Geotechnical Engineering Investigation Handbook: Second Edition

GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING
INVESTIGATION HANDBOOK
Second Edition
Copyright 2005 by Taylor & Francis Group

GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING
INVESTIGATION HANDBOOK
Second Edition
Downloaded by [117.223.178.169] at 22:48 20 August 2017
Roy E. Hunt
Boca Raton London New York Singapore
A CRC title, part of the Taylor & Francis imprint, a member of the
Taylor & Francis Group, the academic division of T&F Informa plc.

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Published in 2005 by
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Hunt, Roy E.
Geotechnical engineering investigation handbook/Roy E. Hunt.2nd ed.
p. cm.
Rev. ed. of: Geotechnical engineering investigation manual. 1984.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 0-8493-2182-4 (alk. paper)
1. Engineering geologyHandbooks, manuals, etc. I. Hunt, Roy E. Geotechnical engineering
investigation manual. II. Title.
TA705.H86 2005 2004

624.151--dc22 2004066434
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2182_C00.qxd 3/1/2005 12:19 PM Page v
Foreword
Whoever reads this book will never approach geotechnical exploration in the same way
again. Nowhere else has it been made so evident that all boundaries among engineering
geology, geophysics, rock mechanics, soil mechanics, geohydrology, seismology, and a
host of other disciplines are meaningless; that contributions to the solution of geotechni-
cal problems may come from any or all of these sources; or that the practitioner who holds
too narrowly to a single specialty is likely to overlook knowledge that could be of the
greatest benefit to him in reaching proper judgments. This book should be read, if for no
other reason than to appreciate the breadth of geotechnics and to escape from the trap of
too narrow a perspective.

The book also rights longtime imbalance: it gives residual soils, tropically weathered
soils, and the transitional materials between soil and rock the attention their widespread
occurrence deserves. It does this not out of any abstract desire of the author to present a
complete picture, but because he has worked with these materials in many parts of the
world, has found them no less deserving of rational treatment than transported soils in
temperate zones, and sees no reason to treat them as oddities in the world of workaday
geotechnics. His recognition of the prevalence and significance of colluvium is also notable.
The reader can use the book in several ways. Even the most experienced professional
will find it to be a useful checklist of the adequacy of his exploratory programs. The less
experienced will discover a wealth of useful data as well, and will learn of procedures and
resources that have not previously come to his attention.
The reader will certainly not find all he needs to solve his exploration problems. Nor
will he learn the nuts and bolts of investigation. The book does not tell him in detail how
to make a boring, use a sophisticated sampler, or interpret an air photo. It does, however,
give him the information required to judge the circumstances under which a certain pro-
cedure or test would be useful, to know whether the field work is being performed com-
petently, to assess the validity of the results, and to reach reasonable engineering
conclusions. It also points him, through the many references and the indexes of source
material, to more complete information if he needs it.
The purist in any of the geotechnical disciplines will no doubt notice shortcomings, but
the practical man with problems to solve will be fascinated by the vast array of useful
information and varieties of approaches available to him, and will find much of what he
needs at his fingertips.
Ralph B. Peck

