Dissertation research

Perceptions of American/Thai couples on problems and prospects of intercultural

relations in Thailand and the United States

Background

In the age of globalization, people from different backgrounds have increasingly

become interconnected than before. Even though the world is more super-diverse and
multicultural, there is still intergroup conflict strengthened by misunderstanding between
races, ethnicities, cultures and religions in every part of the world. A parallel analysis informs
us that increasing numbers of global citizens are choosing to enter into an interracial
relationship proven to be one of intense introspection and personal growth. A powerful
outcome is the potential of interracial/intercultural participants to move toward alleviating
stereotypes, prejudice, ethnocentrism, xenophobia and racism in our world. Thailand, as part
of the Southeast Asian community, has experienced intercultural contacts with people from
different backgrounds since the emergence of the country. Various studies have been
conducted on intercultural communication and intercultural relations between Thais and
foreigners in several aspects. One of these studies was Communication competence and
acculturation of foreigners living in Bangkok conducted by Tachcha Wittayawiroj, a
Masters student at Rangsit University who observed that the main factor affecting the
successful adjustment of expats in his study was the length of stay. Long-term expats tended
to adjust to Thai culture more successfully than short-term expats. This was because they had
more time to interact with Thais and learn about Thai culture (Tachcha 2009, 87). In addition
to the previous study, the work done by Henry Holmes and Suchada Tangtongtavy, Working
With the Thais: A Guide to Managing in Thailand illustrates how Thai people thought and
worked. It certainly demonstrates some of the serious issues Western expats faced at work
(Holmes and Suchada 1997). However, no research has been conducted regarding
perceptions of American/Thai couples. This study is based on qualitative and action research
methods using in-depth interviews with forty participants. The purpose of this study is to
examine the nature and impact of problems in intercultural relations among American-Thai
couples. This research emerges from my own questions about how learning about
intercultural relations can lead to a healthier multicultural society and the ways we can
benefit from positive intergroup relations.
Research questions

1. What are American-Thai couples views on the nature of intercultural relationships in

Thailand and the United States?

2. What are the life experiences/problems of American-Thai individuals who are in

intercultural relationship?

3. How have levels of attachment to their cultural backgrounds affected their relationship
with their spouses?

4. In what ways do American-Thai couples resolve issues and find common ground related to
cultural differences?

Aims of the research

To address the major questions above, there are four main purposes of this research. First,
this thesis aims to understand American-Thai couples perceptions of the status quo of
intercultural relationships in Thailand and the United States. Second, this research is to
investigate and identify problems of intercultural relationships in Thailand and the United
States. The third objective of this study is to examine the effects of intercultural relationships
on these American-Thai couples cultural identity. The final goal of this study is to make
recommendations that will help solve the problems of intercultural relationships. The result
of this study can help us better understand the currents issues of intercultural relationships in
Thailand/United States and the individual experience of the American-Thai couples.

