Income, Migration and Social Adjustment of Tribal People in Tripura- A Case

Study of Tripuri Tribe

Suman Das and Dr. Madhushree Das

Abstract: The purpose of this paper is to explore the relationship between income, migration and
social adjustment of migrated tribal people with special reference to Tripuri tribe of Tripura,
India, with the help of primary data collected from structured interview schedule method through
purposive sampling technique. The study reveals that the tribal people those who migrated from
their native places (rural area) to urban areas, usually suburbs, have a better economic
condition and a decent standard of living. Their livelihood patterns have changed after they have
migrated to the urban areas. Here, their income levels have increased along with expenditure.
They live in small houses consuming less land, than they did in their native lands. Their standard
of living is much below what they have expected before their decision to migrate. They find
difficulty in adjusting with the local people and the surrounding. The nature of the employment
in urban areas is such that the doors of the organized sector do not open to them easily. They are
always last to be hired and first to be fired, and they usually get ill-paid jobs and do not have
opportunities for education and training. Their children do not get adequate facilities to enroll in
the good schools as the cost of living in the urban areas are very high. They are struggling hard
socially and culturally to adapt and adjust in the new milieu far from their lush green land.
Key words: income, migration, tribe, livelihood, expenditure, adjustment, society

Suman Das, M.Phil scholar, Department of Geography, Gauhati University

Dr. Madhushree Das, Assistant Pfofessor, Department of Geography, Gauhati University
(corresponding author email: madhushreedas@yahoo.in and sumangeo03@gmail.com)
Introduction: One of the most significant
demographic phenomena facing many
developing countries is the shortage of
agricultural labour and food insecurity, and
conversely, the acceleration of population
growth in urban areas, which is largely
triggered by the incidence of rural-urban
migration (Agesa, 2001). Urban life
represents new employment opportunities,
the possibility of working indoors,
modernity, and being less tied to family
duties, which is different from the traditional
rural life of mainly working on farms,
coupled with enormous family
responsibilities (Kasanga et al., 1988).
Migrants tend to be seen as rational
economic agents, able to judge differences
in opportunities and rewards at home and
the place of destination. Recent economic
theories have emphasized the role of
households, and migration strategies as
elements of collective portfolios of activities
and income sources (Haan, 2000).
According to Scoones (1998), a household
located in a particular context and economy
may choose between (or be constrained from
choosing) three main clusters of livelihood
options agricultural intensification and
extensification, income diversification, and
migration. Tripura is the only State in Indias
North East whose population has been
transformed from being predominantly tribal
to being predominantly non-tribal in the
post- Independence period (Tripura Human
Development Report, 2007). The tribals of
Tripura are basically agriculturists; many of
them still depend on Jhum or shifting
cultivation. The Jhumias (Jhumias are the
tribals who do Jhum cultivation) of Tripura
were considered to be self-sufficient in food
production in the past, but the situation has
changed radically now because the govt. of
Tripura banded the Jhum cultivation and
therefore they may migrate to elsewhere for
their livelihood (Das Gupta, 1986, 1996).
Social adjustment is associated with
improved labour market participation,
higher wages and reduced likelihood of
being involved in criminal activity (Johnson,
Paul and Kossykh, Yulia, 2008). In Tripura,
the Tripuri tribes dwelling in the scattered
villages in the hills are migrating to the
plains (urban areas) in search of
employment and opportunities for better
standard of living and at the same time they
are trying hard to adjust in the newly settled
areas.
Review of literature: Individual income
dynamics characterize society in important
ways. Income mobility is probably the
single most important indicator of individual
income (Parle, de, 2012). Migration
particularly, in rural to urban migration
which tends to be most relevant for the poor
peoples. Migration tends to be seen as
problematic, in academic and policy
debates, and in the popular press. It is often
seen as the consequence of ruptures, of
environmental disaster, economic
exploitation, or political or civil tensions and
violence (Haan, 2000). The concept of
mobility is quite distinct from that of
economic growth and is closely connected to
notions of efficiency, fairness, and political
conflict which follow paths that are largely
unconnected to overall growth (Galaini,
2010). Migration contributes to the
livelihoods of the poor. A livelihood is
considered to consist of the assets, activities
and entitlements that enable people to make
a living (Singh et al 1994, cited in Mugisha,
2005:27). Mobility reflects the extent to
which individuals move up (or down) the
social ladder compared with their parents. A
society can be deemed more or less mobile
depending on whether the link between
parents and childrens social status as
adults is looser or tighter. In a relatively
immobile society an individuals wage,
education or occupation tends to be strongly
related to those of his/her parents. Removing
policy-related obstacles to social mobility
can be advocated on equity grounds as it
should improve equality of economic
opportunities, but also on efficiency grounds
(OECD, 2010). The families that are most
likely to move are also the most
disadvantaged and may be characterized by
dynamics and processes that are conducive
to the development of delinquency and
problem behavior in their children (Gasper
et al., 2009). Social capital can be
understood as the accumulation of resources
to which one has access through his or her
social network (Coleman, 1988). At the
same time, mobility may also be driven by
variability in incomes that reflect the risk to
which individuals are exposed in the
economy (Atkinson, et al., 1992). Separating
the effect of income from the impact of
other aspects of the family is a difficult
identification problem (Blanden, 2005).
Changes in the family structure, financial
situation, and physical needs, create a gap
