840 V o l . . I O . NO. 1.

MhRCIl 2000
IEEli TRANSACLIONS ON APPLIED SUlrltCnNnlJCTIVIIY,

A Nitrogen Gas Cooled, Hybrid, High Temperature Superconducting

Fault Current Limiter
M. Steurer, B. Drechna and IC. Friihlich
Swiss Fcderal Instit,irte of Tedt~iologyETH, CII-8092Ziirich, SwitzerliLIld

Abshact- AI1 concepts for fault current limiters
employing high temperature superconductors (SCFL)
have the disadvantage of Bigniflcant AC losses caused
by the superconductor carrying a continuous land cur-
rent. Therefore, in the presented paper it is inves-
tigated what electrical and thermodynamic requirc-
mentx have t o be fulfllled by a superconductor if the
fault current limiter is of n hybrid type. Assuming the
nvailnbility of n suitable design for a superconductor
used m a dclayed reacting resistive limiting elcment
in parallel with a fast acting load switch, the con-
cept of a hybrid fault current limiter is int1,oduced.
The concept is based on a novel fnst acting mcchan-
icnl switch for severnl kA at medium voltage lcvcl to
commutate t.he rising fault current to the supercon-
ducting element within several hundred microseconds
after fault detection. It is found that a critical current
density not higher than 1.5 kA per centimeter square
i s ndcquate for the proposed system. The supercon-
ductor cnrrics only the fault current during switching
nnd thus the total losses of the hybrid system are only
4 percent of thc losses of a convcntionnl SCFL,which
offem high economical benefits. Cooling of the super-
conductor by gaseous nitrogen id feasible, nnd presents
simplicity and flexibility of operation.
I . INTRODUCTION
hull; currcnt limitcrs (FCL) in electric power nctworlrs
iin used tn limit the first currcnt peak in the case of a
fault. For mcdium high voltage (MV, HV) systcms
only conservative solutions like current limiting react,ors
or FCLs based on fuscs are in ficrvice today. High temper-
ature superconductors (HTSC) offer a possible approach
to hiilding FCLs for MV and BV nctworks. Airiong the
numcrous projects worldwide [I] , the resistive type HI-
perconducting (SC) raault current limiter (SCFCL) is onc
of the most avored approaches [ Z ] . A SC element is typ-
ically kept at an operating tcmpcraturc T o of 77.3 K ,
the boiling tcmpcraturc of liquid nitrogen, and is pl<wcd
directJy in the power line, usually in series with a. cir-
cuit braaker. At the instarice of a fault, when the critical
currcrit density J, is excccded, tho SC: elemenl quenches,
heats up and produces a voltage risc which limits the cur-
rcni. To gain significant carrcnt limitation, thc heat-up resistive hybrid SCPCL within the equivdcnt circuit of
m i s t tale place ivitliin approximately 1 ms (or ICSR) af- n typical power nctwork with source valtagc Uo, load
Manuscript rcccivcd 27.9.1999
ter faiilt occurrencc (assutning thr: higkost possible rato of
rise of the fault current). Bowcvcr, short heat-up periods
thcnt < 1.ms are only possible hy employing HTSC mate-
rials with d, > 25 kA/cm2, as statcri in [3]. Furthermore
the continuous current flow through thc SC element pro-
duces significant AC losscs. The ovcrll losses of resist,ive
typc SCFCL (including Joi~lcsand thermal losses due to
ciirrcnt leads) we reported to be on the ortlcr of 0.1% of
the r a t d power [4].
By connecting a mechanical switch that carries the con-
tinuous current duririg normal opcration in parallcl to the
SC clement, a hybrid typo SCFCL is proposcd. In such
a concept, the SC clcrncnt operatns only for a fcrv mil-
liscconds aftcr the fault i)cciirs, at normd opcration it i a
permancntly in 5 no load conditim. The losses arc only
thermal conduction losses through t,hc leads and radiation
losses to the dewar. Furthermoro there are no xcstrictions
regarding: J, of the HTSC becausc thc operating current
density J,, can be chosen freely, iri particular J,, >> J,.
