Assignment -1

1. Explain the transmission impairments that affect the wireless communications.

Transmission impairments
Signals travel through transmission media, which are not perfect. The imperfection causes signal impairment. This
means that the signal at the beginning of the medium is not the same as the signal at the end of the medium. What is
sent is not what is received. Three causes of impairment are attenuation, distortion, and noise.

impairments
1.Attenuation
Means loss of energy -> weaker signal
When a signal travels through a medium it loses energy overcoming the resistance of the medium
Amplifiers are used to compensate for this loss of energy by amplifying the signal.

Measurement of Attenuation

The attenuation leads to several problems:

Attenuation Distortion: If the strength of the signal is very low, the signal cannot be detected and interpreted
properly at the receiving end. The signal strength should be sufficiently high so that the signal can be correctly
detected by a receiver in presence of noise in the channel. As shown in Fig. ,an amplifier can be used to compensate
the attenuation of the transmission line. So, attenuation decides how far a signal can be sent without amplification
through a particular medium.

Attenuation of all frequency components is not same. Some frequencies are passed without attenuation, some are
weakened and some are blocked. This dependence of attenuation of a channel on the frequency of a signal leads to
a new kind of distortion attenuation distortion. As shown in Fig(Attenuation distortion of a square wave after
passing through a medium). a square wave is sent through a medium and the output is no longer a square wave
because of more attenuation of the high-frequency components in the medium.

Attenuation distortion of a square wave after passing through a

medium
The effect of attenuation distortion can be reduced with the help of a suitable equalizer circuit, which is placed
between the channel and the receiver. The equalizer has opposite attenuation/amplification characteristics of the
medium and compensates higher
losses of some frequency components in the medium by higher amplification in the equalizer. Attenuation
characteristics of three popular transmission media are shown in Fig.. As shown in the figure, the attenuation of a
signal increases exponentially as frequency is increased from KHz range to MHz range. In case of coaxial cable
attenuation increases linearly with frequency in the Mhz range. The optical fibre, on the other hand, has attenuation
characteristic similar to a band-pass filter and a small frequency band in the THz range can be used for the
transmission of signal

Attenuation characteristics of the popular guided media

Example:
Suppose a signal travels through a transmission medium and its power is reduced to one-half. This means that P2 is
(1/2)P1. In this case, the attenuation (loss of power) can be calculated as

Attenuation examle
A loss of 3 dB (3 dB) is equivalent to losing one-half the power.

2.Distortion
Means that the signal changes its form or shape
Distortion occurs in composite signals
Each frequency component has its own propagation speed traveling through a medium.
The different components therefore arrive with different delays at the receiver.
That means that the signals have different phases at the receiver than they did at the source.

Distortion
2.1 Delay distortion
The velocity of propagation of different frequency components of a signal are different in guided media.
This leads to delay distortion in the signal. For a bandlimited signal, the velocity of propagation has been
found to be maximum near the center frequency and lower on both sides of the edges of the frequency
band. In case of analog signals, the received signal is distorted because of variable delay of different
components. In case of digital signals, the problem is much more severe. Some frequency components of
one bit position spill over to other bit positions, because of delay distortion. This leads to intersymbol
interference, which restricts the maximum bit rate of transmission through a particular transmission
medium. The delay distortion can also be neutralised, like attenuation distortion, by using suitable
equalizers.

3.Noise
mixed up with the signal, along with the distortion introduced by the transmission media. Noise can be
categorised into the following four types:

a. thermal noise: The thermal noise is due to thermal agitation of electrons in a conductor. It is distributed
across the entire spectrum and that is why it is also known as white noise (as the frequency encompass over
a broad range of frequencies).

b.intermodulation noise: When more than one signal share a single transmission
medium, intermodulation noise is generated. For example, two signals f1 and f2 will generate signals of
frequencies (f1 + f2) and (f1 - f2), which may interfere with the signals of the same frequencies sent by the
transmitter. Intermodulation noise is introduced due to nonlinearity present in any part of the
communication system.

c.Cross talk : Cross talk is a result of bunching several conductors together in a single cable. Signal
carrying wires generate electromagnetic radiation, which is induced on other conductors because of close
proximity of the conductors. While using telephone, it is a common experience to hear conversation of
other people in the background. This is known as cross talk.

d.Impulse noise: Impulse noise is irregular pulses or noise spikes of short duration generated by
phenomena like lightning, spark due to loose contact in electric circuits, etc. Impulse noise is a primary
source of bit-errors in digital data communication. This kind of noise introduces burst errors.

