5 5k 2
( q p

R pq
).) ( x + 1)( x 2 ) = 0 < x 0
/ 0 p : ( x + 1)( x 2 ) = 0
q: x0
p : ( x + 1)( x 2 ) 0
q : x=0
x=0 0
- (# $) ' 43

q : 5< x<0
x>5 0
x<0 0
( q p

R pq
).) x 4< 0 < 2 < x < 2
2
/ 0 p: x2 4 < 0
q: 2 < x < 2
p : x2 4 > 0
q : 2 < x < 2
x>2 0
x < 2 0
( q p

R pq
). ''
: ):
S/ :6 '' M -/ t G
= = ?
/ %h -/ G
= = K $ ''
: ):
S/
:6 '' '

: < ''
: ::6# ''

: < ''
: ::6 ''
). aY:' > S
X % K: 4
R K : 4
: 4# $# $N !$ = } + ~=
\ )
S/ : 4
R )~=
\ # : 4 +
/ )~=
\ # : 4
'' ~=
\ )
/ S : 4 "
~=
\ N # : 4 # $N !$ = } +
R Q ~=
\ N # : 4 +
'' ~=
\ )
/ S : 4 "
- (# $) ' 44

~=
\ # : 4 +
R Q '= > ~=
\ # : 4 +
).
R RMY=( r
R W 'N
- m m
= ': ' N }7' # ( '
- N }7( ' 6
- R Q m m': ' + '

' ?
/ '
' ?
0 p " m m
= ':
' "
q " N }7' # ( ' "
0 S
> - p q 6#QW 'N- q p # p q
R$ q p

R ' ' +
). W 'N '
' ?
- !~! =
: D# ' r=
- R 2 / ' _=
- R Q R 2! # !~
/ '
'
0 p " !~ "
q " Y ' r= "
0 S
> - p q 60 > ( 2) > ( 3) -
q p 0' >
X p q q p

R ' ' +
). MR 3
Y S# $ (- !"W 'N
vi. N$ : r$~ = 3
: ^R $
: =
vii. $~ =
R $~ = $
: / =( r
viii. bm$~
= S r %
: $
ix.
: $ =$~ = # $
R $~ = $
: / =( r
- (# $) ' 45

x.
: # $^R a $ r$~ = $#$# h r %
: $+
/ X> Y3# $ (-
t )`# $# X '' $~ = '' '' $~

= ''
- $~ =
R $~ = $
: / =( r
- R Q
: $ =h (0 4)
>
- R Q ^
: R (0 1)
>
- R Q h r %
: $(0 5)
>
- R Q h# $~
= (0 3)
>

R X> 3# $ (- ! = $~ = #
$~
= +
?) 'M = r $
. 3 'UP 'M I = r $ R o} I =)
. x2 x 6 = 0 $: '0# x = 2 ; x = 3
/
. 3 'UP 'M I = r $ R o} I =)
. x2 x 6 = 0 $: '0# x = 2 ; x = 3
0 p : x2 x 6 = 0
q : x = 2 ; x = 3
( p q : x2 x 6 = 0 $: '0# x = 2 ; x = 3
T > % p q $: '0# p q q p
+ pq
p q : x2 x 6 = 0 < x = 2 ; x = 3
3 p : x2 x 6 = 0
x 2 3x + 2 x 6 = 0
- (# $) ' 46

x ( x 3) + 2 ( x 3 ) = 0
( x 3)( x + 2 ) = 0
x 3 = 0 x = 3

x + 2 = 0 x = 2
( x2 x 6 = 0 < x = 2 ; x = 3 < pq +
+ q p
q p : x = 2 ; x = 3 < x2 x 6 = 0
3 q : x = 2 ; x = 3

> ?.
>
x = 2 < x+2=0 (1)

x=3 < x 3 = 0 ( 2)
: (1) & ( 2) ( x 2 + 2 x 3x 6 = 0
x2 x 6 = 0 p
( q p

> .
>
x = 2 < x 2 x 6 = 0
( 2) ( 2) 6 = 0
2
66 = 0
0=0
x=3 < x2 x 6 = 0
32 3 6 = 0
99 = 0
0=0
( q p
3 pq q p < p q +

R x2 x 6 = 0 $: '0# x = 2 , x = 3
. 3 'UP 'M I = r $ R o} I =)
1
2 x 2 + 11x 5 = 0 $: '0# x= ; x=5
2
- (# $) ' 47

/ 3 'UP 'M I = r $ R o} I =)
1
2 x 2 + 11x 5 = 0 $: '0# x= ; x=5
2
0 p : 2 x2 + 11x 5 = 0
1
q: x = ; x=5
2
1
( p q : 2 x2 + 11x 5 = 0 $: '0# x= ; x=5
2
T > % p q $: '0# p q q p +
+ pq
1
p q : 2 x2 + 11x 5 = 0 < x= ; x=5
2
3 p : 2 x2 + 11x 5 = 0
0 = b 2 4ac
= 112 4 ( 2 )( 5 )
= 121 40 = 81
= 81 = 9
b 11 9 20
x1 = = = =5
2a 2 ( 2 ) 4
b + 11 + 9 2 1
x2 = = = =
2a 4 4 2
1
3 x = ; x=5 q < pq
2
+ pq
1
( p q: x = ; x = 5 < 2 x 2 + 11x 5 = 0
2
1 1
3 x= < x = 0 (1)
2 2
x=5 < x 5 = 0 ( 2)
: (1) & ( 2) (
1 5
x2 x 5x + = 0
2 2
2 x 2 x 10 x + 5 = 0
- (# $) ' 48

2 x2 11x + 5 = 0 : \ ( 1)
2 x 2 + 11x 5 = 0 p
( q p
3 pq q p
( p q

R pq
. 3 'UP 'M I = r $ R o} I =)
x2 9 = 0 $: '0# x = 3 ; x = 3
/ 3 'UP 'M I = r $ R o} I =)
x2 9 = 0 $: '0# x = 3 ; x = 3
0 p : x2 9 = 0
q : x = 3 ; x = 3
( p q : x2 9 = 0 $: '0# x = 3 ; x = 3
T > % p q $: '0# p q q p
+ pq
p q : x2 9 = 0 < x = 3 ; x = 3
3 p : x2 9 = 0
x2 = 9 < x= 9
x = 3
x = 3 ; x = 3 q
( pq
+ q p
q p : x = 3 ; x = 3 < x2 9 = 0
3 x = 3 < x+3= 0 (1)
x=3 < x 3 = 0 ( 2)
: (1) & ( 2) (
x 2 + 3x 3x 9 = 0
x2 9 = 0 p
- (# $) ' 49

( q p
3 p q 6 q p
< p q

R p q
). 3 'UP 'M I = r$ R o} I =)
3
( x + 5)( 2 x 3) = 0 $: '0# x=
2
; x=5
/ 3 'UP 'M I = r $ o} I =)
3
( x + 5)( 2 x 3) = 0 $: '0# x=
2
; x=5
0 p : ( x + 5 )( 2 x 3) = 0
3
q: x = ; x=5
2
3
p q : ( x + 5)( 2 x 3) = 0 $: '0# x=
; x=5
2
T > % p q $: '0# p q q p
+ pq
p q : ( x + 5 ) ( 2 x 3) = 0
3
< x= ; x=5
2
3 p : ( x + 5) ( 2 x 3) = 0
x + 5 = 0

2 x 3 = 0
x = 5
q
x = 3
2
( pq
+ q p
3
q p: x = ; x=5
2
3 3
3 x= < x =0
2 2
2x 3 = 0 (1)
3 x=5 < x 5 = 0
- (# $) ' 50

x + 5 = 0 ( 2)
(1) : ( 2) (
( 2 x 3) ( x + 5 ) = 0
( x + 5) ( 2 x 3) = 0 p
( q p
3 p q q p
( p q