The samc?holds true for the operating tcmperature which
can bc To > 77K as long as To < T,, the critical tem-
peratme OP thc HTSC (T, typically is in thc range of
95 ...115IC for todays I-TTSC materials). The goal of thiR
work is to invcstigate thc! fcasibility of such a concept, and
to study its opportunities with rcgard to HTSC materials
arid thermal managerncnt.
Essential for thc performance and operation of siicli a.
hybrid type SCFCL (Fig. 1) is a fast opening load switch
(FOLS), which forces the fault current to commutati? to
the SC elerncut within scveral hundrcd 14s. Additionally,
the opening switch has to gain full voltage withstand ca-
pability before the SC clcmcnt qmnckes. Such a switch
has bccn designed and tested in OUY laboratory. Thc
switch employs an electrodynamic repulsion drive for fast
opening and uscs a doubit! contact system to produce the
highesk possible a c i n g voltagc, The detailed clcsign of tJic
switch will bc published elsewhcrc, however Table 1 givcs
the ratings oE the VOLS.
Fig. 1 shows schematically thc circuit of a. fiingle phasc
impeclancc Zl, and fault impcdance Zp. The very fast
opening load switch FOLS in parallel to the SC path, is

1051-8223/00$10.00 Q 2oW IEEE


TAl3tU 1
Rnlirlga niitl ]>erformnnco of the fast upcnillg lncclinriicnl lond switch (BO1.S)
Lnad current IN = I k h
Volt.agc! lcvol IJN = 2OkV
Mechanical rlclay (triggcr to contact t,,,, M 100 ILS
separation)
Arcing VOltz3gC llhM 50 v
Current commutat,ing capability (within ico = ti kA
the comiiiutntion time Atgco< 100 pe)
Voitagc rccovery with 5Uos delay aftcr CIW- dzs/tld 5 lflOV//is
rent %CID
Colitacl, nporiing vclocit,y v w 20 m/s
closed daring normal operation and carries the load cur-
rent. When a fault occurs, the electrodynamic drive of tho
switch is Iriggered by a scparate sensing unit (neither is
shown in Fig. 1) within 100 14s. An sppropriato fast fault
rlcfr!c:ting algorithm is describcrl in [5]. The FOLS starks
to build up an arcing voltage of us = iiRM 5OV across
khc two opening cnrifnct gaps. This causcs the currcnt to
commutntc! into ~ l i cSC pa~thcorinectctl in parallel to the
switch.
To crisiire current commutation within a short time
At,, 5 1 0 0 , ~thcs ~ self inductancc of the loop FOLS-SC
(Lsc in Fig. 1) must be siifficicntly low. Aftrcrtlic commu-
tation when i s = 0, the HTSC acts as in any othcr SCFCL
wherc tho critical eurrcnt densil;y is cxcceded. The propcr-
ties of thc SC element must be such that during qucncbing
and thc fast hating: process within tllcnt = 0.5 ...1ms no
burn-nut clue to local quenching ( h o t .spots) should occur.
Even though a shunt path R.x conducts the major part of
the current, the LS wust open within 20 to 30 111s aftcr
fault occnrrence to avoid overheating of the IITSC. Load
switchcs with opening times morc than twice a5 long are
in servicr?t,oday, hut tho short opening time requirad can
be achiovd with ccrtlainty by mcans of a modern clcctro-
mechanical or hydraulic drivc! and a conventionul contaci;
system.
Hvbrid SCFCL
PiK. 1. Schematic diagram of a s i n g I e - p h ~ cIIyhFid SCPCL rvilllin
thc cqiiivalent circuit of a typical powcr iietwork
Monnr,
111. SIMULATION
To model thc transient; behaviour of t,hc proposed
SCFCL (Fig. I) tho entire E-J characteriatic of thc SC
was paramctcrieed as it will be published in [ti]. This
pnrameterizakinn holds generally for a11 IlTSC materials.