Signal to Noise Ratio (SNR)

To measure the quality of a system the
SNR is often used. It indicates the

strength of the signal wrt the noise

power in the system.
It is the ratio between two powers.
It is usually given in dB and referred to
asSNRdB.

Example
The power of a signal is 10 mW and the power of the
noise is 1 W; what are the values of SNR and SNRdB ?
Solution
The values of SNR and SNRdB can be calculated as
follows:

The values of SNR and SNRdB for a noiseless channel are

We can never achieve this ratio in real life; it is an ideal

two cause of Two cases of SNR: a high SNR and a low SNR
 2. Explain two spectrum spread techniques and differentiate between them. List the benefits of using
frequency hopping spectrum. Explain in detail FHSS and DSSS.
spectrum spread techniques:-

This is a technique in which a telecommunication signal is transmitted on a bandwidth considerably larger than
the frequency content of the original information. Frequency hopping is a basic modulation technique used in
spread spectrum signal transmission.
Spread-spectrum telecommunications is a signal structuring technique that employs direct sequence, frequency
hopping, or a hybrid of these, which can be used for multiple access and/or multiple functions. This technique
decreases the potential interference to other receivers while achieving privacy. Spread spectrum generally
makes use of a sequential noise-like signal structure to spread the normally narrowband information signal over
a relatively wideband (radio) band of frequencies. The receiver correlates the received signals to retrieve the
original information signal. Originally there were two motivations: either to resist enemy efforts to jam the
communications (anti-jam, or AJ), or to hide the fact that communication was even taking place, sometimes
called low probability of intercept (LPI).
Frequency-hopping spread spectrum (FHSS), direct-sequence spread spectrum (DSSS), time-hopping spread
spectrum (THSS), chirp spread spectrum (CSS), and combinations of these techniques are forms of spread
spectrum. Each of these techniques employs pseudorandom number sequences created using pseudorandom
number generators to determine and control the spreading pattern of the signal across the allocated
bandwidth. Wireless standard IEEE 802.11 uses either FHSS or DSSS in its radio interface

Frequency-hopping spread spectrum (FHSS):-

Frequency-hopping spread spectrum (FHSS) is a method of transmitting radio signals by rapidly switching
a carrier among many frequency channels, using a pseudorandom sequence known to both transmitter and receiver.
It is used as a multiple access method in the code division multiple access (CDMA) scheme frequency-hopping
code division multiple access (FH-CDMA) .
FHSS is a wireless technology that spreads its signal over rapidly changing frequencies. Each available frequency
band is divided into sub-frequencies. Signals rapidly change ("hop") among these in a pre-determined order.
Interference at a specific frequency will only affect the signal during that short interval. FHSS can, however, cause
interference with adjacent direct-sequence spread spectrum(DSSS) systems. A sub-type of FHSS used
in Bluetooth wireless data transfer is adaptive frequency hopping spread spectrum (AFH).
Benefits:-
#1 The method is very resistant to narrow band interference since the spread signal causes the interfering signal to
recede into the background.
#2 The signals are very difficult to intercept. FHSS signals make it seem like there has been an increase in
background noise when a narrow band receiver detects them. In order to intercept the signal, the pseudorandom

transmission hopping sequence has to be known.

#3 FHSS transmissions can share frequency bands with a number of other types of conventional transmissions
without causing significant interference. Each of these signals causes minimal interference and allows the
bandwidth to be used more effectively.

the Basic Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum Algorithm

The basic algorithm for successfully transmitting and receiving an FHSS signal is:
Step 1 The calling/initiating party sends a request via a control channel or other pre-defined frequency.
Step 2 The receiving party then sends a seed number back to the initiating party.
Step 3 The seed number is then used as the key variable in the pre-defined algorithm for the FHSS
communications device, that then calculates the series of frequencies to use during the communication session.
Many times, this period of frequency change is pre-defined so that a single base station can service a number of
communication connections.
Step 4 The calling/initiating party then sends a synchronization signal on the first frequency in the calculated
sequence.
Step 5 The communication session between the two parties commences and each party shifts frequencies in sync
with the other.
When the military uses this communications method, cryptographic techniques that encrypt communications and
generate the channel sequence to be used during the communications session are utilized. Two U.S. Military radios
that use this method are the HAVEQUICK and SINCGARS radios.

