Accepted Manuscript

The dough rheological properties and texture of gluten-free pasta based on proso
millet flour

Hollman Motta Romero, Dipak Santra, Devin Rose, Yue Zhang

PII: S0733-5210(16)30525-2

DOI: 10.1016/j.jcs.2017.02.014

Reference: YJCRS 2298

To appear in: Journal of Cereal Science

Received Date: 12 December 2016

Revised Date: 24 February 2017

Accepted Date: 26 February 2017

Please cite this article as: Hollman Motta Romero, Dipak Santra, Devin Rose, Yue Zhang, The
dough rheological properties and texture of gluten-free pasta based on proso millet flour, Journal of
Cereal Science (2017), doi: 10.1016/j.jcs.2017.02.014

This is a PDF file of an unedited manuscript that has been accepted for publication. As a service to
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 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

Highlights

1) Proso millet (PM) was utilized as the sole ingredient to produce gluten-free pasta

2) The rheology of PM dough was improved by sodium alginate (SA), guar gum (GG) and xanthan

gum (XG)

3) XG and GG improved the texture of PM pasta while SA had no contribution.

4) Hydrocolloids did not significantly affect the color of proso millet dough
 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

1 The dough rheological properties and texture of gluten-free pasta based on proso millet
2 flour

6 Hollman Motta Romeroa, Dipak Santrab, Devin Rosea and Yue Zhanga,*
7

8 aDepartment of Food Science and Technology, bDepartment of Agronomy & Horticulture,

9 University of Nebraska-Lincoln, Lincoln, NE

10 Please send correspondence to

11

12 *Yue Zhang

13 Department of Food Science and Technology

14 University of Nebraska-Lincoln

15 1901 21st Street

16 Lincoln, NE 68588

17 Phone: (402) 472-2766; Fax: (402) 472-1693

18 E-mail: yue.zhang@unl.edu

19

20 Keywords: Proso millet, hydrocolloids, rheological properties, gluten-free.

Abbreviations.
XG: Xanthan gum.
GG: Guar gum.
SA: Sodium alginate.
GF: Gluten-free.
GFD: Gluten-free diet.
G: Storage modulus.
G: Loss modulus.
Tan : Los factor. 1
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21 Abstract

22 Proso millet (PM) is a gluten-free cereal grain with potential to be used in gluten-free product

23 development. However, research on improving the rheological properties of PM dough is limited.

24 In the present study, rheological and color characteristics of PM dough (37% moisture) were

25 compared with the behavior of wheat dough. Three hydrocolloids [guar gum (GG), xanthan gum

26 (XG) and sodium alginate (SA)] at concentrations of 0%, 1% and 2% were added to improve the

27 physical properties of PM dough. The textural properties of PM dough developed pasta with and

28 without hydrocolloids were also studied. Wheat dough presented a much higher apparent viscosity

29 and elastic modulus than PM dough. Both the apparent viscosity and elasticity were increased by

30 all three hydrocolloids, with 2% XG presenting the most pronounced improvement in elasticity.

31 Generally, the capacity of hydrocolloids to improve the PM dough follow the order XG>GG>SA.

32 The addition of hydrocolloids showed no significant impact on the color of PM dough. GG and

33 XG showed an improvement in the network strength of PM pasta, while SA did not contribute to

34 textural enhancement.

35

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36 1. Introduction
37 Gluten-containing food consumption is related to three major clinical conditions including

38 celiac disease (CD), nonceliac gluten sensitivity and wheat allergy. The keystone treatment for

39 these conditions is a gluten-free diet (GFD). The market for GFD is growing considerably since

40 an increasing number of people suffering from CD and other gluten-related disorders has been

41 reported (Foschia et al., 2016).