841
For this work, propertics ol E.2212 (Llullc or thick films)
w c w used for simulations [7], [8].
As indicated in Pig. 2 an arbit.r;uy E-J curvc can be
dcscribecl using three distinct regions: E1 (filtperconduct,-
ing for E < O.1Vm-l and a(T) > /3), E2 (Anx flow for
E2 < ES arid T < T,) and E3 (normd coriducting). El,
E2 and EQ we functions of the material pauamctcrs such
BS critical current dcnsity ,J,(T), critical E-field E,, supcr-
conducting expoilent a(), tlorrrlsl refiistivity pli(ixl) (a11
tempmatwe dependent.), flux-fmv exponent p = 2to 3
and the opcrating currcrit density J,,,,. The solid line in
Fig. 2 show6 the typical E-J cliaractaristic for To = 77IC
of a standard B2212 bulk mat,crial with J, = 1.5 ItA/cm2,
4 7 7 ) 4, /? = 2 . 5 and T, = 95K, whcreas t h Iroken
line is for the s m e makcrial at To = DOIC. Thc dottccl
line indicates thc normal conducling state wbcre T > T,.
To validate! this model, Lrarisient E-J me,?sliremen~~ on
I32212 samples werc carried oiit. The short saInplcs were
placed in a v a c u m vr:ssel am1 kepi, at d i i h m t r tcmper-
atures To. An induct.ivc-capn~itiv~ (LC) resonant circuit
provided sine-shnpcd ,current pnlses up to 500 A for thcsc
samplcs. The inansurecl trmsient E(.], T) bcllaviour oE the
tncwlsnred samples, which had low 5,(77) = 0.5 kA/cm2,
4 7 7 ) M 3.5 aut1 T, = 8G K, m d d be matieled with high
accuracy by a computcr model clcscribcd below. Fui-tlier
measurnnients on E2212 saniplas with currents up to 5 kA
will be published in [SI and arc in good agrccrncnt with
the E-3 parametcrization nsctl in this work.
TI82212
Operating current density J,, [kNcm*]
Fig. 2. E-.I rnodcl cliaraclcrintic and 1.hcrrnnl h m - u ~ time
) at diffcr
enl tcmpsratures for standard 0221 2 bulk lnntcrial
Thc transient bctiaviour of t,hc SC clcvice can 1)c rlc-
scribctl by its E-.] r:haraclcrist,ic: and licnting duc to rc-
sistivc pmvcr dissipation. For tlic short transition Lime
(supcrr:onducting t,o normal statmi!) of loss t h n 1I ~ hS e
refrigeration by the coolant can 110 neglectcd. Therefore
t,hc differential equation for the adiabatic heating,
842

(with heat capacity per volume c) togcthcr with thc pa-
ramcterization of the E(J, T) cha,ractcristic,allows com-
puter modeling of the transient bchaviour of the SC
element. The current density is calculated by J,,, =
isc/ASc, whereas the voltagc! by U , = Isc . B(J,,,T)
with the cross-section Asc: and the length lsc of thc SC
dement.
Thc cross-section Asc and thc length lsc of the SC
dement for a given rating of a FCL (rated voltage UN
and current IN) arc determined as follows.
Assuming 5 sine shaped fault currcnt without DC com-
ponent (symmetrical fault current) with a ratio of un-
limited (prospective) fault current to nominal currcnt
k f = i l t p m i d m / l (fault
~ ratio), the heat-up time tileat car1 bc
calculated as a functioii of thc operation current, density
Jop.