Direct-Sequence Spread Spectrum (DSSS)

In telecommunications, direct-sequence spread spectrum (DSSS) is a spread spectrum modulation technique used
to reduce overall signal interference. The spreading of this signal makes the resulting wideband channel more noisy,
allowing for greater resistance to unintentional and intentional interference.
A method of achieving the spreading of a given signal is provided by the modulation scheme. With DSSS, the
message signal is used to modulate a bit sequence known as a Pseudo Noise (PN) code; this PN code consists of a
radio pulse that is much shorter in duration (larger bandwidth) than the original message signal. This modulation of
the message signal scrambles and spreads the pieces of data, and thereby resulting in a bandwidth size nearly
identical to that of the PN sequence.[1] In this context, the duration of the radio pulse for the PN code is referred to
as the chip duration. The smaller this duration, the larger the bandwidth of the resulting DSSS signal; more
bandwidth multiplexed to the message signal results in better resistance against interference.
Some practical and effective uses of DSSS include the Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA) channel access
method and the IEEE 802.11b specification used in Wi-Fi networks

Features:-

DSSS phase-shifts a sine wave pseudorandomly with a

continuous string of pseudonoise (PN) code symbols called "chips", each of which has a much shorter
duration than an information bit. That is, each information bit is modulated by a sequence of much faster
chips. Therefore, the chip rate is much higher than the information signal bit rate.
DSSS uses a signal structure in which the sequence of chips produced by the transmitter is already
known by the receiver. The receiver can then use the same PN sequence to counteract the effect of the
PN sequence on the received signal in order to reconstruct the information signal.

Transmission Method
Direct-sequence spread-spectrum transmissions multiply the data being transmitted by a "noise" signal. This noise
signal is a pseudorandom sequence of 1 and 1 values; at a frequency much higher than that of the original signal.
The resulting signal resembles white noise, like an audio recording of "static". However, this noise-like signal is
used to exactly reconstruct the original data at the receiving end, by multiplying it by the same pseudorandom
sequence (because 1 1 = 1, and 1 1 = 1). This process, known as "de-spreading", mathematically constitutes
a correlation of the transmitted PN sequence with the PN sequence that the receiver already knows the transmitter is
using.
The resulting effect of enhancing signal to noise ratio on the channel is called process gain. This effect can be made
larger by employing a longer PN sequence and more chips per bit, but physical devices used to generate the PN
sequence impose practical limits on attainable processing gain.
While for useful process gain the transmitted DSSS signal must occupy much wider bandwidth than simple a.m. of
the original signal alone would require, its frequency spectrum can be somewhat restricted for spectrum economy
by a conventional analog bandpass filter to give a roughly bell-shaped envelope centered on the carrier frequency.
In contrast, frequency-hopping spread spectrum which pseudo-randomly re-tunes the carrier, instead of adding
pseudo-random noise to the data, requires a uniform frequency response since any bandwidth shaping would cause
amplitude modulation of the signal by the hopping code.
If an undesired transmitter transmits on the same channel but with a different PN sequence (or no sequence at all),
the de-spreading process has reduced processing gain for that signal. This effect is the basis for the code division
multiple access (CDMA) property of DSSS, which allows multiple transmitters to share the same channel within
the limits of the cross-correlation properties of their PN sequences
Benefits:-

Resistance to unintended or intended jamming

Sharing of a single channel among multiple users
Reduced signal/background-noise level hampers interception
Determination of relative timing between transmitter and receiver

FHSS vs DSSS
Spread spectrum is a group of techniques that utilizes a much larger bandwidth in
transmitting information than would otherwise occupy a fraction of the bandwidth used. This is done to achieve a
certain effect. FHSS and DSSS, which stand for Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum and Direct Sequence Spread
Spectrum, are two spread spectrum techniques. The main difference is in how they spread the data into the wider
bandwidth. FHSS utilizes frequency hopping while DSSS utilizes pseudo noise to modify the phase of the signal.
Frequency hopping is achieved by dividing the large bandwidth into smaller channels that would fit the data. The
signal would then be sent pseudo-randomly into a different channel. Because only one of the channels is in use at
any given time, you are actually wasting bandwidth equivalent to the data bandwidth multiplied by the number of
channels minus one. DSSS spreads the information across the band in a very different manner. It does so by
introducing pseudo-random noise into the signal to change its phase at any given time. This results in an output that
closely resembles static noise and would appear as just that to others. But with a process called de-spreading, the
original signal can be extracted from the noise as long as the pseudo-random sequence is known.
In order for the receiver to decode the transmitted information, it must be synchronized with the transmitter. For
FHSS it is relatively easy as the transmitter simply waits on one of the channels and waits for a decodable
transmission. Once it finds that out, it can then follow the sequence being used to follow the transmitter which
jumps across the different channels. With DSSS, it is not as simple. A timing search algorithm needs to be
employed for the receiver to correctly establish synchronization.