42 Rice, maize and potato flours are utilized as base flours in GF products, even though the

43 nutritional value of these flours tends to be low (O'Shea et al., 2014). Proso millet (Panicum

44 miliaceum; PM), a cereal grain cultivated from early human civilization, was domesticated as a

45 staple food 10,000 years ago in Northern China. Being a short-season crop with a low water

46 requirement, PM is well adapted to many soil and climatic conditions. With increasing world

47 population and decreasing water supplies, it is considered as one of the important crops for future

48 human use. In addition, it is considered as a good carbohydrate source (70-74 g/ 100g) and has

49 high protein content (12-14 g/100 g), providing a richer source of essential amino acids than wheat

50 (Kalinova and Moudry, 2006). Its high nutritional value along with potential beneficial effects on

51 cholesterol metabolism (Nishizawa and Yoshiharu, 1995) and the bioactivity and health benefits

52 of its phenolic compounds (Shahidi and Chandrasekara, 2013) indicate that PM may be a good

53 alternative grain to be utilized in the gluten-free industry. However, studies on GF products such

54 as pasta prepared from PM flour are very limited.

55 In pasta making processes, gluten is essential as the main structure forming agent that

56 contributes to pivotal quality factors such as dough rheology, texture, and color of final products.

57 Generally, GF pasta presents higher cooking loss and exhibits completely different rheological

58 behavior when compared to durum wheat pasta (Lucisano et al., 2012). In order to improve the

59 quality of GF products, non-starch hydrocolloids and proteins are added to GF doughs as potential

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60 gluten replacers. Sozer (2009) demonstrated that the addition of guar gum (GG) along with casein

61 and egg white increased the elasticity of rice pasta dough by making its network structure stronger.

62 Cai et al. (2016) found positive correlations between xanthan gum (XG) content and tensile

63 strength and textural properties of noodles. Hydrocolloids from marine sources such as sodium

64 alginate (SA) has also been employed to retard crumb hardening in baked goods (Guarda et al.,

65 2004). Therefore, the present work aimed to analyze the effect of hydrocolloids including GG, XG

66 and SA on the rheological properties of PM dough and the physical properties of developed pasta.

67 2. Materials and methods

68 2.1. Raw materials

69 Bleached, all-purpose refined wheat flour was purchased from local markets. De-hulled

70 PM seeds were obtained from Clean Dirt Farms (Sterling, CO, USA). PM flour with a mean

71 particle size (D50) of 104 m was obtained by milling PM seed using a CT 293 Cyclotec sample

72 mill (FOSS, Denmark). The particle size of the flour was measured using a Mastersizer 3000

73 (Malvern, UK). Guar and xanthan gums were purchased from Bobs Red Mill (Milwaukie, OR).

74 Sodium alginate was from Will Powder (FL, Miami).

75 2.2. Dough and pasta preparation

76 To prepare hydrocolloid fortified pasta dough, PM flour was mixed with each hydrocolloid

77 at replacement levels of 0, 1 and 2 % (flour basis) and then mixed with distilled water (37% of wet

78 basis, least amount of water needed to obtain a wheat dough in a Kitchen Aid Mixer). All

79 ingredients were mixed for 8 min using a Kitchen Aid Mixer (St. Joseph, MI) equipped with a

80 dough hook. Wheat dough with same moisture content was also prepared as reference. The dough

81 was passed through the pasta press extrusion plate hold by Kitchen Aid Mixer to obtain spaghetti

82 noodles. Noodles were dried at room temperature for 24 h.

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83 2.3. Rheological properties

84 Rheological measurements were performed using a controlled stress rheometer (MCR 301,

85 Anton Parr, Graz, Austria) equipped with a parallel plate (25 mm diameter) measuring system.

86 The dough samples were loaded and compressed up to a gap of 2 mm. The excess dough was

87 carefully removed and the edges were coated with mineral oil to prevent dehydration of dough

88 during testing, the sample was allowed to rest 5 min. The linear viscoelastic region was then

89 determined as described (Moreira et al., 2013). Steady-shear flow tests were performed over the

90 shear rate range from 0.01 to 10 s-1 to study the flow behavior. Frequency sweep tests were

91 performed over the frequency range from 0.1 to 100 rad/s at a strain amplitude of 0.1% (within the

92 viscoelastic region) and at 30 C to measure the viscoelastic properties of doughs. All rheological

93 measurements were performed in triplicated and one representative was shown in Figure 1-3.