In Fig. 2, tl,cntis plotted against the operating cur-
rent density J,, for standard 32212 (see inset in Fig. 2
for parameters) with kf = 14 as a typical value for power
networks. The lag from fault occurrence to commutation
was assumcd to be 0.3ms. The solid and broken curves
are for To = 77 K and To = 90 K, rcspcctively. For exam-
ple, a ciirrcnt. density at commutation 31 = 11 J, results-
in t,l,eat = 1 ms (point A) if To = 90 K (broken line). The
cross-section is calculated as Asc = f i I ~ / J l .The cor-
responding E-hold at commutation is E(J1) = 1.9 V/m,
whereas E(J3) = 3000V/m gives the E-field aftor heat-
UP-
As statcd carlicr, a restriction of the propoaed con-
cept is that, thc commutation lime must, bo short cnough
(At,, M 1OOps) to ensure thc voltage recovery perfor-
mance of the FOLS as givcn in Table I. This limits
t,he allowsblr: self-inductmm of the path POLS-SC (Lsc
in Fig. 1). Assuming that the SC element is a spe-
cially wound coil, values for the inductancc pcr length
Lsc/lsc = h~ 5 0.02,pHm-lhnve bcen considcrcd a&-
quate [9] and were validated by internal discussions with
W. Paul [IO]. It is a usefiil approach to rcstrict the allow-
able length to
Electromagnetic Transient Program (EMTP). Addition-
ally to the model of the SC element described above, this
EMTP model also includes the mechanical and elcctricsl
bchaviom of the FOLS.
Foi a hybrid SCFCL designed for the ratings given be-
fore, Fig. 3 shows thc t.ransiont currents through the SC
(isc) anrl the limited current (io) in comparison with thc
unlimited prospective fault current illnlim. The occurrence
of a. fault was dlosen at i(O) = &IN with a phase anglo
of the source voltage $(UO)= $(Zp), such t h a t the high-
est postrible d i / d t occurs, because this is the mnst scvmc
tmk for thr! fast switch to handle. It can be seen in Fig. 3
that tho fast, switch transfers the rising ciirrcnt, t,o tho SC
device within tl 5 0.3ms after the fault. Tho SC builds
up a voltage rise of uBM 16kV at thcat = Ims, when the
temperature of the SC exceeds Tc = 95K, The peak of
the fault current is therefore limited to approximately
35% of t,bc unlimited value iunlim. At, t 2 thc limited fault,
currcnt. roaches zero and can be switched off by an ap-
propriate fast opening load switch (not considered in the
model). However if the crirrcnt is not switched off at t 2 , it
can be concluded from the temperature rise AT ~ = r110 K
within the first 6 ms, that the SC would not overheat, even
when a standard load switch (LS) with an opening time
typically more than 20ms is employed.
The measured recovery characteristic of the FOLS
(compare Table I) is indicated in Fig. 3 by a broken line. It
can be seen that the safety margin from recovery strength
d u / d t and voltage build up us along thc SC element is
inore than siifficiant.

rvit,li 711 = isc/Atc0,the mean value of di/& at<commuta-

tion. This restriction ensures that the commutation pbaw
is completed within Atco nr less.
For a single-phase FCL with UN = 10.51cVc~ anrl
IN= 2kA,n (SN = 21MVA) in a power network with
k~ = 14, the data. far tho SC olomcnt (of the material men-
time after fault occurmco t [ms]
tioncd above) is Asc = 0.34cm2 and lsc = 20m with a
self-indiictancc Lsc = 0.4 pH.
Fig. 3. Simulntcd current and voltagc! wavcforrns of n SN = 21 MVA
singlc phase hyhrid SCFCL with rccovcry characteristic of llic fast
REswurs
V. SIMULATION swihch and the tcmporature risc within tlic SG clcrnent

The results presented here werc obtained with a com-

puter rnodcl of thc circuit in Fig. 1 implcmcntcd in thc During thc short t,ransitian porriod of several ps (sharp

rise of iir at tl,cat in Fig. 3) t,lw major part of isc is
transferred to Rx. l'ropcr partitioning io/isc 4 to
avoid ovcrhcnting of the SC is obtained bccniific the
normal resistance of theASC element aft,e?r hcni8-up+,is
.R,ya(tfLe,t)= E(.Tz)i s c l i n M 3&, with Rx M & / i o .