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Preface
Geotechnical engineering is a branch of civil engineering that concerns the study of the
interrelationship between the geologic environment and the work done by human kind.
Soil mechanics and rock mechanics are fields in which the mathematical aspects of analy-
sis for the design of engineering works are defined and described as they relate to the geo-
logic environment. Projects involving excavations in rock bear a close relationship to
mining engineering. The basis on which the knowledge structure of geotechnical engi-
neering is built is a thorough comprehension of the elements of the geologic environment.
In reality, therefore, geotechnical engineering consists of two major, but separate, disci-
plines: geology and civil engineering. Both disciplines are branches of applied science, but
there is a major philosophical difference between them. The geologist bases his conclu-
sions primarily on observations and intuitive reasoning, whereas the engineer measures
properties and applies mathematical analysis to reach his conclusions. The discipline of
engineering geology (or geological engineering) has attempted to fill this philosophical
gap, primarily in connection with the characterization of the geologic environment for
construction works and the evaluation of geologic phenomena such as slope movements,
earthquakes, etc., rather than in relation to the design and construction of engineering
works such as foundations and retaining structures.
This book was conceived as a vehicle to create a merger between geology and civil
engineering; it is a comprehensive guide to the elements of geotechnical engineering
from the viewpoint of investigating and defining the geologic environment for the pur-
pose of providing criteria for the design of engineering workswhether they are in soil
or rock. The geotechnical engineer must be familiar with the many components of the
geologic environment and its characteristics: rock types and rock masses, soil types and
soil formations, groundwater as well as the phenomena generally referred to as geologic
hazards, i.e., flooding and erosion, landslides, ground heave, subsidence and collapse,
and earthquakes.
While conducting geotechnical investigations it is necessary to identify these elements
and to define their spatial orientation by employing various techniques of exploration.
Engineering design criteria are established based on measurements of the hydraulic and
mechanical properties of the component geologic materials, either through laboratory tests
of samples retrieved from the field, or by tests in the field itself, i.e., in situ. The response of
the geologic environment to changing stress fields or other transient conditions, occurring
naturally or as a result of construction activity, is measured with instrumentation.
The emphasis in this text is on the identification and description of the elements of the
geologic environment, the data required for the analysis and design of engineering works,
the physical and engineering properties of geologic materials, and procurement of the rel-
evant data. Approaches to solutions of engineering problems are described for some con-
ditions as an aid to understanding the necessity for the data and their application; general
solutions are described for those problems that can be resolved based on experience and
judgment, without resorting to rigorous mathematical analysis. The analytical aspects of
soil and rock mechanics as applied to the design of foundations, retaining structures,
dams, pavements, tunnels, and other engineering works are not included in this text,

2182_C00.qxd 3/1/2005 12:19 PM Page viii
except on occasion as a brief reference to some particular aspect of analysis such as settle-
ments, slope stability, or seepage forces.
The most serious elements of the geologic environment that impact on the work by
humankind are the geologic hazards, and approaches for dealing with these hazards are
described in some detail. These phenomena are considered in terms of the degree of haz-
ard that they pose and the degree of the risk of their occurrence. Solutions to these prob-
lems can follow one of several approaches: avoid the hazard, reduce it, or eliminate it. It
must be recognized that in many instances it is not possible to totally eliminate a haz-
ardous condition and it must either be avoided or reduced to the point where the risk is
tolerable.
It must also be recognized that there are many limitations to our capabilities in geotech-
nical engineering. It is not always possible to define all significant conditions at a given loca-
tion, to obtain accurate measurements of the properties of all geologic materials, or to
predict, for example, the occurrence and magnitude of slope failures, floods, and earth-
quakes. Many analytical approaches are based on empirical concepts, and most are based on
concepts of elastic theory, which apply only in a general manner to most geologic materials.
An awareness of our limitations should lead to the adoption of conservative design strate-
gies and the inclusion of adequate safety factors to provide for unknown contingencies.
The greater majority of the techniques and concepts presented herein are expected to be
applicable for many years to come, but there are certain areas where the state-of-the-art tech-
nologies are changing rapidly. Some parts of this work, therefore, are expected to become
modified with time, particularly in the areas of earthquake engineering, offshore technology,
the application of electronics to the measurements of properties, and instrumentation.
The reader will find the presentation somewhat different from that of the usual engi-
neering text. Emphasis is on the practical approach to problem-solving rather than the the-
oretical, with the objective of making it possible for the user to retrieve key data rapidly.
The author thanks his many colleagues in the profession who offered their comments
on the book, particularly Dr. Ralph B. Peck, as well as the many authors and publishers
who granted permission to reproduce many of the tables and figures, or who provided
figures themselves. Special thanks go to his wife, Marilia, for her patience and forebear-
ance during this long effort.
Note: Photographs without credits were taken by the author.
The foregoing was included in the original edition of this book in 1984, published under
the title Geotechnical Engineering Investigation Manual. Much of what the author wrote in
1984 still applies today. This new edition reflects the experience that the author has gained
over the past 20 years, as well as new developments in existing technology. Significant
developments have taken place in the areas of remotely sensed satellite imagery, global
positioning systems (GPS), geophysical exploration, and cone penetrometer testing. Most
significant has been the digitizing of data recording and retrieval as applied to many
aspects of exploration, field and laboratory testing, and instrumentation.
Roy E. Hunt

