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Lecture 1
1. Introduction
Project management has evolved as a field with the development of two analytical
techniques for planning, scheduling, and controlling of projects. These are the project
evaluation and review technique (PERT) and the critical path method(CPM).
These techniques were developed by two groups almost simultaneously. CPM was
developed by E. I. Du Pont de Nemours & Company as an application to construction
projects and was later extended to a more advanced status by Mauchly Associates.
PERT was developed by the U.S. Navy by a consulting firm for scheduling the
research and development activities for the Polaris missile program.
Although PERT and CPM were developed independently, they are similar in
principle. Today, PERT and CPM actually comprise one technique and the
differences, if any, are only historical. Consequently, both technique are referred to as
project scheduling techniques.
Planning
breaking down the project into distinct activities;
determining the time estimates for these activities;
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constructing a network diagram with each arc representing the activity;
Scheduling
constructing a time chart showing the start and the finish times for each
activity as well as its relationship to other activities in the project;
pinpointing the critical (in view of time) activities that require special
attention if the project is to be completed on time.
Showing the amount of slack (or float) times for the non-critical activities;
Controlling
Using the network diagram and the time chart for making periodic progress
reports;
updating the network.
3 4
1. Each activity is represented by one and only one arrow in the network;
2. No two activities can be identified by the same head and tail events (a
dummy activity is introduced in such situations);
A
A D
B
B
2
3. To ensure the correct precedence relationship in the network diagram, the
following questions must be answered as every activity is added to the
network:
What activities must be completed immediately before this activity
can start?
What activities must follow this activity?
What activities must occur concurrently with this activity?
Example 1:
The Galaxy plc is to buy a small business, Tiny Ltd. The whole procedure
involves four activities:
A. Develop a list of sources for financing;
B. Analyse the financial records of Tiny Ltd;
C. Develop a business plan (sales projections, cash flow projections,
etc.);
D. Submit a proposal to a lending institution.
A D
1 3 4
B
C
3
Example 2:
Construct the network based on the Table of information .
Immediate
Activity Predecessor
A -
B -
C B
D A, C
E C
F C
G D, E, F
3
D
A
4
1
C
3
D
A
4
1 E
5
B
C
2
4
3
D
A
G
4 6
1 E
5
F
B
C
2
It is seen that activities E and F share the same head and tail events, which is in
conflict with Rule 2. In such situations, dummy activities should be introduced.
3
D
A
G
4 6
1 E
5
F
B
C
7
2
The above network describes correctly the relationships among the 7 activities.
Lecture 2
An activity is said to be critical if a delay in its start will cause a delay in the
completion date of the entire project. A non-critical activity is an activity that has
time to spare (known as slack or float time) within the entire project. A critical path
is a sequence of connected critical activities that leads from the source node to
the sink node.
We will discuss the determination of the critical path through the following example.
Example
The owner of a shopping centre is considering modernising and expanding the
current 32-business shopping complex. He hopes to add 8 to 10 new business
or tenants to the shopping complex. The specific activities that make up the
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expansion project, together with information on immediate predecessor and
completion time, are listed in the following table.
To solve the problem, we need first construct the network according to the problem
specification.
D 5
2
3
E F G
14
1 4
A
5
4 I
C 4 6 7
2
1
B
H
6
12
3 Completion time
for activity H
6
Starting at the networks source node (node 1) we will have to compute the earliest
start time and the earliest finish time for each activity in the network. Lets assume
that
The earliest finish time can be calculated by the following expression for a given
activity:
EF = ES + t
For example, for activity A ES = 0 and t = 5; thus the earliest finish time for activity
A is EF = 0+5 = 5.
ES EF
2
Activity [0, 5]
A
5
1
Expected completion
time
Since activities leaving a node cannot be started until all immediate preceding
activities have been completed, the following rule determines the earliest start time
for activities.
The earliest start time for an activity leaving a particular node is equal
to the largest of the earliest finish time for all activities entering the
node.
Using this rule, the earliest start and finish times for each activity are written onto the
network, which now looks as follows:
7
[5,8]
D 5
2
3
[6,10] G
E
[0,5] [5,6] F 14 [10,24]
1 4
A
5
4 I [24,26]
C 4 6 7
2
1 [5,9]
[9,21]
B
[0,6] H
6
12
We now continue the algorithm for finding the critical path by making a backward
pass calculation. Starting at the sink node (node 7)and using a latest finish time of 26
weeks for activity I, we trace back through the network, computing a latest start time
and latest finish time for each activity. Let
LS = LF - t
The latest start and finish times are also to be displayed on the network, but we will
put them within a pair of round brackets. The following rule determines the latest
finish time for any activity in the network.
