Disability Project

Disability Project
By: Carrie Schultz

Education 415
Ferris State University
Table of contents
ADHD 2
At Risk 13
Autism 26
Cognitive Impairments 39
Hearing Impairments 51
Speech and Language Impairments 62
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ADHD
Introduction of disability
A. Why I chose ADHD:
I chose ADHD because I wanted to gain tools that will allow me to help my students
who have ADHD. I personally have a couple friends who have ADHD and they have
explained the challenges they faced while they were in school. As a teacher it is my job
to create learning opportunities for all my students in a way that will keep them
engaged. Students with ADHD can be a challenge for their teachers; this is especially
true if the teacher does not understand ADHD and does not know the proper techniques
and interventions to assist their students.
B. Definition:
ADHD primarily refers to deficits and attention and behaviors characterized by
impulsivity and hyperactivity. According to DSM-IV-TR, ADHD can be classified as
predominantly inattentive type, predominantly the hyperactive-impulsive type, or a
combined type that includes significant symptoms in all areas.
C. Causes, statistics, and prevalence:
a. Causes - The exact cause of ADHD is unknown; there are theories:
i. The influence of genes is evidenced by a higher prevalence rate in some
families. Studies have shown that biological parents, siblings, and other
family members of individuals with this disorder have higher rates of
ADHD been expected in the general population.
ii. Environmental factors such as alcohol and drug consumption and
smoking may influence the presence of ADHD during the prenatal period
by limiting the delivery of nutrients, blood, and oxygen while the brain of
the fetus is developing.
iii. Premature birth is also associated with ADHD
iv. Other possible causative events include complications during pregnancy
and delivery, exposure to toxins through contaminated foods, brain
injury, and lead poisoning.
b. Statistics and prevalence:
i. The average age of ADHD diagnosis is 7 years of age, but children
reported by their parents as having more severe ADHD is diagnosed
earlier.
ii. As many as 17.5% of children with current ADHD were not receiving
either medications for ADHD or mental counseling in 2011.
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iii. Less than one in three children with ADHD receive both medication
treatment and behavior therapy, the preferred treatment approach for
children ages 6 and older.
iv. Only half of preschoolers, 4 to 5 years of age, with ADHD received
behavior therapy, which is now the recommended first-line treatment for
this group.
v. Approximately 11% of children 4-17 years of age have been diagnosed
with ADHD as of 2011; that is 6.4 million children.
vi. The percentage of children with ADHD diagnosis has increased from 7.8%
in 2003 to 9.5% in 2007 and to 11% in 2011.
vii. Boys (13.2%) or more likely than girls (5.6%) to have ever been diagnosed
with ADHD.
viii. Prevalence of ADHD diagnosis varies substantially by state, from a low
5.6% in Nevada to a high of 18.7% in Kentucky.
D. The impact that ADHD can have on the general education setting:
For many students, accommodations implemented in general education classrooms are
enough to create a successful learning environment; however, other students may need
special education support services and placement or at least behavioral intervention.
The characteristics of ADHD manifest themselves in many different ways in the
classroom. Recognizing them and implementing adaptations or strategies to lessen their
impact in the classroom constitute a significant challenge for teachers. Characteristics
listed in the DSM-IV-TR (2000) include:
a. Limited sustained attention or persistence of attention to tasks
b. Reduced impulse control or limited delay of gratification
c. Excessive text irrelevant activity or activity poorly regulated to match situational
demands
d. Students prescribed medication may have side effects that teachers should be
aware of.
e. The symptoms are likely to change from one situation to another
Evidence Based Interventions

1. Group Management:
a. Summary:
i. Group management techniques benefit all members of a class, but they
are critical in managing the behavior of individual students with ADHD.
Children with ADHD need to understand the classroom rules and school
procedures in order to be successful. The rules should be displayed
prominently in the room and reviewed periodically if students with ADHD
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are to retain and follow them. It is important for teachers to apply the
rules consistently.
b. Research supporting this intervention:
1. Polloway, E.A., Patton, J.R., & Serna, L. (2008). Strategies for
teaching learners with special needs (9th ed.). Upper Saddle River.
NJ: Merrill/Pearson.
2. Classroom management that works: Research-based strategies for
every teacher by RJ Marzano, JS Marzano, and D Pickering
c. Cost and time the intervention will take:
i. There is minimal cost with this intervention. The only cost will be material
to display the classroom rules.
ii. This intervention will take more time when the students are first learning
the rules. As the school year goes on the time requirement will be
minimal since the rules only need to be reviewed periodically.
d. How will this intervention be used in the general education classroom to support
inclusion?
i. This intervention supports inclusion because it takes place within the
general education classroom. It serves as a reminder for a student with
ADHD as to what the classroom expectations are.
e. References:
i. Polloway, E.A., Patton, J.R., & Serna, L. (2008). Strategies for teaching
learners with special needs (9th ed.). Upper Saddle River. NJ:
Merrill/Pearson.
ii. Smith, T.E.C., Polloway, E.A., Patton, J.R., & Dowdy, C.A. (2012). Teaching
Students with Special Needs in Inclusive Setting (6th ed.). Upper Saddle
River. NJ: Pearson Education.
2. Time Management
a. Summary:
i. Students with ADHD drive in an organized, structured classroom. Acting
out and inappropriate behavior often occur during unscheduled,
unstructured free time, when the number of choices of activities may
become overwhelming. Teachers should begin each day with a similar
routine. The particular activity is not as important as the consistency.
Secondary teachers need to advise students of scheduling changes,
inform students when activities are about to change and teach
transitioning skills, and at all times be respectful toward students.
i. Babkie, A.M. (2006). Be proactive in managing classroom behavior.
Intervention in School and Clinic, 41 (3).
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Polloway, E.A., Patton, J.R., & Serna, L. (2005). Strategies for teaching
ii.
learners with special needs (8th ed.). Upper Saddle River. NJ:
Merrill/Pearson.
i. There is not a cost associated with this intervention.
ii. The time requirement for this intervention is minimal. It will require a
few minutes at the beginning and end of class.
inclusion?
i. This intervention supports inclusion because it does not require the
student to be pulled from their general education classroom. This
intervention help create structure and organization; this will help
students with ADHD stay on task.
e. References:
i. Smith, T.E.C., Polloway, E.A., Patton, J.R., & Dowdy, C.A. (2012). Teaching
3. Modifying Teacher Behavior
a. Summary:
i. Students with ADHD, especially those with learning disabilities, are not
easily stimulated, they need novelty and excitement in their learning
environment. Although complete and thorough directions, structure, and
consistency are extremely important, students need challenging, exciting
activities to keep them focused and learning. Incidence of inappropriate
behavior increases during non-stimulating, repetitive activities. Teachers
should vary activities, allow and encourage movement that is purposeful
and not disruptive, and even let students stand as they listen, take notes,
or perform other academic task.
i. Jakobson, A., & Kikas, E. (2007). Cognitive functioning in children with
and without Attention-Deficit/Hyperactive Disorder and without
comorbid learning disabilities. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 40(3).
ii. Vesely, P.J., & Gryder, N.L., (2009). Word of the day improves and
redirects student attention while supporting vocabulary development.
Intervention in School and Clinic, 44.
i. The cost for this intervention is minimal and can possibly not cost
anything. The only cost will be if materials are needed for activities the
teacher chooses to do.
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ii.The time for this intervention will be greater when it is first being
implemented until the teacher has become more familiar with it. This
intervention will not take away from any class time because it is requiring
the teacher to teach in creative ways so the lessons will still be taught.
inclusion?
i. This intervention does not require a student to be pulled from their
general education classroom therefore it promotes inclusion. This
intervention uses techniques to keep the interest/attention levels raised
for students with ADHD.
e. References:
i. Zentall, S. (2006). ADHD and education: foundations, characteristics,
methods, and collaboration. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Merrill/Pearson.
4. Self-Management
a. Summary:
i. The primary goal of teaching self-management or self-control is to make
children more consciously aware of their own thinking processes and task
approach strategies, and to give them responsibility for their own
reinforcements. This can be done through self-assessment,
self-monitoring, self-instruction, and self-reinforcement.
i. Polloway, E.A., & Patton, J.R. (2005). Strategies for teaching learners with
special needs. (8th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson
i. There is no cost associated with this intervention.
ii. This intervention will take a varied amount of time. The time will
dependent on the individual student as he/she learns how to manage
themselves. As the student becomes more independent the time
required for teacher involvement will lessen.
inclusion?
i. This is another example of an intervention where the student remains in
their general education classroom Therefore it is an inclusive model of
intervention. It gives the student the tools to self-regulate and become a
more independent student.
e. References:
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ii. The effects of self-management in general education classroom on the
organizational skills of adolescents with ADHD by S Gureasko-Moore and
GJ Dupaul (2006)
5. Medication
a. Summary:
i. As many as 3% of school-aged students with ADHD will be prescribed
medication to control their behavior, so teachers need to understand the
types of medications commonly prescribed, the intended effect, and
potential side effects. Pharmacological therapy can be defined as
treatment by chemical substances that prevent or reduce inappropriate
behaviors, promoting academic and social gains for children with learning
and behavior problems.
i. Hammerness, P.G. (2009). Biographies of disease: ADHD. Westport, CT:
Greenwood Press.
c. Cost and time this intervention will take:
i. The only cost of this intervention is the medication itself. Most if not all
insurances cover medications prescribed for ADHD.
ii. This intervention takes a different amount of time for each person
involved. For the student taking the medication they will miss a few
minutes of class each day so they can go to the office to take their
medication. They will also miss school for any doctor's appointments for
a check-up with their medication. The parents also will have time
invested in doctor's appointment and taking the medication to the school
for the student to have.
inclusion?
i. This intervention supports inclusion because it does not pull the student
out of class for any length of time. It also allows the student to have more
focus and a longer attention span.
e. References:
i. Barkley, R.A (2006). Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: a handbook
for diagnosis and treatment (3rd ed.). New York: Guilford Press.
Resources
1. Attention Deficit Disorder Association - https://www.add.org/
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a. This website has useful information regarding ADHD. It gives a description of
what it is, the difference between ADD and ADHD, what causes it, diagnosing it,
how it is treated, and useful accommodations that can be made for children with
ADHD. It also contains a list of resources for parents or teachers.
2. CHADD The National Resource on ADHD - http://www.chadd.org/
a. This website contains useful information to help parents, children, and teachers
to better understand ADHD. It also has expert advice and articles. There are also
links to training and events dealing with ADHD. It has link to support systems in
your area, as well as information on how to advocate for yourself or your child
whether in school or the workplace.
3. National Institute of Mental Health - https://www.nimh.nih.gov/index.shtml
a. This website contains the definition, signs and symptoms, risk factors, treatment
and Therapies for ADHD. It also offers people to join a study Where clinical trials
are studied to look at new ways to prevent, detect, or treat conditions such as
ADHD.
4. Parenting Children with ADHD: 10 Lessons That Medicine Cannot Teach by Vincent J.
Monastra
a. This book presents a series of 10 lessons that help promote successful kids with
ADHD. This resource is full of practical information, as well as factual information
about influencing factors of ADHD. It also contains parenting strategies and
discusses medications in detail and explains how they work or don't work.
5. The ADHD Parenting Handbook: Practical advice for parents from parents by Colleen
Alexander-Roberts
a. This Book contains hundreds of ideas from other parents of children with ADHD.
The information in this book is practical advice and contains real life situations. It
is helpful for parents to hear that they are not alone and other parents deal with
the same issues they do.
6. Taking Charge of ADHD by Russell Barkley
a. This book information about ADHD, evaluation and diagnosis of child, behavior
management and coping strategies for parents, and also discusses different
medications for ADHD.
7. Child Development Institute - https://childdevelopmentinfo.com/
a. This website contains information for parents and teachers. Teachers will find
great ideas to help children with ADHD focus on the task at hand. They will also
find a list of classroom accommodations to help their students work effectively.
There are expert articles, a blog, and many resources available.
8. Smart But Scattered: The Revolutionary Executive Skills Approach to Helping Kids
Reach Their Potential by Peg Dawson and Richard Guare (2011)
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a. This book contains easy-to-follow steps to for parents to identify their child's
strengths and weaknesses. It contains activities and techniques that are proven
to boost specific skills, and problem-solve daily routine issues. There are helpful
worksheets and forms that can be downloaded and printed.
9. Executive function and ADHD: A comparison of children's performance during
neuropsychological testing in real-world activities by Vivienne Lawrence, Stephen
Houghton, Graham Douglas, Kevin Durkin, Ken Whiting, and Rosemary Tannock
a. This study of ADHD looked at neuropsychological testing conducted in laboratory
settings and took real-life measures of executive function and processing speed.
They used 22 unmedicated boys with ADHD and individually matched them with
22 boys who did not have ADHD based on age and IQ. It is a very interesting and
informative study.
10. Totally ADD - http://totallyadd.com/
a. This website uses humor and social situations to educate people about ADD and
ADHD. This website is for people with ADD or ADHD. It is designed to help to get
rid of the fear and shame that can be carried by those who have ADD or ADHD.
Even though it is designed for people with ADD or ADHD I believe it can bring
enlightenment about these disabilities those without ADD or ADHD also.
Additional Resources
1. ADHD Fact Sheet -
https://www.cdc.gov/ncbddd/adhd/documents/adhdfactsheetenglish.pdf
2. ADHD Symptoms Checklist -
https://www.cdc.gov/ncbddd/adhd/documents/adhd-symptom-checklist-2015-06-08.p
df
3. Navigating Elementary School -
http://www.shirecontent.com/otherdocuments/PDFs/Navigating_Elementary_School_
USA_ENG.pdf
4. Navigating Middle School -
http://www.shirecontent.com/otherdocuments/PDFs/Navigating_Middle_School_USA_
ENG.pdf
5. Navigating High School -
http://www.shirecontent.com/otherdocuments/PDFs/Navigating_High_School_USA_EN
G.pdf
Resources that promote inclusion