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Author
Now in private practice, Roy E. Hunt, P.E., P.G., has over 50 years of experience in geo-
technical and geological engineering. Mr. Hunt has been an adjunct professor of engi-
neering geology, Graduate School of Civil Engineering, Drexel University, and currently
holds a similar position in the Geosciences Program at the University of Pennsylvania. He
has been the consultant on two new nuclear power plants in Brazil; for a toll road program
in Indonesia and a new airbase in Israel; for offshore mooring structures in the Philippines
and Brazil; and for landslide studies in Bolivia, Brazil, Ecuador, Indonesia, Puerto Rico,
and the continental U.S. Assignments also have taken him to Barbados, England, France,
the U.S. Virgin Islands, and locations throughout the continental U.S. His past affiliations
include Joseph S. Ward and Associates, where he was a partner, and Woodward-Clyde
Consultants, where he was director of engineering in the Pennsylvania office.
His education includes an M.A. in soil mechanics and foundation engineering, Columbia
University, New York (1956), and a B.S. in geology and physics, Upsala College, East
Orange, New Jersey (1952). He is a registered professional engineer in New Jersey, New
York, and Pennsylvania; a registered professional geologist in Delaware, Pennsylvania, and
Brazil; and a certified professional geologist. His professional affiliations include the
American Society of Civil Engineers (Life Member), Association of Engineering Geologists,
and the American Institute of Professional Geologists. He has received the E.B. Burwell Jr.
Memorial Award, Geologic Society of America, Engineering Geology Division, and the
Claire P. Holdredge Award, Association of Engineering Geologists, for his book Geotechnical
Engineering Investigation Manual (1984); and the Claire P. Holdredge Award, Association of
Engineering Geologists, for his book Geotechnical Engineering Techniques and Practices
(1986) both books published by McGraw-Hill, New York.

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Contents
Chapter 1. Introduction ............................................................................................................1

1.1 Basic Considerations ............................................................................................................1
1.1.1 Human Activities and the Geologic Interface ......................................................1
1.1.2 Investigation ..............................................................................................................2
1.1.3 Objectives ..................................................................................................................2
1.2 Scope ........................................................................................................................................3
1.2.1 General........................................................................................................................3
1.2.2 Investigation Methods and Procedures (Part I) ..................................................3
1.2.3 Characteristics of Geologic Materials and Formations (Part II) ........................5

1.2.4 Geologic Hazards (Part III)......................................................................................7
1.2.5 Appendices ................................................................................................................8
1.3 Geotechnical Investigation: Objectives, Stages, Scope, and Planning ..........................9
1.3.1 Basic Objectives ........................................................................................................9
1.3.2 Stages of Investigation ............................................................................................9
1.3.3 Phases of Investigation ............................................................................................9
1.3.4 Study Planning ........................................................................................................11
PART I: Investigation Methods and Procedures ..............................................................13
Chapter 2. Exploration............................................................................................................15
2.1 Introduction ..........................................................................................................................15
2.1.1 Objectives ................................................................................................................15
2.1.2 Methodology............................................................................................................15
2.1.3 Scope ........................................................................................................................15
2.2 Surface Mapping..................................................................................................................17
2.2.1 General......................................................................................................................17
2.2.2 Research Data ..........................................................................................................17
2.2.3 Remotely Sensed Imagery ....................................................................................21
2.2.4 Terrain Analysis ......................................................................................................28
2.2.5 Site Reconnaissance ................................................................................................41
2.2.6 Preparation of Subsurface Exploration Program ..............................................43
2.3 Subsurface Exploration ......................................................................................................43
2.3.1 General......................................................................................................................43
2.3.2 Geophysical methods ............................................................................................44
2.3.3 Reconnaissance Methods ......................................................................................66
2.3.4 Continuous CPT(ASTM D5778)............................................................................66
2.3.5 Test and Core Borings ............................................................................................74
2.3.6 Borehole Remote-Sensing and Logging ..............................................................93
2.3.7 Groundwater and Seepage Detection ..................................................................96
2.4 Recovery of Samples and Cores ........................................................................................99
2.4.1 General......................................................................................................................99
2.4.2 Test Boring Soil Sampling....................................................................................101

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2.4.3 Miscellaneous Soil-Sampling Methods..............................................................109

2.4.4 Subaqueous Sampling ..........................................................................................111
2.4.5 Rock Coring ..........................................................................................................114
2.4.6 Sample and Core Treatment ................................................................................126
2.4.7 Data Presentation ..................................................................................................131
References ....................................................................................................................................135
Further Reading ..........................................................................................................................137
Chapter 3. Measurement of Properties ............................................................................139