The latest finish time for an activity entering a particular node is equal to the
smallest of the latest start times for all activities leaving the node.
The PERT/CPM network with both [ES, EF] and (LS, LF) for the example is shown
below.
8
[5,8]
D 5
2 (7,10)
3
[6,10] G
E 14
[0,5] [5,6] F [10,24]
(6,10)
A 1 4 (10,24)
A
(0,5) (5,6)
5 4 I [24,26]
C 4 6 7
(24,26)
(8,12) [5,9] 2
1
[9,21]
B
[0,6] H
6 (12,24)
(6,12) 12
From the above diagram, we find the amount of slack or free time associated with
each of the activities. Slack is defined as the length of time an activity can be
delayed without affecting the total time required to complete the project. The
amount of slack is computed as follows:
Slack = LS - ES = LF - EF
2) What are the scheduled start and completion time for each activity?
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3) Which activities are critical and must be completed exactly as scheduled in
order to keep the project on schedule?
4) How long can the non-critical activities to be delayed before they cause a
delay in the completion time for the project?
Table above shows the slack time associated with each activity. It is evident that
Lecture 3
From the shopping centre example, it is seen that the PERT/CPM can answer
questions such as the total project completion time, the critical activities, and the
slack times of the non-critical activities. This, obviously, will give the project
manager a clear picture for his control over the project. The project schedule is based
on the given cost and finish time of the individual activities.
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In practice, we sometimes demand more than this. We may be interested in
completing a project at minimum cost, or completing a project in minimum time.
These are the considerations of time-cost trade-offs. To obtain the minimum cost or
the minimum time, we need to know the possible reduction in time and extra cost for
reduction per unit time for each activity.
By adding more resources, a project may be sped up. Usually, the purpose of speeding
up is to save money on project overheads, to avoid penalty clauses in contracts or,
sometimes, to earn bonuses for early completion. The complication which arises is
that as the critical activities are sped up more and more, other activities also become
critical. We will discuss the algorithm through the following example.
Example:
A project consisting of 8 activities are described in the following table. The
cost for completion of these 8 activities is 5800 excluding the site overhead.
The overhead cost of general site activities is 160/day. We are asked to:
1) calculate the normal completion of the project, its cost, and the critical
path;
2) calculate and plot on a graph paper the cost/time function for the project
and state:
the minimum cost and the associated time;
the shortest time and the associated cost.
We first set-up the network according to the description of the project. Then using the
PERT/CPM scheduling technique discussed earlier, we establish the ES, EF, LS, LF
times and the critical activities. These are shown in the following network and table.
3 F [8,20]
[0,8] 12
(8,20 )
B (0,8)
8
C [0,5] G [9,17] 6
1 4
5 (7,12) 8 (12,20)
A [6,9] [11,17]
[0,6]
6 D (9,12) H
(3,9) 3 (14,20)
E [6,11] 6
2 11 5
5 (9,14)
Activity ES EF LS LF Slack Critical?
A 0 6 3 9 3
B 0 8 0 8 0 Yes
C 0 5 7 5 7
D 6 9 9 12 3
E 6 11 9 14 3
F 8 20 8 20 0 Yes
G 9 17 12 20 3
H 11 17 14 20 3
The above shows that the normal completion time is 20 days and the critical activities
are B(1-3) and F(3-6). The cost of completing the project at normal speed is
Now, we wish to speed up the project so that the project will cost the least. The rule
is to speed up firstly the critical activity that cost the least to do so. Obviously, the
activity to speed up is B, which costs 90 for speeding up one day. According to the
project description, the activity B can be shortened by 8-4=4 days. The amount of
time to speed up is determined based on (1) the reduction should reduce the project
completion time the most; and (2) the reduction should cause as many activities to
become critical as possible. Let us speed up 3 days for B. This reduces the completion
time to 17 days. As indicated in the following diagram, all activities except C become
critical because of this.
3 F [5,17]
[0,5] 12
(5,17 )
B (0,5)
5
C [0,5] G [9,17] 6
1 4
5 (4,9) 8 (9,17)
A [6,9] [11,17]
[0,6]
6 D (6,9) H
(0,6) 3 (11,17)
E [6,11] 6
2 5
5 (6,11)
The new cost accordingly is now:
In order to achieve any further saving, it is necessary to reduce time along all the
critical paths simultaneously. The cheapest way this can be done in this example is
to save one day on activities A and B the same time. This action further reduces the
project completion time into 16 days. The critical paths remain the same.