94 2.4 Color

95 Hunter color parameters (L*, a* and b*) of uncooked dough and cooked pasta were

96 determined using a Minolta CR-300 Chroma Meter (Minolta, Osaka, Japan). For cooked pasta,

97 spaghetti strands (10g, 5 cm long) were cooked to their optimum cooking time (previously

98 determined) in 300 ml distilled water. The samples were subsequently rinsed in cold water and

99 drained before measurement. The color measurements were taken at least five times and compared

100 to wheat samples by calculating the overall color change E, where E= 2 + 2 + 2.

101 2.5 Texture profile

102 Prior to texture analysis, 10 g of pasta were cooked in 400 mL of boiling water for 5 min

103 and subsequently rinsed in cold water for 10 s. Texture profile analysis (TPA) was performed using

104 a TA-XT2i Texture Analyzer (Stable Micro Systems Ltd., UK) according to Mudgil et al. (2016)

105 with some modifications. Four spaghetti strands of approximately 10 cm length were placed

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106 adjacent to one another under a flat-end cylindrical plunger (50-mm probe) and compressed to

107 75% of their original height. The test and post-test speeds were fixed at 5 mm/s. Texture parameters

108 of hardness (force needed to compress a sample to a fixed point, N), cohesiveness (maximum

109 compression that a sample stands before rupturing, unitless), and chewiness (energy required to

110 masticate a solid food to a swallowing state, unitless) were determined as described (Szczesniak,

111 2002; Olivera and Salvadori, 2009).

112 2.6. Statistical analysis

113 Statistical analyses were performed using the OriginLab 9 software (Northampton, MA).

114 One-factor analysis of variance (ANOVA) followed by Tukey test was performed at a significance

115 level (P) of 0.05. Results are representative of three independent experiments (n = 3).

116 3. Results and discussion

117 3.1. Rheological properties

118 Apparent viscosity of tested dough was determined by steady shear flow (Fig. 1). For all

119 samples, apparent viscosity at shear rates greater than 0.1 s-1 decreased as a function of shear rate,

120 corresponding to the usual shear thinning behavior of doughs ( Moreira et al., 2013). PM dough

121 without any hydrocolloid showed a much lower apparent viscosity than wheat dough. The apparent

122 viscosity of PM dough was increased by the addition of the three hydrocolloids, showing a

123 decreased slurry movement. A higher apparent viscosity over the whole shear range was achieved

124 with a higher level of XG and SA while an increased amount of GG only resulted in increased

125 viscosity at lower shear rates. The largest improvement was achieved with the addition of 2% XG.

126 This supplemented PM dough showed a similar apparent viscosity to wheat dough.

127 The effect of hydrocolloids on dough rheological properties seems to be affected by their

128 molecular structure which determines the intramolecular interactions (cross-links or

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129 entanglements) of the polymeric chains (Lazaridou et al., 2007). Limited improvement of GG on

130 the rheological properties of rice pasta dough was also reported by Sozer (2009). The semi-rigid

131 conformation and relatively strong intramolecular interactions of XG in water may contribute to

132 its more pronounced effect in viscosity (Dea et al., 1977). This hydrocolloid has also been shown

133 to interact strongly with cereal proteins (Rosell et al., 2001) and may have a great impact on the

134 improvement of PM dough viscosity. The better performance of XG was also observed by the

135 addition of XG to rice dough, which resulted in a higher apparent viscosity as compared to dough

136 containing other hydrocolloids such as GG, locust bean gum and hydroxypropylmethyl cellulose

137 (Demirkesen et al., 2010).

138 The mechanical spectra of all dough samples are shown in Fig 2. In all cases, storage (G)

139 and loss (G) moduli showed frequency dependence, and both moduli increased with increasing

140 frequency. For all samples, G was greater than G over the range of frequencies tested, indicating

141 the doughs showed a more elastic than viscous character (Lazaridou et al., 2007). PM dough had

142 much lower values for G and G moduli than wheat dough, which can be attributed to the absence

143 of gluten in PM dough that prevented the formation of a strong viscoelastic structure. Generally,

144 the addition of hydrocolloids to PM dough provoked an upward trend of the G and G moduli.