3.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................................139
3.1.1 Objectives ..............................................................................................................139
3.1.2 Geotechnical Properties ......................................................................................139
3.1.3 Testing Methods Summarized ............................................................................140
3.2 Basic and Index Properties ..............................................................................................147
3.2.1 Intact Rock ............................................................................................................147
3.2.2 Rock Masses ..........................................................................................................150

3.2.3 Soils ........................................................................................................................151
3.3 Hydraulic Properties (Permeability) ..............................................................................163
3.3.1 Introduction ..........................................................................................................163
3.3.2 Estimating the Permeability Coefficient k ........................................................164
3.3.3 Laboratory Tests ....................................................................................................166
3.3.4 In Situ Testing ........................................................................................................170
3.4 Rupture Strength................................................................................................................174
3.4.1 Introduction ..........................................................................................................174
3.4.2 Shear Strength Relationships ..............................................................................179
3.4.3 Rock Strength Measurements ............................................................................191
3.4.4 Soil Strength Measurements................................................................................199
3.4.5 Soil Penetration Tests............................................................................................211
3.5 Deformation without Rupture ........................................................................................218
3.5.1 Introduction ..........................................................................................................218
3.5.2 Deformation Relationships..................................................................................223
3.5.3 Rock Deformation Measurements......................................................................227
3.5.4 Soil Deformation Measurements (Static) ..........................................................235
3.5.5 Dynamic Deformation Moduli (Soils) ..............................................................251
3.6 Typical Values of Basic, Index, and Engineering Properties ......................................254
3.6.1 Rock Masses ..........................................................................................................254
3.6.2 Weathered Rock and Residual Soil ....................................................................255
3.6.3 Cohesionless Soils ................................................................................................255
3.6.4 Clay Soils................................................................................................................255
3.6.5 Compacted Materials ..........................................................................................263
References ....................................................................................................................................263
Further Reading ..........................................................................................................................269
Chapter 4. Field Instrumentation ......................................................................................271

4.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................................271
4.1.1 Methods and Instruments Summarized............................................................271
4.1.2 Objectives ..............................................................................................................271
4.1.3 Applications ..........................................................................................................271
4.1.4 Program Elements ................................................................................................275
4.1.5 Transducers ............................................................................................................277

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4.2 Surface Movements ..........................................................................................................279

4.2.1 Forms and Significance ........................................................................................279
4.2.2 Surveying ..............................................................................................................281
4.2.3 Tiltmeters................................................................................................................285
4.2.4 Extensometers........................................................................................................287
4.2.5 Vibration Monitoring............................................................................................290
4.3 Subsurface Deformations ................................................................................................291
4.3.1 Forms and Significance ........................................................................................291
4.3.2 Vertical Displacement ..........................................................................................292
4.3.3 Lateral Displacement............................................................................................297
4.3.4 Linear Strain Gradients ........................................................................................302
4.3.5 Acoustical Emissions ............................................................................................304
4.4 In Situ Pressures and Stresses ..........................................................................................308
4.4.1 General....................................................................................................................308
4.4.2 Pore-Water Pressures............................................................................................309
4.4.3 Loads and Stresses ................................................................................................314

4.4.4 Residual Rock Stresses ........................................................................................317
4.5 Instrumentation Arrays for Typical Problems ..............................................................320
4.5.1 Importance ............................................................................................................320
4.5.2 Settlement of Structures ......................................................................................320
4.5.3 Excavation Retention............................................................................................323
4.5.4 Earth Dams ............................................................................................................324
4.5.5 Tunnels, Caverns, and Mines ..............................................................................326
4.5.6 Natural and Cut Slopes........................................................................................329
4.5.7 Fault Movements ..................................................................................................332
References ....................................................................................................................................332
Further Reading ..........................................................................................................................334
Catalogs ........................................................................................................................................334
PART II: Characteristics of Geologic Materials and Formations ..................................335
Chapter 5. Rock and Soil: Identification and Classification ........................................337