3 F [4,16]
[0,4] 12
(4,16 )
B (0,4)
4
C [0,5] G [8,16] 6
1 4
5 (3,8) 8 (8,16)
A [5,8] [10,16]
[0,5]
5 D (5,8) H
(0,5) 3 12 (10,16)
E [5,10] 6
2 5
5 (5,10)
The total cost under this circumstance is
Now, to reduce time further on all the critical paths, we need to consider activities F
and A which have 4 days and 1 day, respectively, to spare. We can only reduce one
day on both of these and the total completion time is now reduced to 15 days. Activity
C still has 2 days slack time while all the others are critical.
3 F [4,15]
[0,4] 11
(4,15 )
B (0,4)
4
C [0,5] G [7,15] 6
1 4
5 (2,7) 8 (7,15)
A [4,7] [9,15]
[0,4]
4 D (4,7) H
(0,4) 3 (9,15)
E [4,9] 6
2 5
5 (4,9)
The project can still be sped up by reducing time on activities E, F, and G (2 days, 3
days, and 2 days available respectively). Reduction of two days on these activities
makes the total projection time to 13 days.
3 F [4,13]
[0,4] 9
(4,13 )
B (0,4)
4
C [0,5] G [7,13] 6
1 4
5 (2,7) 6 (7,13)
A [4,7] [7,13]
[0,4]
4 D (4,7) H
(0,4) 3 (7,13)
E [4,7] 6
2 5
3 (4,7)
13
The total cost in this case is
13 days is the minimum completion time for the project because no further time
reduction is available on the critical path 1-2-5-6.
For the purpose of plotting the required cost/time graph, we summarise in the
following table the completion times and costs of the project.
9200
9100
9000
8900 Cost ()
()
8800
8700
8600
8500
20 17 16 15 13
Days
It is evident that the minimum cost for completing the project is 8800 in 17 days, and
that the minimum possible completion time is 13 days costing 9180.
Lecture 4
In some circumstances the primary interest when completing a project is to use the
least possible time even if this does not mean the least possible cost. One example for
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this is the situation when the equipment being used for the project is urgently needed
for more profitable work else where.
One way of finding the minimum time for completion of a project is to start with the
normal completion network and gradually make reductions in critical activities until
minimum time is reached, like the method used in the last example.
However, if it is the minimum time that is of interest, then there is another and more
efficient way of proceeding, i.e.,
2) Consider the activities which are not critical and allow the most expensive
of these to slow down as much as possible without the duration of the
project being increased above the desired minimum.
Note: To crash an activity is to use the shortest possible time available for the
activity.
Example:
The data shown in the following table relates to a contract being undertaken.
There are also site costs of 500 per day.
Answer:
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(1) According to the above table, the PERT/CPM network can be generated as
follows.
2 E
[5,17]
12
D (10,22)
4 [5,9] J [22,30] K [30,39]
[0,5] 5 6 8
(0,5) (5,9) 8 (22,30) 9 (30,39)
A
5
[0,8] 3 [15,22]
B [15,26] [25,35]
1 (1,9) [9,15]
8 (9,15) G 7 H (19,30) L
C F 11 (29,39)
[0,15] 6 (15,22) 10
15 7
[15,25]
(0,15) I
4 (19,29)
10
As it is indicated, the project will require 39 days to complete under the normal
situation.
(2) The above network shows that there are two critical paths, i.e., A-D-F-G-J-K, and
C-G-J-K. The cost on the normal basis is
(3) To find the minimum completion time, we first reconstruct the PERT/CPM
network by crashing all the activities, i.e., using the shortest completion time for
each activity.
2 E
[4,13]
9
D (8,17)
3 [4,7] J [17,23] K [23,29]
[0,4] 5 6 8
(0,4) (4,7) 6 (17,23) 6 (23,29)
A
4
[0,6] 3 [11,17]
B [11,19] [19,27]
1 (1,7) [7,11]
6 (7,11) G 6 H (15,23) L
C F 8 (21,29)
[0,11] 4 (11,17) 8
11 7
[11,19]
(0,11) I
4 (13,21)
8
By crashing all the activities, the minimum completion time of the project is found to
be 29 days. Money can be saved by allowing the slowing down of those non-critical
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activities which are most expensive to speed up. It should be mentioned that the
slowing down of the non-critical activities should not increase the minimum
completion time of the project. The follow table lists all the non-critical activities
and their costs to speed up.
Obviously, the most expensive non-critical activity to speed up is I. So, we first let
activity I to slow down to its normal completion time of 10 days. This will result in
the following network diagram.