R p q
). 3 'UP 'M I = r$ R o} I =)
x = 2 ; x = 5 $: '0# x 2 3x 10 = 0
/ 3 'UP 'M I = r $ o} I =)
x = 2 ; x = 5 $: '0# x 2 3x 10 = 0
0 p : x = 2 ; x = 5
q : x 2 3x 10 = 0
p q : x = 2 ; x = 5 $: '0# x 2 3x 10 = 0
T > % pq N$ p q q p
+ pq
p q : x = 2 ; x = 5 < x 2 3x 10 = 0
3 p : x = 2 ; x = 5
3 x = 2 < x+2=0 (1)
x=5 < x5 = 0 ( 2)
: (1) & ( 2) (
x 2 + 2 x 5 x 10 = 0
x 2 3x 10 = 0 q
( pq
+ q p
q p : x 2 3x 10 = 0 < x = 2 ; x = 5
- (# $) ' 51

q : x 2 3x 10 = 0
x 2 + 2 x 5 x 10 = 0
(x 2
+ 2 x ) ( 5 x + 10 ) = 0
x ( x + 2) 5( x + 2) = 0
( x + 2 ) ( x 5) = 0
x + 2 = 0 enaH x = 2

x 5 = 0 enaH x = 5 p
( q p
3 p q q p
< p q

R p q
. 3 'UP 'M I = r $ o} I =)
1
x = 3 ; x = $: '0# 2 x2 + 5x 3 = 0
2
/ ). 3 'UP 'M I = r $ o} I =)
1
x = 3 ; x = $: '0# 2 x2 + 5x 3 = 0
2
1
0 p : x = 2 ; x =
2
q : 2 x2 + 5x 3 = 0
1
p q : x = 3 ; x = $: '0# 2 x2 + 5x 3 = 0
2
T > % p q N$ p q q p
+ pq
1
p q : x = 3 ; x = < 2 x + 5x 3 = 0
2
2
1
3 p : x = 3 ; x=
2
3 x = 3 < x+3= 0 (1)
x=
1
2
1
< x =0
2
( 2)
: (1) & ( 2) (
- (# $) ' 52

1 3
x2 + 3x x = 0
2 2
2 x2 + 6 x x 3 = 0
2 x2 + 5x 3 = 0 q
( pq
+ q p
1
q p : 2 x2 + 5x 3 = 0 < x = 3 ; x =
2
q: 2 x2 + 5x 3 = 0
2 x2 + 6 x x 3 = 0
( 2x 2
+ 6 x ) ( x + 3) = 0
x ( x + 3) ( x + 3) = 0
( x + 3)( 2 x 1) = 0
x + 3 = 0

enaH x = 3
p
2 x 1 = 0

enaH x = 12
( q p
3 p q q p
< p q

R p q
. 3 'UP 'M I = r$ R o} I =)
7
x ; x 4 $: '0# 2 x 2 + 15 x 28 0
2
/ . 3 'UP 'M I = r$ o} I =)
7
x ;x4 $: '0# 2 x 2 + 15 x 28 0
2
7
0 p: x ; x4
2
q : 2 x 2 + 15 x 28 0
7
p q : x ; x 4 $: '0# 2 x 2 + 15 x 28 0
2
T > % p q N$ p q q p
- (# $) ' 53

+ pq
7
p q: x ; x4 < 2 x 2 + 15 x 28 0
2
7
3 p: x ; x4
2
3 x
7
2
<
7
x 0
2
(1)
x4 < x4 0 ( 2)
: (1) & ( 2) (
7 7
x2 x 4 x + 4 0
2 2
2 x 2 7 x 8 x + 28 0
2 x 2 15 x + 28 0
2 x 2 + 15 x 28 0 q
( pq
+ q p
7
q p : 2 x 2 + 15 x 28 0 < x ; x4
2
q: 2 x 2 + 15 x 28 0
2 x 2 + 8 x + 7 x 28 0
( 2 x 2
+ 8 x ) + ( 7 x 28) 0
2 x ( x 4) + 7 ( x 4) 0
( x 4)( 2 x + 7 ) 0
x 4 0

enaH x 4
p
2 x + 7 0

enaH x 72
( q p
3 p q q p
 % pq N$ p q p q
+ pq
p q : x 2 ; x 4 < x2 2 x 8 0
3 p : x 2 ; x 4
3 x 2 < x+2 0 (1)
x4 < x4 0 ( 2)
: (1) & ( 2) (
x2 + 2 x 4 x 8 0
x2 2 x 8 0 q
( pq
+ q p
q p : x2 2 x 8 0 < x 2 ; x 4
q: x2 2 x 8 0
x2 + 2 x 4 x 8 0
(x 2
+ 2 x ) ( 4 x + 8) 0
x ( x + 2) 4 ( x + 2) 0
( x + 2)( x 4) 0
x + 2 0 enaH x 2

x 4 0 enaH x 4 p
( q p
3 p q q p
- (# $) ' 55

 3

/ 3 'UP 'M I = r$ o} I =)
x2 + x 6 < 0 $: '0# x < 2 ; x > 3

0 p : x2 + x 6 < 0
q : x < 2 ; x > 3
p q : x2 + x 6 < 0 $: '0# x < 2 ; x > 3
T > % pq $: '0# p q q p
+ pq
p q : x2 + x 6 < 0 < x < 2 ; x > 3
3 p : x2 + x 6 < 0
0 ax2 + bx + c < 0 , > 0 ; a > 0
x < x2
(
x > x1
p: x2 + x 6 < 0
x 2 + 3x 2 x 6 < 0
(x 2
+ 3x ) ( 2 x + 6 ) < 0
x ( x + 3) 2 ( x + 3 ) < 0
( x + 3)( x 2 ) < 0
x+3= 0 < x = 3
x2=0 < x=2
( x1 = 3 ; x2 = 2
( x + 3)( x 2 ) < 0
x < 2
( q
x > 3
( pq
- (# $) ' 56

+ q p
q p : x < 2 ; x > 3 < x2 + x 6 < 0
3 x < 2 < x2=0 (1)
x > 3 < x+3= 0 ( 2)
: (1) & ( 2) (
x 2 2 x + 3x 6 < 0
x2 + x 6 < 0 p
( q p
3 pq q p
 % pq N$ p q q p
+ pq
p q : x 5 ; x 1 < x2 4x 5 0
x5 < x2 4x 5 0
x=4 ( 42 4 ( 4 ) 5 0
16 16 5 0
5 0
x 1 < x2 4x 5 0
x = 1 ( 12 4 ( 1) 5 0
1 4 5 0
- (# $) ' 57

1 0
( pq
+ q p
q p : x2 4 x 5 0 < x 5 ; x 1
q: x2 4 x 5 0
x2 + x 5x 5 0
(x 2
+ x ) ( 5 x + 5) 0
x ( x + 1) 5 ( x + 1) 0
( x + 1)( x 5) 0
x 5 0 enaH x 5

x +1 0 enaH x 1 p
( q p
3 pq q p
 0 $: '0# x>2; x<
2
/ 3 'UP 'M I = r$ o} I =).
1
2 x 2 5 x + 2 > 0 $: '0# x>2; x<
2
0 p : 2x2 5x + 2 > 0
1
q: x > 2 ; x <
2
1
p q : 2 x 2 5x + 2 > 0 $: '0# x>2 ; x<
2
T > % p q $: '0# p q q p
+ pq
1
p q : 2 x2 5x + 2 > 0 < x>2 ; x<
2
- (# $) ' 58

p: 2 x2 5x + 2 > 0
2x2 4x x + 2 > 0
(2x 2
4 x ) ( x 2) > 0
2 x ( x 2) ( x 2) > 0
( 2 x 1)( x 2 ) > 0
x > 2
x 2 > 0
< q
2x 1 < 0 x < 1
2
( pq
+ q p
1
q p: x > 2 ; x < < 2x2 5x + 2 > 0
2
1
q: x > 2 ; x <
2
3 x > 2 x = 3 (
2 32 5 3 + 2 > 0
18 15 + 2 > 0
5>0
1
3 x< x = 1 (
2
2 ( 1) 5 ( 1) + 2 > 0
2
2+5+ 2 > 0
9>0
( q p
3 pq , q p
< p q