If ihc sniirrc voltage WO is higher, thc SC clcmrmt would
cxhihit a higher AT and might, bc tlnmagcrl due to ther-
mal ovorlond. From this ii was cnnclurlcd, that the ratio
R,9c(tfbe,t)/Iix 3 is siifficicrit. to avoid overheating of
the SC. To determinr! thr! liighcst possible U0 for givori
mntcrial uid network pnrnrnntcr s, sinmlatians were cnr-
rir!d (nit for different SC materials.
Fig. 4 sho\vs the highnst possihle S~III'CC voltage U" =
f i ~ p , for a widc rnngr: of SC material propcrtics
from rather imperfect (5~:(77) = 0.5kA/cm2, cy = 3.5) to
sometvhal a'rlcnl inntcriai (Jo(77) = 25kA/cm2, (Y = 20).
Solid lines are for TO= 77K, a.nd broken lines .we for
To = 90K. I f > N = 21tR tho fault ratio kf has nearly no
influence on U0 (t,hick lirics), whereas for higher rinlni-
nal currcnk i t was fnnnd that U 0 decreases with rising
kr. Point (A) intlicntcs the safe opcratirig point; for the
exarnplc given ~mrliwwith fJo = di 10.5 = 15 kV and
J, = 1.5kA/cm2. Fhr a hybrid SCFCL at the satnc nom-
inal vo1tjagcbut with IN =: 10 kh ( t h lincs) m d kf= 25,
only H'I'SC rniitr!rials with Jc(77) > G kh/crr12 are appli-
cable (point U). It was also found that I?, iricraascs with
incrcasing tlloRL(less Limitation) and dccrcascs with the
cxporicnt 4 7 7 ) of the material.
I ,
1 Critical currsnt donsity J, [kNcm2) 10
Pig. 4. Maxiniuin of povviblc soiirr.n wlolbngo (peak values) fur differ-
ent material and pnwcr fiystem par;rmr:tcrs ut,ilininga safety factor
of ~ o / ( l , s'oE ( & ) ) = 3 arid tllcnt = 1 Ins
VI. LOSSESA N D Cool,n~cASPECTS
As statcrl in the introdiiction, thc presented concept
ol a hybrirl SCFCI,has difkrcnt dcrnnntls on thcl cooling
comparctl to a. standard r c s i s t h SCFCr,. The four ma-
,jnr parts of losscs within a 2 1 MVA, single pliasc SCFCL
for mddium voltngc (ratings as s h t o d carlicr) have been
calculated. The gcrmwtry of the standard rcsistivc SC
843
element wi* chosen according to R reasonable just herat-
ing design (Jc = 12 kA/cm2; operated at 80% of Jc) with
lsc = 2 0 m in length and As<; = 0.2crri2 crow section.
Thr! appropriate HTSC inatcrinl is assiirncd to be avail-
able.
A . Radiation Insscs
The lofiscs with an inncr dewar surface of A,, F=: 2 m2 is
givcn hy
rrnd
= E ~ VAD (P- T;) (3)
with the total emissivity c r = 0.003 using super insdntion,
To = 77 IC, 1'= 300 K and LT = 5.67. 10-'8Wm-211(-4 arc
the same for hot11 concepbs cllie t o the similar gcomctry
of the SC dcmcnt.
B. current lcratls
According to [I21 I h e miiiirnd losses of m e copper cur-
reni Iead carrying a current; I i s given by
fiend =2I d-, (4
For coppcr, the resistivity i s PN = 0.25. IO-* bhn and
the thcrrnd r:onductivity K: = 550WK-'m-', both at
T = 77K. They split into hcat. r:onduction lassos :md
resistive pomr dissipation l',,, = S,.,, = q c n d / 2 ,
For a lead of Ijnanrl = 1m in lcrigth, a cross-section of
Aloatl = 2.8 cm2 ic; obtained.