2 E
[4,13]
9
D (8,17)
3 [4,7] J [17,23] K [23,29]
[0,4] 5 6 8
(0,4) (4,7) 6 (17,23) 6 (23,29)
A
4
[0,6] 3 [11,17]
B [11,19] [21,29]
1 (1,7) [7,11]
6 (7,11) G 6 H (15,23) L
C F 8 (21,29)
[0,11] 4 (11,17) 8
11 7
[11,21]
(0,11) I
4 (11,21)
10
The change of the completion time of activity I from 8 days to 10 days makes
activities I and L critical without increasing the minimum project completion time.
Secondly, we let activity H take its full 11 days, which leads to the following
diagram.
2 E
[4,13]
9
D (8,17)
3 [4,7] J [17,23] K [23,29]
[0,4] 5 6 8
(0,4) (4,7) 6 (17,23) 6 (23,29)
A
4
[0,6] 3 [11,17]
B [11,22] [21,29]
1 (1,7) [7,11]
6 (7,11) G 6 H (12,23) L
C F 11 (21,29)
[0,11] 4 (11,17) 8
11 7
[11,21]
(0,11) I
4 (11,21)
10
17
Thirdly, we allow activity E to take its full 12 days, leading to the diagram below.
2 E
[4,16]
12
D (5,17)
3 [4,7] J [17,23] K [23,29]
[0,4] 5 6 8
(0,4) (4,7) 6 (17,23) 6 (23,29)
A
4
[0,6] 3 [11,17]
B [11,22] [21,29]
1 (1,7) [7,11]
6 (7,11) G 6 H (12,23) L
C F 11 (21,29)
[0,11] 4 (11,17) 8
11 7
[11,21]
(0,11) I
4 (11,21)
10
2 E
[4,16]
12
D (5,17)
3 [4,7] J [17,23] K [23,29]
[0,4] 5 6 8
(0,4) (4,7) 6 (17,23) 6 (23,29)
A
4
[0,7] 3 [11,17]
B [11,22] [21,29]
1 (0,7) [7,11]
7 (7,11) G 6 H (12,23) L
C F 11 (21,29)
[0,11] 4 (11,17) 8
11 7
[11,21]
(0,11) I
4 (11,21)
10
No further savings are possible as the three non-critical activities are all now at
normal duration. Hence, the least possible cost of completing in 29 days is:
18
+ 2 500
= 147,000 + 14,500 + 6,400 = 167,900
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Exercise 2
D
2 3
F
A
E
B
1 G J
4 6 7
C H
I
5
a. Add the dummy activities that will eliminate the problem that the activities have
the same starting and ending nodes.
b. Add dummy activities that will satisfy the following immediate predecessor
requirements:
Immediate
Activity predecessor
H B, C
I B, C
G D, E
3. Assume that the project in problem 2 has the following activity times:
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Activities Time (months)
A 4
B 6
C 2
D 6
E 3
F 3
G 5
4. Consider the following project network (the times shown are in weeks):
C
2 5
7 H
A D F
5 8
6 3
1 G
4 6
10
B
E
3
7
3
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b. What are the critical path activities?
c. What is the expected project completion time?
Immediate Time
Activity Description predecessor (weeks)
A Survey building site - 6
B Develop initial design - 8
C Obtain board approval A, B 12
D Select architect C 4
E Establish budget C 6
F Finalise design D, E 15
G Obtain financing E 12
H Hire contractor F, G 8
7. Hamilton Country Parks is planning to develop a new park and recreational area on
a recently purchased 100-acre tract. Project development activities include
cleaning playground and picnic areas, constructing road, constructing a shelter
house, purchasing picnic equipment, and so on. The PERT/CPM network shown
below is being used in the planning, scheduling, and controlling of this project.
D
2 4
3
A H
9 6
C I
1 6 7
6 E 3
0
B G
6 Activity time
2
F in weeks
3 5
3
a. What is the critical path for this network?
b. Show the activity schedule for this project.
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c. The park commissioner would like to open the park to the public within 6
months from the time the work on the project is started. Does this opening date
appear feasible? Explain.
A C
5
3
E
1 4 6
6
B F
D G
2 2 2
5
5
3
a. Find the critical path and the expected project completion time on the normal
basis.
b. What is the total project cost using the normal times?
c. Find out the minimum project completion time using the crashing method.
d. What is the minimum cost associated with the crashed project completion time?
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9. Office Automation, Inc., has developed a proposal for introducing a new
computerised office system that will improve word processing and interoffice
communications for a particular company. Contained in the proposal is a list of
activities that must be accomplished to complete the new office system project.
Information about the activities is shown below.
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