 Communication Systems: Introduction, Radio frequency

Spectrum, Modulation, Need for modulation, Methods of Modulation

(schemes), Amplitude Modulation - Mathematical analysis of a
Modulated Carrier Wave, Power relation in an AM Wave. ( T1-
Chapter:32)

 Embedded Systems: Definition, Embedded systems vs general

computing systems, Classification of Embedded Systems, Major
application areas of Embedded Systems, Elements of an Embedded
System. ( T3-Chapter:1 & 2 )

Textbooks:
 1. Dr. R.S. Sedha, “Electronic Circuits”, S Chand & Company Pvt

Ltd, 3rd Revised Edition, Reprint 2020.

 3. K V Shibu, ‘Introduction to Embedded Systems’, 2nd Edition,

M.cGraw Hill Education (India), Private Limited, 2016.

 The Word Communication refers to transfer of information from
one point to another or it is defined as process of exchange of
information between any two points. A very common mode of
communication is telephone, mobile, radio and TV.

 Purpose of a communication system: convey information through

a medium or communication channel.

 Signals in the Modulation Process:

Following are the three types of signals in the modulation process.

 1) Message or Modulating Signal

The signal which contains a message to be transmitted, is called
as a message signal. It is a baseband signal, which has to
undergo the process of modulation, to get transmitted. Hence, it
is also called as the modulating signal.
2) Carrier Signal
 The high frequency signal which has a certain phase, frequency, and

amplitude but contains no information, is called a carrier signal. It

is an empty signal. It is just used to carry the signal to the receiver
after modulation.
3) Modulated Signal
 The resultant signal after the process of modulation, is called as

the modulated signal. This signal is a combination of the

modulating signal and the carrier signal.

For Successful transmission and reception two process are

necessary:
 Modulation is the process off combining the low-frequency signal

with a very high frequency radio wave called Carrier wave .The
resultant wave is called Modulated carrier wave. This is performed at
the transmitting end.

 Demodulation is the process of separating or recovering the

signal from the modulated carrier wave .It is just the opposite of
modulation and is performed at the receiving end.
Radio Frequency Spectrum
Name Frequency Wavelengt Application
h
Very low 3 – 30 kHz 105 - 104 m Navy to communicate with
frequencies submarines
(VLFs)
Low 30 – 300 104 - 103 m aeronautical and marine navigation.
frequencies kHz This is used as subcarriers
(LFs)

Medium 300 kHz – 3 103 - 102 m AM radio broadcasting , various

frequencies MHz marine and amateur radio
(MFs) communication.

High 3 – 30 MHz 102 - 101 m Government and military services

frequencies use these frequencies for two-way
(HFs) communication.

Very high 30–300 MHz 101 - 1 m mobile radio, marine and

frequencies aeronautical communication, FM
(VHFs) radio broadcasting (88 to 108 MHz),
and television
Radio Frequency Spectrum

Name Frequency Wavelength Application

Ultra high 300 MHz–3 1 - 10-1 m radar and navigation

frequencies GHz services
(UHFs)

Super high 3–30 GHz 10-1 - 10-2 m satellite communication

frequencies and radar. Wireless local-
(SHFs) area networks (LANs)and
many cellular telephone
systems

Extremely high 30–300 GHz 10-2 - 10-3 m satellite communication

frequencies telephony, computer
(EHFs) data, short-haul cellular
networks, and some
specialized radar.
 The baseband signals are incompatible for direct transmission. For
such a signal, to travel longer distances, its strength has to be
increased by modulating with a high frequency carrier wave, which
doesn’t affect the parameters of the modulating signal.
Advantages of Modulation
 The antenna used for transmission, had to be very large, if modulation

was not introduced. The range of communication gets limited as the

wave cannot travel to a distance without getting distorted.

Following are some of the advantages for implementing modulation in the

communication systems.
 To reduce the height of the antenna.

 Increases the operating range.

 Avoid mixing of signals.

 Allows Multiplexing of signals.

 Allows adjustments in bandwidth.

 Improves the quality of reception/reduce noise.