In contrary to h c fitmdard conccpt, the currcnt, lcads
of thc hyhrid SCFCL cat1 he clesigricti for minimal con-
ductiou ltrsscs P,,,, = AT K f N &,
whereas Au E 1 V
was choscn as n reasonable resistive voltqc: drop ;dong
eatdi lnnd during commuthtion. Thc genniutry of 0110 cur-
rent, lcatl for the hybrid concept is found to be l i c n d =
AlrnrlAu/(ply I ) . For the given I = isc(L1) M SlcA, thc
lead has rz cross-section of Alenri= 0.2cm2 and an active
length of llcntl = 1.5 m. It, is wound in n bundle OF copper
filanicrits wit,h negligible sclf inductancc.
C. Selj-Jeld losses
>dlthough thc sell--licld losscs of IITSC fir(! highly cl{!-
pendent on i.110 material and gcorrictry of t h cnntlnctor,
;I fairly reasonnth estimation for 11 single thiri SC: st,rips
is givcn in [12], [13] to I)C
PAC: = 71 I : f N l s I 1 -/in
[(l
7r
- i ) h ( 1 - i ) -1. (3 +i ) IIl(1 f i) -21
(5)
wit.h i = as tho fraction of opcmt,ing current to
critical current. Thc SC dement is built of n = 20 single
strips, mch with A, = (1 x 0.01) cm2 opc!rating at 80%
of their IC = 120R (i.C., i = 0.8) at khc power frequency
[N = 5 0 H ~ .
Tnl)lr: 11 siiinmariecs tphr!results arid gives ;Icampsri-
son of the estimntcd losscs for a standard SCPCL concept
an(l t,hc proposed hybrid soliition. Thc htt,tcr illwitys 011-
cratcs in a IIO load condition as the duration of the fault
is negligil)l[!, The losscs of 7 W ;4t 77K can I)r! rcrriovctl
844
Ly a small refrigerator with a comprcssor power of 300 W
at 300K. The SC element., operating at up to To = 9OIC
can be cooled with gascous Na in khe temperature inter-
val of AT = (90 - 77) IC. The uppcr temperature limit of
thr! gas is dictated by ihe T, of thc HTSC material, here
n2212. Thc conventional SCFCL has a loss ratc of 204 W
at 77 IC and typically may be cooled with liquid N2 using
thc heat of evaporation.
For our configuratinn the SC elements have thc shape of
coaxial cylinders. Cooling down from the final tempera,
ture TflnalM 200 K nftcr the fault is cleared by opening LS
is done by passing nitrogen gas with the speed of 10 ms-
over the SC surfaces. Thercforr! the thermal recoveiy to
90 K is obtained within approximately 20 8 .
TABLE I1
Loss compsrisun f u r a 2 1 MVA, sinyle-pliaso rcsintivo SClFCL [fust heoding
design)
Losses conventiona1
at 77K (continuous)
[WI 110 load load I10
ltdialion 4 4
2 lea& 70 70
Self field 60
Sum 74 130
at 77K 204
Refrigeration
power [W] 8000
at 300K
VII. CONCLUSIONS
A hyhrid type supercondiicting rcsistivo FCL is pro-
posed in combination with a, fast opening load switch car-
rying the continuous scrvicc!current. It transfers the rising
fault current within scvoral hundred ps to a SC element
conncxtcd in parrallcl. The results of this work are based
on tests with a ncwly developed fast acting switch, trans-
port current measuronionts with I32212 strips and com-
puter modeling of the transiont behaviour of the system.
The hybrid typo SCFCL i s ftinctional and feasible for ap-
plications in medium voltage rango. It was found that.
I-ITSC strip conductors available today (e.g., B2212 with
J, M 1.5kA/cm2) are adequate for a hybrid type SCFCL
if t,hc problem of burn-outs (hot spots) is solved. However,
for higher nominal voltages and currents, HTSC materials
1vit-h J, > G kA/cm2 are necessary, which should have low
axponents 4 7 7 ) in their B J characteristic.