A side effect of de-spreading is its ability to establish relative timing between the receiver and transmitter. With
multiple transmitters that are in known locations, the relative timing can be used to establish the relative distances
of the receiver from each transmitter. This is the working principle behind positioning systems like GPS. Since the
receiver can calculate how far it is from each transmitting satellite, it is then able to triangulate its location. This
ability is not present in FHSS.

3. What is Block code and Convolution code used in wireless comm. as an error control mechanism?
Explain convolution code using (2, 1, 3) encoder.
In coding theory, a block code is any member of the large and important family of error-correcting codes that
encode data in blocks. There is a vast number of examples for block codes, many of which have a wide range of
practical applications. Block codes are conceptually useful because they allow coding theorists, mathematicians,
and computer scientists study the limitations of all block codes in a unified way. Such limitations often take the
form of bounds that relate different parameters of the block code to each other, such as its rate and its ability to
detect and correct errors.
Examples of block codes are ReedSolomon codes, Hamming codes, Hadamard codes, Expander codes, Golay
codes, and ReedMuller codes. These examples also belong to the class of linear codes, and hence they are
called linear block codes. More particularly, these codes are known as algebraic block codes, or cyclic block
codes, because they can be generated using boolean polynomials.
Algebraic block codes are typically hard-decoded using algebraic decoder.
The term block code may also refer to any error-correcting code that acts on a block of k bits of input data to
produce n bits of output data (n,k). Consequently, the block coder is a memoryless device. Under this definition
codes such as turbo codes, terminated convolutional codes and other iteratively decodable codes (turbo-like
codes) would also be considered block codes. A non-terminated convolutional encoder would be an example of
a non-block (unframed) code, which has memory and is instead classified as a tree code.
Convolution code
In telecommunication, a convolutional code is a type of error-correcting code that generates parity symbols via
the sliding application of a boolean polynomial function to a data stream. The sliding application represents the
'convolution' of the encoder over the data, which gives rise to the term 'convolutional coding.' The sliding nature
of the convolutional codes facilitates trellis decoding using a time-invariant trellis. Time invariant trellis
decoding allows convolutional codes to be maximum-likelihood soft-decision decoded with reasonable
complexity.
The ability to perform economical maximum likelihood soft decision decoding is one of the major benefits of
convolutional codes. This is in contrast to classic block codes, which are generally represented by a time-
variant trellis and therefore are typically hard-decision decoded. Convolutional codes are often characterized by
the base code rate and the depth (or memory) of the encoder [n,k,K]. The base code rate is typically given as
n/k, where n is the input data rate and k is the output symbol rate. The depth is often called the "constraint
length" 'K', where the output is a function of the current input as well as the previous K-1 inputs. The depth may
also be given as the number of memory elements 'v' in the polynomial or the maximum possible number of
states of the encoder (typically 2^v).
Convolutional codes are often described as continuous. However, it may also be said that convolutional codes
have arbitrary block length, rather than being continuous, since most real-world convolutional encoding is
performed on blocks of data. Convolutionally encoded block codes typically employ termination. The arbitrary
block length of convolutional codes can also be contrasted to classic block codes, which generally have fixed
block lengths that are determined by algebraic properties.
The code rate of a convolutional code is commonly modified via symbol puncturing. For example, a
convolutional code with a 'mother' code rate n/k=1/2 may be punctured to a higher rate of, for example, 7/8
simply by not transmitting a portion of code symbols. The performance of a punctured convolutional code
generally scales well with the amount of parity transmitted. The ability to perform economical soft decision
decoding on convolutional codes, as well as the block length and code rate flexibility of convolutional codes,
makes them very popular for digital communications.
To convolutionally encode data, start with k memory registers, each holding 1 input bit. Unless otherwise
specified, all memory registers start with a value of 0. The encoder has nmodulo-2 adders (a modulo 2 adder
can be implemented with a single Boolean XOR gate, where the logic is: 0+0 = 0, 0+1 = 1, 1+0 = 1, 1+1 = 0),
and n generator polynomials one for each adder (see figure below). An input bit m1 is fed into the leftmost
register. Using the generator polynomials and the existing values in the remaining registers, the encoder
outputs n symbols. These symbols may be transmitted or punctured depending on the desired code rate. Now bit
shift all register values to the right (m1 moves to m0, m0 moves to m1) and wait for the next input bit. If there
are no remaining input bits, the encoder continues shifting until all registers have returned to the zero state
(flush bit termination).