 Operation of varying amplitude, frequency or phase of carrier
signal accordingly with the instantaneous amplitude of the
message signal is called modulation.
 Modulation = Adding information to a carrier signal
Types of Modulation
The mathematical expression for a sinusoidal carrier wave
C(t) = Vc sin( ωct+φ) = Vc sin( 2Πfct+φ)
The waveform can be varied by any of the three factors or parameters:
(1) Vc –the amplitude (2) fc –the frequency (3) φ– the phase

Ifthe amplitude of the high frequency carrier wave is varied in accordance

with the instantaneous amplitude of the modulating signal, with out
change in its frequency and phase is called as AMPLITUDE
MODULATION.

If the frequency of the carrier wave is varied, in accordance with the
instantaneous value of the modulating signal, with out change in its
amplitude and phase then such a technique is called as FREQUENCY
MODULATION.

If the phase of the high frequency carrier wave is varied in accordance
with the instantaneous value of the modulating signal, with out change in
its amplitude and frequency then such a technique is called as PHASE
MODULATION.
Amplitude modulation or AM is defined as a process in
which the amplitude of the high frequency sinusoidal
carrier wave is made to vary in accordance with the
instantaneous amplitude of the low frequency message
signal(modulating signal) with out change in its frequency
and phase.
Figure1
 The frequency and phase angle of the carrier are unaffected in
amplitude modulation.

 Let vc and vm represent the instantaneous values of the carrier

voltage and modulating voltage given respectively by
 vc = Vc sin ωct …………………1

 vm = Vm sin ωmt………………..2

 Where, Vc = Peak amplitude of the unmodulated carrier wave

Vm = Peak amplitude of modulating signal
In the above expression, the phase angle has been omitted as it
is unaffected by amplitude modulation.
After amplitude modulation, the peak amplitude of the carrier
wave is proportional to vm and is given by

A(t) = Vc + Kvm ………………………3

Where K is the proportionality constant, know as the amplitude

sensitivity of modulation, which is usually made equal to unity

A(t) = Vc + vm …………………………4
Amplitude modulation or AM is defined as a process in
which the amplitude of the high frequency sinusoidal carrier
wave is made to vary in accordance with the instantaneous
amplitude of the low frequency message signal called
modulating signal.
 The frequency and phase angle of the carrier are unaffected in
amplitude modulation.

 Let vc and vm represent the instantaneous values of the carrier

voltage and modulating voltage given respectively by
 vc = Vc sin ωct …………………1

 vm = Vm sin ωmt………………..2

 Where, Vc = Peak amplitude of the unmodulated carrier wave

Vm = Peak amplitude of modulating signal
In the above expression, the phase angle has been omitted as it
is unaffected by amplitude modulation.
After amplitude modulation, the peak amplitude of the carrier
wave is proportional to vm and is given by

A(t) = Vc + Kvm ………………………3

Where K is the proportionality constant, know as the amplitude

sensitivity of modulation, which is usually made equal to unity

A(t) = Vc + vm …………………………4
The principle of amplitude modulation:

The magnitude of the carrier wave is varied in

accordance with amplitude of the modulating signal in
case of amplitude modulation.

The principle of amplitude modulation is illustrated in

Fig.1 which shows a single frequency sinusoidal voltage
modulating a high frequency carrier signal.
Figure 2
Modulation Index of amplitude modulation:

Figure 2 shows that distortion will occur if the value of Vm exceeds that of Vc.
Hence, the amplitude of modulating voltage, vm must be less than the amplitude of
the carrier, Vc for proper and undistorted amplitude modulation.