1. Teacher to Teacher: Supporting Students with ADHD -
http://www.chadd.org/Training-Events/Teacher-to-Teacher.aspx
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2. Teaching Students with ADHD: Helping students with attention deficit disorder succeed
at school -
https://www.helpguide.org/articles/add-adhd/teaching-students-with-adhd-attention-d
eficit-disorder.htm
3. Accommodating students with ADHD in the classroom -
eficit-disorder.htm#classroom
4. Teaching techniques for students with ADHD -
5. How teachers can help children with ADHD -
Accommodations
1. Physical management
a. Physical environment of a classroom can also have an impact on the behavior of
students with ADHD. The arrangement of the room is most important. The
student with ADHD may need to be near the teacher in order to focus attention
on the information being presented in the classroom; however, the student
should never be placed near the teacher as a punishment. Whenever possible,
involve the student in determining his or her best placement for learning. There
should also be various places in the room where quiet activities can take place.
b. Smith, T.E.C., Polloway, E.A., Patton, J.R., & Dowdy, C.A. (2012). Teaching
Students with Special Needs in Inclusive Setting (6th ed.). Upper Saddle River. NJ:
Pearson Education.
2. Rewarding desired behavior
a. Behavioral support techniques, especially those that reward desired behavior,
can enhance the education of students with ADHD. Positive reinforcement tends
to increase appropriate behavior. Teachers should consider which rewards
appeal most to the individual who will receive them.
Pearson Education.
3. Avoid long periods of sitting and listening
a. Students with ADHD need a curriculum that focuses on doing. Sitting and
listening is difficult for students with ADHD. This accommodation can benefit all
students. An example of this is experience-based learning where students
develop their own project, perform experiments. This will help all students grow
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as active learners. Teacher should allow students with ADHD to stand at their
desk while they work or stand in the back of the room and work. Promoting
frequent movement will help students with ADHD stay focused.
Pearson Education.
4. Vary assessment techniques
a. This accommodation is accomplished when the teacher alternate their
assessment methods. Examples of varying assessment are oral examinations,
multiple-choice instead of essay or short answer tests, take-home tests,
open-book or open-note exams, or portfolio assessment. Students with ADHD
will generally be able to take the same tests as their peers; however, testing
adaptations may be needed to specifically address their specific ADHD
characteristics. It might include extra time to take the test, frequent breaks,
taking the exam in a distraction-reduced environment, or using a computer to
record responses.
Pearson Education.
5. Incorporate student interest
a. For this accommodation to be successful a teacher first needs to get to know
his/her students. The content of the instructional activity needs to be related to
the students interests. Not each student is going to be interested in the same
thing so teachers should offer more than one option. An easy way to discover
what your students are interested in is by simply ask them. It is also helpful to
solicit feedback from students concerning the ways they feel comfortable
demonstrating mastery.
Pearson Education.
6. Do not try to accomplish so much at one time
a. Students with ADHD will feel overwhelmed and shut-down if too much work is
presented to them at one time. Students with ADHD often have trouble focusing
and staying organized and these feelings are exasperated when too much is
presented to them at one time. It is important to remember do not rush and it is
helpful to break the assignments up into smaller sections.
Pearson Education.
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7. Offer student choices
a. Many students will feel more motivated if they are presented with a choice of
work. It can also help to keep their interest because they will be working on their
school work in a way that they find enjoyable. It will also help to keep their
attention.
Pearson Education.
8. Use purposeful activities
a. Purposeful activities can be implemented when a students mind starts to
wander or they seem tired or bored. These activities include taking a note to the
office, feeding any animals in the classroom, taking books back to the library,
sharpening pencils, or reorganizing some papers. This will get the student up and
moving and the teacher will be able to regain their attention.
Pearson Education.
9. Behavior plan
a. With the help of the student the teacher can create a behavior plan. It is
important to allow the student to assist in creating the plan so they will be
vested in it. The behavior plan, if followed correctly, will lead to a reward for the
student. This way he or she will understand what is expected of their behavior
and what they will receive if they follow the plan. It is a great incentive for
students with ADHD to not be disruptive.
b. Understood.org -
https://www.understood.org/en/school-learning/partnering-with-childs-school/i
nstructional-strategies/at-a-glance-classroom-accommodations-for-adhd
10. Use technology
a. Most students have been exposed to some form of technology. Which is a great
tool to use to promote learning. In today's society students lives work in a
technological way. They know how to use cell phones, tablets, computers, and
video games. Many would prefer to learn in the same manner. There will also be
students who do not have these forms of technology in their home and
therefore would greatly benefit with exposure to technology. The key is to not
overuse technology. If it is overused the personal relationship between the
teacher and student is not being built.
b. Understood.org -
https://www.understood.org/en/school-learning/partnering-with-childs-school/i
nstructional-strategies/at-a-glance-classroom-accommodations-for-adhd
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At Risk Students
Introduction of Disability
A. Why I chose at-risk students:
I chose to research students who are at risk because I feel this covers many of the
students in school today. The sad fact is that in today's society many families live at or
below the poverty line, many children go to bed hungry, homelessness has increased,
more children come from divorced homes, and many children are abused either
physically, emotionally, or sexually. I have a passion to help those students and their
families. Both of my parents came from an abusive homes and have told me how it
affected them. Thankfully they were able to overcome their upbringing and break the
cycle. I want to learn ways that I can help those students within my classroom so that
they can break the cycle they are living in and realize they can be successful.
B. Definition:
At risk is used to describe children who have personal characteristics or who live in
families that display characteristics associated with problems in school. These students
are in situations that can lead to academic, personal, and behavioral problems that may
limit their success in school and later in life.
C. Causes, statistics, and prevalence of at-risk students
a. Causes:
i. Poverty
ii. Homelessness
iii. Single-parent homes
iv. Death of a significant person
v. Abusive situation
vi. Substance abuse
vii. Teen pregnancy
viii. Sexual identity issues
ix. Delinquency
x. Refugee
xi. Unrecognized disabilities
xii. Premature birth
i. 18% of children age 0 to 17 live in poverty
ii. Ethnic poverty rates for children:
1. Caucasian 10%
2. African-American 35%
3. Hispanic 29%
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iii. Children who live in a married-couple family have a rate of poverty of 9%
versus 43% in single-mother households.
iv. The National Law Center on homelessness & poverty stated an estimated
3.5 million people are likely to experience homelessness in a given year.
v. As many as 39% of all persons who are homeless are children
1. 42% of these children are under the age of 5
vi. 1 in 50 children are homeless
vii. 68% of children live with two married parents
viii. In 2007, 40% of births in the United States were to unmarried women
ix. An estimated 50% of all new marriages will end in divorce
x. Almost 5 children die everyday as a result of child abuse. Most are under
the age of 4.
xi. 90% of child sexual abuse victim know the person in some way; 68% are
abused by family members
xii. 31% of women and 14% of men in prison in the United States were
abused as children
xiii. Abused children are 25% more likely to experience teen pregnancy
xiv. 30% of abused and neglected children will later abuse their own children
xv. An estimated 34% of women become pregnant before the age of 20 with
80% of those pregnancies unplanned.
xvi. In 2007, 22.2 births out of 1,000 were to females ages 15 to 17
xvii. 75.4% of students who are lesbian, gay, bisexual, or transgender (LGBT)
had heard derogatory remarks directed toward them frequently at school
1. 37.8% were physically harassed
2. 17.6 were physically assaulted (beaten, punched, kicked)
3. LGBT students skipped school 5 times more often than the
general population of students
D. The impact at-risk students can have on the general education classroom:
a. If a student is living in poverty they usually are going to bed hungry every night.
This can lead to damaging the childs still developing neurological system, they
will have a difficult time concentrating on school-work and frequently display
behavior problems in the classroom.
b. The student may not have supplies and other required items for class activities.
c. The teacher needs to be aware of the child living situation and not set
requirements that the student will not be able to reach due to finances.
d. Students who are homeless often have health problems, hunger, poor nutrition,
academic achievement deficits, behavioral problems, fears and phobias, anxiety,
anger, depression, low self-esteem, and embarrassment.
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e. Many single-parent homes are headed by mothers. The absence of a father has a
negative effect on the academic achievement of boys and girl.
f. Many single-parent homes also experience poverty at some level. This also has a
negative impact on the student academic success.
g. Students who are abused may have many emotional and behavioral issues.
i. Depression
ii. Attempted suicide
iii. Impulsive, defiant, and antisocial Behavior
iv. Inappropriate habits and ticks
v. Age inappropriate behaviors
vi. Extreme fear
vii. Sleep and eating disorders
viii. Self-destructive tendencies
ix. Rigidly compulsive Behaviors
h. LGBT are at greater risk for depression and attempting suicide
i. With all of these issues teachers need to consistently monitor their students
behaviors. Students may act out at school when they are having problems at
home. Teachers need to talk to their students and let them know they are a safe
person to talk to. Students who are living in any of the situations listed above
also have a lot of stress and burden they carry with them. This will affect their
performance and behavior in the classroom.
j. Many of the students also have truancy issues. A student missing a lot of school
can be easily overlooked but should not be. It can be a sign of a bigger problem.
k. Students who are at risk need preventive intervention; stopping behavior or
academic problems before they begin