145 Among the hydrocolloids, XG induced the largest rise in both. The ratio of G to G (tan ) was

146 lower than 1 for all samples (Fig. 3), suggesting a gel-like behavior. A decrease in all tan values

147 was observed at higher frequency, showing that both G and G were dependent on frequency and

148 the frequency dependence of G was lower than G. The addition of hydrocolloids showed

149 different effects on tan . Tan was decreased significantly with 2% XG, whereas the addition of

150 2% SA and GG showed little influence or even an increase in tan at some points.

151 Lazaridou et al (2007) suggested that a decrease in tan would signify a greater

152 contribution to the elastic properties of gluten-free dough by the hydrocolloid applied. Therefore,
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153 XG showed the most pronounced contribution to the elastic properties of PM dough compared

154 with GG and SA, as evidenced by the lowest tan value and highest apparent viscosity. The

155 relatively weak elastic property of SA-supplemented PM dough can be attributed to the lack of ion

156 bridging with divalent metal cations which is required for alginates to form gels (Harding et al.,

157 2011). Neverthless, a better improvement achieved by XG may indicate that the effect of

158 hydrocolloids on doughs is not solely related to gel-forming capability but also the possible

159 protein-hydrocolloid interactions (Huebner and Wall, 1979). A higher concentration of GG and

160 SA resulted in an increase of the tan value, which indicated an enhancement of the viscous

161 properties of PM dough structure (Fig. 3). This was attributed to higher capacity to absorb water

162 that affects the quality and stability of dough (Ribotta et al, 2004; Huebner and Wall, 1979). This

163 might also be the reason why an increase of GG and SA concentration poorly improved the

164 apparent viscosity (Fig. 1) and viscoelastic behavior (Fig. 2).

165 3.2. Color

166 The color measurements were made over uncooked doughs and those samples that could

167 maintain their integrality of original noodle shape after cooking. The color parameters were

168 evaluated using a HunterLab colorimeter (Table 1 and 2). Because the wheat dough was prepared

169 with commercial wheat flour to which a bleaching process was applied, not surprisingly the wheat

170 dough presented greater lightless (higher L*) and less yellowness (lower b*) compared with PM

171 dough (Table 1). The lightness and yellowness (b*) of all samples decreased after cooking (Table

172 2). A greater yellowness of those PM pasta may also be due to larger amount of carotenoids (3.66

173 mg/kg) in PM than in wheat (1.5-2 mg/kg) (Asharani et al., 2010). As the major caroteinoids lutein

174 and zeaxanthin in proso and other millet varieties were demostrated to be heat-labile, a color

175 degradation was expected once the noodles were cooked (Shen et al ., 2015). This was evidenced

176 by a decrease of b* values from dough (Table 1) once the noodles were cooked (Table 2). Since it

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177 has been stated that an overall color change greater than 2 (E>2) represents a color difference

178 noticeable for consumers (Lee and Coates, 2003), the significant color difference (E =3.80)

179 between millet dough and wheat dough cannot be ignored. The addition of GG at 2% produced

180 the largest color change while the XG at 2% showed the least overall color change (E) in dough.

181 The E values of PM samples to wheat became higher once the pasta was cooked (Table 2), which

182 was mainly due to the significant decrease of b* of wheat. It may be attributed to a relatively high

183 lipoxygenase activity in wheat dough during the mixing period and the carotenoids in wheat may

184 be more heat-labile (Constance et al., 2015). The larger yellowness showed by PM noodles may

185 be favorable since a yellow color in pasta products is generally desired. Nevertheless, these results

186 suggest that the addition of hydrocolloids showed little impact on the color of PM dough and may

187 not improve cooked noodles color.

188 3.3. Texture properties

189 The appearance of fresh spaghetti noodles before and after cooking is shown in Fig. 4. PM

190 noodles prepared without hydrocolloids and with SA supplementation were not shown because

191 these samples disintegrated during cooking. This has been reported when preparing noodles based

192 on corn starches without the addition of any hydrocolloid (Kaur et al., 2015). The appearance and

193 color of PM noodles with GG or XG did not vary by visual observation, but all the PM samples

194 were more yellow compared to wheat noodles.