The relationship between Vm and Vc called modulation index or depth of

modulation ma, is defined as the ratio of the amplitude of the modulating voltage to
the amplitude of the carrier wave and is given by

m= ………………..6
Modulation index is a number that lies between 0 and 1
for distortion less modulation and is usually expressed as
a percentage, called the percentage modulation, given by,

% m= ……………..7
Expression for the instantaneous voltage of amplitude
modulated wave. Or Principle of amplitude modulation
and mathematical analysis with waveform.
 Consider the amplitude modulation in which the

modulating voltage is given by

 vm = Vm sin ωmt ………………….1
And the carrier voltage is given by
 vc = Vc sin ωct ………………….2
 Since amplitude modulation varies the amplitude of the
carrier in accordance with the instantaneous value of the
modulating voltage, vm, the amplitude of the modulated
carrier or AM wave is given by
 A(t) = Vc + vm = Vc + Vm sinωmt …….3
 Frequency Spectrum of AM Wave

Bandwidth = fUSB – fLSB = (fc + fm) – (fc - fm) = 2fm

 Upper and lower side band Frequencies
The AM wave consist of 2 frequency component
(i)Original frequency component fc

(ii)A higher frequency component (USB)(fc+fm)

(iii)A lower frequency component (LSB) (fc-fm)

Bandwidth = fUSB – fLSB = (fc + fm) – (fc - fm) = 2fm

expression for the total average power of a sinusoidal AM wave.
The instantaneous valve of AM wave is given by
..(1)

Which shows that AM has three components namely, unmodulated carrier, lower sideband
and upper sideband.
Hence , the total power Pt transmitted by amplitude wave is sum of the carrier power P C
and the power in two sidebands, PLSB & PUSB

………… ..(2)

Where,
Pt = Total average power delivered.
VC= rms value of the unmodulated carrier .
VLSB = rms value of the lower sideband.
………… .(3)
VLSB = rms value of the lower sideband
R = resistance of the transmitting
antenna in which power is dissipated.
Since, the carrier and sidebands are sinusoidal voltages
……………(4)

and ……………(5)

We know that power is given by Power = (voltage)2/ resistance

Using equation (4) , the power in the unmodulated carrier is given by

……………(6)

Using equation (5) , the power in the sidebands is given by

…… ………(7)
Thus the total power in the amplitude modulated wave is

………(8)

Since =, PC the above equation can be written as

………(9)

(or)

………(10)

Equation (9) shows that the total power in the amplitude modulated wave is
(i)More than that of the carrier had prior to modulation.

(ii)Dependent on the modulation index (ma)

Solution: given fc =10MHz fm = 5k Hz.
Modulated carrier contains
(i) Original carrier frequency

fc =10Mhz
(ii) Upper side band frequency: fc+fm = 10+0.005 = 10.005Mhz
(iii) Lower side band frequency :fc-fm= 10-0.005 = 9.995 M hz
Modulation index m= Am/Ac = 6/10 =0.6
Amplitude of LSF = USF = mAc/2 = 0.6* 10/2 = 3mV

3mv 10mv
3mv

9.995Mhz
10Mhz 10.005Mhz
 Sol: given Ac=60, Am=15
 (a) modulation index m=Am/Ac= 15/60 = 0.25

 (b) percent of modulation: m * 100 = 25%

 © fm= 2000 Hz , fc= 100000 Hz

 (d) frequency components

 (i) Carrier frequency fc= 100K hz

ii) Upper side band frequency: fc+fm = 100k+2k= 102khz

(iii) Lower side band frequency :fc-fm= 100k-2k = 98khz

98khz 100khz 102khz

 Solution Given PT = 1500W
(i) PC = PT = 1500 = 1000w

(ii) PUSB = PLSB = PC

= ¼ *1000 = 250W
 Given, the equation of modulating signal as m(t)=10cos(2π×103t)
 We know the standard equation of modulating signal as
m(t)=Amcos(2πfmt)
 By comparing the above two equations, we will get Amplitude of
modulating signal as Am=10volts and Frequency of modulating
signal as fm=103Hz=1KHz
 Given, the equation of carrier signal is c(t)=50cos(2π×105t)
 The standard equation of carrier signal is c(t)=A ccos(2πfct)
 By comparing these two equations, we will get Amplitude of carrier
signal as Ac=50volts and Frequency of carrier signal
as fc=105Hz=100KHz
 We know the formula for modulation index as μ=A m/Ac
 Substitute, Am and Ac values in the above formula. μ=10/50=0.2
 Therefore, the value of modulation index is 0.2 and percentage of
modulation is 20%.
 The formula for Carrier power, Pc is
 Assume R=1Ω and substitute Ac value in the above formula.