1. Behavioral contract
a. Summary:
i. Behavioral Contracts are a negotiated agreement between a student and
authority figures. With behavior contracts the student and the teacher
come to an agreement that gives specific contingencies under which the
student must behave. The student needs to be allowed to negotiate the
contract. It will also include a description of the expected behaviors, a
goal statement, a list of rewards to earn for meeting the goal, and
discipline for continuing to engage in problem behavior. The teacher and
the student will sign the agreement. It is also helpful to include the
principal and parents if possible. The teacher will meet with the student
to monitor his or her progress.
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b. Research supporting the intervention:
i. Diana Browning Wright, M.S., L.E.P (2013). Six Evidence Based Behavior
Interventions Prior to or Instead of Behavior Plans
http://www.ksde.org/Portals/0/SES/legal/conf12/09a-Browning-Wright-1
-NebraskaLaw6Tiers.pdf
i. This intervention does not have a cost
ii. This intervention will take time for the teacher and student to meet and
create their behavior contract. It will also take time for the teacher and
student to to meet so the teacher can discuss with the student their
progress.
d. How will the intervention be used in the general education classroom to support
inclusion?
i. This intervention allows the student to stay in the general education
classroom by assisting them in controlling their behavior.
e. References/Resources:
ii. Simonsen, Brandi, et al. "Evidence-based practices in classroom
management: Considerations for research to practice." Education and
Treatment of Children 31.3 (2008): 351-380.
2. Structure mentor-based support
a. Summary:
i. Structure mentor-based support matches a teacher to a student; the
teacher will be this students mentor. The mentor will provide
unconditional positive regard and feedback. The mentor will meet with
their student once a day to check in on their behavior and fill out a
student behavior report card for the day. There are four steps in this
system:
1. Check-in: Give a positive greeting; check for school readiness; cut-
off problems before they manifest; reminder of expected
behaviors; discuss reward to be earned; give the student a
monitoring chart
2. Teacher feedback by period: Teacher monitoring; give prompts to
engage in expected behavior; reminder of reward to be earned;
give non-emotional feedback
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3. Check-out: Positive greeting; deliver praise/reward; provide
non-judgmental feedback; allow student to calculate the results
of their behavior report cards
4. Parent feedback: Deliver consequences at home based on
behavior at school; provide encouragement for a better day
tomorrow or celebrate success
i. This intervention basically has zero cost. The only item that will be
needed is paper for the behavior report card.
ii. This intervention will require a meeting in the beginning to discuss the
process. This meeting will last approximately 30 minutes. After that a
5-10 minute meeting each day will be needed.
inclusion?
i. This intervention is a support system that encourages the student to have
appropriate behavior in their classroom. It does not pull them out of their
class therefore it promotes inclusion.
i. Jones, Melanie S., and W. Fred Pauley. "Mentoring beginning public
school teachers." Adult Learning 14.1 (2003): 23-25.
ii. Diana Browning Wright, M.S., L.E.P (2013). Six Evidence Based Behavior
3. Self-monitoring
a. Summary:
i. Self-monitoring uses self-reflection to increase the students
self-management skills. This can be done through time points and
self-recording of behavior according to pre-established goals.
Self-observation is when a student reflects on their behavior over a set
amount of time. Self-recording is when a student will mark down on their
chart whether they met a behavior or not. This process allows the
student to recognize his or her behaviors and increases their ability to
control them.
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b. Research supporting the intervention :
i. The only cost with this intervention is the paper that is used.
ii. The amount of time this intervention will take will be very minimal for
the teacher. The teacher will need to spend time teaching the student
how to properly self-monitor. The self-monitoring process should only
take moments out of the students day to mark their behavior.
d. How will the intervention be used in the general education classroom to
promote inclusion?
i. This intervention promotes inclusion by allowing the student to stay
within their general education class and monitor their own behavior.
ii. Amato-Zech, Natalie A., Kathryn E. Hoff, and Karla J. Doepke. "Increasing
on-task behavior in the classroom: Extension of self-monitoring
strategies." Psychology in the Schools 43.2 (2006): 211-221.
4. School-home note system
a. Summary:
i. The school-home note system is a collaboration between school staff,
typically the teacher, and the students family. It involves the teacher
communicating the student's performance to his or her parent(s). The
parent either delivers consequences or praise at home, based on the
students behavior in school. The parent also can share with the teacher
anything going on with the student outside of school that may be
affecting their behavior or performance.
i. This intervention does not have a cost.
18
ii.This intervention will take a varied amount of time depending on each
individual student. The amount of time that needs to be put into the
intervention will depend on how often and how much communication
happens between the teacher and the parent(s).
d. How well the intervention be used in the general education classroom to support
inclusion?
i. This intervention supports inclusion because it allows the student to stay
in their general education classroom. It's designed to reinforce
appropriate behavior in the classroom from consequences or praise they
receive at home.
i. Kelley, Mary Lou. School-home notes: Promoting children's classroom
success. The Guilford Press, 1990.
ii. Diana Browning Wright, M.S., L.E.P (2013). Six Evidence Based Behavior
5. Class pass
a. Summary:
i. Class pass is when the student has a pass that allows them to step away
from class for a few minutes if they feel they absolutely need a break.
This intervention is designed to encourage students to not use the pass
so it can be exchanged for a reward. It works because the student can
choose to use the pass to get a break from class or choose to save it and
stay in class. By making it their choice It increases their ability to tolerate
academic work that they typically are frustrated with or find boring. It
also gives them comfort in knowing if they need to they can have a break.
There are 7 steps to using the class pass intervention:
1. Meet with the student and teach them how the class pass
intervention work and how to appropriately request a break using
the class pass.
2. Discuss with the staff a place where the student can go to take a
break from class. The break should last for no more than three to
7 minutes.
3. Create rewards or privileges that will be earned by saving the
class passes. It should be designed that the more passes the
student saves the better the reward or privilege.
4. Give the students a set number of passes; anywhere from 3 to 5 is
usually preferred.
19
5. Teachers should give the student prompts to use the pass if the
student is about to engage in problem behavior.
6. The teacher needs to monitor and track the effectiveness of the
class pass intervention to determine if it is the appropriate
intervention for the student.
7. Give the student feedback about how he or she is doing.
i. The only cost involved with this intervention is end the creation of the
class passes and possibly rewards.
ii. To implement this intervention the teacher will need to take time to
explain to the student how to appropriately use the passes and how the
system will work. The teacher will also need to spend a little amount of
time monitoring the students progress with the use of the intervention.
inclusion?
i. This intervention supports inclusion. It does this by encouraging the
student to stay in the general education classroom. However, it also
allows for them to leave the classroom; only for a few minutes and not
often.
Resources
1. Teaching with Poverty in Mind: How to Help At Risk Students Succeed -
http://www.scilearn.com/blog/how-to-help-at-risk-students-succeed
a. This article is good for teachers to read. It discusses how children living in
poverty may have difficulty learning and gives several suggestions and
observations for building brainpower among students living in poverty through
the use of purposeful teaching.
20
2. How teachers can guide and motivate at risk students -
https://expertbeacon.com/how-teachers-can-guide-and-help-motivate-risk-students/#.
WP0CRtLyuCg
a. This article covers a list of dos and don'ts with at-risk students. It is a quick read
with some great insights to why certain practices will or will not work with at-risk
students. The advice in this article is designed to give at-risk students support
and encouragement which in turn will help them be more successful in school
and in life.
3. At-Risk Students: Transforming Student Behavior by Charisse Beach
a. This book discusses warning signs at-risk students display that are oftentimes
unnoticed by teachers and misdiagnosed by mental health professionals. This
book will help teachers be able to identify at-risk characteristics and implement
policies to encourage and monitor the students academic achievement. The
author gives research-based strategies that will be useful in every classroom.
4. Classroom Strategies for Helping At-Risk Students by David Snow & Zoe A. Barley
a. This book shows the results of a study that looked at a hundred and eighteen
at-risk students and identified six strategies that were proven to be positive
interventions. Each strategy is described in detail and provides ways for teachers
to implement these strategies into their own classroom.
5. Motivating At-Risk Students by Hawker Brownlow Education
a. This book covers an array of topics which include identifying at-risk learners,
motivational theories, personal and cognitive influencing factors, creating a
positive classroom environment, instructional strategies for at-risk learners, and
assessment practices. This book discusses factors that can influence at-risk
learners. It is a great book that will give anyone who reads it a greater
understanding of at-risk students.
6. After-School Prevention Programs for At-Risk Students: Promoting Engagement and
Academic Success by Elaine Clanton Harpine
a. This book is a great resource to help a school Implement their own after-school
program. it discusses step-by-step how to create and effectively run and
after-school program. The author explains how to effectively use therapeutic
techniques in the after-school programs which can help students increase their
academic performance, increase self-esteem, and reduce behavioral problems
inside and outside of the classroom.
7. National Center for Children in Poverty (NCCP) -
http://www.nccp.org/publications/pub_1073.html
a. NCCP is a public policy center aimed at promoting economic security, health, and
well-being of all low-income people in America. This is a very informative
website covering many statistics of low-income/poverty levels in each state. It
21
also has informative information on subjects such as adolescent health and
youth development, child poverty, children's mental health, early care and
learning, healthy development, immigrant families, infants and toddlers,
low-wage work, Social Security, and welfare. There is also a section that covers
the latest topics in our government that affect low-income families such as the
Affordable Care Act.
8. Bridges 4 Kids - http://www.bridges4kids.org/At-Risk.html
a. At first glance this website looked not well put together however after going
through it it had a lot of useful information. It has useful articles on truancy,
suicide, migrant children, child abuse and neglect, homeless children, minority
youth, teen pregnancy, sexual orientation, drop-outs, and several others. The
website has such a large amount of articles that can benefit teachers, school
staff, parents, and youth.
9. True Colors: Sexual Minority Youth & Family Services -
http://www.ourtruecolors.org/Resources/Reading/straight-parents.html
a. True Colors is a great support system for families with LGBT children and it is also
a great support for those children themselves. The website contain articles
written by family members and by youth describing their experiences and how
they have dealt with negative interactions. They have mentoring and other
programs, and hold many events for the LGBT youth community. It also has
informative information on the latest topics in the news.
10. National Institute on Drug Abuse - https://www.drugabuse.gov/parents-educators
a. This website has a parents and educators section that has valuable information
and facts regarding use and substance abuse. There is a free resource section for
parents with topics such as: positive parenting prevents drug abuse, preventing
drug abuse among children and adolescents, commonly abused drugs, drug
facts, and they even have a Spanish only section. There is free lesson materials
for educators along with a list of other resources.
1. Beyond Hangovers: Understanding alcohol's impact on your health -
https://pubs.niaaa.nih.gov/publications/Hangovers/beyondHangovers.htm
2. Alcohol Facts and Statistics -
https://pubs.niaaa.nih.gov/publications/AlcoholFacts&Stats/AlcoholFacts&Stats.htm
3. Homeless Unaccompanied Children and Youth in America fact sheet -
http://www.endhomelessness.org/library/entry/homeless-unaccompanied-children-and
-youth-in-america
4. Mandatory Reporting of Child Abuse - http://www.abusewatch.net/mandatory.pdf
22
5. The Four Types of Child Abuse -
http://www.abusewatch.net/4%20abuse%20types%20web.pdf
Resources That Promote Inclusion

1. Inclusive Schools Network - http://inclusiveschools.org/inclusion-resources/
2. Teaching T olerance - http://www.tolerance.org/lgbt-best-practices
3. Developing L GBT Inclusive Classroom Resources -
http://www.glsen.org/sites/default/files/LGBT%20incl%20curr%20guide.pdf
4. Teaching Tolerance: Responding to Hate and Bias at School -
http://www.tolerance.org/publication/responding-hate-and-bias-school
5. Examining Your Schools Climate - http://www.tolerance.org/map-it-out
Accommodations
1. Prevention programs
a. A key focus needs to be on developing appropriate skills and behaviors that will
assist the student in being successful. Prevention programs are aimed at keeping
certain negative factors from impacting students. There are several types of
prevention programs such as: drug prevention, anti-smoking education, sex
education. The goal is to instill responsible behaviors in the students when they
are young so they do not develop problem behaviors later.
Pearson Education.
2. Compensatory education programs
a. These types of programs are designed to make-up for existing or past risk factors
and their effect on students lives. These can be a Head Start or Chapter I reading
program. Schools can create any program that will give the student an equal
advantage with the other students.
Pearson Education.
3. Intervention programs
a. The goal of intervention programs is to eliminate risk factors In the child's life.
These can start as young as preschool with early intervention programs or
teaching adolescents and teenagers how to be good parents. Because many
students at risk will grow up to have the same lifestyle they grew up in
intervention programs are a wonderful way to help break the cycle in their life.
23
Pearson Education.
4. Transition programs
a. Transition programs help prepare students for life after high school. Helping the
students to make a connection between what they learn in school and how they
can use that later in life is a key element when teaching students who are at-risk.
Many students who are at-risk do not have home lives that allow them to see
how school benefits their lives. Some students do not have a parent who cares
enough to encourage them to be successful. It may open a whole new world to a
student to have a teacher show them what they can do with their life.
Pearson Education.
5. After-school programs
a. For many students after-school programs are a wonderful way to avoid going
home. Students who are at-risk face going home to either abuse, neglect, or
hunger. Some students don't even have a home to go to. By offering after-school
programs students are given a safe environment for a little while longer. Many of
todays youth go home to an empty house with no adult supervision. At-risk
students are more likely to participate in harmful activities such as drug abuse.
When they have extra time, that is unsupervised, they are at a higher risk to
participate in that type of activity.
Pearson Education.
6. Directions
a. When giving directions do not overwhelm the student with a large number of
instructions at once. Rather give the student up to 3 instructions and once those
are completed give a couple more. Many students who are at-risk have a lot of
stress in their lives and have a hard time focusing on school work. By limiting the
number of instructions given at one time it will help to keep their focus.
b. https://www.thoughtco.com/intervention-strategies-for-students-at-risk-311133
8
7. Mentoring
a. It does not matter what age the student is, having a positive relationship with an
adult is beneficial. In todays society, many children and youth lack a positive
adult role model. If a child has a positive adult role model they are more likely to
be successful in school and life. This is because they will have someone to
24
confide in and get reliable advice from. Mentors also serve as a key protective
factor for children and youth therefore promoting resilience.
Pearson Education.
8. Self-determination
a. Helping to create self-determination in a student who is at-risk is a key
component to them being successful in life. If a student gains self-determination
they will be able to make the choices in their life that will keep them from
repeating the same problem behaviors they grew up in. Also for students who
have a good home life, but have other factors that make them considered to be
at-risk, teaching them self-determination will help them to be more confident in
who they are and secure in the decisions they make for their life. This is
especially true for students in the LGBT community.
Pearson Education.
9. Building social competencies
a. Social skills are an integral part of daily life. Teaching students how to have
appropriate social skills will help them be successful in life. Students who are
at-risk many times have had negative social interactions at home, in the
community, or at school. They may not know how to interact appropriately in
social settings. When they acquire the appropriate social skills it will also help to
increase their self-esteem because they will feel more confident and
comfortable around their peers as well as people in the community.
Pearson Education.
10. Modeling
a. Some students who are at-risk have emotional issues and can act out in the
classroom. By showing the student the appropriate behaviors and responses
they can visually see how they should behave and react. For some students this
will be simple enough as complementing the appropriate behavior of another
student. With some students it may require more time and one-on-one
discussions with that student about the appropriate behaviors expected.
Pearson Education.
25
.
Autism Spectrum Disorder
A. Why I chose autism spectrum disorder :
I chose autism spectrum disorder because one of my closest friends has a three year old
who has been diagnosed with autism. I have seen the challenges he faces and I know as
an educator I too will have students in my classroom who have autism. Autism can be
expressed differently in each child. There are varying degrees on the autism spectrum. I
would like to have a better understanding of this disorder and learn effective strategies
to help not only my students but also my friend.
B. Definition: Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD), as defined by Individuals with Disabilities
Education Act (IDEA) is:
a. A developmental disability significantly affecting verbal and nonverbal
communication and social interaction, generally evident before age three, that
adversely affects a child's educational performance.
b. Autism does not apply if a child's educational performance is adversely affected
primarily because the child has an emotional disturbance.
c. A child who manifest the characteristics of autism after age three could be
identified as having autism if certain criteria are met.
C. Causes, statistics, and prevalence of speech and language impairments
a. Causes: The common assumption is that autism is related to abnormality in brain
structure or function. There is not a single specific cause of autism but a variety
of factors can result in this disability.
i. Organic factors:
1. Brain damage
2. Genetic links
3. Complications during pregnancy
ii. Environmental factors:
1. Exposure to toxins or heavy metals
2. Infections
3. There is also the debate of the measles-mumps-rubella vaccine
(MMR) causing children to have autism
i. In 2016 the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) found less
than half the children identified with autism (43%) had received
comprehensive developmental evaluations by age 3.
26
ii. African American and Hispanic children receive developmental
evaluations later than Caucasian children and continue to be diagnosed
with autism at lower rates.
iii. 1 in 68 children in the United States have been diagnosed with autism.
iv. About 1 percent of the world population has autism.
v. More than 3.5 million Americans live with autism.
vi. Prevalence of autism in U.S. children increased by 119.4 percent from
2000 (1 in 150) to 2010 (1 in 68).
vii. 1 in 42 boys and 1 in 189 girls have been diagnosed with autism. This
means it is 4.5 times more common in boys.
viii. Autism is the fastest-growing developmental disability.
D. The impact autism spectrum disorder can have on the general education classroom:
a. Teachers will need to incorporate key curricular needs into the general
education program.
b. The educational program needs to promote functionality in order to help the
student deal with the daily tasks they will have throughout life.
c. Teachers will need to make programs appropriate for the students
developmental level and chronological age.
d. Individuals with autism may have communication difficulties (verbal and
nonverbal).
e. Individual with autism may have sensory processing deficits showing as: intense
fear reactions to new situations, people, changes, and loud noises.
f. Individuals with autism can have repetitive behavior, interests and activities.
Teachers need to be aware of this and create activities that incorporate these
traits.
g. Teachers also need to be aware that cognitive and perceptual impairment may
manifest as literal, here-and-now thinking, a tendency to over-select irrelevant
stimuli and have lack of imaginary play.