Img.1. Rate 1/3 non-recursive, non-systematic convolutional encoder with constraint length 3
The figure below is a rate 13 (mn) encoder with constraint length (k) of 3. Generator polynomials are G1 =
(1,1,1),G2 = (0,1,1), and G3 = (1,0,1). Therefore, output bits are calculated (modulo 2) as follows:
n1 = m1 + m0 + m1
n2 = m0 + m1
n3 = m1 + m1.
 4. Draw a neat labeled diagram of the GSM architecture and explain the components.

1. Mobile Station (MS):

A mobile station communicates across the air interface with a base station transceiver in the same cell in which the
mobile subscriber unit is located. The MS communicates the information with the user and modifies it to the
transmission protocols if the air-interface to communicate with the BSS. The users voice information is interfaced
with the MS through a microphone and speaker for the speech, keypad, and display for short messaging, and the
cable connection for other data terminals. The MS has two elements. The Mobile Equipment (ME) refers to the
physical device, which comprises of transceiver, digital signal processors, and the antenna. The second element of
the MS is the GSM is the Subscriber Identity Module (SIM). The SIM card is unique to the GSM system. It has a
memory of 32 KB.
2. Base Station Subsystem (BSS):
A base station subsystem consists of a base station controller and one or more base transceiver station. Each Base
Transceiver Station defines a single cell. A cell can have a radius of between 100m to 35km, depending on the
environment. A Base Station Controller may be connected with a BTS. It may control multiple BTS units and hence
multiple cells. There are two main architectural elements in the BSS the Base Transceiver Subsystem (BTS) and
the Base Station Controller (BSC). The interface that connects a BTS to a BSC is called the A-bis interface. The
interface between the BSC and the MSC is called the A interface, which is standardised within GSM.
3. Network and switching subsystem (NSS)
The NSS is responsible for the network operation. It provides the link between the cellular network and the Public
switched telecommunicates Networks (PSTN or ISDN or Data Networks). The NSS controls handoffs between
cells in different BSSs, authenticates user and validates their accounts, and includes functions for enabling
worldwide roaming of mobile subscribers. In particular the switching subsystem consists of:

Mobile switch center (MSC)

Home location register (HLR)
Visitor location Register (VLR)
Authentications center (Auc)
Equipment Identity Register (EIR)
Interworking Functions (IWF)
The NSS has one hardware, Mobile switching center and four software database element: Home location register
(HLR), Visitor location Register (VLR), Authentications center (Auc) and Equipment Identity Register (EIR). The
MSC basically performs the switching function of the system by controlling calls to and from other telephone and
data systems. It includes functions such as network interfacing and common channel signalling.
HLR:
The HLR is database software that handles the management of the mobile subscriber account. It stores the
subscriber address, service type, current locations, forwarding address, authentication/ciphering keys, and billings
information. In addition to the ISDN telephone number for the terminal, the SIM card is identified with an
International Mobile Subscribes Identity (IMSI) number that is totally different from the ISDN telephone number.
The HLR is the reference database that permanently stores data related to subscribers, including subscribers
service profile, location information, and activity status.
VLR:
The VLR is temporary database software similar to the HLR identifying the mobile subscribers visiting inside the
coverage area of an MSC. The VLR assigns a Temporary mobile subscriber Identity (TMSI) that is used to avoid
using IMSI on the air. The visitor location register maintains information about mobile subscriber thatis currently
physically in the range covered by the switching center. When a mobile subscriber roams from one LA (Local
Area) to another, current location is automatically updated in the VLR. When a mobile station roams into anew
MSC area, if the old and new LAs are under the control of two different VLRs, the VLR connected to the MSC
will request data about the mobile stations from the HLR. The entry on the old VLR is deleted and an entry is
created in the new VLR by copying the database from the HLR.
AuC:
The AuC database holds different algorithms that are used for authentication and encryptions of the mobile
subscribers that verify the mobile users identity and ensure the confidentiality of each call. The AuC holds the
authentication and encryption keys for all the subscribers in both the home and visitor location register.
EIR:
The EIR is another database that keeps the information about the identity of mobile equipment such the
International mobile Equipment Identity (IMEI) that reveals the details about the manufacturer, country of
production, and device type. This information is used to prevent calls from being misused, to prevent unauthorised
or defective MSs, to report stolen mobile phones or check if the mobile phone is operating according to the
specification of its type.
White list:
This list contains the IMEI of the phones who are allowed to enter in the network.
Black list:
This list on the contrary contains the IMEI of the phones who are not allowed to enter in the network, for example
because they are stolen.
Grey list:
This list contains the IMEI of the phones momentarily not allowed to enter in the network, for example because the
software version is too old or because they are in repair.
IWF-
Interworking Function: It is a system in the PLMN that allows for non speech communication between the GSM
and the other networks. The tasks of an IWF are particularly to adapt transmission parameters and protocol
conversions. The physical manifestations of an IWF may be through a modem which is activated by the MSC
dependent on the bearer service and the destination network. The OSS (Operational Support Systems) supports
operation and maintenance of the system and allows engineers to monitor, diagnose, and troubleshoot every aspect
of the GSM network.

