1.

Introduction
 1G: Marconi: Primera transmisión inalámbrica
 2: Tecnologías digitales: ventaja la regeneración
 Ventajas importantes de los sistemas de comunicación digital
 Circuitos digitales más confiables que los analógicos.
 Producción menos costosa.
 La implementación sobre circuitos digitales es más flexible.

These systems employed TDMA as their mul- tiple access scheme. When using TDMA,
the whole bandwidth is assigned and the time-domain transmission frame is divided
into time slots, each assigned to one user to transmit the data information.

The digital 2G has shown higher transmission capacity and better voice quality than
the analog 1G. Like the 1G, 2G was primarily designed to support voice
communication. In the last releases of these standards, capabilities were intro- duced
to support data transmission. However, the data rates were generally lower than
those supported by the existent bandwidth.

2. Propagation Channel Model

In mobile wireless communication systems, the transmitted signal arrives at the

receiver from different propagation paths. Such phenomenon occurs due to the
obstacles such as buildings, mountains, trees, etc.

2.1 Efectos de la propagación:

 reflection: it arises when the plane waves are incident upon a surface with
dimensions that are very large compared to the wavelength.
 diffraction: it occurs when there is an obstruction between the transmitter
and receiver antennas. Secondary waves are then generated behind the
obstruction.
 scattering: it happens when the plane waves are incident upon an object, the
dimensions of which are of the order of a wavelength or less, and causes the
energy to be redirected in many directions.

La señal recibida es una superposicion de mutiples copias de señales transmitida con

retraso o atenuada.

The multipath fading channel can be hence classified by looking at its probability
density distribution and its frequency response in the transmitted signal bandwidth.

2.2 These classifications of fading are investigated in the next subsections

  Rician and Rayleigh Fading Channels (Modelos estadisticos de un canal)

o Modelo de Rice
o Modelo de Rayleigh

 Frequency-Slective and Time-Varying Fading Channels

Caracterización de un canal:

 Path loss is caused by dissipation of the power radiated by the transmitter as well as effects
of the propagation channel. Path loss models generally assume that path loss is the same at
a given transmit-receive distance
 Shadowing is caused by obstacles between the transmitter and receiver that attenuate signal
power through absorption, reflection, scattering, and diffraction. When the attenuation is
very strong, the signal is blocked.
 variations due to path loss and shadowing occur over relatively large distances, this
variation is sometimes refered to as large-scale propagation effects. Chapter 3 will deal
with variation due to the constructive and destructive addition of multipath signal
components. Variation due to multipath occurs over very short distances, on the order of the
signal wavelength, so these variations are sometimes refered to as small-scale propagation
effects.

Tecnicas de Multiples accesos para sistemas mobiles:

TDMA

the number of frequency bands or time slots is fixed for a given system, and one
frequency band/time slot is assigned to one user during the whole period of
communications. This guarantees the service quality for real-time and constant-bit-
rate voice telephony.

Su desventaja esta en el incremento del numero de usuarios en el sistema.

CDMA

When using different codes, multiple user information can be transmitted on the same
frequency band at the same time.
CDMA usually employs a rake receiver technique to suppress multipath effects and
the related cost increases with the number of paths. Therefore, the complexity of the
receiver can be very high for a high-data rate mobile wireless systems.

OFDM

The main idea of OFDM is to convert a frequency-selective channel in the time domain
into a collection of frequency-flat channels in the frequency domain.

OFDM increases robustness against multipath distortions, making the system ro- bust
against ISI. In addition, OFDM systems use a cyclic prefix (CP) to combat interblock
interference (IBI). The CP consists in prefixing the OFDM symbol with the end of it2.

2.3 Canal Selectivo en frecuencia y variante en el tiempo.

The fading model can also be characterized by the nature of the transmitted signal and
the relative speed between the transmitter and the receiver. It can be classified by the
relationship between the transmitted signal bandwidth W, that is proportional to the
inverse of the symbol1 (M-PSK symbol) time Ts, (i.e. W ∝ 1/ Ts) and the channel
frequency response in this bandwidth.

1/τ
Let us define the channel coherence bandwidth Wc as: Wc= max
  if all the multipaths arrive at the receiver within the symbol duration, the
fading channel is considered as a frequency non-selective fading or flat-fading
channel. Then, the channel coherence bandwidth is higher than the transmitted
signal bandwidth:

W<<Wc and τmax << Ts

 if the multipaths are spread outside the symbol duration, i.e. the maximum
channel delay spread is higher than the symbol time, the fading channel is
considered as a frequency-selective fading channel. In this case, the
transmitted signal bandwidth is higher than the channel coherence bandwidth:

W>>Wc and τmax >> Ts

In both cases, estimating and correcting the CIR, also called channel equalization, is
usually performed using a known signal at the receiver, called pilot signal.

 there is sometimes a relative motion between the transmitter and the receiver
in wireless systems. This results in a time-varying channel. The channel can be
divided in two categories depending on the ratio between the transmitted
symbol time Ts and the channel coherence time Tc.

Let us define the channel coherence time Tc as follows: Tc = c/vfc

 The Doppler shift is the maximum measure in Hertz of a relative frequency

shift between the transmitted and the received signal

The Doppler shift is caused not only by the transmitter-receiver relative

motion, but also by the movement of surrounding objects. It leads to frequency
offsets at the receiver.

 If the channel coherence time is higher than the transmitted symbol time

Ts<Tc

the channel is considered as a slow-fading channel.

 If the transmitted symbol time is higher than channel coherence time:

Ts>Tc

the channel is considered a fast-fading channel.

In both cases, at the receiver, the frequency offset caused by the Doppler shift has to
be estimated in order to recover the original transmitted signal.

2.4 Ecualización de un canal

2.4.1 Zero Forcing Equalization

 toma en cuenta el ruido

The Zero-Forcing equalizer removes all ISI introduced in the combined response
f(t).

sharply attenuated at any frequency within the bandwidth of interest, as is common on

frequency-selective fading channels, the noise power will be significantly increased.

2.4.2 MMSE (Minimum Mean square Error) Equalization

 toma en cuenta el ruido

In MMSE equalization the goal of the equalizer design is to minimize the average mean square
error (MSE) between the transmitted symbol d and its estimate dˆ at the output of the equalizer.