1. Modeling
a. Summary:
i. The modeling intervention involves adult or peers giving demonstration
of target behavior for individuals with autism to imitate. Examples of
modeling: live modeling, video modeling, and self-modeling where the
person with autism is the model and a video is edited by the educator so
that the student appears successful in performing the targeted task or
behavior independently.
27
National Autism Center completed a standard project initiative, in 2009,
i.
to identify the level of current research for educational and behavioral
treatments for persons with autism. It yielded 38 treatments that were
grouped into different categories.
1. National Autism Center. (2009a). Evidence-based practice and
autism in the schools: A guide to providing appropriate
interventions to students with autism spectrum disorders.
Randolph, MA: Author.
2. National Autism Center. (2009b). findings and conclusions of the
national standards project. Randolph, MA: Author.
3. National Autism Center. (2009c). National standards report.
Randall, MA: Author.
i. The cost of this intervention will depend upon the school. If video
modeling is used a video camera may need to be purchased if one is not
readily available for the teacher to use as needed.
ii. The time that will be required will depend on the students involved.
Some behaviors will can be modeled more quickly than others. Teachers
will also have a time spent training the student in the proper modeling
techniques.
inclusion?
i. This intervention supports inclusion because it does not require the
student with autism to leave the classroom. This intervention can be
done in the classroom. It also promotes social interaction.
i. University of Louisville -
https://louisville.edu/education/abri/primarylevel/modeling/autism_msd
ii. Cihak, D., Fahrenkrog, C., Ayres, K. M., & Smith, C. (2010). The use of
video modeling via a video iPod and a system of least prompts to improve
transitional behaviors for students with autism spectrum disorders in the
general education classroom. Journal of Positive Behavior Interventions,
12(2), 103-115.
2. Antecedent Package
a. Summary:
i. The antecedent package involves cost-effective, time-efficient strategies
that modify environmental events that typically proceed target behaviors
and includes: behavior chain interruption, choice, priming, non-cognitive
28
reinforcement, errorless learning, social comments, adult presence,
special interest, thematic activities, or obsessive behaviors into tasks.
i. National Autism Center completed a standard project initiative, in 2009,
c. Cost and time the intervention will take :
i. This intervention does not typically carry much cost if any.
ii. The time this intervention will take is minimal. This is because it can be
incorporated into the daily routine of the classroom without the teacher
needing to spend a large amount of one-on-one time with the student.
inclusion?
i. This intervention supports inclusion because it allows the student with
autism to remain in the general education classroom. The teacher will
create strategies to prevent possible behavior problems before they
happen. This can be done by moving a student to the front of the class
who regularly cries or gets upset.
i. Treatments for Students with Autism by Regina Whitmer -
https://www.districtadministration.com/article/treatments-students-auti
sm
ii. Wong, C., Odom, S. L., Hume, K. A., Cox, A. W., Fettig, A., Kucharczyk, S.,
... & Schultz, T. R. (2015). Evidence-based practices for children, youth,
and young adults with autism spectrum disorder: A comprehensive
review. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 45(7),
1951-1966.
3. Naturalistic Teaching Strategies (NTS):
a. Summary:
29
i. Naturalistic teaching strategies mainly involves child-directed interactions
to teach functional skills in their natural environment through direct and
natural consequences. This can use a variety of materials and
programming common stimuli. The teacher uses the students motivation
by following his or her interest. This intervention is both adaptive and
reactive to the needs of the student.
i. This intervention does not have a cost because it is a teaching strategy.
ii. The overall time this intervention will take is minimal. It will take more
time in the beginning until the teacher learns what works and does not
work for the student.
inclusion?
i. This intervention promotes inclusion because the students stays in their
general education classroom. This intervention is designed as a support
for teachers giving them another strategy to use to encourage the
success of their students.
i. Applied Behavior Analysis: What is Naturalistic Teaching?
http://www.appliedbehavioranalysisprograms.com/faq/what-is-naturalis
tic-teaching/
ii. Schepis, M. M., Reid, D. H., Behrmann, M. M., & Sutton, K. A. (1998).
Increasing communicative interactions of young children with autism
using a voice output communication aid and naturalistic teaching. Journal
of Applied Behavior Analysis, 31(4), 561-578.
30
iii. Kohler, F. W., Strain, P. S., Hoyson, M., & Jamieson, B. (1997). Merging
naturalistic teaching and peer-based strategies to address the IEP
objectives of preschoolers with autism: An examination of structural and
child behavior outcomes. Focus on Autism and Other Developmental
Disabilities, 12(4), 196-206.
4. Peer Training Package
a. Summary:
i. Peer training focuses on teaching children without disabilities to facilitate
play and social-interactions with children with autism. Some examples of
these are peer networks, circle of friends, integrated playgroup, and
peer- mediated social interactions.
i. The cost involved in this intervention will depend if the school sends the
teachers to trainings to learn how to incorporate peer training into their
classrooms. Otherwise there is no cost involved.
ii. There will be time involved with this intervention. The time will be spent
training the students without disabilities how to interact and understand
the students with autism. The training may need to be refreshed during
the school year or held again if there are new students who have not had
this training before. The school may also have some group meetings to
make sure everything is going well.
inclusion?
i. This intervention, in my opinion, is one of the best at promoting
inclusion. This intervention promotes social interaction among all
31
students. This can be used within the general education classroom or at
recess.
i. Randolph, M. (2009). Evidence based practice and autism in the schools:
A guide to providing appropriate interventions to students with autism
spectrum disorders (pp. 55-58). Randolph, Mass.: National Autism Center.
ii. Goldstein, H., Kaczmarek, L., Pennington, R., & Shafer, K. (1992).
Peer-mediated intervention: Attending to, commenting on, and
acknowledging the behavior of preschoolers with autism. Journal of
Applied Behavior Analysis, 25(2), 289-305.
5. Self-management
a. Summary:
i. Self-management promotes independence by teaching behavior
regulation through recording a current or non-current of behavior and
receiving reinforcements for doing this. Some of the tools that are used
are checklists, wrist counters, visual prompts, and tokens.
i. Neitzel, J. & Busick, M. (2009). Overview of self-management. Chapel Hill,
NC: National Professional Development Center on Autism Spectrum
Disorders, Frank Porter Graham Child Development Institute, The
University of North Carolina.
ii. National Autism Center completed a standard project initiative, in 2009,
i. There is the cost of any tools used such as the wrist counters. Unless the
school already has the supplies needed.
ii. The intervention will take time to get implemented. It is going to take
time to teach the student how to use the self-management tools. There
32
will also be time spent reminding and reteaching the self-management
skills.
inclusion?
i. This intervention supports inclusion by allowing children with autism to
remain in the general education classroom with appropriate supports.
i. Koegel, L. K., Koegel, R. L., Hurley, C., & Frea, W. D. (1992). Improving
social skills and disruptive behavior in children with autism through
self-management. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 25(2), 341-353.
ii. Lee, S. H., Simpson, R. L., & Shogren, K. A. (2007). Effects and implications
of self-management for students with autism: A meta-analysis. Focus on
Autism and Other Developmental Disabilities, 22(1), 2-13.
Resources
1. Autism Society - http://www.autism-society.org/
a. The website contains a lot of useful information on autism. One can find the
answer to the question what is autism, causes, diagnosing, and statistics. It also
contain useful information for parents of children with autism or for people who
themselves have autism. There are articles on living with autism, legal resources,
treatment options, family issues, community inclusion, and future planning. The
Autism Society also has a vast amount of resources to assist families.
2. Autism Cares Foundation - http://autismcaresfoundation.org/
a. This website offers newsletters, resources, scholarships, and also host events for
people with autism. There is a technology program and assistance for adults with
autism. The Autism Cares Foundation also holds a spring Gala every year. There
are many articles answering general autism questions.
3. Autism Speaks - www.autismspeaks.org
a. Autism Speaks is one of the leading autism science and advocacy organizations.
They provide a comprehensive resource guide for all states. The site also has a
large list of apps that parents may find useful, including games that focus on
communication and social skills.
4. Autism Web A Parent's Guide to Autism Spectrum Disorder - www.autismweb.com
a. This website is managed by parents, it also includes great insight on different
autism teaching methods. There is also a forum where parents can go to share
their stories, get updates on their children's progress, and even find recipes that
might help with a picky eater.
5. Asperger Syndrome and High Functioning Autism Association - www.ahany.org
33
a. The Asperger Syndrome and High Functioning Autism Association website has
many great resources aimed for those with higher functioning autism. They
provide a list of summer programs and day camps in New York, as well as useful
questions to ask when choosing a camp or summer program for your child with
special needs. Though the camps may be too far for many to attend this website
is a great resource.
6. Autism Research Institute - https://www.autism.com/
a. The Autism Research Institute focuses on researching the causes of autism, as
well as developing safe and effective treatments for those currently affected by
the disorder. There is information to help people understand autism, what the
symptoms and behaviors are, and what treatment options are available.
7. Ten Things Every Child with Autism Wishes You Knew by Ellen Notbohm
a. This book discusses communication issues and social processing skills. It also
discusses how important an adults role is In guiding a child with autism to a
productive and successful adulthood. There are also 70 questions that would
work well for small group discussion or personal reflection.
8. The Complete Guide to Asperger's Syndrome by Tony Attwood
a. The Complete Guide to Asperger's Syndrome is a great tool for anyone affected
by Asperger's syndrome. There is a section explaining the impact of DSM-5 on
the diagnosis. The author discusses information from case studies and personal
accounts from his own clinical experience and interactions with people who have
Asperger's Syndrome. It covers helpful information on social interaction,
friendship, teasing, bullying, and mental health issues. It also has a frequently
asked questions chapter, as well as literature and educational tools.
9. Understanding My Friends With Autism - A simulation program for kids age 5-11
(YouTube video) https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wES6ZeoDaUs
a. This video was created by a mother of 3 children, one whom has autism. It is
designed to help siblings and peers of children with autism understand why they
act differently. It is a fun and interactive program that focuses on sensory
processing issues. It shows a young girl with autism and she explains her
experiences and the problems her sensory issues cause her every day. This video
has simulation exercises throughout it that allow the participants to understand
the frustration that come with sensory processing issues. The program is
designed not only to create an understanding of autism but also create empathy
for children.
10. What's up with Nick?(YouTube video)
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mtRYKjucDHk
a. In an effort to promote a more inclusive classroom environment, this short video
uses animation and sound to teach elementary and middle school students
34
about their peers with autism. It is designed to be used in coordination with the
Kit for Kids, a resource produced by the Organization for Autism Research (OAR).
1. Living With Autism - Building Our Future: Educating Students On The Spectrum -
https://www.autism-society.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/04/buildingourfuture06.pdf
2. Living With Autism - Next Steps A Guide For Families New To Autism -
https://www.autism-society.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/02/nextsteps09.pdf
3. Living With Autism - Supporting Appropriate Behavior In Students With Aspergers -
https://www.autism-society.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/04/LWA_Supporting-Appro
priateBehavior.pdf
4. Living With Autism - Sibling Perspectives: Guidelines For Parents -
https://www.autism-society.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/04/LWA_Siblings.pdf
5. Living With Autism - Preparing For A Lifetime -
https://www.autism-society.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/04/Transition-Preparing_for
_a_Lifetime.pdf
Accommodations
1. Reinforcement
a. Reinforcement refers to consequences that follow a behavior and either
maintain or increase the occurrence of such behavior. Each individual will have
reinforcers that are unique to them. To effectively use reinforcers an inventory
of reinforcers will need to be developed for each student along with a method
that clearly states the conditions under which these reinforcers are selected and
distributed.
Pearson Education.
2. Discrete Trial Training (DTT)
a. A discrete trial is a small unit of teaching that is implemented by a teacher who
works one-on-one with a student in a distraction-free environment. This will last
for 5 to 20 seconds. The educator presents shorts, clear instruction or questions;
then the student responds. If this is correct, the teacher may reinforce with an
item from the reinforcer inventory. If the response is incorrect the teacher may
35
provide the student with the correct answer and then presented another trial
after briefly pausing for 1 to 5 seconds.
Pearson Education.
3. Shaping
a. Skill building can be promoted by using shaping to develop new behavioral
habits. A teacher can reinforce approximation of a skill or behavior, thereby
shaping the behavior from the initial approximation to the final response. The
desired skill is broken down into smaller, easier to accomplish stuff and if the
student is successful at the first step then the criteria for the reinforcement is
shifted to the next step.
Pearson Education.
4. Priming
a. This can be thought of as pre-practice. The teacher or parent preview the
information with the child before he or she participates in that activity. By
allowing them to preview the material it will be more familiar to them when it is
presented to the classroom.
Pearson Education.
5. Prompts
a. There are several types of prompts a teacher may use. One type of prompt is the
hand-over-hand prompt when the teacher puts his or her hand over the
students hand to guide the student through the skill movement. A less intrusive
prompt can be a teacher touching a student's elbow to initiate a response. The
teacher may also use verbal prompts or visual cues to assist the student to
perform the skill. Be careful not to overuse prompts as the student may become
dependent or wait for a prompt before initiating a skill.
Pearson Education.
6. Functional Behavioral Assessment (FBA)
a. This is a problem solving process that determines the purpose of a behavior so
appropriate strategies can be selected to address the issue. An example of this is,
if the function of the target behavior is escape from academic task then using a
36
timeout would not be an effective procedure because it allows the student to
escape the academic task that they already wanted out of. Instead the teacher
would not allow the student to escape the academic task. The teacher may
physically guide the student to complete the work and model how the academic
task should be completed.
Pearson Education.
7. Individualized supports and services
a. These need to be tailored to each individual's unique needs and family
characteristics. Individual programming can include considering family
preferences when selecting curriculum, develop programming that reflects a
student's preferences and interest, and determining the appropriate intensity
and level of instruction on the basis of the student strengths and weaknesses.
Pearson Education.
8. Systematic instruction
a. When using systematic instruction the desired learning outcomes need to be
identified. Once the learning outcomes have been identified then the teacher
can develop specific and focused strategies to achieve these outcomes. Teachers
must be consistent in implementing the teaching strategies and monitoring
student performance to make any necessary adaptations to daily instructions.
Pearson Education.
9. Structured learning environment
a. Allow students to predict their daily routine and respond appropriately to
behavioral expectations during different activities. Routine is very important for
students with autism. By allowing them to have input into their daily routine it
will help lessen anxiety and help prevent behavioral issues. The key is sticking to
a structured routine every day.
Pearson Education.
10. Functional approach to understanding behavior problem - family involvement
a. The childs family knows them better than anyone else. They will have valuable
insight into the student's personality, thoughts, habits, likes, and dislikes. The
student spends the most time with their family and therefore their family is the
37
biggest influence in their life. It is crucial to help the family be an active
participant in developing and implementing their child's educational
programming.
Pearson Education.
38
Cognitive Impairments
A. Why I chose cognitive impairments/intellectual impairments:
I chose cognitive impairments because it covers such a wide range of people and
disabilities. It also can barely show in one student while another student has significant
deficits. I know as a teacher I'm going to have students in my classroom with cognitive
impairments from mild to severe. I want to be prepared to teach them effectively and
make the correct adaptations for each individual student. Researching cognitive
impairment will give me the tools I need to make the correct accommodations to meet
each students needs.
B. Definition:
Federal definition: Intellectual disability is characterized by significant limitations both in
intellectual function and adaptive behavior as expressed in conceptual, social, and
practical adaptive skills. This disability originates before age 18.
The State of Michigan uses the term cognitive impairments rather than intellectual
disabilities. I will use both interchangeably.
C. Causes, statistics, and prevalence of cognitive impairments
a. Causes - Cognitive impairments has hundreds of known causes and yet many
cases for which the cause is unknown. Often no identifiable causes for mild
cognitive impairments are identified. Some of the known causes are:
i. Down Syndrome
ii. Environmental or Psychosocial Disadvantage
iii. Fetal Alcohol Syndrome
iv. Fragile X Syndrome
v. Hydrocephalus
vi. Phenylketonuria
vii. Prader-Willi Syndrome
viii. Tay-Sachs
i. As of 2016 an estimated 7 to 8 million Americans of all ages had a
cognitive impairment. That is 3% of the general population.
ii. In 2009 slightly less than 1% of school-age children were identified as
having a cognitive impairment.
iii. 12 States reported prevalence rates in excess of 1.2%
39
iv. 2 states that reported prevalence rates above 2%.
v. 19 States reported prevalence rates below 0.6%
vi. 8 States reported prevalence rates of 0.4% or below
vii. 56.9% of students with cognitive impairments are removed from the
general education classroom at least 60% of the day
D. The impact cognitive impairments can have on the general education setting:
a. There are four primary goals to keep in mind as educators develop and
implement curriculums and instructional plans
i. Productive employment - Educators need to build the students career
awareness and relate academic content to applied situations. At the
secondary level this can include training the students in specific job skills
that they will be able to use as they transition out of high school.
ii. Independence and economic self-sufficiency - It is important to teach the
students how to become personally responsible. An educational goal
should be to develop self-directed learners who can address their own
wants and concerns and can advocate for their goals and aspirations. It is
important for these students to be able to go into the world and speak up
for themselves and address their personal needs and wants.
iii. Self-efficacy - This is a sense of personal control, self-esteem, and a sense
of belonging to a group. This will come as a byproduct of inclusive
classroom. Students are being prepared for the challenges and rewards in
life when they are members of a group and have the right to make their
own decisions. This also includes self-determination which is making
choices, making decisions, solving problems, setting and attaining goals,
being independent, evaluating self-performance, self-studying, speaking
up for self, having internal motivations, believing in one's own abilities,
being aware of personal strengths and weaknesses, and up line strength
to overcome weaknesses.
iv. Life skills competence - This focuses on achieving competence in
everyday activities. This includes use of community resources, home and
family activities, social and interpersonal skills, health and safety skills,
use of leisure time, and participation in the community as a citizen.
Including life skills and transitional focus into general education
curriculum is important for these students to successfully transition out
of school.
v. Successful school and community involvement - When students
experience an inclusive environment they learn to participate not only in
school but the community as well. This needs to be viewed as a way to
40
provide instruction and training for success in subsequent inclusive
community activities.