R p q
d . 3 'UP 'M I = r$ R o} I =)
x 2 + 6 x 7 0 $: '0# x 7 ; x 1
- (# $) ' 59

/ 3 'UP 'M I = r$ o} I =)
x 2 + 6 x 7 0 $: '0# x 7 ; x 1
0 p : x2 + 6 x 7 0
q: x 7 ; x 1
p q : x2 + 6 x 7 0 $: '0# x 7 ; x 1
T > % pq $: '0# pq q p
+ pq
p q : x2 + 6 x 7 0 < x 7 ; x 1
3 p : x2 + 6 x 7 0
p: x2 + 6x 7 0
x2 x + 7 x 7 0
(x 2
x) + (7 x 7) 0
x ( x 1) + 7 ( x 1) 0
( x 1)( x + 7 ) 0
x 1 0 x 1
< q
x + 7 0 x 7
( pq
+ q p
q p : x 7 ; x 1 < x2 + 6x 7 0
q: x 7 ; x 1
x 7 < x2 + 6x 7 0
x=6 < 62 + 6 6 7 0
36 + 36 7 0
65 0
x 1 ( x2 + 6x 7 0
x = 2 ( ( 2 ) + 6 ( 2 ) 7 0
2
4 12 7 0
15 0
- (# $) ' 60

( q p
3 pq q p
< p q

R pq
??). 'M I = 3 'UP5!6 7 k:
0 'M I = 3 'UP5!6 7 k: R o})
). 0 'M I = 3 'UP5!6 7 k: R o})
n Sd < y = n + 1 SR+
/ 'UP 'M I = 35!6 7 k: o})
n Sd < y = n +1 SR+
3 n Sd
n=5 ( y = 5 +1 = 6 R
n=7 ( y = 7 +1 = 8 R
n=2 ( y = 2 +1 = 3 S
( y = n +1 SR ! =

R W $ +
).0 'M I = 3 'UP5!6 7 k: R o})
'= -/ x ( f ( x ) = 4 x 2 5 IM
/ 0 'M I = 3 'UP5!6 7 k: o})
'= -/ x ( f ( x ) = 4 x 2 5 IM
f ( x ) = 4x2 5
- x = 2 ( f ( x ) = 4 ( 2 ) 5
2
f ( x) = 4 4 5 = 3 > 0
- x = 3 ( f ( x ) = 4 32 5
f ( x ) = 4 9 5 = 31 > 0
- x =1 ( f ( x ) = 4 12 5
f ( x ) = 4 5 = 1 < 0
- (# $) ' 61

(l ~ = x = 1, f (1) < 0

R W $ +
- (# $) ' 62

- (# $) ' 63

I. 4
. . 5A
` : : E S 4 z a $<k = l += V=HR I $ :
< %#<k = l > #Q a W- : +#Q $M : E
.)#Q IM #Q# $bm : E .)#Q IM+
#Q IM #Q IM
'= : a $<k = l # $M t = OE 0'U# ' bY\S0
z
R W 'N
- : ' \S+
- '= : a#Q IM 6MM^ s > : ' bY\S IM s +
'= : a#Q IM 6MM^ s > : ' \S IM ( s ) +
0 z '= : M a $ l ' bY\S# S M

= ) :
4bY' bY\ S 4bY+ S x # $' \ : M .)R 3 -
: M + = M ( x ) + Y: > <k = l .)<k

= S# $M
: 0 $ = E : 0+ R 3 - : $ =
2 \ 0 R 3 -
: 0
2 \ 1 +
'=S# $' bY\'= : a $<k

= S .)S + R
<k
= S <k = < #Q IM' aW}j#Q IM aW r+
'U j S
R W 'N a $<k
= S
- 4 - 3 - 2 5 - 1 5 -
3
4
- % "&C CA5
S IM a $<k
= S 3 : 'P a#QW}j$ =
S IM 3 : 'P K#QW r-$ =+ S
b S a a
R b < ) : b aW}j- : a+
- (# $) ' 64

= aa+
- a IM a > 0+
- a IM a<0+
% 'U zS 0$ W 'N
- '=S a b %(<=SY: <=
ab+
- (a b a b > 0
- 5DE,F5GA5
M^>$ = 0 K : a a $<k
= S .) -/3=W -S a +
-/ 3= W -S a = 3 a +
5!6 7 1 5 =5 , 5 = 5 , 0 =0
'U j 1 < -/W 'N
- 7 - 12 - 2 3 -
2
3
'U j 2
= S x # $ kk = x = 8
0- -/3=W !$ W 'N
a = a a 0
a = a a < 0
'=S a ( a 0
a = 0 $: '0# a = 0
5!6 7 1 ) , a = a '=S a +
/ ` , a 0 a < 0
i. a 0 ( a = a a 0 < a = ( a ) = a = a
ii. a < 0 ( a = a a > 0 < a = a = a +
0i ii '=S - a ( a = a +
'U j 3 ) a 2 = a '=S a +
2
- (# $) ' 65

- D IGA5
0 : S
= m 1, 2, 3, ... 3 + ( = {1, 2, 3,....} + $R
$: -S
= m S
= m +
'=S = IM 1, 2, 3,... '=S = IM 1, 2, 3,...

R ` t
( : -S = "
: #
> $0 3 +
$R $ $: -S = "
:
> S = "
: +
>
m
'=S# $M' = # $ m n S = "
:
> 6 n 0
n
.)S !+ 0 : -S ! 3 +
m
'=S = "
: > m %
' = < h S !# +
1
$R $ $: $#-S ! S !# +
M : 'P a $<k
= S# $# S !+
5!6 7 1 N # $M'U# 'p

2 \ 1 M'U# t '=
2 \ 2
+ % S 2 a $<k
= S(+S 2 # S ! +
S # $# S ! .)S !+ 2 S !+
S S !# +
b$ = % S !# $# S
= ` K S ,
= S ,S+
1
5!6 7 2 = 0.125 S , +
=
8
4
= 1.333... S ,S# $M 3 S+
3
9
= 0.1216216216 S ,S# $M 216 S+
74
% S !` KS , j# $bmS+
5!6 7 3 2 = 1.41421356237... S , j# $bmS+
= 3.14159... S , j# $bmS+
'U j S / S !S !Y: S!
2 9
0,3, , 5, , , 8, 0.16, 3 + 1 ?
7 4
- (# $) ' 66

II. 7#89: !
. % J KL M)%
c N -S IM
R ` )S x c N -S
IM R ` a N$
x 2 = a + S IM a Mc N > # $ S
k:bY+ 0c N IM- a 3 a c N IM- a 3
a+

R ( a) ( )
2 2
= a, a =a
5!6 7:
- c N - 4 4 = 2 4 = 2
- c N - 0 0 6 = 3 0 = 0 +
- S Mbmc N aY: : S +
'U j 1: R `5!6 7 -S a S# $ kk = , a 2 = a
6) a 2 = a '=S a +
$: $#-c N
a > 0 b > 0
i. a b = ab
a a
ii. =
b b
iii. a 2b = a b
III-*<=)>!
-"&NO P Q R R K n = abcd10 = a 103 + b 10 2 + c 10 + d
5!6 7 1254 = 1000 + 200 + 50 + 4 = 10 + 2 10 + 5 10 + 4 ( ' =</ -S

3 2
1254)+
'U :j ' =</ W 'N SY:'UD (= b$10
3 105 + 5 104 + 7 10
-"&NO P Q 2
R K n = abcd 2 = a 23 + b 22 + c 2 + d
5!6 7 R U/S 100110 2 W 'N 'UD (= b$10
- (# $) ' 67

( 1001102 = 1 25 + 0 24 + 0 23 + 1 22 + 1 2 + 0 = 32 + 0 + 0 + 4 + 2 = 38
'U :j R U/SW 'N K SY:'UD (= b$10
- 1000011012 - 110001012 - 1010101012
IV. 4/) 4@
1-5AD AG) A54T5
1
1: a b S
= m +'=S
= m d #S
S - a b
N$ d #S - a #S - b +
5!6 7 20 #S
S - 40 100+
2
2: #S
S : -S
= m a b S
= m $
Y: #S
S - a b 60 3 = PGCD ( a , b ) = GCD ( a, b )
5!6 7 #S - 40 1, 2, 4, 5, 8, 10, 20, 40
#S - 30 1, 2, 3, 5, 6, 10, 15, 30
#S
S - 40 30 1, 2, 5 10 < ( GCD ( 40, 30 ) = 10
b$ = a 6: : - b < GCD ( a , b ) = b
5!6 7 M 40 6: : - 20 < ( GCD ( 40, 20 ) = 20
z #S
S : T > #S
S : -> S a b ' a
b 0jd+ #S
S : - a b
$: 0jd# $
R bYM 4j
R - a b +
5!6 7 60 = 2 3 5 90 = 2 32 5