 Therefore, the Carrier power, Pc is 1250 watts. We know

the formula or power required for transmitting AM wave is

 Pc and μ values in the above formula.

 Given, AM wave
 s(t)=20[1+0.8cos(2π×103t)]cos(4π×105t)
 Re-write the above equation as
 s(t)=20[1+0.8cos(2π×103t)]cos(2π×2×105t)
 s(t)=Ac[1+μcos(2πfmt)]cos(2πfct)
we will get Amplitude of carrier signal Ac=20volts
 Modulation index as μ=0.8
 Frequency of modulating signal as fm=103Hz=1KHzfm
 Frequency of carrier signal as fc=2×105Hz=200KHz
 Carrier power, Pcis Pc=Ac2/2R Assume R=1Ω
Pc=(20)2/2(1)=200W
 PSB=Ac2μ2/ 8R= 64w . Therefore, the total side band power is 64 watts.
BW=2fm
BW=2(1K)=2KHz
What is Embedded System?

An Electronic/Electro mechanical system which is designed to

perform a specific function and is a combination of both hardware
and firmware (Software)
E.g. Electronic Toys, Mobile Handsets, Washing Machines, Air

Conditioners, Automotive Control Units, Set Top Box, DVD Player

etc…

Embedded Systems are:

 Unique in character and behavior

 With specialized hardware and software

General Purpose Computing System Embedded System
A system which is a combination of generic
hardware and General Purpose Operating
System for executing a variety of applications
Contain a General Purpose Operating System
(GPOS)
Applications are alterable (programmable) by
user (It is possible for the end user to re-
install the Operating System, and add or
remove user applications)
Performance is the key deciding factor on the
selection of the system. Always „Faster is
Better‟
Less/not at all tailored towards reduced
operating power requirements, options for
different levels of power management.
Response requirements are not time critical
Need not be deterministic in execution
behavior
A system which is a combination of special
purpose hardware and embedded OS for
executing a specific set of applications
May or may not contain an operating system
for functioning
The firmware of the embedded system is pre-
programmed and it is non-alterable by end-
user
Application specific requirements (like
performance, power requirements, memory
usage etc) are the key deciding factors
Highly tailored to take advantage of the power
saving modes supported by hardware and
Operating System
For certain category of embedded systems like
mission critical systems, the response time
requirement is highly critical
Execution behavior is deterministic for certain
type of embedded systems like „Hard Real
 Based on Generation
 Based on Complexity & Performance

Requirements
 Based on deterministic behavior
 Based on Triggering
 First Generation: The early embedded systems built around
8-bit microprocessors like 8085 and Z80 and 4-bit
microcontrollers
 EX. stepper motor control units, Digital Telephone Keypads
etc.

 Second Generation: Embedded Systems built around 16-bit

microprocessors and 8 or 16-bit microcontrollers, following
the first generation embedded systems.
 EX.SCADA, Data Acquisition Systems etc.
 Third Generation: Embedded Systems built around high
performance 16 bit or 32 bit Microprocessors/controllers,
Application Specific Instruction set processors like Digital Signal
Processors (DSPs), and Application Specific Integrated Circuits
(ASICs).The instruction set is complex and powerful.
 Example: Robotics, industrial process control, networking
etc.