Literature reviews

Interracial/intercultural relationships

Interracial relationships are becoming a new phenomenon that widely occurs across the
globe, but there is a long way to go before society can overcome racial bias and prejudice.
According to an article, Interracial marriage: Who is marrying out? by Wendy Wang
which is based on a Pew Research Center analysis of census data, men are much more likely
than women to be involved with someone of different races. However, the gender implication
goes in the opposite direction for Asian ethnic groups because female Asians are much more
likely than male Asians to marry someone of a different race. Only 12% of black women
married outside of their race (Wang 2015). Misty Michelle Wilson found that African
Americans families and European Americans families shared similar concerns about life
being difficult for interracial couples and their children. However, European American or
white families disapproved of the couples on moral reasons, holding the idea that interracial
relationships are immoral. Whites also were worried about what others would think of their
son or daughters choice. African Americans or blacks believe that the interracial relationship
will harm their son or daughter. Black disapproval of mixed relationships is based on the
black experience of institutional racism American society (Wilson 2008, 1-199). A
Qualitative Study of Interracial Dating Among College Students conducted by Stephanie
Firebaugh Rose and Michael W. Firmin , they discover that young African American women
are the least likely enter into an interracial dating. Several participants in the study also
mentioned that the American Southern culture exerting negative stereotypes about interracial
relationships in U.S. society (Rose and Firmin 2013, 74-87). In the study, Lessons to my
child: how black/white interracial parents perceive and shape racial Identity in their biracial
children by Ayanna S. Boyd, participants expressed that race was socially contracted by
society and was, therefore, not the most vital characteristic of their children. They perceived
themselves and their children as human beings first, emphasizing cultural rather than racial
identities. They want their biracial children to choose friends/relationships based on humanity
over race (Boyd 2011, 74-85). Lisa Martin suggests that attitudes towards interracial couples
of parents change over the course of time and even older generations become more tolerant to
those of different races than in the past. Nowadays, the interracial relationship issue is not is
not only Black and White, but it is biracial and intercultural identities (Martin 2014, 36-66).
Bryan R. Johnson discovered that religious, educational, residential and occupational,
commercial settings and the critical role of friendship could have a tremendous impact on
how white people view interracial relationships. Those who did not regularly attend church,
study in college and come into contact with non-whites in their daily lives through friendship
were likely to have a positive attitude toward intercultural relationships (Johnson 2004, 1-34).

Critical race theory

The concept of race

Before the age of exploration, the differences among people were basically based on
language, religion, and geography. As European traders, travelers and colonizers started
exploring the world, they also made a social construction for differentiating race and skin
color between the white Europeans and populations they encountered in Africa, Asia,
America and other continents (Jay 2007, 96-102). Race refers to the physical characteristic of
people which is the outcome of the mating behavior of your ancestors (Jandt 2010, 28).
Romero describes that the concept of race is socially constructed and it occurs because of
human creations (Romero 2014, 235-262: Haslanger 2000, 31-35). In addition, as Schaefer
argues that:

We cannot identify distinctive physical characteristics for groups of human beings the
same way that scientists distinguish one animal species from another. The idea of
biological race is based on the mistaken notion of a genetically isolated human group
because race is a social construction and this process benefits the oppressor, who
defines who is privileged and who is not. The acceptance of race in a society as a
legitimate category allows racial hierarchies to emerge to the benefit of the dominant
races. (Schaefer 2013, 1-40)

This means race and racial identity is a myth and socially constructed by the society to
label and categorize people based on physical differences rather than based on any scientific
evidence (Onwuachi-Willig 2016). When we talk about race, we should look at how each
society engenders the social value for the members in the society. Race is a popular topic
discussed by many scholars from all around the world, especially in the United States where
the racial issue affects how people perceive each other based on racial difference and skin
color. This is due to the fact that the United States consists of various racial and ethnic
immigrants from many parts of the world. In the United States, racial categories have been
changed from time to time and determined by the U.S. Census and government officials to
decide which race each individual belong to (Wade 2015). However, this does mean that race
is not real or does not have any impact on many peoples lives. Race can make negative
tremendous effects on the behavior of individuals and groups. Because race is based on
physical difference, it could also category members of society as superior or inferior (Romero
2014, 235-262). Audrey Smedley and Theodore W. Allen argue that the first Africans who
arrived in the U.S. soil in in James town were not perceived as slaves. Africans and
Europeans acquired the equal status. The intermarriage between the two groups was common
at that time (Allen 1997, 1-386; Smedley 2007, 1-8). Africans were perceived as equal as the
European servants and the Native Americans were viewed as different ethnic groups. By the
end of 1700s, colonial leaders and European elites decided to invent race and racial
categorization in order to solve the problem of Bacons rebellion which originated from the
cooperation between landless free Europeans, servants and Africans. As a result, the ruler
taught the European ethnic groups the value of whiteness in order to soften the power of
potential revolts united by Africans and European servants that could occur again (Buck
2001, 33-37; Allen 1997, 1-386). The concept of whiteness and white race were constructed
to replace differences based on ethnicity and culture. The term white were used instead of
German, Irish, Spanish and English etc. The new category of African as slaves with an
inferior status affected newly-arrived European servants to identify with colonial leaders and
enjoyed their white privilege (Smedley 2007, 1-8). Because of the one drop rule, multiracial
people such as Barack Obama are considered as only black although they might have white
parent and black parent (Cantle 2012, 38-39). These are magnifications of the way race is
socially constructed rather than based on the reality.