R GCD ( 60, 90 ) = 2 3 5 = 30
'U j #S
S : -SW 'N
- 36 180 - 56 84 - 60,84 96 - 96,144 180 +
3:> S
= m a b Sd hbYN$ GCD ( a, b ) = 1 +
5!6 7 7 8 Sd hbY> ' GCD ( 8, 7 ) = 1
'U, M,,# Sd hbY ' GCD ( 8,15 ) = 1 +

8
15
) 'U, '$(+
8
15
- (# $) ' 68

'U j '$'U,W 'N
- -
1581 912
306 12312
2- 8 $G5AD A25G) A
M> S
= m a b +
- a #3=\ b < GCD ( a , b ) = b
- a #3=\ b < M q r # S = $ a = bq + r 0 < r < b +
a = bq + r <` r = a bq (1) +
d #S
S - a b < MS
= m k1 , k2 # $ a = dk1 b = dk2
60 (1) : r = dk1 dk 2 q = d ( k1 qk 2 ) +

R '= #S
S - a b #S - $= r +
M z ) '= #S
S - a b #S
S b r +
' a = qb + r 6 d ' #S
S - b r < MS
= m k3 , k 4
# $ b = d ' k3 , r = d ' k4 a = d ' k3 q + d ' k 4 = d ' ( k3 q + k 4 ) <` d ' #S - a +

R d' #S - a b +
' >
j a b S
= m $ a = qb + r 3 0 < r < b
< GCD ( a, b ) = GCD ( b, r ) +
$~
= R
- GCD ( 75, 25 )
- GCD ( 213, 63 ) +
- GCD ( 75, 25 )
3 75 = 3 25 + 0 <` GCD (15, 25 ) = 25
- 213 = 3 63 + 24 <` GCD ( 213, 63 ) = GCD ( 63, 24 )
63 = 2 24 + 15 <` GCD ( 213, 63 ) = GCD ( 63, 24 ) = GCD ( 24,15 )
24 = 115 + 9 <` GCD ( 213, 63 ) = GCD ( 63, 24 ) = GCD ( 24,15 ) = GCD (15, 9 )
15 = 1 9 + 6 <` GCD ( 213, 63 ) = GCD ( 63, 24 ) = GCD ( 24,15 ) = GCD (15, 9 )
= GCD ( 9, 6 )
- (# $) ' 69

9 = 1 6 + 3 <` GCD = ( 213, 63 ) = GCD ( 6, 3 )
6 = 2 3 + 0 <` GCD ( 213, 63 ) = GCD ( 6, 3) = 3
3 $ =: 'N: : >
R `+
'U j
- GCD ( 90, 45 ) - GCD (125,95 )
V. A@@ ) 4 @ ( LCM )
1-=22 A525G) A54T5

- 6: :
S
R : -> S
= m a b S =
m # $ 6: :
S IM 6
R - a b + =
= PPCM ( a, b ) = LCM ( a , b )
5!6 7 LCM ( 3, 4 ) = 12
R K T > 6: :
S
R : ' <~
R W 'N
~1> : S a b $: 0jd+
~2> : <$: -0jd! = 30j# $M 4j
0j # $
R bY+$: 6: :
S
R : - a b +
$~
= 2
R <
1581 912

306 12312
/ 3 GCD - 1581 306 3 15 = 51
GCD - 912 12312 8 19 3 = 456

21 51 2 456 31 2

R
1581 912
= =
306 12312 6 51 27 456 6 27
3 LCM - 6 27 2 27 = 54
31 2 31 9 2 2 279 4 275

R ( = = =
6 27 54 54 54
'U j
- LCM - 120 164+
- ` a = b = + < a b
315 132
1176 2079
- (# $) ' 70

-"U )V
'=6: : - LCM ( a , b ) 6: :
S - a b +
'M I =
0 m = LCM ( a, b )
km # $ k S
= m 6: :
R `- m +
l z m = as , m = bt

R km = k ( as ) = a ( ks ) 6: : - a 6 km = k ( bt ) = a ( kt ) 6: : - b
km = k ( as ) = a ( ks ) 6: : - a 6 km = k ( bt ) = a ( kt ) 6: : - b +
5!6 7 LCM ( 24,36 ) = 72 6144 6: : - 72+

R 144 6: :
S - 24 36 ' 144 = 24 6 144 = 36 4
'U j 756 6: :
S -RS ?
-40 50 -42 52 -40 54 -42 54
2- 8 $G=22 A525G) A54T5
'= a, b n S
= m '= #S
S d - a b (
1)- LCM ( a, b ) = LCM ( b, a ) 2)- LCM ( a, a ) = a
3)- LCM (1, a ) = a 4)- LCM ( a , na ) = na
a b LCM ( a, b )
5) - LCM ( na , nb ) = nLCM ( a , b ) 6)- LCM , =
d d d
3- X LCM ( a , b ) GCD ( a , b )
-
' >
j a b > S
= m d hbY < LCM ( a, b ) = ab
0 m = LCM ( a, b )
( m = ak1 = bk2 <` ak1 #3=\ b # a b d hbY

R k1 #3=\ b <`( k1 = bq
ak1 = bk2 abq = bk2 k2 = aq <` m = bk2 = abq < m 6: : - ab m

R : q = 1+

R m ( a, b ) = ab +
' >
j '=S
= m a b ( GCD ( a, b ) LCM ( a , b ) = ab = ab
- (# $) ' 71

'M I = MS
= m a b +
= LCM ( a , b )
= GCD ( a, b ) < a = a ' b = b ' # $ GCD ( a ', b ' ) = 1 +

R = LCM ( a, b ) = LCM ( a ', b ' ) = LCM ( a ', b ' ) +
0' > W
j $ LCM ( a ', b ' ) = a ' b ' ' a ' b ' d hbY < (
= LCM ( a ', b ' ) = a ' b '
= ( a ' )( b ' )
= ab

R GCD ( a, b ) LCM ( a , b ) = ab +
0' >
j !( = +
ab ab
LCM ( a, b ) =
GCD ( a, b )
-
5 M6: : 5, 10, 15, 20, 25, 30, 35, 40..
10 M6: : 10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60.
15 M6: : 15, 30, 45, 60.
5, 10 15 M6: :
S
R : 30+
VI. / !
@
1. N ` a , b + ) b 6: : - a $: '0# M k # $ b = k a
Y: > ) a #3= b = 3 a | b +
a | b $: '0# M k # $ b = a k +
b$ =
a | b %) a #3= b b #3=\ a +
a 0, b 0 < a 6: : - b #S S- a +
k = 0 < a = 0, 0 6: : -'=S = "

:
> a+
b : 0 | b b = 0 , b 6: : - 0 +
a a = {k a : k }
a = 0 ( a = {0}
- (# $) ' 72

VII. % / !'
R K
1. a , b S = "
:
> c, m , n S
= m # $
c | a , c | b c | ( am bn ) +
x | y
2. y , z S = "
:
> x S
= m $ x|z+
y | z
'M I =
1. M
q, p S
= m (
c | a a = qc am = qmc (1)
c | b b = pc bn = pnc ( 2)
0 (1) ( 2 ) R F F ( am bn = qmc pnc
= c ( mq np )
am bn = c ( mq np ) c | ( am bn )

R c | a , c | b c | ( am bn )
2. M
u ,v R
= m
x | y y = ux (1)
y | z z = vy ( 2)
0 (1) ( 2 ) ( z = uvx x | z
x | y