between the desired and the current housing
consumption (Tatsiramos, 2006). Household
moves are not, of course, inherently
problematic. The degree of difficulty in
adjustment to a move is dependent on the
presence or absence of many factors. For
example, the desirability of a move, the
reasons for relocating, and the cohesion and
support among household members are all
part of the context which influence the
effects of a move (Coleman, 1988; Hagan,
M. and Wheaton, 1996). Tripura was a
Tribal-majority State before partition; today
Tribal people constitute only 31 percent of
the total population (Economic Review of
Tripura, 2010-11).
Area, people and method: The study has
been carried out among the Tripuri Tribe
who have migrated from the hills to settle in
the urban areas in and around Agartala, the
capital of the state, located at 230300 N
latitude and 910300 E longitude. The total
geographical area of Agartala is 58.84 km2.
Agartala is mostly advanced and urbanized
area in the state. Agartala has flourished
along the banks of river Haora. Among the
tribes, Tripuri tribe is the largest; with a
population size of 2,50,382 persons (Human
Development Report, Tripura, 2007). From
the view point of migration also Tripuri
tribe is the first tribe in Tripura who have
migrated from Mongolia to settle in the
Tripura hills for their existence. The present
paper deals with income disparity and its
impact on mobility of Tripuri tribe and
attempts to explore their social adjustment in
the new settings. With this aim in mind, and
to attain the end, a total of 70 households in
the fringe of Agartala town, have been
interviewed to gather their views and
opinions (data) of the Tripuri tribe regarding
their adaptation process in their new milieu
with the help of structured interview
schedule method on the basis of purposive
sampling. The data so gathered have been
analyzed to get a clear exposition.
Fig.1: Location map of the study area
Results and discussion:
Early livelihood pattern of Tripuri tribe
(before migration): Migrants tend to be
seen as rational economic agents. Recent
economic theories have emphasized the role
of households, and migration strategies as
elements of collective portfolios of activities
and income sources (Haan, de, 2000).
Migration is also viewed as an instrument of
social diffusion and cultural integration.
Among the surveyed households (all of
whom settled 10-15 years ago),
maximum households head were males and
only few were females as they are living in
the patriarchy society where males are
dominating the house, but where males are
absent or dead, female take the initiatives to
work outside the house to feed their family
members. From the survey, it has been
observed that before they migrated 28.57%
were engaged as daily laborers; 21.43%
were in jhum cultivators; 25.71% were
households workers; 15.71%
agricultural laborers and 8.57%
vegetable venders in their native place.
Fig- 1: Early livelihood patterns of migrated
Tripuri tribal people
Source: Primary Survey, 2014
Early monthly household income of
Tripuri tribe (before migration): When
an individual works hard to earn money in a
specific period of time by using his/ her
knowledge and skill to fulfill his/ her
demands and needs and also feed his/ her
stomach along with his/ her family members
the is what is termed as Income. Here, the
household income means total monthly
income of the family by its all sources.
Among the surveyed households, 18.57 %
households were having income of Rs.2000-
Rs.2499; 22.86% of households were having
income of Rs.2500- Rs.2999; 27.14% of
households were having income of Rs.3000-
Rs.3499; 20% of households were having
income of Rs.3500- Rs.3999 and remaining
11.43% of households were having income
were of Rs.4000- Rs.4499.
were Early monthly household expenditure of
Tripuri tribe (before migration):
Expenditure means how much money an
individual spends from his/ her earned
money or income to meet his/ her own and
family members demands and needs. Here
household expenditure means the monthly
expenditure of the family. Among the
surveyed households of Tripuri tribe,
17.14% of households spent Rs.1500-
Rs.1999; 24.29% of households were spent
Rs.2000- Rs.2499; 32.86% of households
were spent Rs.2500- Rs.2999; 15.71% of
households were spent Rs.3000- Rs.3499
and remaining 10% of households were
spent Rs.3500- Rs. 3499.
Tripuri tribe and migration: Migration is a
continuous process and the Tripuri tribe
also have migrated with their family from
their native (hilly area) place to the new
place (plain areas) due to diferent reasons
like low wages in their native place; non-
availability of adequate works; depleting
forest based resources and band on jhum
cultivation; for getting decent economic
condition; for getting better education for
their children; good and advance health care
facilities; for better standard of living with
social status. These reasons have pushed
them to migrate from their native place and
pulling them to settle in urban areas for
opportunity and modern way of living.
Present livelihood pattern of Tripuri
tribe (after migration): Livelihood is a
source of income by which we can say how
much an individual is earning and what kind
of social status he/ she is enjoying.
Livelihood also denotes the standard of
living of an individual. Here, among the
surveyed households of Tripuri tribe,
32.86% of households are engaged as daily
laborer; 20% of households are rickshaw
pullers; 12.86% of households are hawker;
8.57% of households are employee in the
shops; 11.43% of households are vegetables
venders; 14.29% of households are engaged
in households works like fencing, clearing
etc.
Fig-2: Present livelihood patterns of
migrated tribal people of Tripuri tribe
Source: Primary Survey, 2014
Present monthly household income of
Tripuri tribe (after migration): The tribal
people have migrated from their native place
to the new place just to get a decent income
in comparison to their early (before
migration) income. Among the surveyed
households of Tripuri tribe, 14.29 per cent
of households have been earning Rs.3000-
Rs.3999; 32.86 per cent of households earn
Rs.4000- Rs.4999; 30% of households
income ranges between Rs.5000- Rs.5999
and 22.86% of households earn Rs.6000-
Rs.6999.
 month but after shifting their expenditure
pattern increased drastically.
Table 2: Past and Present Monthly
Expenditure Pattern of the Tripuri Tribe
Table 1: Past and Present Monthly Income Past Sample Present Sample
Pattern of the Tripuri Tribe Monthly Househol Monthly Househol