1. Personal Supports
a. Summary:
i. Personal supports are things such as teaching the students self-regulation
or academic skills. It is important for students with cognitive impairments
to learn how manage themselves. It will help them to become more
independent. Teaching them skills to regulate themselves can be as
simple as learning how to use a planner and manage their time wisely.
i. This intervention can have no cost or minimal: the cost of a planner.
ii. This intervention does not have a set amount of time it takes. It will
depend on what types of self-management are being taught and how
quickly the student learns them.
inclusion?
i. This intervention promotes inclusion because it allows the student to
participate more independently within the general education classroom.
i. Tammy Reynolds, B.A., C.E. Zupankick, PSY.D. & Mark Dombeck, PH.D.
(May 21, 2013). Effective Teaching Methods for People With Intellectual
Disabilities
https://www.mentalhelp.net/articles/effective-teaching-methods-for-pe
ople-with-intellectual-disabilities/
2. Natural Supports
a. Summary:
i. Natural support are those that get the students parents, friends, and
family involved. The more involved the people are who are closest to the
student the greater chance the intervention will be successful. The
student spends most of his or her time with family or friends. These are
41
the people who the student will go to if they are having a problem. These
are also the people who can have the greatest influence in their life. By
having friends and peers participate as supporters the student will feel
welcomed and encouraged.
i. Thompson, James R., et al. "Conceptualizing supports and the support
needs of people with intellectual disability." Intellectual and
developmental disabilities 47.2 (2009): 135-146.
i. There is not a cost to this intervention.
ii. For this intervention to work the teacher and natural support participants
will need to have meetings to discuss the supports that are being
implemented and how those should look. They will also need to
communicate often to make sure the supports are being implemented
and are effective.
inclusion?
i. This intervention can support inclusion in the general education
classroom when you enlist the students peers and natural supports. It
also supports inclusion because the student will feel a sense of belonging
from the support that he or she is receiving.
i. Thompson, James R., et al. "Conceptualizing supports and the support
needs of people with intellectual disability." Intellectual and
developmental disabilities 47.2 (2009): 135-146.
ii. Mansell, Jim, and Julie Beadle-Brown. "Person-centred planning or
person-centred action? Policy and practice in intellectual disability
services." Journal of Applied Research in Intellectual Disabilities 17.1
(2004): 1-9.
3. Support Services
a. Summary:
i. Support services within the school are specialized instruction. Data has
shown that general education teachers prefer to make adaptations or
modifications to the standard curriculum by extending test time,
shortening the number of problems given, having the test read to the
student(s). This does not change the content or standards of the
curriculum.
b. Research supporting the intervention :
42
i. Kliewer, Christopher, and David Landis. "Individualizing literacy
instruction for young children with moderate to severe disabilities."
Exceptional Children 66.1 (1999): 85-100.
i. In general this intervention should not have a cost. If different materials
are needed to specialize the instruction then those would need to be
purchased.
ii. This intervention will require the general education teacher and the
special education teacher to create or modify the curriculum to meet the
students needs. This will take more time in the beginning to get the
intervention started and implemented.
inclusion?
i. This intervention supports inclusion because it allows the student to work
in their general education classroom while having the work modified in a
way that allows them to work independently.
ii. Wong, Bernice, ed. Learning about learning disabilities. Academic press,
2011.
4. Assistive Technology
a. Summary:
i. The current definition of assistive technology is, any item, piece of
equipment or product system, whether acquired commercially off the
shelf, modified, or customized, that is used to increase, maintain, or
improve the functional capabilities of children with disabilities. These can
be special switches on a computer, modified keyboards, or pointing
devices. These assist the student in doing their work independently.
i. Mechling, Linda C. "Assistive technology as a self-management tool for
prompting students with intellectual disabilities to initiate and complete
daily tasks: A literature review." Education and Training in Developmental
Disabilities (2007): 252-269.
i. This intervention can be costly. Many of the assistive technology pieces
can cost a couple hundred dollars.
43
This intervention will take time for the teacher to implement with the
ii.
student, but once it has been fully implemented it should save the
teacher time because the student will be able to work more
independently.
inclusion?
i. This intervention allow the student to work independently within their
general education classroom. It supports inclusion because the student
does not need to be pulled out to use the technology.
e. References/Resources :
ii. Assistive Technology Industry Association
https://www.atia.org/at-resources/what-is-at/
5. Three-Tiered Approach
a. Summary:
i. Model is broken into three tiers. In Tier 1 the student has access to
general education curriculum and their learning environment is well
supported. This model promotes prevention. The teacher will use the
least intrusive methods of instruction that are necessary for the student
to be successful in their general education classroom. If the student
shows they are having deficits in Tier 1 they will move to Tier 2. In Tier 2
an intervention team is usually formed to create the most effective
strategies that can be implemented into what was taking place in Tier 1.
The student will usually be moved into smaller groups and given
supplemental instruction. Tier 3 is a more intensive, scientifically based
academic intervention. An individualized behavioral support plan is
usually implemented.
ii. Ardoin, Scott P., et al. "Application of a three-tiered response to
intervention model for instructional planning, decision making, and the
identification of children in need of services." Journal of
Psychoeducational Assessment 23.4 (2005): 362-380.
44
i. The only cost involved with this intervention is if an outside specialist
needs to be hired if a student is in placed in Tier 3.
ii. This intervention does not take a great amount of time when a student is
in Tier 1. However as you move to the other tiers it becomes more time
intense. Tier 3 would require many meetings, more planning, and
one-on-one time.
inclusion?
i. Tier 1 supports Inclusion because it requires the teacher to monitor the
student's progress in the general education classroom. Tier 2 can still
promote inclusion however, the student may leave their general
education classroom to receive extra assistance. Tier 3 does not promote
inclusion unless a school operates their Tier 3 within the general
education classroom. Most schools use a special education classroom for
Tier 3.
ii. Ardoin, Scott P., et al. "Application of a three-tiered response to
intervention model for instructional planning, decision making, and the
identification of children in need of services." Journal of
Psychoeducational Assessment 23.4 (2005): 362-380.
Resources
1. Project IDEAL - http://www.projectidealonline.org/v/intellectual-disabilities/
a. This website has a lot of factual information about cognitive impairments. It also
contains teaching strategies for teachers. It has videos on classroom
arrangement, growing up with disabilities, laws and rights, and many others. It
also has modules covering classroom management, Response to Intervention,
and several others. There is a resource list with activities and presentations.
2. Do 2 Learn -
http://do2learn.com/disabilities/CharacteristicsAndStrategies/IntellectualDisability_Stra
tegies.html
a. This website has a plethora of information. It gives an extensive list of teaching
strategies. It also has information about the disability itself, academics, social
skills, behavior management, and many resources. This website is a great
resource for teachers and parents.
45
3. Center forParent Information and Resources -
http://www.parentcenterhub.org/repository/intellectual/
a. This website covers what an intellectual disability is, causes, diagnosis, tips for
parents and teachers, and educational considerations. It has a story anyone can
read of a young boy who has an intellectual disability and what he experiences. It
is a good source of information.
4. Intellectual Disability and Social Inclusion by Martin Richard Bollard
a. This book discusses challenges that people with disabilities face when trying to
access health and social services. It brings awareness to the barriers that they
face that many people do not realize. It has personal stories written by people
with disabilities which brings great insight into a topic that is not discussed as
often.
5. Essentials of Intellectual Disability Assessment and Identification by Alan W. Brue &
Linda Wilmshurst
a. This book gives a practical look at intellectual disabilities and adaptive skills in
functioning children, adolescent, and adults. It also contains general information
about the disability and discusses how assessment data is used in interventions.
It also give example assessment and shows how it can be best used for the
students benefit.
6. This is My Normal by Leslie K. Cawley
a. This book is written by a woman who is the mother of a special-needs child and
has siblings with special needs as well. She has great insight into living with and
caring for someone who has a disability. It is written as a collection of essays
about different events that have taken place throughout her life. She tells stories
of dealing with people who don't understand people with disabilities and shares
her own experiences of frustration when dealing with her own child.
7. Story of Intellectual Disability: An Evolution of Meaning, Understanding, and Public
Perception by Michael L. Wehmeyer, Michael Wehmeyer, & Robert Shalock
a. This book discusses how societies have responded throughout history to people
with disabilities. It also takes a look at how their lives and their families lives
have changed. In the book readers will learn what people thought about those
with disabilities before and how our views and knowledge has changed
throughout centuries in regards to intellectual disability. It even covers how
education and interventions have changed. Also, it discusses the institution
system when that was still a regular part of society. The book has pictures and
illustrations that complement the reading.
8. A Day in the Life of An Individual With Intellectual Disabilities - (video on YouTube)
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zzTCrz9Xynw
46
a. This is a brief video showing a young woman with an intellectual disability
shopping with her mom. It is designed to bring awareness and acceptance of
people with disabilities. It shows the young woman looking at clothes like
everyone else.
9. Teaching Children About Intellectual Disabilities - (video on YouTube)
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pGlc8t-SZ90
a. This is a wonderful 5 minute cartoon explaining to children how people with
intellectual disabilities are people like us and should be treated the same as
everyone else. It also discusses how they have the same right to go places and do
things that we do too. It would be a wonderful video to show to young
elementary students or young siblings. It uses simple language to discuss what
an intellectual disability is, what causes it, and that it looks different in each
person.
10. Transition: Working to Build Life Beyond the Classroom - (video on YouTube)
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-EWOeqho6EQ
a. In this video a mom with a teenage son who has an intellectual disability
discusses his schooling and what life has been like for him. The main focus of the
video is the transition services he has received which is preparing him for life
after high school. He even has a job. This is a great video that shows the benefits
of transition services.
1. Intellectual Disability Brochure for Parents and Teachers - TeachersPayTeachers.com
https://www.teacherspayteachers.com/Product/Intellectual-Disability-Brochure-for-Par
ents-and-Teachers-448113
2. Intellectual Disability Brochure: Questions from Parents - aacps.org
http://www.aacps.org/admin/articlefiles/312-Intellectual%20Disability%20Brochure.pdf
3. Facts About Intellectual Disability - cdc.gov
https://www.cdc.gov/ncbddd/actearly/pdf/parents_pdfs/IntellectualDisability.pdf
4. Intellectual Disabitlity Among Children - cdc.gov
https://www.cdc.gov/ncbddd/developmentaldisabilities/documents/intellectualdisabilit
ies.pdf
5. The Arc: For People with intellectual and developmental disabilities -
http://www.thearc.org/what-we-do/resources/fact-sheets