R x| z
y | z
5!6 7 (
7 | ( 3 x + 2 ) ) 7 | 15 x 2 11x 14 + )
- (# $) ' 73

15 x 2 11x 14 = ( 3 x + 2 )( 5 x 7 )
( 3 x + 2 ) | (15 x 2 11x 14 )
7 | ( 3x + 2 )
7 | (15 x 2 11x 14 )
( 3x + 2 ) | (15 x 11x 14 )
2
7 | (15 x 2 11x 14 )

R
5!6 7 3(= < ) 82013 1 82014 1 #3=\ 7 +
i 82013 1 = ( 8 1) (82012 + 82011 + ... + 1)

= 7 ( 82012 + 82011 + ... + 1)

R 82013 1 #3=\ 7
i 82014 1 = ( 8 1) ( 82013 + 82012 + ... + 1)

= 7 ( 82013 + 82012 + ... + 1)

R 82014 1 #3=\ 7
'U X
1. ) 15100 + 1 #3=\ 16 +
2. ) n n 1 #3=\ n 1 +
- (# $) ' 74

$~ = /
1. ) 1 + 2 2013 + 2 2013 + 32013 + ... + 2012 2013 #3=\ 2013 +
1 + 20122013 = (1 + 2012 ) (1 + 2012 + 20122 + ... + 20122012 )

= 2013 (1 + 2012 + 20122 + ... + 20122012 )
(1 + 20122013 ) #3=\ 2013 +
r
R bY (
1 + 20122013 , 22013 + 20112013 ,32013 + 20102013 ,...,1006 2013 + 1007 2013

#3=\ 2013 +
0 t1 = 1 + 2012 + ... + 2012 2012

t2 = 22012 + 22011 2012 + ... + 20122012
........................................................
t1006 = 10062012 + 10062011 1007 + ... + 1007 2012
1 + 22013 + 32013 + ... + 20122013 = (1 + 2012 2013 ) + ( 22013 + 20112013 )

+ ( 32013 + 20102013 ) + ...
+ (10062013 + 1007 2013 )
= 2013 (1 + 2012 + 20122 + ... + 20122012 )
+ 2013 ( 22012 + 22011 2011 + ... + 20112012 ) + ... +
2013 (10062012 + 1006 2011 1007 + ... + 1007 2012 )
= 2013 ( t1 + t2 + ... + t1006 )
2013 | (1 + 2 2013 + 32013 + ... + 2012 2013 )

R 1 + 2 2013 + 32013 + ... + 2012 2013 #3=\ 2013
2. R ) n #3=\ 2 < 3n 1 #3=\ 8 +
- (# $) ' 75

n #3=\ 2 < n = 2 p ; p *
( 3n 1 = 32 p 1
= 9p 1
= ( 9 1) ( 9 p 1 + 9 p 2 + ... + 1)
= 8 ( 9 p 1 + 9 p 2 + ... + 1)

R n #3=\ 2 < 3n 1 #3=\ 8
3. n > 1 ) n n n 2 + n 1 #3=\ ( n 1) +
2
$\ P ( x ) #3=\ Q ( x ) N$ P ( x ) = kQ ( x ) +
n n n 2 + n 1 = n 2 ( n n 2 1) + ( n 1)
= n 2 ( n 1) ( n n 3 + n n 4 + ... + 1) + ( n 1)
= ( n 1) n 2 ( n n 3 + n n 4 + ... + n 2 + 1) + 1
= ( n 1) ( n n 1 + n n 2 + ... + 1 + n 2 + 1)
= ( n 1) ( n n 1 + n n 2 + ... + 1 + n 2 n + n + 1)
= ( n 1) ( n n 1 + n n 2 + ... + 1 + n 2 (1 + 1 + ... + 1) + n + 1)
(
= ( n 1) ( n n 1 1) + ( n n 2 1) + ... + ( n 2 1) + ( n 1) )
= ( n 1) ( n 1) ( n n 2 + ... + 1) + ( n 1) ( n n 3 + ... + 1) + ... +
( n 1)( n + 1) + ( n 1)
= ( n 1) ( n n 2 + ... + 1) + ( n n 3 + ... + 1) + ... + ( n + 1) + 1
2
n n n 2 + n 1 #3=\ ( n 1) , n > 1
2

R
- (# $) ' 76

VIII. $ " m
1. N
<= r : <= R$ $ .)<= R$0 n
= 3 a b (0 m ) c a b ( mod m ) +

R a b ( mod m ) a b n c a b ( mod m ) m | a b +
2. 8 [
i. m = 0 ( a b ( mod 0 ) a = b
ii. m 0 ( a b ( mod m ) a b M $ = b
2 Y Y: #
> />
n +
a b ( mod m )
iii. a, a ' , b, b ' a + a ' = b + b ' ( mod m )
a b ( mod m )
' '
a b ( mod m )
iv. a, a ' , b, b ' a a ' = b b ' ( mod m )
a b ( mod m )
' '
a b ( mod m )
v. a, a ' , b, b ' a a ' = b b ' ( mod m )
a b ( mod m )
' '
vi. a , b a b ( mod m ) a b 0 ( mod m )
vii. a , b , n a b ( mod m ) na nb ( mod m )
viii. a, b , n * a b ( mod m ) a n b n ( mod m )
b$ = , R$0 m %` $= S IM(+
5. R
S
: 'N-S 3168 +
$\ T >
S
: 'N-SS ' S < #\ 10 +
M
34 = 81 1( mod10 )
(3 )
4 42
142 ( mod10 )
3168 1( mod10 )
- (# $) ' 77

R
S
: 'N-S 3168 1
'U X
R $ =-N # 6 2013 \ 37 +
1 ! 2
1. $: 'N-S 77 +
7
74 = 2401
2401 1( mod10 )
7 4 1( mod10 )
'b= 77 V 4k + r , r 0
3 72 1( mod 4 )
( 7 2 ) 13 ( mod 4 )
3
76 1( mod 4 )
76 7 3 ( mod 4 ) ' 7 3 ( mod 4 )
77 3 ( mod 4 )
( 7 7 = 4k + 3
74 1( mod10 )
( 7 4 ) 1k ( mod10 )
k
7 4 k 1( mod10 )
7 4 k 73 73 ( mod10 )
74 k +3 3 ( mod10 ) ' 73 3 ( mod10 )
$: 'N- 77 3
7
2. $: 'N- 3100 +
- (# $) ' 78

34 = 81 1 ( mod10 )
( 34 ) 125 ( mod10 )
25
3100 1 ( mod10 )
$: 'N- 3100 1

R
3. $ 2 k =: 'N- 32012 +
M
310 = 59049 49 ( mod100 )
(3 )
10 200
49200 ( mod100 )
32000 49200 ( mod100 ) (1)
492 = 2401 1 ( mod100 )
# ( 49 )
2 100
1100 ( mod100 )
49200 1 ( mod100 ) ( 2)
0 (1) ( 2 ) (
32000 1 ( mod100 )
32000 312 312 ( mod100 )
32012 312 ( mod100 ) ( 3)
3 310 49 ( mod100 )
310 32 441 ( mod100 )
312 41 ( mod100 ) ( 4)
0 ( 3) ( 4 ) ( 32012 41 ( mod100 )

R $> k =: 'N- 32012 41
4. ) 32 n+1 + 2n +2 #3=\ 7 '=S

= m n+
- (# $) ' 79

32 2 ( mod 7 )
(3 )
2 n
2n ( mod 7 )
32 n 2n ( mod 7 )
32 n 3 3 2 n ( mod 7 )
32 n +1 3 2n ( mod 7 ) (1)
2n 2n ( mod 7 )
2n 2 4 2n ( mod 7 )
2n + 2 4 2n ( mod 7 ) ( 2)
(1) + ( 2 ) (
32 n +1 + 2n + 2 ( 3 2n + 4 2 n ) ( mod 7 )
32 n +1 + 2n + 2 7 2n ( mod 7 )
0 ( mod 7 )

R 32 n+1 + 2n +2 #3=\ 7
3. 8 $D,
Y:'UD (= b$ = `S = I = inin 1...i1i0 = in 10 + in 1 10

n 1
n
+ ... + i1 10 + i0
i. !"
# 2
' >
X Y:'UD (= b$ 10 S = I = inin 1...i1i0 #3=\ 2
$: '0# $ k =V i0 #3=\ 2 +
5!6 7 ) 1042 n #3=\ 2 +
104 0 ( mod 2 ) ' 4 0 ( mod 2 )
1042 n 0 ( mod 2 )
- (# $) ' 80