5.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................................337
5.1.1 The Geologic Materials ........................................................................................337
5.1.2 Rock Groups and Classes ....................................................................................338
5.1.3 Soil Groups and Classes ......................................................................................339
5.2 Rocks....................................................................................................................................339
5.2.1 The Three Groups ................................................................................................339
5.2.2 Petrographic Identification..................................................................................340
5.2.3 Igneous Rocks........................................................................................................346
5.2.4 Sedimentary Rocks ..............................................................................................348
5.2.5 Metamorphic Rocks..............................................................................................361
5.2.6 Engineering Characteristics of Rock Masses ....................................................364
5.2.7 Rock-Mass Description and Classification........................................................368
5.3 Soils ......................................................................................................................................383
5.3.1 Components ..........................................................................................................383
5.3.2 Granular or Cohesionless Soils ..........................................................................384
5.3.3 Clays........................................................................................................................385
5.3.4 Organic Materials..................................................................................................390

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5.3.5 Related Engineering Properties ..........................................................................391

5.3.6 Classification and Description of Soils ..............................................................395
References ....................................................................................................................................403
Further Reading ..........................................................................................................................404
Chapter 6. Rock-Mass Characteristics ..............................................................................405

6.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................................405
6.1.1 Characteristics Summarized................................................................................405
6.1.2 Terrain Analysis ....................................................................................................406
6.1.3 Mapping and Presenting Structural Features ..................................................411
6.2 Original Rock-Mass Forms ..............................................................................................418
6.2.1 Significance ............................................................................................................418
6.2.2 Igneous Rocks........................................................................................................419
6.2.4 Metamorphic Rock................................................................................................428
6.3 Deformation by Folding ..................................................................................................430

6.3.1 General....................................................................................................................430
6.3.2 Fracture Cleavage ................................................................................................432
6.3.3 Landforms ..............................................................................................................433
6.4 Jointing ................................................................................................................................437
6.4.1 General....................................................................................................................437
6.4.2 Forms and Characteristics ..................................................................................438
6.4.3 Jointing in Various Rock Types ..........................................................................441
6.4.4 Block Behavior ......................................................................................................446
6.5 Faults....................................................................................................................................451
6.5.1 General....................................................................................................................451
6.5.2 Terminology ..........................................................................................................451
6.5.3 Characteristics and Identification ......................................................................453
6.5.4 Engineering Significance......................................................................................454
6.5.5 Investigation Methodology Summarized ........................................................460
6.6 Residual Stresses ................................................................................................................462
6.6.1 General....................................................................................................................462
6.6.2 Tensile Straining ....................................................................................................463
6.6.3 Rock Bursts ............................................................................................................463
6.6.4 Anticipating Unstable Conditions......................................................................464
6.7 Alteration of Rock..............................................................................................................465
6.7.1 General....................................................................................................................465
6.7.2 Factors Affecting Decomposition ......................................................................467
6.7.3 Weathering Profile in Various Rock Types........................................................475
References ....................................................................................................................................489
Further Reading ..........................................................................................................................491
Chapter 7. Soil Formations: Geologic Classes and Characteristics ............................493

7.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................................493
7.1.1 Geologic Classification of Soil Formations ......................................................493
7.1.2 Terrain Analysis ....................................................................................................496
7.2 Residual Soils ....................................................................................................................500
7.2.1 Introduction ..........................................................................................................500
7.2.2 Igneous and Metamorphic Rocks ......................................................................503

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7.3 Colluvial Deposits..............................................................................................................511

7.3.1 Introduction ..........................................................................................................511
7.3.2 Recognition ............................................................................................................512
7.3.3 Engineering Significance......................................................................................514
7.4 Alluvial Deposits ..............................................................................................................516
7.4.1 Fluvial Environment ............................................................................................516
7.4.2 Estuarine Environment ........................................................................................529
7.4.3 Coastline Environment ........................................................................................534
7.4.4 Coastal Plain Deposits..........................................................................................542
7.4.5 Lacustrine Environment (Nonglacial) ..............................................................550
7.4.6 Marine Environment ............................................................................................556
7.5 Eolian Deposits ..................................................................................................................557
7.5.1 Eolian Processes ....................................................................................................557
7.5.2 Dunes and Sand Sheets........................................................................................559
7.5.3 Loess........................................................................................................................563
7.5.4 Volcanic Clays........................................................................................................568