Past Sample Present Sample Household d (in per Household d

Monthly Household Monthly Household Expenditur cent) Expenditur (in

Household (in per Household (in per e (in Rs.) e (in Rs.) percent)
1500-1999 17.14 3000-3499 11.43
Income (in cent) Income cent) 2000-2499 24.29 3500-3999 18.57
Rs.) (in Rs.) 2500-2999 32.86 4000-4499 37.14
2000-2499 18.57 3000-3999 14.28 3000-3499 15.71 4500-4999 24.29
2500-2999 22.86 4000-4999 32.86 3500-3999 10.00 5000-5499 8.57
3000-3499 27.14 5000-5999 30.00 Source: Primary Survey, 2014
3500-3999 20.00 6000-6999 22.86
Social adjustment of migrated people of
4000-4499 11.43
Source: Primary Survey, 2014 Tripuri tribe: Social adjustment implies
Present household expenditure of the adjustment of people in the new society
Tripuri tribe (after migration): The from their traditional society and how they
migrated tribal people spend this earned are adapting the new social activities. Here
money according to the needs and demands among the surveyed households of Tripuri
of his/ her family. Among the surveyed tribe, the societal position of tribal people
households of Tripuri tribe, 11.43% of especially those who were engaged in the
households spend Rs.3000- Rs.3499; livelihood pattern as mentioned above is
18.57% of households spend Rs.3500- low, meaning their income is not up to the
Rs.3999; 37.14% of households spend mark ranging between Rs 3000.00 to Rs
Rs.4000- Rs.4499; 24.29% of households 6999.00 per month. They usually settle
spend Rs.4500- Rs.4999 and the remaining themselves in the sub-urban areas, where the
8.57% of households spend Rs.5000- cost of living is low as their income is not
Rs.5499. It is interesting to note that while high. The surveyed data speaks to the fact
in their native village their monthly that 100 per cent of them live in rented
expenditure pattern ranged between Rs 1500 housed of which 82.86 per cent of families
to Rs 4000. It hardly exceeded Rs 4000 per live in Kaccha (non cemented) houses
because their income cannot support a better
living for them. Their average households
size is 4.3. Their food habits are very simple
and have undergone drastic change due to
the impact of urbanization. It may be
mentioned here that the habit of taking
baked bread in breakfast has penetrated
among them in place of fry rice (locally
called Muri). Their traditional food habits
which used to be wild edible leaves and
roots and other green vegetables and variety
of spices collected locally from the forest
have also changed. The surveyed data also
reveal an interesting fact, when questioned
about the nature of relationship they
possessed with the local people and the
pattern of assimilation among them; it has
been found that 54.29% of tribal people
were having cordial relation with the local
people and are trying to adapt their culture
and customs and the rest 45.71% of tribal
people were indifferent and do not have any
relationship with the localites. It may be
mentioned here that, the active participation
of migrated tribal people in the social
programmes like the cultural functions,
social gatherings, community development
programmes etc is quite low (28.57per cent)
and rest, 71.43 per cent are indifferent.
Schooling of children of migrated tribal
people (Tripuri tribe) is the most
significant aspect of social adjustment. Here
among the surveyed households of Tripuri
tribe, 92.86 per cent of children are found to
study in the Govt. schools and remaining
7.14% of children were studying in the
Private schools. The Government schools
are not well equipped and do not have
proper teaching-learning aid and even the
teachers are not acquainted with the modern
techniques of teaching and hence, the level
of education is going down in the
Government schools, on the other hand, the
parents prefer to send their wards to the
Private schools even though their economic
condition not allow them. So, in this way the
Tripuri tribe is trying hard to adjust in their
new social environment far from their own
native land.
Conclusion: The above analysis reveals that
with a population size of 2,50,382 person
Tripuri tribe, is the largest in number
among all the tribal groups of Tripura, India.
They have migrated from their native place
where they were engaged in primary and
other economic activities to the urban areas
in search of employment and better standard
of living. The poor economic condition and
lack of Govt. facilities accelerate the wave
of migration. Their source of income in their
native place was limited and the wages they
earned was also very less, ranging between
Rs 2000 to Rs 5000 per month. After they
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