R 1042 n #3=\ 2
ii. !"# 5
' >
X Y:'UD (= b$ =S = I = inin 1...i1i0 #3=\ 5
$: '0# $ k =V i0 #3=\ 5 +
5!6 7 ) 20252013 #3=\ 5 +
M
50 ( mod 5)
2025 0 ( mod 5)
20252013 0 ( mod 5)

R 20252013 #3=\ 5
iii. !"
# 4
' >
X Y:'UD (= b$ = S = I = inin 1...i1i0 #3=\ 4
N$ S # $ g 3> k =W: i1i0 #3=\ 4 +
5!6 7 ) 11316n+1 #3=\ 4 +
M
16 0 ( mod 4 )
11316 0 ( mod 4 )
11316n 0 ( mod 4 )
11316n 11316 0 ( mod 4 )
11316n+1 0 ( mod 4 )

R 11316n+1 #3=\ 4
- (# $) ' 81

iv. !"
# 25
' >
X Y:'UD (= b$ = S = I = inin 1...i1i0 #3=\ 25
N$ S # $ g 3> k =W: i1i0 #3=\ 25 +
5!6 7 ) 209075101 #3=\ 25 +
M
75 0 ( mod 25)
209075 0 ( mod 25)
209075101 0 ( mod 25)

R 209075101 #3=\ 25
v. !"
# 3
' >
X Y:'UD (= b$ = S = I = inin 1...i1i0 #3=\ 3
N$ $R- $! =
= S #3=\ 3 in + in1 + ... + i1 + i0
#3=\ 3 +
5!6 7 ) 71418 #3=\ 3 +
$R -S 71418 7 + 1 + 4 + 1 + 8 = 21 (
21 0 ( mod 3)
71418 0 ( mod 3)

R 71418 #3=\
- (# $) ' 82

VI. # 9
!"
' >
X Y:'UD (= b$ = S = I = inin 1...i1i0 #3=\ 9
N$ $R- $! =
= S #3=\ 9 in + in1 + ... + i1 + i0
#3=\ 9 +
5!6 7 ) 521685 #3=\ 9 +
$R -S 521685 5 + 2 + 1 + 6 + 8 + 5 = 27 (
27 0 ( mod 9 )
521685 0 ( mod 9 )

R 521685 #3=\ 9
VII. !"
# 11
' >
X Y:'UD (= b$ = S = I = inin 1...i1i0 #3=\ 9 N$
( i0 + i2 + i4 + ...) ( i1 + i3 + i5 + ...) #3=\ 11 +

5!6 7 ) 32967 #3=\ 11 +
( 7 + 9 + 3) ( 6 + 2 ) = 11 0 ( mod11)
32967 0 ( mod11)

R 32967 #3=\ 11
'U X
) 850509 #3=\ 9 #3=\ 11 +
VIII. //CD2
b Z* a Z # $ a = b q + r , 0 r /> h
a b # $ q .)$# , r .) $ =-
> +
- (# $) ' 83

b$ = a Z , b # $ a = b q + r , 0 r < b (
an = b Q ( n) + r n , Q ( n) +
'M I =
3 'UP
R X r Newton
( bq + r ) = Cnn ( bq ) + Cnn 1 ( bq ) r + Cnn 2 ( bq ) r 2 + ... + Cn1 ( bq ) r n 1 + Cn0 r n

n n n 1 n2
= Cnn b n q n + Cnn 1 b n 1q n 1 r + Cnn 2 b n 2 q n 2 r 2 + ... + Cn1 bqr n 1 + r n

= b ( Cnn b n 1q n + Cnn 1 b n 2 q n 1 r + Cnn 2 b n 3 q n 2 r 2 + ... + Cn1 qr n 1 ) + r n
= b Q ( n) + r n , Q ( n ) = Cnn b n 1q n + Cnn 1 b n 2 q n 1 r + Cnn 2 b n 3 q n 2 r 2
+ ... + Cn1 qr n 1

R an = b Q ( n) + r n , Q ( n )
5!6 7 $ =- #
> /> -S 22014 \ 7 +
23 = 8 = 7 + 1
( 23 ) = ( 7 + 1)
671 671
22013 = 7671 + C671

1
7670 1 + ... + C671
670
7 1670 + 1
= 7 ( 7670 + C671
1
7669 1 + ... + C671
669
7 1669 + 1) + 1
22013 = 7 q + 1 ; q = 7670 + C671
1
7669 1 + ... + C671
669
7 1669 + 1
22013 2 = ( 7 q + 1) 2
22014 = 7 2q + 2
22014 = 7 q ' + 2

R 22014 #\ 7 M $= 2
'U X
1. R $ =- #
> /> -S 32014 11 +
2. $ =-N # 17 , 21 , 33 , 48 , 6 , 27 , 49 \ 5+
- (# $) ' 84

$~ = /
1. ) 12 2016 2 2000 #3=\ 10 +
122016 = 124504 = 124 k = 20736k

20736k = ( 20730 + 6 ) = 20730 k + 20730 k 1 6 + ... + 20730 6 k 1 + 6k
k
= 2073k 10k + 2073k 1 10k 1 6 + ... + 2073 10 6k 1 + 6k

= 10 ( 2073k 10k 1 + 2073k 1 10 k 2 6 + ... + 2073 6k 1 ) + 6 k
= 10Q ' ( k ) + 6 k
122016 = 10Q ' ( k ) + 6k (1)
# 62 = 36 = 30 + 6 = 3 10 + 6
63 = 216 = 210 + 6 = 21 10 + 6
.................................................
6k = 10 Q" ( k ) + 6 ( 2)
0 (1) ( 2 ) ( 122016 = 10Q ' ( k ) + 10Q" ( k ) + 6
= 10 ( Q ' ( k ) + Q" ( k ) ) + 6
= 10Q '" ( k ) + 6
M) 12 2016 M $W:
2 \ 6
l z
k = 2000 6 (k) + 6
( iv)
2000
= 10Q
M) 62000 M $W:
2 \ 6
122016 22000 = 10Q'" ( k ) + 6 10Q( (k ) 6

iv )
= 10 ( Q '" ( k ) Q ( iv ) ( k ) )
= 10Q ( k )

R 12 2016 2 2000 #3=\ 10
$: 'N- 2013 +
2013
2.
- (# $) ' 85

M
2013 = 2010 + 3
20132013 = ( 2010 + 3)
2013
= 20102013 + 20102012 3 + ... + 2010 32012 + 32013

= 2010 ( 20102012 + 20102011 3 + ... + 32012 ) + 32013
= 2010Q ' ( k ) + 32013 (1)
M) 2013 #3=\ 10 M $= 3
2013 2013
# 34 = 81 = 80 + 1
( 34 ) = ( 80 + 1)
503 503
32012 = 80Q" ( k ) + 1
32012 3 = ( 80Q" ( k ) + 1) 3
32013 = 80 ( 3Q" ( k ) ) + 3
32013 = 80Q '" ( k ) + 3 ( 2)
M) 3 #3=\ 10 M $3
=
2013
0 (1) ( 2) ( 2013 = 2010Q' ( k ) + 80Q'" ( k ) + 3

2013
= 10 ( 201Q ' ( k ) + 8Q '" ( k ) ) + 3

= 10Q ( k ) + 3

R 20132013 M $: 'N 3
- (# $) ' 86

/ 1 !
- (# $) ' 87

1 !
I. R ( V
= l >N$>,#
- - -
5 3 3
3 12 3 2+ 3 3 6x
II. R '$Vl>N$ =
1
- 8 + 2 15 - -
2
7 24 3
1
2
1+ 3 4
- 4 + 2 3 - -
4 + 12 6+2 8
III. R < W 'N
27 1
- 125 - 48
8 5
2 + 18 +
9 4 2 12
5 1