1. Inclusion and Students With Intellectual Disabilities -
http://www.emeraldinsight.com/doi/abs/10.1108/S0270-401320160000031004
47
2. Inclusion Strategies and Tips for Teachers -
http://www.brighthubeducation.com/special-ed-inclusion-strategies/
3. Inclusive Education for Students With Intellectual Disabilities -
http://dcidj.org/article/view/111
4. Intellectual Disabilities in Your Classroom: 9 Tips for Teachers -
https://vsafl.org/sites/default/files/Intellectual%2520Disabilities%2520in%2520Your%2
520Classroom.pdf
5. 5 Easy Ways to Teach Students with Intellectual Disabilities in Your Classroom -
http://www.theinclusiveclass.com/2016/08/5-easy-ways-to-teach-students-with.html
Accommodations
1. Multiple means of representation:
a. Teachers who use multiple means of representation offer student different
methods for taking in information. For example verbal instruction can be
accompanied with graphics or a demonstration.
Pearson Education.
2. Multiple means of engagement:
a. Multiple means of engagement take a student's interests and motivation into
account and offers him or her different activities to engage them and learning.
This allows students to make sense out of the information in a way that works
for them. This can be done by allowing students to choose whether they work
alone to complete an assignment, work in a small group, or develop a
PowerPoint with the information they find; there are a variety of options that
students will be able to choose from.
Pearson Education.
3. Multiple means of expression :
a. To use multiple means of expression students need to be offered multiple ways
to demonstrate their knowledge. This results in a self-generated product from
the student. Not every student can explain themselves properly or thoroughly in
the same way. An example of this is allowing a student to give an oral report, a
written report, drama or puppet show, or use technology to show what they
have learned.
Pearson Education.
48
4. Quiet workspace:
a. Children with intellectual disabilities have a tendency to be easily distracted. If
you can create a quiet space that the student can use consistently it can become
the student work zone and he or she will relate doing school work to that quiet
space.
b. Different Modifications for Students with an Intellectual Disability in the
Classroom or at Home -
http://www.brighthubeducation.com/special-ed-learning-disorders/104639-mo
dificatons-for-students-with-intellectual-disabilities/
5. Active schedule:
a. Many students with intellectual disabilities have a hard time sitting for long
periods. Therefore having the schedule that keeps activities short in length will
be helpful in keeping the students attention.
6. Transition services:
a. Teachers need to keep transition in mind when creating curriculum for students
with intellectual disabilities. They need real-world knowledge that will help them
be successful after high school. This includes but is not limited to sewing,
cooking, knowledge about the community, how to advocate for oneself, basic
first aid, and personal hygiene.
Pearson Education.
7. Promoting social skills:
a. It is important for students with intellectual disabilities to understand good
social skills. It is also important for them because the more social they are with
all their peers the more they will feel accepted and will have a better
self-esteem. Teachers can develop systems where a student who is not disabled
is part of a circle of friends with students who have disabilities. Inclusive
practices promote social skills and social acceptance.
Pearson Education.
8. Hands-on learning:
a. Many students with intellectual disabilities learn better when the activities are
hands-on. By incorporating hands-on learning into lesson plans students will
49
learn better and retain more information. An example of this would be if a lesson
about bones is being taught have a skeleton in the classroom the kids can touch
and manipulate.
9. Small group size:
a. Students with intellectual disabilities can benefit from working in small groups or
with a partner. This can help them focus better and working with other students
will help to increase social skills. If they are put into a large group they may feel
overwhelmed, unable to focus, or they might get lost in the crowd and not
participate.
Pearson Education.
10. Adapting curriculum:
a. Many students with an intellectual disability function at a lower academic level
than their peers. The curriculum needs to be adapted so they learn the basics of
what is required while incorporating everyday tasks. The assignments can be
shortened, tests can be read to them, no time limit on tests, and many other
options.
Pearson Education.
50
Hearing Impairments
A. Why I chose hearing impairments:
I chose to research hearing impairment because I worked as an aide in a special
education classroom with a student who was deaf. There was a sign-language
interpreter with him the entire day. However, I did not notice any other
accommodations that had been made or interventions that were being used. Even
though hearing impairments are considered a low-incidence disability I may still have a
student with a hearing impairment. Because of this I want to make sure I am aware of
the accommodations and adaptations I need to make as a teacher to help my student
succeed.
B. Definition: (Federal definition)
a. Deafness - A hearing impairment that is so severe that the child is impaired in
processing linguistic information through hearing, with or without amplification,
that adversely affects a childs educational performance.
b. Hearing impairment - An impairment in hearing, whether permanent or
fluctuating, that adversely affects a childs educational performance but that is
not included under the definition of deafness.
c. Minimal hearing loss - Is defined as loss of hearing between 16 and 25 decibels.
This is not included in the federal definition of hearing impairment.
C. Causes, statistics, and prevalence of hearing impairments
a. Causes:
i. Genetics - which accounts for approximately 50% of congenital hearing
loss in children
ii. Prenatal impact - including infections during pregnancy
iii. Head trauma
iv. Childhood infections - measles
v. Ear infections
vi. Prematurity
vii. Rh incompatibility
viii. Birth trauma
ix. Allergies
x. Noise-induced hearing loss
xi. Toxic reaction to drugs
51
i. Approximately 3 or 4 in every 1,000 births are affected by significant
hearing impairment
ii. During 2006 to 2007 approximately 80,000 students were in special
education programs for students with hearing impairments
iii. 1 in 8 people age 12 and over have detectable hearing loss in both ears
iv. More than 90% of children who are deaf are born to parents who can
hear
v. Approximately 15% of adult age 18 and over report some trouble hearing
vi. 5 out of 6 children experience ear infection by the time they are three
years old
D. The impact hearing impairment can have on the general education setting:
a. Children with hearing impairments may experience difficulty keeping their
attention on task, problems with auditory memory, difficulty understanding
teachers and peers, have delayed acquisition of vocabulary and language rules,
display emotions inappropriately.
b. The teacher may need to provide cues that indicate important information is
going to be provided.
c. The teacher may need to provide all of the students information visually in a
written format.
d. The teacher will need to stress meaningful content and use multi-sensory
presentation.
e. The teacher should encourage expression of thought and provide appropriate
language models.
f. The teacher should promote social confidence and organize peer support
systems. This will help the student have more self-confidence and increase their
willingness to interact socially.