5. Short notes:

a. 1G,2G,3G
1G Wireless Technology

The 1G technology uses FDMA for different Subscribers by the single user on a single channel.

Voice quality is moderate, and effect of noise is more as the FDMA is analog communication.

It doesnt support the Data services; Mobile handset battery will give less backup.

The voice in this system is modulated to higher frequency up to 150 MHz or even more.

Costly as one subscriber per carrier and hence per tower simultaneous call handling capacity is small.

2G Wireless Technology

In second generation communications, It uses digital encryption methods during phone conversations for
security reasons.

2G GSM technology operates on different frequency bands 900/1800.

In 900 uplink i.e. from mobile to BTS is from 890-915 MHz and downlink i.e. from BTS to mobile is from
935-960 MHz

In 2G two types of multiple Access are used TDMA based GSM technology, CDMA-based IS 95.

In GSM different types of carriers of frequency 200, KHz is used and hence in 900 frequency band 124
carriers are used, and in 1800 band 373 carriers can be used.

First Data service was started in the form of SMS, and later GPRS launched.

In CDMA Up to 61 users can be communicating simultaneously.

CDMA also has the bandwidth of 20 MHz at 800 bands and 1900 band.

It doesnt support the Multimedia services.

3G Wireless Technology

3G technology works on 2100 MHz band.

3G supports Multimedia services such as video calling, internet services, music on demand, and videos on
demand.
 Should support 2 Mbps for stationary users, 384 kbps for mobile users.

The technologies supporting 3G are CDMA 2000, EVDO, UMTS, HSPA, HSDPA and WCDMA.

It is not compatible with existing 2G infrastructure, the size of the cell is relatively smaller compared to 2G,
and hence more towers are required for better coverage & performance.

Power consumption is more as compared to 2G.

b. Antenna Gain

In electromagnetics, an antenna's power gain or simply gain is a key performance number which combines
the antenna's directivity and electrical efficiency. In a transmitting antenna, the gain describes how well the
antenna converts input power into radio waves headed in a specified direction. In a receiving antenna, the gain
describes how well the antenna converts radio waves arriving from a specified direction into electrical power.
When no direction is specified, "gain" is understood to refer to the peak value of the gain, the gain in the
direction of the antenna's main lobe. A plot of the gain as a function of direction is called the radiation pattern.
Antenna gain is usually defined as the ratio of the power produced by the antenna from a far-field source on the
antenna's beam axis to the power produced by a hypothetical lossless isotropic antenna, which is equally
sensitive to signals from all directions. Usually this ratio is expressed in decibels, and these units are referred to
as "decibels-isotropic" (dBi). An alternative definition compares the received power to the power received by a
lossless half-wave dipole antenna, in which case the units are written as dBd. Since a lossless dipole antenna has
a gain of 2.15 dBi, the relation between these units is For a given frequency, the antenna's effective area is
proportional to the power gain. An antenna's effective length is proportional to the square root of the antenna's
gain for a particular frequency and radiation resistance. Due to reciprocity, the gain of any reciprocal antenna
when receiving is equal to its gain when transmitting.
Directive gain or directivity is a different measure which does not take an antenna's electrical efficiency into
account. This term is sometimes more relevant in the case of a receiving antenna where one is concerned mainly
with the ability of an antenna to receive signals from one direction while rejecting interfering signals coming
from a different direction.