7.6 Glacial Deposits ................................................................................................................568
7.6.1 Glacial Activity ......................................................................................................568
7.6.2 Till............................................................................................................................572
7.6.3 GlacialFluvial Stratified Drift............................................................................577
7.6.4 GlacialLacustrine Soils ......................................................................................580
7.6.5 GlacialMarine Clays ..........................................................................................590
7.7 Secondary Deposits ..........................................................................................................593
7.7.1 Introduction ..........................................................................................................593
7.7.2 Duricrusts ..............................................................................................................593
7.7.3 Permafrost and Seasonal Frost............................................................................599
7.8 Pedological Soils and Plant Indicators ..........................................................................602
7.8.1 Introduction ..........................................................................................................602
7.8.2 Pedological Classifications ..................................................................................603
7.8.3 Plant Indicators ....................................................................................................610
References ....................................................................................................................................612
Further Reading ..........................................................................................................................615
Chapter 8. Water: Surface and Subsurface ......................................................................617

8.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................................617
8.1.1 General....................................................................................................................617
8.1.2 Engineering Aspects ............................................................................................617
8.2 Surface Water......................................................................................................................618
8.2.1 Surface Hydrology................................................................................................618
8.2.2 Erosion ....................................................................................................................621
8.2.3 Flooding..................................................................................................................627
8.3 Subsurface Water (Groundwater)....................................................................................632
8.3.1 Occurrence ............................................................................................................632
8.3.2 Subsurface Flow ....................................................................................................638
8.3.3 Flow Systems and Analysis ................................................................................646
8.3.4 Practical Aspects of Groundwater......................................................................653
8.4 Groundwater and Seepage Control ................................................................................659
8.4.1 Introduction ..........................................................................................................659
8.4.2 Cutoffs and Barriers..............................................................................................661
8.4.3 Dewatering ............................................................................................................669
8.4.4 Drains......................................................................................................................674

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8.4.5 Filters ......................................................................................................................676

8.4.6 Surface Treatments................................................................................................677
8.4.7 Typical Solutions to Engineering Problems ......................................................677
8.5 Environmental Conservation ..........................................................................................687
8.5.1 Water Conservation and Flood Control ............................................................687
8.5.2 Groundwater Pollution Control ........................................................................690
8.5.3 Environmental Planning Aspects Summarized ..............................................692
References ....................................................................................................................................693
Further Reading ..........................................................................................................................695
PART III: Geologic Hazards ..................................................................................................697
Chapter 9. Landslides and Other Slope Failures ............................................................699

9.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................................699
9.1.1 General....................................................................................................................699
9.1.2 Hazard Recognition..............................................................................................700

9.1.3 Rating the Hazard and the Risk ........................................................................705
9.1.4 Elements of Slope Stability ..................................................................................707
9.2 Slope Failure Form Characteristics ................................................................................714
9.2.1 Creep ......................................................................................................................714
9.2.2 Falls ........................................................................................................................715
9.2.3 Planar Slides in Rock Masses ..............................................................................716
9.2.4 Rotational Slides in Rock ....................................................................................723
9.2.5 Rotational Slides in Soils......................................................................................723
9.2.6 Lateral Spreading and Progressive Failure ......................................................725
9.2.7 Debris Slides ..........................................................................................................741
9.2.8 Debris Avalanches ................................................................................................743
9.2.9 Debris Flows ..........................................................................................................748
9.2.10 Rock-Fragment Flows ..........................................................................................748
9.2.11 Soil and Mud Flows..............................................................................................749
9.2.12 Seafloor Instability ................................................................................................753
9.3 Assessment of Slopes ........................................................................................................755
9.3.1 General....................................................................................................................755
9.3.2 Stability Analysis: A Brief Review......................................................................755
9.3.3 Slope Characteristics ............................................................................................772
9.3.4 Weather Factors ....................................................................................................783
9.3.5 Hazard Maps and Risk Assessment ..................................................................786
9.4 Treatment of Slopes ..........................................................................................................788
9.4.1 General Concepts ..................................................................................................788
9.4.2 Changing Slope Geometry ..................................................................................793
9.4.3 Surface Water Control ..........................................................................................797
9.4.4 Internal Seepage Control ....................................................................................798
9.4.5 Side-Hill Fills ........................................................................................................802
9.4.6 Retention ................................................................................................................804
9.5 Investigation: A Review....................................................................................................813
9.5.1 General....................................................................................................................813
9.5.2 Regional and Total Slope Studies ......................................................................819
9.5.3 Detailed Study of Cut, Fill, or Failure Area ......................................................822
9.5.4 Case Study ............................................................................................................823
9.5.5 Instrumentation and Monitoring........................................................................826