4 4
-
5
3+ 5
(
- 7 5 + 7 )(5 7 5 )
IV. < -/ A = B =
1 1
5 3 5+ 3
- A + B , - AB , - A2 B + AB 2 , -
A B
+
B A
V. SY:'UD b$W 'N 'UD b$10
- 100112 , - 34106 , - 100213 , - 120435
VI. R U/SY:'UD b$W 'N 'UD b$ 5
- 11012 - 34610 - 1456 - 12014
VII. R U/SY:'UDW 'N 'UD b$ 2
- 11013 - 3608 - 1045 - 637
VIII. R 'U zY:RS>S 6 <$R hS1

> 2
>
Y:RS>SW 'N
- 1010 102 - 1310 100 2 - 12310 1011012
IX. <$R$ -SY:'UD b$

R W 'N
- (# $) ' 88

- 11012 + 101102 - 1100112 100112
- 12013 + 11223 - 41235 3045
X. : -S! < Sd hbY ?
d hbYR 0j
S :
-12 57 -77 85 -69, 91 95
XI. R 6: :
S
R : -S
-18 28 - 27 63 -20, 25 15
XII.
R o} I =)$: -> S = $: -0j
S : 6: :
S
: h
= +
XIII. 5M) K T S = IM 6 K < T +'U $: - K T
810 6'U 6: :
S
R : - K T 90+
- <0j
S : - K T +
- K T +
XIV. 5M) m, n S = IM+
- 0j
S : -S
= > 825 231m
2 \ 165 R -/ UT M-
m+
- 0j
S : -S
= > 675 165m
2 \ 15 R -/ UT M-
m+
XV. -R 0j
S : - 27, 45, 63+
-R 0j
S : - 28 140+
XVI. -R 0j
S : - 3003 8645 0%$ =R /> +
-R 0j
S : - 1955 5083 +
- (# $) ' 89

/ 2
- (# $) ' 90

2
I. ( V
= l >N$ =>,#
3 + 12
- : T( V
= l >N$ =
5 5
>
3 12 3 12 3 + 12
(
5

3 + 12 5 3 + 4 3
=
(
=
5 3+ 2 3
=
15 + 10 3 ) ( )
3 12 3 + 12 32 12
2
9 12 3
-
3

3

3 2 3
=
3 3 2 3 ( ) =
9 2 3 3 3 2 3
=
3 2+ 3 3 2+ 3 3 2 3 ( ) ( ) 18 3
2 2
3 2 3 5
3 3 6x 3 3 6x 3 3 6x 3 6x
- (
3
= = =
3 6x 3 6x 3 6x ( 3 6 x ) 3 (1 2 x ) 1 2 x
2
II. R '$Vl>N$ => =
- 8 + 2 15 ( 5 + 3 + 2 15
% ( 5) ( 3) ( )
2
5 + 3 + 2 15 = + 2 5 3 + = 5+ 3 = 5+ 3
2 2
1 1 1 1 1
- = = =
7 24 6 +1 4 6 ( ) 6 1
2
62 2 6 + 1 6 1
1 6 +1 6 +1 6 +1
= = =
6 1 6 +1 62 1 5
-
2 2 2 2 2
= = =
3 3 3 1 3 2 2
3 1
2
3 1
1 + 3 1
2 4 2 4 + 2
2 2 2 2 2
( 3 +1 ) ( 3 +1 ) = 2
( )
4 4 4
= = = 3 +1
3 1 ( 3 1 )( 3 +1 ) 3 1
- 4 + 2 3 3 + 2 3 + 1 = ( 3) ( )
2
+ 2 3 +1 = 3 +1 = 3 +1
2
1+ 3 1+ 3 1+ 3 1+ 3 1+ 3
- = = = =1
4 + 12 3 + 4 3 +1 ( 32 + 2 3 + 1 ) ( 3 +1 )
2
3 +1
-
4

4
=
4
=
4
(
= 2 2 2 )
6+2 8 4+4 2 +2 (2 + 2 )
2
2 +4 2 + 2
2 2
- (# $) ' 91

III. R < W 'N
- 125 - -2 + 18
8 5
9 4
4 2
% 25 5 - + 9 2 -
2 5
32 22
=5 5- - + 3 2 ( ' 25+ 52 4= 2 2 )
2 2 2 5
3 2
10 5 2 5 9 2 2 2
= +
2 3
7 2 12 5 + 7 2
+ =4 5+ =
8 5 7 2
=
2 3 3 3
27 1
- 48 +
2 12
93 43 32 3 22 3
% 16 3 + = 42 3 +
2 12 12 2 12
3 3 2 3 24 3 9 3 + 3 16 3 8 3
=4 3 + = = =
2 12 6 6 3
5 1

- 4
4
5
3+ 5
5 1 3 + 5 3 5 + 52 3 5 2 5 + 2 1 + 5
% = = =
2 2 5 10 10 5
(
- 7 5 + 5 )(5 7 5 )
: </ ( 35 35 7 25 + 5 49 35 = 34 35 35 + 35 = 34 35
IV. < -/ A = B =
1 1
5 3 5+ 3
- < A+ B
5+ 3+ 5 3
( ' ,#
S
1 1
+ =
5 3 5+ 3 ( 5 3 )( 5+ 3 )
2 5 2 5
= = = 5
52 32 2
- < AB

(
1 1 1 1 1
= 2 = =
53 2
5 3 5 + 3 5 32
- (# $) ' 92

- < A2 B + AB 2
%
1 5
A2 B + AB 2 = AB ( A + B ) = 5 =
2 2
A B
- < +
B A
2 2
1 1
+
A B A +B
2 2
5 3 5+ 3
( + = =
B A AB 1
2
1 1
= 2 +
5 2 15 + 3 52 + 2 15 + 32
2 2
1 1 8 + 2 15 + 8 2 15 32
= 2 + = 2 = =8
8 2 15 8 + 2 15 8 2 15
2 2
64 60
V. U/SY:'UDW 'N K 'UD b$ 10
- 1100112 = 1 25 + 1 24 + 0 23 + 0 2 2 + 1 2 + 1
= 32 + 16 + 0 + 0 + 2 + 1 = 5110
- 34106 = 3 63 + 4 62 + 1 6 + 0 = 648 + 144 + 6 = 79810
- 100213 = 1 34 + 0 33 + 0 32 + 2 3 + 1 = 81 + 6 + 1 = 8810
- 120435 = 1 54 + 2 53 + 0 52 + 4 5 + 3 = 625 + 250 + 20 + 3 = 89810
VI. U/SY:'UD b$W 'N K 'UD b$ 5
- 11012 = 1 23 + 1 22 + 1 = 1310 , 13 = 5 2 + 3 = 23

R 11012 = 235
- 34610
( 346 = 5 69 + 1
69 = 5 13 + 4
13 = 5 2 + 3 = 23415

R 34610 = 23415
- 1456 = 62 + 6 4 + 5 = 65
65 = 5 13 + 0
13 = 5 2 + 1 = 2105
- (# $) ' 93

R 1456 = 2105
- 12014 = 43 + 2 42 + 1 = 97
( 97 = 5 19 + 2
19 = 5 3 + 4 = 3415

R 12014 = 3415
VII. U/SY:'UD b$W 'N 'UD b$ 2
- 11013 = 33 + 32 + 1 = 37
37 = 2 18 + 1
18 = 2 9 + 0
9 = 2 4 +1
4 = 2 2 + 0
2 = 2 1 + 0 = 1001012

R 11013 = 1001012
- 3608 = 3 82 + 6 8 = 240
240 = 2 120 + 0
120 = 2 60 + 0
60 = 2 30 + 0
30 = 2 15 + 0
15 = 2 7 + 1
7 = 2 3 +1
3 = 2 1 + 1 = 11100002

R 3608 = 11100002
- 1045 = 52 + 4 = 29
29 = 2 14 + 1
14 = 2 7 + 0
7 = 2 3 +1
3 = 2 1 + 1 = 1011012

R 1045 = 111012
- 637 = 6 7 + 3 = 45
45 = 2 22 + 1
22 = 2 11 + 0
11 = 2 5 + 1
5 = 2 2 +1
2 = 2 1 + 0 = 1011012
- (# $) ' 94