c. Free Space Loss

Free-space path loss formula Free-space path loss is proportional to the square of the distance
between the transmitter and receiver, and also proportional to the square of the frequency of the
radio signal. signal disperses with distance. Therefore, an antenna with a fixed area will receive less
signal power the farther it is from the transmitting antenna. For satellite communication this is the
primary mode of signa sources of attenuation or impairment are assumed, a transmitted signal
attenuates over distance because the signal is being spread over a larger and larger area. This form of
attenuation is known as express in terms of the ratio of the radiated power to the power received by
the antenna or, in decibels, by taking 10 times the log of that ratio. For the ideal isotropic antenna,
free space loss is The equation for FSPL is where: is the signal wavelength (in metres), is the
signal frequency (in hertz), is the distance from the transmitter (in metres), is the speed of light in
a vacuum, 2.99792458 10 This equation is only accurate in the far field where spherical spreading
can be assumed; it does not hold close to the transmitter. (4 P P r t = space path loss is proportional
to the square of the distance between the transmitter and receiver, and also proportional to the square
of the frequency of the radio signal. For any type of wireless communication the signal disperses
with distance. Therefore, an antenna with a fixed area will receive less signal power the farther it is
from the transmitting antenna. For satellite communication this is the primary mode of signal loss.
Even if no other sources of attenuation or impairment are assumed, a transmitted signal attenuates
over distance because the signal is being spread over a larger and larger area. This form of
attenuation is known as free space loss press in terms of the ratio of the radiated power to the power
received by the antenna or, in decibels, by taking 10 times the log of that ratio. For the ideal isotropic
antenna, free space loss is is the signal wavelength (in metres), is the signal frequency (in hertz), is
the distance from the transmitter (in metres), is the speed of light in a vacuum, 2.99792458 108
metres per second. accurate in the far field where spherical spreading can be assumed; it does not
hold close to the ) ( ) 2 2 2 2 44 c pfdd l p = space path loss is proportional to the square of the
distance between the transmitter and receiver, and For any type of wireless communication the
signal disperses with distance. Therefore, an antenna with a fixed area will receive less signal power
the farther it is l loss. Even if no other sources of attenuation or impairment are assumed, a
transmitted signal attenuates over distance because the signal is free space loss, which can be press
in terms of the ratio of the radiated power to the power received by the antenna or, in decibels, by
taking 10 accurate in the far field where spherical spreading can be assumed; it does not hold close
to the In telecommunication, free-space path loss (FSPL) is the loss in signal strength of an
electromagnetic wave that would result from a line-of-sight path through free space (usually air),
with no obstacles nearby to cause reflection or diffraction. It does not include factors such as the
gain of the antennas used at the transmitter and receiver, nor any loss associated with hardware
imperfections. A discussion of these losses may be found in the article on link budget. Free-space
path loss in decibels A convenient way to express FSPL is in terms of dB: For other antennas, we
must take into account the gain of the antenna, which yields the following free space loss equation:
Gt = gain of transmitting antenna Gr = gain of receiving antenna At = effective area of
transmitting antenna Ar = effective area of receiving antenna The third fraction is derived from the
second fraction using defined in Equation. We can recast the loss equation as LdB=20 log()+ 20
log(d) = Thus, for the same antenna dimensions and separation, the longer the carrier wavelength
(lower the carrier frequency), the higher is the free space path loss. It is interesting to compare
Equations. Equation indicates that as the frequency increases, the free space loss also increas become
more burdensome. However, Equation shows that we can easily compensate for this increased loss
with antenna gains. In fact, there is a net gain at higher frequencies, other factors remaining at a
fixed distance an increase in frequency results in an increased loss measured by 20log(f). However,
if we take into account antenna gain, and fix antenna area, then the change in loss is measured by
actually a decrease in loss at higher frequencies. LdB =10 ( ) r r t GP G P 4 = p A convenient way to
express FSPL is in terms of dB: For other antennas, we must take into account the gain of the
antenna, which yields the following free space loss = gain of transmitting antenna = gain of
receiving antenna = effective area of transmitting antenna = effective area of receiving antenna The
third fraction is derived from the second fraction using the relationship between antenna gain and eff
can recast the loss equation as =20 log()+ 20 log(d)-10 log(AtAr) =-20 log(f)+ 20 log(d)-10
log(AtAr)+169.54 dB dimensions and separation, the longer the carrier wavelength (lower the carrier
frequency), the higher is the free space path loss. It is interesting to compare Equations. Equation
indicates that as the frequency increases, the free space loss also increases, which would suggest that
at higher frequencies, losses become more burdensome. However, Equation shows that we can easily
compensate for this increased loss with antenna gains. In fact, there is a net gain at higher
frequencies, other factors remaining constant. Equation shows that at a fixed distance an increase in
frequency results in an increased loss measured by 20log(f). However, if we take into account
 antenna gain, and fix antenna area, then the change in loss is measured by -20log(f) that is, th
actually a decrease in loss at higher frequencies. = l pd P P r t 4 10 log20log ) ( ) ( ) ( ) t
trAAftr cd AA d G d 2 2 2 2 22 == l l For other antennas, we must take into account the gain of the
antenna, which yields the following free space loss the relationship between antenna gain and
effective area dimensions and separation, the longer the carrier wavelength (lower the carrier
frequency), the higher is the free space path loss. It is interesting to compare Equations. Equation
indicates that as es, which would suggest that at higher frequencies, losses become more
burdensome. However, Equation shows that we can easily compensate for this increased loss with
constant. Equation shows that at a fixed distance an increase in frequency results in an increased loss
measured by 20log(f).
d. Frequency reuse