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References ....................................................................................................................................828
Further Reading ..........................................................................................................................831
Chapter 10. Ground Subsidence, Collapse, and Heave ..................................................833

10.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................................833
10.1.1 General....................................................................................................................833
10.1.2 The Hazards ..........................................................................................................833
10.1.3 Scope and Objectives............................................................................................833
10.2 Groundwater and Oil Extraction ....................................................................................834
10.2.1 Subsurface Effects ................................................................................................834
10.2.2 Surface Effects........................................................................................................835
10.2.3 Physiographic Occurrence ..................................................................................836
10.2.4 Significant Examples ............................................................................................837
10.2.5 Subsidence Prevention and Control ..................................................................840
10.3 Subsurface Mining ............................................................................................................844
10.3.1 Subsidence Occurrence ........................................................................................844

10.3.2 Longwall Panel Extraction ..................................................................................847
10.3.3 Room and Pillar Method (Also Breast and Heading Method) ..................848
10.3.4 Strength Properties of Coal ................................................................................851
10.3.5 Investigation of Existing Mines ..........................................................................852
10.3.6 Subsidence Prevention and Control and Foundation Support......................855
10.4 Solution of Rock ................................................................................................................856
10.4.1 General....................................................................................................................856
10.4.2 Solution Phenomenon and Development ........................................................856
10.4.3 Investigation ..........................................................................................................861
10.4.4 Support of Surface Structures ............................................................................864
10.5 Soil Subsidence and Collapse ..........................................................................................865
10.5.1 General....................................................................................................................865
10.5.2 Collapsible or Metastable Soils ..........................................................................865
10.5.3 Predicting Collapse Potential ..............................................................................872
10.5.4 Treatment and Support of Structures ................................................................874
10.5.5 Piping Soils and Dispersive Clays......................................................................876
10.6 Heave in Soil and Rock ....................................................................................................879
10.6.1 General....................................................................................................................879
10.6.2 Swelling in Soils ....................................................................................................880
10.6.3 Swelling in Rock Masses......................................................................................883
10.6.4 Treatments to Prevent or Minimize Swelling and Heave ..............................886
References ....................................................................................................................................887
Further Reading ..........................................................................................................................891
Chapter 11. Earthquakes ........................................................................................................893

11.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................................893
11.1.1 General....................................................................................................................893
11.1.2 Geographic Distribution ......................................................................................894
11.1.3 Objectives and Scope............................................................................................899
11.2 Earthquake Elements ........................................................................................................899
11.2.1 The Source..............................................................................................................899
11.2.2 Seismic Waves........................................................................................................902
11.2.3 Ground Motion......................................................................................................905
11.2.4 Intensity and Magnitude ....................................................................................910

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11.2.5 Attenuation ............................................................................................................916

11.2.6 Amplification ........................................................................................................919
11.2.7 Duration ................................................................................................................923
11.2.8 Recurrence and Forecasting ................................................................................924
11.3 Surface Effects on the Geologic Environment ..............................................................929
11.3.1 Faulting ..................................................................................................................929
11.3.2 Soil Behavior ..........................................................................................................941
11.3.3 Subsidence and Liquefaction ..............................................................................944
11.3.4 Slope Failures ........................................................................................................951
11.3.5 Tsunamis and Seiches: Response of Large Water Bodies................................956
11.3.6 The Volcano Hazard ............................................................................................958
11.4 Earthquake-Resistant Design: An Overview ................................................................959
11.4.1 Introduction ..........................................................................................................959
11.4.2 Structural Response ..............................................................................................961
11.4.3 Site Ground-Response Factors ............................................................................965
11.4.4 Response Spectra ..................................................................................................967

11.4.5 Seismic Hazard Analysis ....................................................................................970
11.4.6 The Design Earthquake........................................................................................972
11.4.7 Soil-Structure Interaction Analysis (SSI) ..........................................................978
11.5 Investigation: Important Structures in High-Hazard Areas ......................................983
11.5.1 Introduction ..........................................................................................................983
11.5.2 Preliminary Phase ................................................................................................983
11.5.3 Detailed Study of Regional and Local Geologic Conditions..........................986
11.5.4 Evaluation and Analysis ......................................................................................988
11.5.5 Limitations in the Present State of the Art........................................................989
References ....................................................................................................................................991
Further Reading ..........................................................................................................................995
APPENDICES ............................................................................................................................997
Appendix A. The Earth and Geologic History ..................................................................997