 Fourth Generation: Embedded Systems built around System on

Chips (SoC’s), Reconfigurable processors and multicore
processors. It brings high performance, tight integration and
miniaturization into the embedded device market
 Example: Smart phone devices, MIDs etc.
 Small Scale: The embedded systems built around low
performance and low cost 8 or 16 bit microprocessors/
microcontrollers. It is suitable for simple applications and
where performance is not time critical. It may or may not
contain OS.
 Medium Scale: Embedded Systems built around medium
performance, low cost 16 or 32 bit microprocessors /
microcontrollers or DSPs. These are slightly complex in
hardware and firmware. It may contain GPOS/RTOS.
 Large Scale/Complex: Embedded Systems built around high
performance 32 or 64 bit RISC processors/controllers, RSoC or
multi-core processors and PLD. It requires complex hardware
and software. These system may contain multiple
processors/controllers and co-units/hardware accelerators for
offloading the processing requirements from the main
processor. It contains RTOS for scheduling, prioritization and
management.
 It is applicable for Real Time systems. The application/task
execution behavior for an embedded system can be either
deterministic or non-deterministic

 These are classified in to two types

1. Soft Real time Systems: Missing a deadline may not be

critical and can be tolerated to a certain degree
2. Hard Real time systems: Missing a program/task execution
time deadline can have catastrophic consequences (financial,
human loss of life, etc.)
 These are classified into two types

1. Event Triggered : Activities within the system (e.g., task run-

times) are dynamic and depend upon occurrence of different
events.

2. Time triggered: Activities within the system follow a statically

computed schedule (i.e., they are allocated time slots during
which they can take place) and thus by nature are predictable.
 Consumer Electronics: Camcorders, Cameras etc.
 Household Appliances: Television, DVD players, washing
machine, Fridge, Microwave Oven etc.
 Home Automation and Security Systems: Air conditioners,
sprinklers, Intruder detection alarms, Closed Circuit Television
Cameras, Fire alarms etc.
 Automotive Industry: Anti-lock breaking systems (ABS),
Engine Control, Ignition Systems, Automatic Navigation
Systems etc.
 Telecom: Cellular Telephones, Telephone switches, Handset
Multimedia Applications etc.
 Computer Peripherals: Printers, Scanners, Fax machines etc.
 Computer Networking Systems: Network Routers, Switches,
Hubs, Firewalls etc.
 Health Care: Different Kinds of Scanners, EEG, ECG
Machines etc.
 Measurement & Instrumentation: Digital multi
meters, Digital CROs, Logic Analyzers PLC systems
etc.
 Banking & Retail: Automatic Teller Machines (ATM)
and Currency counters, Point of Sales (POS)
 Card Readers: Barcode, Smart Card Readers, Hand
held Devices etc.
 An embedded system is a combination of 3 things, Hardware,
Software, Mechanical Components and it is supposed to do one
specific task only.
 A typical embedded system contains a single chip controller which
acts as the master brain of the system. Diagrammatically an
embedded system can be represented as shown in fig
 Embedded systems are basically designed to regulate a physical
variable or to manipulate the state of some devices by sending
some signals to the actuators or devices connected to the output
port system in response to the input signal provided by the end
users or sensors which are connected to the input ports.
 Hence the embedded systems can be viewed as a reactive system.
 The control is achieved by processing the information coming from the
sensors and user interfaces and controlling some actuators that
regulate the physical variable. Keyboards, push button, switches, etc.
are Examples of common user interface input devices and LEDs,
LCDs, Piezoelectric buzzers, etc examples for common user interface
output devices for a typical embedded system.
 The requirement of type of user interface changes from application to
application based on domain.
 The sensor information is passed to the processor after signal
conditioning and digitization.
 The core of the system performs some predefined operations on input
data with the help of embedded firmware in the system and sends
some actuating signals to the actuator connect connected to the
output port of the system.
 The memory of the system is responsible for holding the code (control
algorithm and other important configuration details).
 There are two types of memories are used in any embedded system.
Fixed memory (ROM) is used for storing code or program. The user
cannot change the firmware in this type of memory.
 The most common types of memories used in embedded
systems for control algorithm storage are
OTP,PROM,UVEPROM,EEPROM and FLASH An embedded
system without code (i.e. the control algorithm) implemented
memory has all the peripherals but is not capable of making
decisions depending on the situational as well as real world
changes.
 Memory for implementing the code may be present on the
processor or may be implemented as a separate chip interfacing
the processor In a controller based embedded system, the
controller may contain internal memory for storing code such
controllers are called Micro-controllers with on-chip ROM, eg.
Atmel AT89C51.