From a comparison of cst,imatcd load and no load losses,
based on a reasonably designed single-phasc SCFCL for
UN = 10.5kV and IN = 2 1 4 it. is found that the proposed
hybrid concept nccds only 300 W of refrigcrntion power at
300 K. This is only 4% of thc overall losses of a compara-
ble standard resistive SCFCL concept. As the SC clement
in the hybrid concept, can bc operated at To > 77K, cool-
ing with gaseous Nz i s advantageous because of simplicity
and flexibility nf npcrntion, and thus offcrs high wonom-
ical 1)cncfit.s.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The authors wish to express their sincere thanks to
S. Kobe1 from the Institute for Nonmetallic Materials at,
the ET11 Zurich for providing the B2212 samples, arid fur-
ther more to W. Paul and M, Lakncr froIll Al3B Corpo-
rate Research Center, Switzerland for providing the basis
of paramctcriantion of HTSC and numerous stimulating
discussions.
Iiylxid REFEnENc1l;s
( ~ 1 4
load load R. F. Giese, Directory of superconducting dcvicr! projncts
bearing upon the electric power scctor, Tech. Rep., Rcgoiinr!
3 none .National Idoratory, Nov. 1997.
none l3. Gramoll, G. nies, W. Schmidt, 11. P. Iiramer, P.Kummeth,
7 nono H.-W. Neumiiller, S. Fiucher, Rcsistivc ciirrerit limitc~aw i t h
7 ybco films, IEEE %ns. on Appl. Supewondqsclrvity,vol. 7,
no. 2 , pp. 82R-R31, 1097.
300 M. Schubort M. Lindmaycr, Currcnt Iiniitatio~i by HTQC
and hy condr~ctit~g polymers: i n Ircceedings of the 5th Int.
C S thear Appiications. 1995, pp.
Ciirlj. on Electrid I ~ C S awl
1-14, VUE Berlin, Offenhach.
T3. R. Osivaltl M. Noc, Tcchical and economical benefits of
superconducting fault ciirrcnt limilcrfi,IEEE %ww. o n A p p I .
Supepercoszductiuity, vol. 9, no. 2, pp. 1347-1350, Jurlc 1999.
M. Stege, Krt~~schl~css-~rletanungsa!porith~rnen sum styombe-
grenzemrlen Schallen, Ph.n. thesiu, TU-I3rannschwoig, 1992.
W. Paul, M. Chon, M. I ~ k n c r ,J., tltiyrier, D. Braun, L . Widen-
horn, W. Lam, M. Klcimaicr, SuIcI.coriductirig fault ciirrerit
limiter - applications, technical and ccoiiornical benofits, 8im-
ulations and test results, Submitted to: CIGR.I?: Scssiori 2000
(group 13, subject 2).
D. Du111,T. Lnng, L. d. Ga~~clclcr, Critical current density of
I3i-2212 thick filmfl procasscd by partial inelting, Suppercond.
Scs. Tcchnol., , no. 10, pp. 32-10. 1947.
W. Paul, D. IIu, T h , naumann, Voltago-currcnt charactoris-
tic between V/cm and lap3 V/cm of HSCCO and limn
decay of the magnetization, Physicla C, pp. 2373-2374, 1991.
C . S. Walker, Capacitance, Indrtctlance and crorstalk anolysis,
Rr tccli I.Iouec, nos ton, London.
W. Paul, IABB Corpurate Rcsearch Center, DKttwil, Switacr-
land, 1999, personal comunication.
M. Runds R.F. Gicsc, Assesmerit study of ~upercunducting
Faiill currcnt limiters opcrationg al. 77 K : IEEE Ti-uns. on
Power Dei., vol. 8 , no. 3, pp. 1138-1147, 1993.
W.T. Norris, Calculation of hyflterevis losses carry in^ AC,
J . Phys. D: Appl. rhus., , no. 3, pp. 489-607, 1Y7D.
M. Ciszek e t al., Critical currents and transport AC losses in
tube-in-tube Ag/Ri-2223 tapes, Applied Sraperrcora., Proc. of
BUCAS 1995,vol. 2, pp. 599-602, 1995.