A.1 Significance to the Engineer ............................................................................................997
A.2 The Earth ............................................................................................................................997
A.2.1 General....................................................................................................................997
A.2.2 Cross Section..........................................................................................................997
A.3 Global Tectonics ................................................................................................................998
A.3.1 General....................................................................................................................998
A.3.2 The Hypotheses ....................................................................................................998
A.4 Geologic History ................................................................................................................999
A.4.1 North America: Provides a General Illustration ..............................................999
A.4.2 Radiometric Dating ............................................................................................1002
References ..................................................................................................................................1003
Further Reading ........................................................................................................................1003
Appendix B. USGS Quads, Aerial Photographs, Satellite and SLAR

Imagery............................................................................................................1005
FIG Topographic Maps (USGS Quadrangle Maps) ............................................................1005
FIG Stereo-Pairs of Aerial Photos ..........................................................................................1006
FIG Satellite and SLAR Imagery ............................................................................................1006

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Appendix C. English to Metric to the International System ........................................1007
Appendix D. Symbols ..........................................................................................................1009
Appendix E. Engineering Properties of Geologic Materials:

Data and Correlations ..................................................................................1015
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GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING

Copyright 2005 by Taylor & Francis Group

Boca Raton London New York Singapore

Copyright 2005 by Taylor & Francis Group

2005 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

No claim to original U.S. Government works

International Standard Book Number-10: 0-8493-2182-4 (Hardcover)

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

TA705.H86 2005 2004

Visit the Taylor & Francis Web site at

Copyright 2005 by Taylor & Francis Group

too narrow a perspective.

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Copyright 2005 by Taylor & Francis Group

Copyright 2005 by Taylor & Francis Group

Copyright 2005 by Taylor & Francis Group

Chapter 1. Introduction ............................................................................................................1

1.2.3 Characteristics of Geologic Materials and Formations (Part II) ........................5

PART I: Investigation Methods and Procedures ..............................................................13

Copyright 2005 by Taylor & Francis Group

2.4.3 Miscellaneous Soil-Sampling Methods..............................................................109

Chapter 3. Measurement of Properties ............................................................................139

3.2.2 Rock Masses ..........................................................................................................150

Chapter 4. Field Instrumentation ......................................................................................271

Copyright 2005 by Taylor & Francis Group

4.2 Surface Movements ..........................................................................................................279

4.4.3 Loads and Stresses ................................................................................................314

PART II: Characteristics of Geologic Materials and Formations ..................................335

Chapter 5. Rock and Soil: Identification and Classification ........................................337

Copyright 2005 by Taylor & Francis Group

5.3.5 Related Engineering Properties ..........................................................................391

Chapter 6. Rock-Mass Characteristics ..............................................................................405

6.3 Deformation by Folding ..................................................................................................430

Chapter 7. Soil Formations: Geologic Classes and Characteristics ............................493

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7.3 Colluvial Deposits..............................................................................................................511

7.5.4 Volcanic Clays........................................................................................................568

Chapter 8. Water: Surface and Subsurface ......................................................................617

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8.4.5 Filters ......................................................................................................................676

PART III: Geologic Hazards ..................................................................................................697

Chapter 9. Landslides and Other Slope Failures ............................................................699

9.1.2 Hazard Recognition..............................................................................................700

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Chapter 10. Ground Subsidence, Collapse, and Heave ..................................................833

10.3.1 Subsidence Occurrence ........................................................................................844

Chapter 11. Earthquakes ........................................................................................................893

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11.2.5 Attenuation ............................................................................................................916

11.4.4 Response Spectra ..................................................................................................967

Appendix A. The Earth and Geologic History ..................................................................997

Appendix B. USGS Quads, Aerial Photographs, Satellite and SLAR

Copyright 2005 by Taylor & Francis Group

Appendix C. English to Metric to the International System ........................................1007

Appendix D. Symbols ..........................................................................................................1009

Appendix E. Engineering Properties of Geologic Materials:

Copyright 2005 by Taylor & Francis Group

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