1. Function-based intervention
a. Summary:
i. Function-based intervention is an action plan that takes into
consideration information obtained from a behavior assessment. The
goal of the intervention is to have the child access to the same
reinforcement that was maintaining inappropriate behavior before but
now have it reinforce appropriate behaviors. This can be as simple as a
student raising their hand and waiting for the teacher to call on him or
her rather than blurting out the question. The student still gets to ask
their question but now does so in an appropriate manner. This
intervention uses praise of appropriate behaviors.
52
i. Candace J. Gann, Sarah E. Gaines, Shirin D. Antia, John Umbreit, Carl J.
Liaupsin; Evaluating the Effects of Function-Based Interventions With
Deaf or Hard-of-Hearing Students. J Deaf Stud Deaf Educ 2015; 20 (3):
252-265. doi: 10.1093/deafed/en
i. There will not be a cost with this intervention unless the staff at the
school feel it is necessary to have an outside source do a behavior
assessment on the child.
ii. To implement this intervention some time will need to be spent doing the
behavior assessment and deciding what behaviors are going to be
focused on for the intervention. Once it is implemented it will only take
minimal time to maintain.
inclusion?
within their general education classroom. It gives them a behavioral
support to encourage their success.
i. FABA Solutions for Families and Schools -
https://www.fabasinc.org/schools/function-based-intervention/
ii. Evidence-Based Practices for Students With Sensory Impairments -
http://ceedar.education.ufl.edu/wp-content/uploads/2014/09/IC-4_FINA
L_03-30-15.pdf
2. Pull-out model
a. Summary:
i. Pull-out is used for students who are in particular stages of the
intervention process or for those who have very specific communication
goals. Pull-out services are often provided within the classroom or in the
therapy room, and with individual students or in small groups.
i. Hurt, J. Matthew. A comparison of inclusion and pullout programs on
student achievement for students with disabilities. Diss. East Tennessee
State University, 2012.
i. The cost of this intervention can be minimal if the school already has an
existing specialist on staff who is qualified to work with a student with a
hearing impairment.
53
ii. In many schools using this intervention the student leaves their general
education classroom twice a week for 30 minutes. However, depending
on the services being received it can be daily.
inclusion?
i. The pullout model is not one that can be used within the general
education classroom because students are removed from their
classroom. Therefore it is not an inclusive model.
i. ASHA.org
ii. ProjectIDEALonline.org
iii. East Tennessee State University School of Graduate Studies -
dc.etsu.edu/etd
3. Early intervention
a. Summary:
i. The IDEA ensures that any child who has hearing loss will receive free,
early intervention programs from birth to age 3 and throughout the
school years, ages 3 to 21. Early intervention will help the child to stay on
schedule with their communication skills, enhance the parents
understanding of the child's hearing loss and their communication needs,
keep track of the child's progress, and help with future intervention
techniques as the child develops.
b. Research supporting intervention:
i. American Speech, Language, Hearing Association (ASHA) -
http://www.asha.org/public/hearing/Early-Intervention-for-Children-with
-Hearing-Loss/
i. Early intervention is paid for by the government. So essentially it does
not have a cost. However, it does come from taxpayer money.
ii. The amount of time this intervention will take is dependent upon each
individual child. It can range anywhere from one day a week to several
days a week.
inclusion?
i. Early intervention in elementary can be inclusive or non-inclusive
depending on the type of therapies the student receives. Sometimes they
can be done without the student needing to leave their general
education classroom. There are many circumstances in which the student
54
would be removed from their general education classroom which would
mean it is not supporting inclusion.
i. Moeller, Mary Pat. "Early intervention and language development in
children who are deaf and hard of hearing." Pediatrics 106.3 (2000):
e43-e43.
4. Use of a sign-language interpreter
a. Summary:
i. Using a sign-language interpreter within the general education classroom
is beneficial to the student because it allows them to have access to and
communicate with their teacher and peers. This however does not
guarantee that the student understands everything that is being
explained but it's beneficial. There are key points teachers need to keep
in mind if a student has an interpreter:
1. Speak directly to the student not the interpreter
2. Give the student and the interpreter outlines of the lecture or
written material, in advance, so they can be familiar with any new
vocabulary
3. The Interpreter should stand closer to the area the teacher is
teaching from allowing the student to see the teacher as well as
the interpreter.
i. This intervention will cost the salary of a sign-language interpreter unless
the school has one on staff; this is not typical.
ii. This intervention does not require a lot of extra time from the general
education teacher except for the communication that will need to occur
between him/her and the sign-language interpreter.
inclusion?
in their general education classroom and receive the assistance they
need to be able to communicate.
55
i. Technological Education Center for Deaf and Hard-of-Hearing Students -
https://www.deaftec.org/classact/challenges/support-services/interpreti
ng
5. Visual phonics
a. Summary:
i. Visual phonics is designed for students with hearing impairments
allowing them to gain access to phonological related information. It uses
hand cues and corresponding written symbols that represent the phonics
of english. Research done has shown this to be effective. For some
students learning signs and their meanings can be associated with
printed words. This can lead them to be able to decipher print. This
intervention will help to build the students reading and literacy abilities.
b. Research supporting intervention:
i. A Summary of the Communication and Literacy Evidence-Based Practices
for Students Who Are Deaf or Hard of Hearing, Visually Impaired, and
Deafblind by John L. Luckner, EdD, Susan M. Bruce, PhD, and Kay Alicyn
Ferrell, PhD (2016) -
http://journals.sagepub.com.ezproxy.ferris.edu/doi/pdf/10.1177/152574
011559750
i. This intervention does not carry a cost.
ii. The intervention can be incorporated into the student language arts
curriculum and therefore should not take any significant amount of extra
time. However, if the student needs extra help with this he or she may
need to spend extra time working with a teacher.
inclusion?
i. This intervention will support inclusion in the general education
classroom if the student is able to have it implemented into their
language arts curriculum. If the student need to use this intervention
with extra support he or she may be pulled out of their general education
classroom which would not support inclusion.
i. A Summary of the Communication and Literacy Evidence-Based Practices
for Students Who Are Deaf or Hard of Hearing, Visually Impaired, and
Deafblind by John L. Luckner, EdD, Susan M. Bruce, PhD, and Kay Alicyn
Ferrell, PhD (2016) -
56
http://journals.sagepub.com.ezproxy.ferris.edu/doi/pdf/10.1177/152574
011559750
Resources
1. American Society for Deaf Children - http://deafchildren.org/
a. The American Society for Deaf Children offers support and information to
families of children and youth with hearing impairments. There are resources for
parents and families as well as educators. The website is very informative and
helpful for people trying to find audiologists in their area.
2. American Speech Language Hearing Association - http://www.asha.org/
a. This website has a large amount of information on hearing impairments. They
have information on audiologists and speech-language pathologists. They have
an advocacy page where there are link to resources to help people find the
proper representation if needed.
3. Center for Hearing and Communication -
http://www.asha.org/public/hearing/Hearing-Loss-Organizations-and-Associations/
a. Center for Hearing and Communication offers people with hearing impairment
access to diagnostic, counseling, rehabilitation, and education programs. This is a
non-profit agency its mission is to help improve the quality of life for people with
all degrees of hearing loss. They are a great resource to find out the latest
technology available to those with hearing impairments.
4. Hearing Loss Association of America - http://www.hearingloss.org/
a. The association provides people with hearing impairments and their families
assistance and resources to help them live with hearing loss. They offer too
many programs and services to go through the list. Whether a person needs help
for themselves, a family member, a friend, or a student this website has
information that will cover most issues.
5. What Did You Say? by Monique E. Hammond
a. The author of this book experienced her own sudden hearing loss. She took her
personal experience and created a book to help others. She covers the causes
and types of hearing loss, audiology testing, hearing instruments, listening
devices, support group, organizations, resources, and check-lists. It is a
wonderful insight into the life of a person living with hearing loss. The realness of
her story will be one others with hearing impairments can relate to and take
comfort from.
6. Jordan Has a Hearing Loss by Jillian Powell
a. This book is one in a series of books that deal with children who have different
disabilities. Each story is told in the first person perspective and is sensitive and
positive. In this book a young boys, Jordan, uses sign-language and reads lips.
57
This is a great book to have young children read or have read to them to give
them a better understanding of peers that may have hearing impairments.
7. Your Childs Hearing Loss: A Guide for Parents by Debby Waldman & Jackson Roush
a. This book contains information from practical and emotional support to
technical information. There is valuable information such as causes of hearing
loss, testing and assessment, advocating for your child's welfare in education,
social, and public environment, and how to handle everyday problems. The
author also included advances in hearing aids and cochlear implants. There's also
a discussion on the different specialists people with hearing impairments might
see. It was written by a mother and an audiologist who both have children with
hearing loss. .
8. Understanding Deafness (video on YouTube) -
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=I_EmsguJMic
a. This is a great short educational video aimed to teach children what it is to be
deaf. It is cute and to the point. There is a girl who signs what the cartoon
character says the whole time. It would be great for young school-aged children
to watch.
9. Better Hearing Institute -
http://www.betterhearing.org/hearingpedia/hearing-loss-resources
a. Better Hearing Institute offers an immense amount of resources for people with
hearing loss. They have adult support groups, assistive training, a children's page,
information on cochlear implants, employment and wellness, financial
assistance, and scholarships. This is one of the most extensive resource sites I
have seen.
10. Supporting Success for Children With Hearing Loss -
http://successforkidswithhearingloss.com/resources-for-parents-of-children-with-heari
ng-loss/
a. This website is a great support for families with a child who has a hearing
impairment. It discusses what to expect for your child in education, daily life,
challenges that can be faced, and information on communication choices. This
website is not just for parents it also has a lengthy amount of resources for
educators too.
1. Hearing Loss: Its a Family Affair Brochure -
https://www.ncoa.org/resources/hearing-loss-its-a-family-affair-brochure/
2. Hearing Loss Facts and Statistics Brochure -
http://www.hearingloss.org/sites/default/files/docs/HearingLoss_Facts_Statistics.pdf
58
3. Do You Think You Have a Hearing Loss Q & A Brochure -
http://www.hearingloss.org/sites/default/files/docs/HearingLoss_Facts_Statistics.pdf
4. Making a Plan for Your Child -
https://www.cdc.gov/ncbddd/hearingloss/freematerials/planforyourchild.pdf
5. Questions You May Want to Ask Your Childs Early Interventionists -
https://www.cdc.gov/ncbddd/hearingloss/freematerials/early_intervention_questions_
eng.pdf

1. Bright Hub Education -
http://www.brighthubeducation.com/special-ed-inclusion-strategies/42913-hearing-im
pairment-teaching-strategies-for-an-inclusive-classroom/
2. Accommodations for Students with Hearing Loss -
http://successforkidswithhearingloss.com/relationship-hl-listen-learn/accommodations/
3. Integrating into the Hearing World: Inclusion Success Indicators; Facilitators and Barriers
to the Inclusion of Orally Educated Children and Youth with Hearing Loss in Schools:
Promoting Partnerships to Support Inclusion -
http://www.agbell.org/professionals/history-philosophy-and-professional-issues/integr
ating-into-the-hearing-world-inclusion-success-indicators-study/
4. A resource guide: Mainstreaming a child with a hearing impairment: What teachers
need to know -
http://digitalcommons.wustl.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1103&context=pacs_caps
tones
5. Including children with hearing loss in Early Education Programs -
https://www.infanthearing.org/earlychildhood/docs/NAEYC_article_Katz_Schery_2006.
pdf
Accommodations
1. Visual aids
a. Teachers who have a hearing impaired student in their classroom need to make
sure they incorporate visual aids into their lesson plans. This can be done
through the use of flies, diagram, and multimedia sources. This benefits the
student with the hearing impairment because they're able to visually see what
you are explaining.
Pearson Education.
2. Cued Speech
59
a. Cued Speech uses hand cues to enhance lip-reading for students who are hearing
impaired. In the system there are 8 different hand shapes that represent
consonant sounds and 4 hand position that represents vowels. When the hand
signs are used near the speaker's mouth it gives the student cues that help with
their lip-reading. This is extremely helpful if a sign-language interpreter is not
used.
Pearson Education.
3. Amplification accommodations
a. These are any devices that allow the student to hear better. This can be personal
speaker, hearing aid, cochlear implant, or loudspeaker. Teachers need to be
aware that these options exist and familiarize themselves with how to use them.
The students parents will usually decide which option they are using with their
child. But the school still needs prepared to support the student and make sure
their device is working while they are at school.
b. University of South Dakota: Accommodations for Students Who Are Deaf or
Hard-of-Hearing -
www.asha.org/Events/convention/handouts/2011/Martin-Williams-Gassen/
4. Remote microphone hearing assistance technology (HAT)
a. HAT is an audio device that works by the teacher wearing a microphone and the
speech signal is delivered to the students hearing device. The device can be to a
loudspeaker, a personal speaker, or directly to the students hearing aid,
cochlear implant, or other hearing device.
b. Hearing Loss in the Classroom -
http://www.betterhearing.org/hearing-loss-children/hearing-loss-classroom
5. Communication accommodations
a. Communication accommodation happen in a variety of ways. The teacher should
make sure their face is visible to the student as much as possible, if it is a male
teacher make sure facial hair is trimmed to allow maximum visibility of the
mouth, make sure any background noise is reduced, repeat and rephrase
information as needed, and speak clearly. By making these accommodations
teachers are helping their student have an increased chance at understanding
what is being communicated.
b. www.asha.org/Events/convention/handouts/2011/Martin-Williams-Gassen/
6. Note-buddy
a. Nobody is someone who will either take notes for the student who has a hearing
impairment or make a copy of the notes they take during class. This way the
student with the hearing impairment does not need to take his or her Focus off
60
of the teacher to right notes. It's using this accommodation make sure the
student chosen to take the notes has clear legible penmanship.
7. Universal Design for Learning
a. Using the principles of Universal Design for Learning teachers can help students
to learn more effectively and more efficiently. This accommodation focuses on
reducing barriers often found in the general education classroom and focusing
on providing support to be successful in an inclusive environment. Universal
Design for Learning is flexible and allows for students to learn and be assessed in
the way that best matches their needs.
Pearson Education.
8. Modify curriculum
a. Teachers can modify curriculum in a number of ways they can shorten the length
of assignments, pre-study vocabulary, allow students to have extra practice,
provide supplementary material that reinforce cursor, and if necessary use an
alternative curriculum.
9. Co-teaching
a. Co-teaching has shown to be an effective practice when teaching students with
hearing impairments. This accommodation is a collaboration between a general
education teacher and a special education teacher where they come together to
teach one class. This allows both teachers to respond to the diverse needs of all
students. It also gives an extra set of eyes, ears, and hands to help effectively run
the classroom.
Pearson Education.
10. Seating Arrangement
a. Make sure the student who has a hearing impairment has a seat where they will
be able to observe the teacher and visualize their face during class. The area
should also be well lit and have a minimal amount of distractions. At the same
time you do not want to exclude the student from the rest of the class. Seating
arrangements need to be well thought out so it is not obvious that the student
with a hearing impairment has special seating.
61
Speech and Language Impairment
A. Why I chose speech and language impairment disorders:
I chose speech and language impairments because my third oldest daughter had
difficulty with speech and began working with a speech therapist in 1st grade through 5th
grade. Though her pronunciation was correct she was still considered to have an
articulatory disorder due to her omission of words in sentences. This was something I
had noticed early but was unaware how to best help her. I wanted to know more about
this impairment because it affects many students and they do not always get the
intervention they need. As a teacher I want to be able to use any tools I learn to help
encourage the development of their speech and language.
B. Definition:
The Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) officially defines speech and
language impairments as a communication disorder such as stuttering, impaired
articulation, a language impairment, or a voice impairment that adversely affects a
child's educational performance.
C. Causes, statistics, and prevalence of speech and language impairments
a. Causes:
i. Hearing loss
ii. Neurological disorders
iii. Brain injury
iv. Intellectual Disabilities
v. Drug abuse
vi. Physical Impairments: cleft lip or palate
vii. Vocal abuse or misuse

i. More than 1.1 million children were served under the category of
speech or language impairment in the public schools in the

2005-2006 school year.
ii. Of the more than 1 million students identified as speech or language
impaired, about 90% are 6 to 11 years of age (U.S. Department of

Education, 2002).
iii. It is the second most common disability category of students ages 6
through 21 served under IDEA (U.S. Department of Education, 2006)
iv. Roughly 5% of all school-age children receive assistance from
speech-language pathologists. Two-thirds of these children are boys.
D. The impact speech and language disorders can have on the general education setting:
62
a. Teachers may need to differentiate assignments, tests, and activities to meet
the students needs.
b. Students may be pulled out of their general education classroom twice weekly
for 30 minutes per session if using traditional speech therapy. The teacher needs
to make sure the student is able to get caught up on any information or
assignments that were missed due to speech therapy.
c. Adaptations may be required for curriculum in order for a student to
communicate with the teacher and peers.
d. Students with this impairment may have difficulty communicating effectively
with classmates and teachers.
e. Students with a speech or language disorder may be self-conscious. They may
also have a low self-esteem and avoid social interaction. The general education
teacher needs to be aware of these issues so he/she can help the student be
successful.