The concept of ethnicity

If race is based on biological differences, ethnicity is used to classify people based on cultural
backgrounds (Santos et al., 2010, 121-124). Romero (2012) explains that ethnicity is a shared
heritage determined by language, religion, culture and nationality. The United States is one of
the most ethnically diverse countries in the world. Many Americans who are considered
racially white today were considered ethnic immigrants in the past such as the Irish, Germans
and English. Members of different racial group may identify with the same ethnic groups
such as Hispanic people and members of racial may belong to a wide variety of different
ethnic identities such as white German, white Americans and white Australians (Bennett,
2007). In the United States, European immigrants were ethnically diverse and could blend
into whiteness and became whites (Jandt 2010, 332-333).

Barriers to intercultural communication between Thai and foreigners

Laray M. Barna, professor at Portland State University, Oregon has developed a list of six
barriers to intercultural communication, including high anxiety, assumption of similarity
instead of differences, ethnocentrism, stereotypes and prejudice, non-verbal
misinterpretations and language barrier (Barna 1994, 337-346). Knowledge of language and
culture is one of the most crucial elements that anyone who lives in a foreign country has to
experience. In the thesis written by Maria Barrett a Masters degree student at Chulalongkorn
University named Cross-culture Adjustment and Integration of Western Expatriate Women
in Bangkok. Barrett argued that expats in her study who were unable to communicate in
Thai tended to socialize mainly with people to whom they could understand and be
understood. Their social circles may only include people who speak and understand English.
Thais in their social groups might be highly-educated and more Western-influenced than
Thais who did not speak English. Their understanding of Thai culture and their cultural
experiences in Thailand may be limited by a lack of communication skills (Barrett 2004, 83-
90). Samorn Suthipiyapathre found the result in his study that Americans employees seemed
to face fewer problems in intercultural communication success than Japanese and Thai
employees because English was used as the main language among the three nationalities and
they were the only native English speakers. Americans were more interculturally competent
than Thai and Japanese employees because they were more open to their co-workers cultures
(Samorn 2009). In Managing international business communication problems at work: a
pilot study in foreign companies in Thailand, Roong Sriussadaporn elaborated that a lack of
accountability, poor time management, inconsistency, language deficiency and personal/work
relationships are biggest problems expats faced when working with Thai employees (Roong
2006). Kaewmala (2012) indicated that Thai students are likely to have a lack of English
language skill which affects them to not get involved with the global society and feel anxious
when interacting with foreigners. English is rarely used in Thai society, even among
academic scholars because of the conservative belief that Thailand has never been colonized
by any Western countries. This might contribute to the lack of academic cooperation and
exchange between Thai and Western scholars because of this language barrier (Thongchai
2010, 135-151). Tamam (2000) discovered that some of the misunderstandings between
expats and the Malaysian employers were language barrier and communication behavior.
Many local participants in his study mentioned that they had difficulty understanding native
English speakers because of their strong accents. Indirect and direct communication could
also be one of the major barriers to intercultural communication.