195 Texture parameters are the most important criteria to evaluate the overall quality of pasta

196 because the consumer perception is affected by the texture properties of cooked noodles. The

197 texture parameters for PM gluten-free noodles containing XG and GG were compared with wheat

198 noodles. The PM noodles with added hydrocolloids showed lower hardness (firmness) than that

199 of wheat noodles (Table 3), which was mainly attributed to the lack of gluten in PM dough.

200 Nevertheless, the hardness of PM noodles fortified with hydrocolloids were much improved over

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201 gluten-free noodles reported in the literature: corn flour (6.06 0.72 N), mixture of corn and

202 pumpkin flours (7.45 0.521 N), corn flour and durian seed flour (9.27 0.32 N) and a commercial

203 gluten-free pasta (26.74 0.20) (Mirhosseini et al., 2015). In fact, the hardness of PM noodles

204 with XG at 1% was close to that reported for industrially-prepared noodles from durum wheat

205 semolina (66.27 1.79 N; Sozer et al., 2007).

206 The other two textural parameters, cohesiveness and chewiness, are used to represent,

207 respectively, the strength of the inner structure of noodles and the energy necessary to bring the

208 noodles to a swallowing state (Mudgil et al., 2016; Sozer et al., 2007). As expected, wheat noodles

209 again presented the highest cohesiveness and chewiness, showing that wheat dough was more

210 elastic and had a stronger structure network than PM doughs before and after cooking.

211 Although the three parameters of PM noodle texture supplemented with XG and GG were

212 lower than those of wheat, there was no doubt that adding XG and GG improved the network of

213 starch in PM noodles substantially, since the pure PM noodles disintegrated during cooking. It was

214 observed that both GG and XG promoted starch granule association at high temperature, which

215 may be the mechanism involved in the improvement of noodle texture (Chaisawang and

216 Suphantharika, 2005). SA addition did not induced any improvement on PM noodles which is in

217 accordance with the rheological observation, where an increase in G values was associated with

218 a more rigid structure than an elastic structure (Sozer, 2009). The results may vary if the dough is

219 prepared using hard water or with added salts (Huebner and Wall, 1979). No significant differences

220 on cohesiveness and chewiness were found among four proso millet doughs with GG and XG. The

221 improvement in noodle texture with XG was not as substantial as its impact on PM dough, which

222 may due to the conformational changes in XG during or after cooking. Further research is still

223 needed to achieve even better performance on the PM based dough and pasta.

224 4. Conclusions

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225 The effect of three hydrocolloids, XG, GG and SA, on the apparent viscosity, storage and

226 loss moduli values of gluten-free pasta dough based on PM flour was studied. The dough properties

227 were improved by all three hydrocolloids following the order of XG>GG>SA. XG also decreased

228 the loss tangent (tan ) indicating that a more gel-like structure was achieved by this gum. No

229 significant impact on the color of millet dough was observed by adding hydrocolloids. Only GG-

230 and XG-supplemented PM noodles maintained their forms after cooking, showing an improvement

231 in the network strength of PM noodles. The effects of GG and XG on the textural properties of

232 cooked noodles showed no obvious difference. Although PM noodles, even with the addition of

233 hydrocolloids, were inferior to wheat noodles, our results are valuable to demonstrate the potential

234 of using PM flour as a major ingredient for gluten-free pasta production.

235 Acknowledgements

236 The authors are grateful to the financial support from the Office of Research & Economic

237 Development at University of Nebraska-Lincoln.

238 References

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311
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314
315 Table 1. Color analysis of wheat control and proso millet doughs with and without hydrocolloids.

Sample L* a* b* E
Wheat 86.18 0.43 a -1.17 0.08a 20.04 1.16 b

Proso millet 83.71 0.77b -1.30 0.22a 22.46 1.07a 3.80 1.30a
GG 1% 83.46 0.32 b -1.17 0.04a 23.19 0.32 a 4.17 1.22a
GG 2% 82.23 0.37b -0.94 0.05a 22.76 0.77a 4.86 1.42a
XG 1% 82.31 1.15 b -1.14 0.11a 22.49 0.32 a 4.71 1.24a
XG 2% 83.84 0.47b -1.23 0.10a 22.42 0.13a 3.41 1.09a
SA 1% 83.25 0.36b -1.18 0.04a 21.88 0.24a,b 3.47 1.21a
SA 2% 83.70 0.23 b -1.29 0.25a 22.53 0.49 a 3.54 0.64a
a,b Different superscript letters at each column indicate significantly different (p<0.05).