1. Direct Instruction (pullout model)
a. Summary:
i. Direct instruction is indicated for students who are in particular stages of
the intervention process or for those who have very specific
communication goals. Pullout services are often provided within the
classroom or in the therapy room, and with individual students or in
small groups.
i. Hurt, J. Matthew. A comparison of inclusion and pullout programs on
student achievement for students with disabilities. Diss. East Tennessee
State University, 2012.
i. In many schools using this intervention the student will leave their
general education classroom for approximately 30 minutes twice a week
and receive assistance from a speech pathologist.
ii. The cost of this intervention can be minimal if the school already has an
existing speech pathologist on staff. If the school does not have a speech
pathologist one will need to be hired.
iii. The speech pathologist may need supplies to effectively teach the
students.
inclusion?
63
i. The pullout model is not one that can be used within the general
education classroom because students are removed from their
classroom. Therefore it is not an inclusive model.
i. ASHA - http://www.asha.org/
ii. Project IDEAL - http://www.projectidealonline.org/
2. Classroom-based Service-delivery
a. Summary:
i. The classroom-based model usually involve a collaborative effort
between teachers and speech language pathologist. This model is
particularly appropriate at the preschool and kindergarten levels and in
classrooms with large numbers of students who have been identified as
having communication disorders or as being at risk.
i. Classroom-Based Language Intervention by Linda Miller
ii. A Study of Classroom-Based Phonological Awareness Training for
Preschoolers With Speech and/or Language Disorders by Anne van
Kleeck, Ronald B. Gillam, and Teresa U. McFadden
i. The cost of this intervention can be minimal if the school already has an
existing speech pathologist on staff. If the school does not have a speech
pathologist one will need to be hired.
ii. This intervention involves collaboration with the speech-language
pathologist and the general education teacher. This will require more
planning for the classroom to function smoothly.
iii. This intervention does not take away from class time. The students stay
in the classroom while working with the speech-language pathologist.
inclusion?
i. This intervention promotes inclusion by having the general education
teacher and the speech-language pathologist participate in team teaching
or coaching lessons within the classroom. The speech-language
pathologist may also provide individual or small group instruction within
the classroom.
i. Classroom-Based versus Pull-Out Interventions: A review of the
experimental evidence by Anita S. McGinty and Laura Justice
ii. ASHA - http://www.asha.org/
3. Community-based Service-delivery
64
a. Summary:
i. The community-based model indicates that therapy services are being
provided in more natural communication environments such as at home,
on the playground, or any other age-appropriate community settings.
This is ideal for students who have pragmatic language disorders, for
those who need to generalize new skills to a variety of settings, and for
students who are enrolled in vocational programs.
i. Promoting toddlers language development through community-based
intervention by Colleen E. Huebner
i. This intervention will not take away from any class time as it is done
outside of school hours. The cost and time will depend on the activities
and location of the therapy.
ii. Since this intervention takes place outside of school. It might be the
parent's responsibility to pay for any services that are provided. This may
be covered by some health insurance providers.
inclusion?
i. This intervention promotes inclusion by allowing students to participate
in their general education classroom all day. The students still receive the
therapy they need but it is done outside of school hours.
i. Community-based early intervention for language delay: a preliminary
investigation by N Ciccone, N Hennessey, and SF Stokes
4. Consultation
a. Summary:
i. Consultation is a model of service-delivery in which the speech-language
pathologist does not provide direct instruction to the student. Instead the
family, teachers, or other school staff are provided with assistance in the
form of information, training, or resources to help the student reach
specific communication goals.
i. Efficacy of a parent implemented early language intervention based on
collaborative consultation by TA Iacono, JB Chang, and RE Waring
i. The cost for this intervention can vary greatly. The greatest cost will be
any trainings that the family, teachers, or other school staff attend.
65
ii. The time for this intervention will vary greatly also. Trainings can be as
short as an hour or as long as several hours a day lasting up to a week.
inclusion?
i. This intervention supports inclusion by providing the family, teachers,
other school staff with the tools they need to help students reach specific
communication goals.
i. A consultation model for speech and language intervention by l
Frassinelli, K Superior, and J Meyers
5. Language IN the Classroom (LINC)
a. Summary:
i. LINC Is a program adapted for use in many school districts. The program
philosophy holds that language learning should occur in the child's most
natural environment and in conjunction with other content being line.
The purpose of the program is to strengthen the language system of
those students in general education classroom who need to develop
coping and compensatory skills to survive academically. Another goal is
to transfer language learned from the therapy setting to the classroom.
i. Language intervention in the classroom: What it looks like by Marilyn A.
Nippold, PhD
i. This intervention will require the speech-language pathologist and
teacher to work together to plan unit lessons that develop language skills
in students. This will take a fair amount of time in the beginning but
should lessen as each professional becomes more familiar with it and
with each other's teaching styles.
ii. The cost of this intervention will depend on be types of resources that
will be used and if the teacher or speech-language pathologist need to
attend any seminars/ trainings to learn how to effectively implement this
into their school.
iii. This intervention requires the teacher and the speech-language
pathologist to both be present in order for it to be successful. This will
require careful scheduling so it works for both professionals.
inclusion?
66
Intervention supports inclusion by not pulling students out of their
i.
general education classrooms but rather implementing language learning
in conjunction with their content learning.
e. References/Resources :
i. Speech and Language Classroom Intervention Manual by Jacqueln S.
Hagan and Steven B. McDonnold
Resources
1. Reading Rockets http://www.readingrockets.org/
a. Readingrockets.org has specific information for teachers and parents to assist in
helping children with communication disorders. This website discusses what
types of communication disorders affect children, how many children receive
treatment for speech and language disorders in school, how these disorders can
affect learning, signs of the disorder, why speech and language skill are critical
for literacy, and how speech-language pathologists work with teachers and how
they help students.
2. Center for Parent Information and Resources http://www.parentcenterhub.org/
a. This site gives examples of what it is like to live with a speech or language
disorder. It also gives definitions, causes, and characteristic information. There
are
links within this site that give educational considerations, tips for parents, and
tips
for teachers.
3. American Speech-Language-Hearing Association http://www.asha.org/
a. On this website there is a vast amount of information on these disorders. They
discuss specific speech and language disorders and information is available on
each type as well. Parents can look up speech-language pathologist from this site.
Teachers can find information on how to help students in school whom have a
speech or language disorder. This website has an extensive amount of
information
that is useful to teachers, parents, and even doctors.
4. Project IDEAL (Informing and Designing Education For All Learners)
http://www.projectidealonline.org/
a. This website is part of a teacher preparation program intended to better prepare
teachers to work with students with disabilities. It gives an overview of the
disability, learning outcomes, activities teachers can use, teaching strategies,
assistive technology information, and a list of organizations that are full of
resources. This website can be used by parents as well. It gives detailed
67
information about the disorder.
5. Oral-Motor Activities for School-Age Children by Elizabeth Mackie
a. This book contains a series of homework activities that are designed to help build
the skills that are prerequisite to producing sounds in words. They will help
improve the coordination, sensory awareness, and muscle strength needed to
produce the sounds of speech.
6. The Parents Guide To Speech And Language Problems by Debbie Feit
a. This book is written from a parent/caregiver perspective, it covers various
speech and language disorders, therapeutic techniques, and the experts involved
in these particular diagnoses/treatments. it also breaks down the terminology
for the layperson and will help parents deal with issues to help their children
such as: where to find help, how to evaluate therapies and therapists, and how
do help a child face his or her challenges.
7. It Takes Two to Talk: A Practical Guide for Parents of Children with Language Delays by
Jan Pepper and Elaine Weitzman
a. This book shows parents how to use responsive interaction strategies to increase
their child's language skills. It is design to be implemented into everyday routines
like mealtime or playtime.
8. Childhood Speech, Language, and Listening Problems by Patricia McLeer Hamaguchi
a. This book Is written by a speech language pathologist who explains how parents
can get the right help for their children, how to find the right specialist, and how
the problem may affect their child academically, socially, and at home. It also
covers educational laws and programs.
9. What is SLI? (YouTube) - https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Pqu7w6t3Rmo
a. This video explains what a specific language impairment is, the types of
difficulties a child can have, and diagnose difficulties can present a challenge.
10. Signs of SLI (YouTube) - https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JAsf_Wqjz4g
a. This video is possible signs of SLI in the classroom.
1. The Impact of Speech on Social and Emotional Development
https://www.speechbuddy.com/blog/uncategorized/speech-on-social-and-emotional-d
evelopment/
2. Speech Activities for Spring Time -
https://www.speechbuddy.com/blog/games-and-activities/speech-activities-springtime
/
3. The 5 Signs Your Child Needs Speech Therapy (YouTube) -
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NjrTwuKAOUk
68
4. Identify the Signs Brochure -
http://identifythesigns.org/wp-content/uploads/2013/09/ASHA_Identify-the-Signs_Broc
hure.pdf
5. The Effectiveness of Early Intervention -
http://www.seek.hawaii.edu/Products/4-Info-Binder/LR-Effectiveness.pdf

1. Inclusive Schools Network - http://inclusiveschools.org/
2. Center for R esearch on Learning and Teaching (CRLT) - http://crlt.umich.edu/
3. Inclusion Strategies That Work!: Research-Based Methods for the Classroom, Edition 3
by Toby J. Karten
4. Inclusion For Children with Speech and Language Impairment: Accessing the Curriculum
and Promoting Personal and Social Development by Kate Ripley, Jenny Barrett, Pam
Fleming
5. Practical classroom strategies for making inclusion more successful, GradeS 6-12 -
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RnxQCF3KFUo
Accommodations
1. Establish and maintain a positive classroom climate:
a. It is crucial that teachers make every effort to create a positive, accepting, and
supportive climate. This is done by talking with the student privately about his or
her speech problems. Teachers should acknowledge personal awareness of the
problem, and stress their belief that his or her speech will improve with practice.
Also teachers should work closely with the speech language pathologist,
following his/her suggestions and trying to reinforce specific communication
skills.
Pearson Education.
2. Help students learn to monitor their own speech:
a. Teachers can help students focus on using the skills they learn in speech therapy.
After students have had success practicing their communication goals in the
therapy setting, they can then practice, monitor their own performance, and
earn reinforcement from the teacher or parent whenever specific criteria are
met.
Pearson Education.
69
3. Pair students for practice:
a. With a partner, students can use short periods of downtime, such as those
between or before classes, to work on their articulation. Each practice session
should take no more than 5 minutes and be simple and fun. Both partners
should be reinforced for their participation.
Pearson Education.
4. Teach students affirmations and positive self-talk:
a. Research has supported the premise that we all talk to ourselves, and the more
we talk to ourselves in certain ways, the more we think about ourselves in the
same way. Although negative self-talk is common among individuals who have
speech disorders, it is possible to change negative patterns to more positive
ones. Whenever a student slips back into a negative frame of mind, encourage
him or her to mentally erase the negative ideas and immediately think of
something positive. Students should also write their affirmations in their own
words, so that they will remember them easily and will be more likely to use
them.
Pearson Education.
5. Use music and play games to improve language:
a. Teachers should always try to have some fun with students. Using music and
playing games are two ways language can be incorporated into enjoyable
activity. Use songs that require students to request items such as musical
instruments and use comment and such as quotation marks when you're happy
and you know it, and let students choose the action(e.g., clap your hands).
Playing the game Twenty Questions requires students to use language
comprehension and expression skills.
Pearson Education.
6. Develop pragmatic language skills:
a. This can be understood to mean how language is used socially to achieve some
purpose. Having the opportunity to become more adept in social situations is
beneficial to many students, especially those for whom the use of language is
difficult. Teachers can create opportunities for students to improve their skills by
practicing how to begin conversations, discuss how to express feelings, and
lessons on how to ask questions.
70
Pearson Education.
7. Encourage students to talk with their teachers and peers:
a. Sometimes students who are reluctant to speak require encouragement.
Teachers might have to structure situations in which students must use language
to meet some of their needs in the classroom. This can can be done by placing
items out of reach so that they have to ask for them, when a student asks for an
item, present the wrong item, or give students an item that requires them to ask
for assistance.
Pearson Education.
8. Use naturalistic techniques to increase language use:
a. Often, the most effective techniques to instill language acquisition and use are
those that will be easy for teachers to use and easy for students to generalize to
everyday situations. some naturalistic techniques are to use questioning
techniques, Where are you going? That's right, you are going to lunch. Another
technique is to use cloze activities, What do you need? Oh, you need paint and
a _______. That's right, you need paint and a brush.
Pearson Education.
9. Use simulated real-life activities to increase language use:
a. For this technique teachers can allow students to role play a newscast or
commercial, have students write and follow their own written directions to
locations in and around the school, and using real telephones, give students
opportunities to call each other, and 2 gift, receive, and record messages.
Pearson Education.
10. Encourage students conversational skills through story reading:
a. Students with language development problems often do not get the results they
want through their ordinary conversations, so they need more practice. Story
reading allows students of all ages to practice effective language skills. Teachers
using this technique should praise the students talk, expand on their words, ask
open-ended questions, and pause long enough to allow students to initiate
speaking. Teachers should also emphasize taking turns, so that students have an
71
opportunity to clarify their messages, hear appropriate language models, and
practice the unspoken rules of communication.
Pearson Education.
72

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Speech and Language Impairments 62

Evidence Based Interventions

Resources that promote inclusion

Evidence Based Interventions

Resources That Promote Inclusion

Autism Spectrum Disorder

Evidence Based Interventions

Evidence Based Interventions

Resources That Promote Inclusion

Evidence Based Interventions

iii. East Tennessee State University School of Graduate Studies -

Resources That Promote Inclusion

ii. Neurological disorders

iii. Brain injury

iv. Intellectual Disabilities

vi. Physical Impairments: cleft lip or palate

vii. Vocal abuse or misuse

b. Statistics and prevalence:

speech or language impairment in the public schools in the

impaired, about 90% are 6 to 11 years of age (U.S. Department of

Evidence Based Interventions

ii. Project IDEAL - http://www.projectidealonline.org/

Resources That Promote Inclusion

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