Cultural adjustment

In Communication competence and acculturation of foreigners living in Bangkok, Tachcha

Wittayawiroj, a Masters student at Rangsit University emphasized that the main factor
affecting the successful adjustment of expats in his research was the length of stay. Long-
term expats were likely to adjust to Thai culture more successfully than short-term expats.
This is because they had more time to interact with Thais and learn about Thai culture. Here
is a part of the literature that mentions about how the length of stay affects a successful
acculturation of foreign workers in Thailand:

The result of this study indicates that long-term expats can adapt themselves to Thai
culture to a higher level of adjustment, because they have more opportunities and
 times to interact with Thais, to spend their life among Thai culture, and to learn about
Thai culture and custom than expats who just recently arrived to Thailand. (Tachcha
2009, 87)

This literature is a paramount literature written in Thai language which talks about the
foreigners perception of cultural adjustment in Thai society. However, a weak point of this
thesis is that it does not focus on any particular nationality or group. Therefore, this thesis
might not reflect cultural adjustment of British expats who have lived in Thailand for a long
period of time. In Cross-Cultural Marriages between Thai Women and Western Men:
Language and Communication which deals with the intercultural adaptation of Isan
(Northeastern Thai women) who married Western men, Thinvat pointed out that English
proficiency played a significant role in successful Western men/Thai women relationships
even though some men were not native English speakers. Most of the Isan women from this
research had to learn English and the native language of their husband in order to live
comfortably in the foreign country where their husbands are originally from. In raising
children, both Isan women and Western men taught their own language and fostered their
own culture to the children. Some Western men chose to live with their wives permanently in
the rural areas of Northeast Thailand. Hence, multilingualism existed in these local
communities. The languages used were Isan, central Thai, English, and the language of the
husband. Code switching and language choosing were also used in the communication
between Thai wives and their foreign husbands (Thinvat 2012, 165-183). In the book Cross-
cultural communication: An introduction, many terms are given to the adjustment time that
expats have difficulty in dealing with cultural differences, identity crisis and emotional
conflict. Another Thai scholar who studies cultural adjustment of Westerners in Thailand and
the author of this book is Dr. Wirangrong, professor of English at Thamamsat University. She
categorized cultural adjustment into four main stages: The honeymoon stage, the depression
or avoidance stage, the gaining ground or near recovery stage and the adjustment or full
recovery stage. (Wirangrong 2012, 76-77). Adler Pedersen also described culture shock in
five stages. The first stage is called honeymoon stage. It is where everything is new and
exciting. The second stage is involved with disintegration of familiar cues and irritation.
Some have called it distress stage. It happens with expats who live abroad and experience a
new culture. People in this stage experience differences between their culture and the new
culture. The third stage is the re-integration stage. This stage is involved with increased
ability to function in the new culture, but the emotions experienced in this stage are mostly
anger and resentment toward the new culture as a result of being different from their own
culture. In the fourth stage, it is sometimes called autonomy stage where people see both
good and bad elements in both the home and new cultures. There are fewer feelings of
isolation and people feel more in control and comfortable. The last stage is called
independence stage where the person has achieved biculturalism by becoming able to cope
comfortably with both the home and new cultures (Adler 1975, 13-23). John W. Berry
generated The four-fold model of acculturation strategies, including assimilation,
separation, marginalization and integration. He indicated that when an individual places a
value on holding onto their original culture, and at the same time avoids interaction with
others, and then separation is defined. When there is an interest in both keeping ones original
culture and interacting with other social groups, integration is determined. Integration can
take place when the newcomers participate in the host culture while still retaining their native
culture (Berry 2011).