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Table 2. Color analysis of pasta made from wheat and proso millet with guar and xanthan gums.

Sample L* a* b* E
Wheat 76.64 0.7 c -2.38 0.6b 7.85 0.47 d -
GG 1% 76.87 0.8 b,c -1.54 0.2 a 16.04 0.5 a 8.34 0.8a
GG 2% 77.27 0.7 a,b,c -1.60 0.1 a 15.84 0.6 a,b 8.11 0.8a
XG 1% 78.23 0.8a,b -1.94 0.0a,b 14.92 0.4b,c 7.35 0.5b
XG 2% 78.51 0.9a -1.95 0.0a,b 14.80 0.5c 7.35 0.6b
a,b Different superscript letters at each column indicate significantly different (p<0.05).

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316 Table 3. Texture profile analyses for cooked noodles.*

Sample Hardness (N) Cohesiveness Chewiness

Wheat 84.54 2.72a 0.56 0.01a 32.58 2.23a
XG 1% 56.42 2.29b 0.28 0.00c 9.54 0.70b
XG 2% 42.57 0.26c 0.29 0.01c 8.27 0.25b
GG 1% 42.81 2.50c 0.29 0.01c 7.43 1.71b
GG 2% 44.80 2.06c 0.34 0.01b 9.33 0.56b
317 a.b Different superscript letters at each column indicate significantly different (p<0.05).

318 *Noodles made from pure proso millet dough and that containing SA were disintegrated during

319 cooking.

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Figure captions

320 Figure 1. Dynamic flow behavior of wheat control and proso millet doughs without and with (A)
321 XG, (B) GG, (C) SA over a shear rate range of 0.1-100 s-1 at 30C. The continuous line marks
322 wheat dough, the discontinuous line are the pure proso millet dough. Supplementation with
323 hydrocolloids at 1% and 2% concentration is indicated by open or close symbols, respectively.
324 Figure 2. Storage modulus (A) and loss modulus (B) for wheat control and proso millet doughs
325 without and with XG, GG, SA at 30C.
326 Figure 3. Values of loss factor (tan ) for wheat control (continuous line), PM dough
327 (discontinuous line), PM + XG (squares), PM + GG (circles), PM + SA (triangles).
328 Supplementation with hydrocolloids at 1% and 2% concentration is indicated by open or close
329 symbols, respectively.
Figure 4. Appearance of uncooked (left)and cooked (right)pasta from (A)Wheat, (B) PM + XG
1%, (C) PM + XG 2%, (D) PM + GG 1% and (E) PM + GG 2%, respectively.

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(A)
@

Viscosity (PaS)
@

@ XG 1% XG 2%
Shear
MilletRate (1/S) Wheat

@
0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10

(B)
@
Viscosity (PaS)

@ GG 1% GG 2%
Shear
Millet Rate (1/S) Wheat

@
0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10

(C)
@
Viscosity (PaS)

@ SA 1% SA 2%
Shear
MilletRate (1/S) Wheat

@
0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10

330 Figure 1.

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(A)
10000

Storage modulus (KPa)

1000

100

XG 1% XG 2% GG 1%
Angular
GGfrequency
2% (rad/s)
SA 1% SA 2%
Wheat Millet
10
2 100

332

(B)
10000
Loss modulus (KPa)

1000

100

XG 1% XG 2% GG 1%
Angular
GG 2%frequencySA(rad/s)
1% SA 2%
Wheat Millet
10
2 100

333
334
335 Figure 2.
336
337
338
339

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340
341

342
0.5

Tan ()

0.4

0.3

0.2
Angular
XG 1%
frequency (rad/s)
XG 2% GG 1%
GG 2% SA 1% SA 2%
Wheat Millet
0.1
2 100
343
344 Figure 3.

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345
Figure 4.

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 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

Fig.4