In the cellular concept, frequencies allocated to the service are re-used in a regular pattern of areas, called 'cells',
each covered by one base station. In mobile-telephone nets these cells are usually hexagonal. In radio broadcasting,
a similar concept has been developed based on rhombic cells.

To ensure that the mutual interference between users remains below a harmful level, adjacent cells use different
frequencies. In fact, a set of C different frequencies {f1, ...,fC} are used for each cluster of Cadjacent cells. Cluster
patterns and the corresponding frequencies are re-used in a regular pattern over the entire service area.

Frequency reuse plan for C = 3, with hexagonal cells. (i=1, j =1)

Frequency reuse plan for C = 7 (i=2, j =1).

The total bandwidth for the system is C times the bandwidth occupied by a single cell.

Real-World Cells

In the practice of cell planning, cells are not hexagonal as in the

theoretical studies. Computer methods are being used for optimised
planning of base station location and cell frequencies. Pathloss and link
budgets are computed from the terrain features and antenna data. This
determines to coverage of each base station and interference to other
cells.

Source: Siemens TORNADO D Cellular

Planning Tool
Reuse Distance

The closest distance between the centres of two cells using the same frequency (in
different clusters) is determined by the choice of the cluster size C and the lay-out of
the cell cluster. This distance is called the frequency 're-use' distance. It can be
shown that the reuse distance ru, normalised to the size of each hexagon, is

ru = SQRT{3 C}

For hexagonal cells, i.e., with 'honeycomb' cell lay-outs commonly used in mobile radio, possible cluster sizes
are C = i2 + ij + j2, with integer i and j (C = 1, 3, 4, 7, 9, ...). Integers i and j determine the relative location of co-
channel cells.

7-cell reuse with i = 2 and j =1.

Derivation

Listen to an animated audio presentation by Jean-Paul Linnartz (embedded html, SMIL, PPT-only)

Also, for more details on the math behind hexagonal cell layouts, check this pdf document.

Exercise
Show that ru = SQRT {3(i2 + ij + j2)}.
Compute the surface area of a cluster of cells, both in terms of

Cluster size C and the size of a single cell, and

i and j and the size of a single cell.

Use these two expressions to verify that C = i2 + ij + j2. Answer.

In practical FM or digital cellular networks for public radio telephony, the cluster size mostly is on the order of C =
7 or 9, though with special techniques, such as diversity reception, smaller re-use distances can be used. GSM can
work with C = 3 or 4.

Cellular CDMA systems can use C = 1, i.e., the same frequency is used in all cells.

Spectrum Efficiency
In most cellular systems, each base station can carry more than one telephone call in its cell. If the number of
parallel channels per base station is denoted by M, the total bandwidth for the cellular net Bs is the product of the
occupied bandwidth per channel BT, the number of channels per cell M and the cluster size C. Thus Bs = M C BT.
The spectrum efficiency SE of a cellular net can be defined as the carried traffic per cell Ac, expressed in erlang,
divided by the bandwidth of the total system Bs and divided by the area of a cell Su. So

Ac

SE =BT C M Su

Here, Ac is mostly computed from Erlang B formulas, with Ac equals the attempted traffic multiplied by the
probability of success (= 1 - blocking probability).

Mostly, the spectrum efficiency is expressed in erlang/MHz/km2.

Thus, we observe that the spectrum efficiency decreases with the cluster size C. System performance, for instance
expressed in terms of the outage probability or the bit error rate experienced by the user, improves with increasing
re-use distance, so it improves with the cluster size. Hence, achieving high system performance and efficient use of
the radio spectrum are conflicting objectives for a network designer.