Cultural differences between Thais and Westerners

Cultural differences can be one of the main reasons why the cultural gap between Thais and
Westerners is still wide. Linguistic and cultural differences can cause the problem of cross-
cultural misunderstandings between Western expats and Thais to form a deep relationship
with each other. One of the main cultural differences between Thai and Westerners is
individualism and collectivism. Hofstede (2011) argued that in individualistic countries such
as the UK and Germany, people tend to put more emphasis on individual accomplishments,
goals and personalities. For example, British people perceive that we should respect
someone, based on their personal success rather than what family they come from. In
contrast, people from collectivistic countries such as Thailand and China are likely to put
more emphasis on the importance of their group/community over individuals (Hofstede,
2011). Different communication styles also can cause misunderstanding between Thais and
Westerners. Erin Meyers indicated that Thais are indirect communicators while Westerners
such as the British and Americans are direct communicators. Conflict is avoided in the
cultures that prefer implicit communication in order to save other-face (Meyer, 2014). Many
Thais are unfamiliar with direct criticism, and then Westerners need to be careful with
causing Thai people to lose face (Benjawan and Roensak 2008, 105). In terms of cultural
differences in punctuality, Westerners might put more emphasis on finishing personal tasks
along a schedule while Thai workers might complete the project in an intensive last minute
effort. (Holmes, Suchada with Tomizawa 2003). Equalitarianism has played an essential role
in Western society for a long time. The belief that individuals should be treated equally and
that social inequality should be eliminated has been a part of many Western countries,
including the United States, the United Kingdom and Germany (Meyer 2014). The essence of
a patron-client network and two way relationships between people from superior status and
inferior others are prevalent in Thailand. Many Thais can exactly know what position and
role they play in society and they are brought up with the idea of fixed social hierarchy
(Holmes, Suchada with Tomizawa 2003).

Interculturalism

According to Martyn Barrett, interculturalism has emerged as a specific model to deal with
the problems of multiculturalism. The critic of multiculturalism is that it does not foster
intercultural competence and intercultural dialogue among both minority and majority groups
(Barrett 2013, 15-38). One of the most invaluable theories for this thesis is interculturalism,
as presented in the book Interculturalism: The New Era of Cohesion and Diversity is written
by Ted Cantle, the founder of the Institute of Community Cohesion (ICoCo) in the UK. This
book discussed in detail the importance of interculturalism and social integration in the
world. Thought out the book, the author provides us with the knowledge of how
interculturalism theory developed and points out the failure of multiculturalism.
Multiculturalism was created to find a common ground between the majority and minorities
in each society. Multiculturalism has both positive and negative sides. It helps to provide a
framework of rights for minorities groups and also keeps the concept of diversity by
accepting the heritage of each different community by avoiding assimilation. However,
multiculturalism cannot foster positive relations between each community and the sense of
otherness still appears in many societies. Interculturalism is developed to build a mutual
understanding and trust between people by recognizing many forms of difference, including
faith, sexual orientation, race and gender (Cantle 2012, 171-175). In addition, Meer and
Modood define what interculturalism stands for and how it is in contrast to multiculuralism:

These are, first, as something greater than coexistence, in that interculturalism is

allegedly more geared toward interaction and dialogue than multiculturalism. Second,
that interculturalism is conceived as something less groups or more yielding of
synthesis than multiculturalism. Third, that interculturalism is something more
committed to a stronger sense of the whole, in terms of such things as societal
cohesion and national citizenship. Finally, that where multiculturalism may be
illiberal and relativistic, interculturalism is more likely to lead to criticism of illiberal
 cultural practices which is as part of the process of intercultural dialogue. (Meer and
Modood 2011, 177)

Interculturalism has shared some similarities with multiculturalism, including putting