R 637 = 1011012
VIII. 'U zY:SS>S

S <$R
- 1010 102 ' $> b$ 2 K b$10
1010 = 1 2 + 0 = 210
1010 > 210 1010 > 102
(
1010 + 102 1010 + 210 = 1210

R 1010 > 210 1010 + 10 2 = 1210
- 1310 100 2
1002 = 22 + 0 + 0 = 410
1310 > 42 1310 > 1002
(
1310 + 1002 1310 + 410 = 1710

R 1310 > 1002 1310 + 100 2 = 1710
- 12310 1011012
1011012 = 25 + 23 + 22 + 1 = 4510
12310 > 4510 12310 > 1011012
(
12310 + 4510 = 16810

R 12310 > 1011012 12310 + 1011012 = 16810
IX. <$R$ Y:'UD b$W 'N
- 11012 + 10110 2 = 1000112
- 1100112 100112 = 100000 2
- 12013 + 11223 = 101003
- 41235 3045 = 33145
' r'UM >

11012 1100112 12013 41235
+ 101102 100112 + 11223 3055
1000112 1000002 101003 33145
X. -12 57
3) 12 57
S 12 57 Sd hbY 60j
S : 3 4 19
-77 85
- (# $) ' 95

S d hbY 77 = 7 11 , 85 = 5 19 S! M0jd
S +
-69, 91 95
S d hbY 69 = 3 23 , 91 = 13 7 , 95 = 5 19
S! M0jd
S +
XI. R 6: :
S
R : -S
2) 18 28
-18 28 3) 9 14
2) 3 14
0MN <
R ( aY:'U =W}j ( 3) 3 7
6: :
S
R : - 18 28 2 3 7 = 252
2 2 7) 1 7
1 1
-27 63
0N <
R ( aY:'U =W}j
3) 27 63
(6: :
S
R : - 27 63 3 7 = 189
2
3) 9 21
- 20, 25 15
3) 3 7
7) 1 1
0N <
R a'U =W}j 5) 20 25 15 1 1
2) 4 5 3
(6: :
S
R : 20, 25 15 2) 2 5 3
5) 1 5 3
2 5 3 = 300
2 2
3) 1 1 3
1 1 1
XII. o} I =)$: -> S = $: -0j

S 6: :
S
R
: h
= 5M) G 0j
S : -> S = K T +

R K T %' ( I =) K = kG , T = tG 3 k t Sd hbY

R L I =>6: :
S
R : - K T
R Q L = ktG
R Q GL = GktG = kGtG = KT
R Q 0N 'MW $ I = )$: -> S

= $:
-0j
S : 6: :
S
R : h
= +
XIII. -5M) G 0j
S : L 6: :
S
R : -> S = K T +
3 GL = KT ( 'M I =
S a::)
R Q 90G = 810
- (# $) ' 96

R Q G = 9
- 3 K < T K = 9k , T = 9t k <t
3 KT = 810 (
9k 9t = 810 kt = 10
R Q ( k , t ) = (1,10 ) ( 2, 5 )
i. ( k , t ) = (1,10 ) , K = 9 , T = 90 +
ii. ( k , t ) = ( 2, 5 ) , K = 18 , T = 45 +
XIV. - -/ UT M- m
825 = 3 5 5 11
231m = 3 7 11
165 = 3 5 11
R Q 825 231m M 3,5 11 0j
=
S/ R Q m = 5
- -/ UT M- n
675 = 3 3 3 5 5
165n = 3 5 11
135 = 3 3 3 5
R Q 675 165n M 3,3,3 5 0j
= +
S/
R Q n = 9
XV. -> N <

R aY:'U =W}j0j

S : - 27, 4563 3 3 = 9 3) 27 45 63
3) 9 15 21
->N <
R aY:'U =W}j
3 5 7
0j
S : 28 140 2 2 7 = 28
XVI. -0j
S : -3003 8645
2) 28 140
3003 8645 2 2) 14 70
7) 7 35
6006 1 5
2639
- (# $) ' 97

1 3003 8645 2
2639 6006
364 2639
1 3003 8645 2
2639 3003
364 2639 7
2548
91
1 3003 8645 2
2639 6006
4 364 2639 7
364 2548
0 91
R Q 0j
S : - 3003 8645 91+
-0j
S : - 1955 5083
1955 5083 2
3910
1173
1 1955 5083 2
1173 3910
782 1173
- (# $) ' 98

1 1955 5083 2
1173 3910
782 1173 1
782
391
1 1955 5083 2
1173 3910
2 782 1173 1
782 782
0 391
R Q 0j
S : - 1955 5083 391+
- (# $) ' 99

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- (# $) ' 1

p :"4 + 5 > 3" ( )

M N ,I= ( 4) -> 'P 31Q= ( )

"5 > 4 5 = 4" M

T > -/, - !" 'UP 0V,

'U X R 'P # $ Y: W 'N =

. "24 #3=\ 4"

M> p, q M " p q " 0 3 " p q"

5!6 7 p : "2013 #3=\ 3"

q : "3 > 2"

( p q : "(2013 #3=\ 3) (3 > 2)"

'U X M> p : "4 c - >N x 2 5 x + 4 = 0 q : "4 Sd " +

5!6 71 p : "30 > 15"

( p q : "( 30 > 15) ( 30 = 15) " +

5!6 7 2. p : "9 Sd "

q : "9 #3=\ 4"

( p q : "(9 Sd ) (9 #3=\ 4)" +

p : "7 < 11" ( p "7 11"

q : " ' % ` > W "

( q : " ' % ` > W$ " +

p : "20112 + 20122 + 20132 < ( 2011 + 2012 + 2013)

R = 1Q= -/, - 1Q= = W $

M> p q = m> " p< % q " +

5!6 7 p : " Y o pS-'U q: "

( p q : " Y o pS-'U q: < #r t r "

'U X M> p: :xyR$ X z

R 0 $ < 3 'UP 1Q= t ?

III. Proposition "#$

5!6 7 0V, # Proposition ( p q )

'U X 0V, # Proposition W 'N

IV. Tautologies Contradictions

Proposition P ( p, q, r,...) .)Tautologies N$ P ( p, q, r,...)

Proposition P ( p, q, r,...) .) Contradiction N$ P ( p, q, r,...)

00V ( proposition p p Tautology Proposition p p Contradiction+

5!6 7 ) Proposition p p Tautology+

)> propositions P ( p, q, r ,...) ,Q ( p, q, r ,...) R$# t

= 3 P ( p, q, r,...) Q ( p, q, r,...) N$ propositions !>

)Y:S aY:0V- proposition !> M -/,

5!6 7 3 'UP$ -1Q=)

Arguments # $> :Propositions p1, p2, p3,...., pn

= 3 p1, p2, p3,...., pn Q(%) p1, p2, p3,...., pn !(Q)+

M'=Proposition p1 , p2, ...., pn 'bY$: '0# Proposition p1 p2 .... pn

$: ' # V$ = Propositions( p1 p2 .... pn ) (Q $:

R K Argument p1, p2, p3,...., pn Q is valid $: '0# Propositions ( p1 p2 .... pn )

5!6 7 o} I =)Argument p q, q r p r is valid

/ ' o})Proposition ( p q ) ( q r ) ( p q ) Tautology

00V -/, ( Proposition ( p q ) ( q r ) ( p r ) Tautology +

S1 : MNPQ N < MNPQ : N #

S 2 : MNPQ : N # < MNPQ 'U $gR'N

S : MNPQ N < MNPQ 'U $gR'N

0 p : '' MNPQ N ''

r : " MNPQ 'U $gR'N ''

( Argument S1 ; S 2 S M' = p q; q r p r 05!6 7 W $ Argument

q : " G John ''

00V ( p q ) p q # Tautology () Argument ( p q ) p q is

. " '' ''

%)'=0` M '=+ 'UP M

'U X ` -/, - x : x + 3 > x +

$)M0` M MM) '' Ml S ''

5!6 7 ` -/, - x : x = x M x = 4 < 4 =4

IX. * ' * -. !&

'M I = 3k$ = N o} I =' = K0 > r $ =(+

5!6 7 a b S = < a+b S