emphasis on pluralism and integration which helps to bridge the gap between each
community and promote the equality between majorities and minorities. Practically,
interculturalism is built fundamentally upon multiculturalism, but interculturalism places a
main emphasis on intercultural dialogue. This intercultural dialogue is the main difference
between interculturalism and multiculturalism (Barrett 2012, 15-38). The United Nations
Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) emphasizes that intercultural
dialogue is a process that consists of an open and intercultural exchange of worldviews
between individuals and groups with different racial, ethnic, cultural, religious and linguistic
backgrounds and heritage, on the basis of mutual understanding and respect. It requires the
freedom and ability to express what identities people have as well as the motivations and
abilities to listen to worldviews of people from different backgrounds. Its original purpose is
to develop a deeper understanding of distinct worldviews and practices, to increase
collaboration and participation between people (UNESCO 2013, 14-15). Nevertheless,
interculturalism is important because there are segregations of neighborhood, workplaces,
schools and other institutions among local people and other minority groups, including
expats, migrants and foreign residents. Integration and inerculturalism policy is a priority of
each government in the age of globalization to implement and provide for people to learn and
live with each other (Cantle 2012, 91-143). Floya Anthias describes that interculturalism has
replaced the idea of multiculturalism and put emphasis on providing a more dialogical and
interactional framing of the relations between cultures. It aims at realization of the global and
intersectional function of social bonds and interests and the need to depart from ethnocentric
and national based lens for achieving inclusion and social justice (Anthias 2013, 12-15). In
the future if we need to see a place where people are integrated into the society and learn
from each other, interculturalism might be a practical method to overcome ethno-cultural
conflicts between multiple groups in different parts of the world (Cantle 2012, 29).

Intersectionality

Intersectionality was created by an American social justice advocate and scholar of critical
race theory, Kimberl Williams Crenshaw (Dastagir 2013). In Mapping the Margins:
Intersectionality, Identity Politics, and Violence Against Women of Color, Crenshaw argues
that current feminist and anti-racist movement needs to align their approach more with
intersections of multiple identities. She discussed that while white women experience
different forms of sexism, women of color experience both racism and sexism (Dastagir
2013; Vidal 2014). Crenshaw also attempts to classify three types of intersectionality which
illustrates the ways women of color suffer from overlapping of multidimensional identities,
including structural intersectionality, political intersectionality, and representational
intersectionality (Crenshaw 1991). We should consider applying the theory of
intersectionality when it comes to how we see ourselves and others from different identities.
Floya Anthias argues that integration and diversity approaches undergo a concentration on
the cultural and identificational, construct rigid boundaries of us and them and hold
assumptions about positive and negative difference. They are based on a notion of identity as
really made fixed and rigid and do not recognize that people engage in different types of
identity (Anthias 2013, 11-12). Gina Crosley-Corcoran, Author and advocate behind
TheFeministBreeder.com also emphasizes that:

"People can be privileged in some ways and not privileged in others and there are
many types of privileges apart from skin color/race that can benefit a group of people.
There are many different types of privilege, not just skin color privilege, that impact
the way people can move through the world or are discriminated against. These are all
things you are born into, not things you earned, that afford you opportunities others
may not have. For example: Citizenship Simply being born in this country affords
you certain privileges non-citizens will never access. Class Being born into a
financially stable family can help guarantee your health, happiness, safety, education,
intelligence, and future opportunities. Sexual Orientation By being born straight,
every state in this country affords you privileges that non-straight folks have to fight
the Supreme Court for. Sex By being born male, you can assume that you can walk
through a parking garage without worrying about harassment/violence and that a
defense attorney will then blame it on what you were wearing. Ability By being
born able bodied, you probably dont have to plan your life around handicap access,
braille, or other special needs. Gender By being born cisgendered, you arent
worried that the restroom or locker room you use will invoke public outrage"
(Crosley-Corcoran, 2014).

This intersectionality that includes citizenship, class, sexual orientation and religious identity
allows us to explore the complexity of social identity theory. When it comes to class
privilege, we can acknowledge that there are many whites living in poverty in several parts of
the world such as Eastern Europe and South Africa etc. Lawrence Blum from White
privilege: A mild critique explains that the class-based factor plays a significant role in
determining the degree of wealth. Even though white privilege is true, it does not mean the
condition of poverty is only subjected to the race-based factor. Wealthy blacks and Latinos
have class privilege over working-class and poor whites who also suffer from the history of
class discrimination (Blum 2008, 329-321). In the study of Amy H. Bourgeois, An
Intersectional Exploration of Race and Gender: Perceptions of Women Faculty in Higher.
Education, she advises that class and economic status should be taken into account when it
comes to intersectionality (Bourgeois 2014, 122-124). Sawrikar and Katz (2010) also indicate
that white people in non-predominantly white countries also experience racial prejudice
because they do not hold the same power and privilege as in the West where the society is
systematically constructed to benefit their social groups most. Dual pricing in Thailand is an
example of this unfair institutional practice, based on stereotypes (all white are outsider and
wealthy) that has been put into practice to take advantage of farang.1 Foreigners, especially
those with European backgrounds are usually charged with a higher price than Thai citizens
to enter a museum, attraction or national park. Interpersonal dual pricing is when an
independent seller charges different purchasers with different prices for the same item
(Mullin 2015; Tuohy 2017). White female expats from the United States who reside in
Thailand might be privileged from her background as a citizen of the first world country. This
is called first world privilege. But she does not have citizenship privilege when living in
Thailand. Western expats are likely to be charged a higher price because they are all
stereotyped as wealthy by taxi drivers and street vendors who carry on this practice. Also, the
Western female expats do not have gender privilege, they often worry about being stared
inappropriately by strangers for what they are wearing. This does not happen for males
regardless of ethnic backgrounds. The concept of generalizations and intersectionality are
vital aspects for everyone to discern themselves and others from a more flexible and complex
perspective. This is because everyone can belong simultaneously to many different groups
and participates in multiple cultures such as races, religions, genders and sexual orientations
(Barrett 2014, 149). Most importantly, rather than putting people into a fixed category, we
should look at each individual by the way they identify themselves and define who they are
(Cantle 2012, 47-52). This approach will certainly help us gain a better understanding the
complexity of group and individual identities.

Data Analysis

Qualitative data will be used for data analysis.

1 The term for white Westerners in Thai language

Methodology

I am interested in using qualitative analysis and in-depth interviews as the main procedures to
conduct this research. Social science research theories regarding the techniques and limitation
of interviews and open-ended questions will also be employed as the primary methods of data
collection. The open-ended questions are based on based on the researchers experience as a
former Thai lecturer in an international environment. The open-ended nature of the questions
not only defines the topic under investigation but also provides opportunities for both
interviewer and interviewee to mutually discuss some topics in more detail. If the interviewee
has difficulty answering a question or provides only a brief response, the interviewer can
imply or provoke to encourage the interviewee to consider the question further. In a semi-
structured interview, the interviewer also has the freedom to inquire the participants to give
information on an original response or to follow a line of inquiry introduced by the
interviewee (Hancock et al. 2009, 16). The semi- structured interview consists of open-ended
questions determining the area to be examined and discovered (Bricki and Green 2002, 11).
In addition, the focus group interview method will be used in this study to identify norms and
opinions of a specific group and to discover variety within a population (Mack et al. 2005,
30). Focus group interviews may allow a discussion on a wider range of topics than an
individual interview and the discussion is probably smoother than in a face to face interview
(Moriarty 2011, 9-10). Finally, the researcher will use the participant observation method to
understand the experiences of white Australian/Thai couples for several months. Observation
is a qualitative method that is more than just recording of data from the environment. When
making an observation, we can generate new information by being an active participant.
Participant observation means the researcher receives two roles to play as an observer and as
a participant (Fox 1998, 6-10). In finding the results of this research, the researcher needs to
join and attend various mixed communities consisting of people from different racial/ethnic
and cultural backgrounds. This opportunity will give him opportunities to interact and
socialize with participants in this study. As a result, the methods of qualitative data will be
decided on for collecting information about the experiences of American/Thai couples. This
qualitative report will concentrate on the life histories and personal experiences of the
subjects as they apply to various theories, including the sociology of race and ethnicity, social
identity theory, intersectionality, interculturalism, symbolic interactionism, intercultural
adjustment, intercultural sensitivity and intercultural competence. By conducting an open-
ended interview, created from sensitizing concepts in the literature, the intercultural couples
are able to discuss the lived experience of their unions about topics that are based in the
interview guide, and expand further about issues they face within their relationships.

Participants and Recruitment

The criteria for the ideal candidates are established prior to the start of the interviewing
process. It is decided that this thesis will particularly focus on American/Thai couples.
Firstly, snowball sampling or chain sampling will be used as a main method to select
members of population to participate in the study. Snowball sampling concentrates mainly on
one or two key individuals, and then asks them to give advice and names of other potential
participants (Brikci and Green 2002, 10). The researcher will send out an email to his social
circle, such as friends and family with known connections to interracial couples. This email
will request them to forward his information, including a research proposal to individuals
who might wish to volunteer as participants in his study. Through this method, the researcher
hopes to reach a more diverse audience of interracial/intercultural couples than he may
encounter within his own social network. The last method chosen for recruiting participants is
purposive sampling. Social media will play a significant part in recruitment and selection.
The researcher needs to post a letter of permission to conduct the research into multiple
Facebook groups and selectively get to know each participant from the sites in person. As
snowball sampling and purposive sampling are used for obtaining samples in this study, the
criteria for the ideal candidates are established prior to the start of the interviewing process.
As this research aims to illustrate the experiences of American/Thai couples, the investigator
narrows down the participant criteria to the following:

1. Ethnic/cultural background: A person who is identified as American and Thai

2. Gender: A person who is identified as male and female

3. Marital status: A person who was/is in an interracial/intercultural relationship

The interview process will be conducted for gaining qualitative data. Open-ended questions
are chosen as the basis for the interviews. They are purposefully structured around themes
identified previously from the theoretical framework and literature review. This is a
qualitative study, not a survey study, and it was also determined prior to the interview process
with no more than 40 participants would be recruited for this thesis. As Weiss states:
 Because each respondent is expected to provide a great deal of information, the
qualitative interview study is likely to rely on a sample very much smaller than the
samples interviewed by a reasonably ambitious survey study. (Weiss 1994, 3)

Therefore, the number of participants should be smaller than those required for a
quantitative method study in order to obtain a great deal of information. Forty participants
should be enough for conducting this research.

Ethnical consideration

Two key ethical issues that should be considered in any research project are consent and
confidentiality. Each participant should be briefed on the nature of the study individually and
on paper, asked for permission to be interviewed, and informed that they can withdraw from
the study at any point. If gathered, the personal information of the participants must be saved
at all times and not be left lying around in public computers/notebooks and un-
protected/unsafe computer files (Brikci and Green 2002, 5-6). The information gathered,
including transcripts of the interviews and contact information of the participants should be
saved in the researchers private computer and will be stored for at least ten years.

Scope of the Study

The research explores the experiences of American/Thai couples on problems and prospects
of intercultural relations in Thailand in an attempt to better understand their lived experience
from the qualitative perspective.

Provisional timetable of the major phases of the research process

Activities Estimated timeline
Develop or adapt research objectives 2 months
Design research protocol 1 month
Design and adapt instrument 1 month
Recruit interviewers 6 months
Train interviewers and prepare for surveys 6 months
(include pretesting and editing instruments in
training)
Transcribe recordings 2 months
Translate transcripts (Thai and English) 3 months
Collect data 2 months
Analysis 4 months
Prepare and finalize the report 2 months
Total 2 and a half years

Significance of the research

The benefit of this study is to examine intercultural couples in an attempt to better understand
their lived experience from the qualitative perspective. Most literature on the subject do not
provide sufficient theoretical framework for considering intercultural relationships. Existing
literature does not provide much information on intercultural couples and it is necessary to
address gaps in our understanding of their experiences. The contribution of this study to
Thai/American societies cannot be overemphasized. This investigation hopes to address the
gap in the existing literature on intercultural relationships in Thailand and the United States.
The study will also provide information to prospective spouses, families and adults who need
to learn about the effects of culture conflict in their intercultural relationships. The study will
be useful to American/Thai couples to learn strategies for dealing with any threat of culture
conflict in their marriages and life.
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