IAEA-TECDOC-639

Irradiation of spices, herbs and

other vegetable seasonings
A compilation of technical data for its
authorization and control

International Consultative Group on Food Irradiation

established under the aegis of
FAO, IAEA, WHO

INTERNATIONAL ATOMIC ENERGY AGENCY

February 1992
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IRRADIATION OF SPICES, HERBS AND OTHER VEGETABLE SEASONINGS
IAEA, VIENNA, 1992
lAEA-TECDOC-639
ISSN 1011-4289

Printed by the IAEA in Austria

February 1992
 FOREWORD

The International Consultative Group on Food Irradiation (ICGFI) was

established on 9 May 1984 under the aegis of FAO, IAEA and WHO. ICGFI is
composed of experts and other representatives designated by governments which
have accepted the terms of the "Declaration" establishing ICGFI and have
pledged to make voluntary contributions, in cash or in kind, to carry out the
activities of ICGFI.

The functions of ICGFI are as follows:

a) to evaluate global developments in the field of food irradiation,

b) to provide a focal point of advice on the application of food
irradiation to Member States and the Organizations; and
c) to furnish information as required, through the Organizations, to the
Joint FAO/IAEA/WHO Expert Commission on the Wholesoraeness of Irradiated
Food, and the Codex Alimentarius Commission.

As of 31 December 1991, the following countries had become members of

ICGFI:

Argentina, Australia, Bangladesh, Belgium, Brazil, Bulgaria, Canada,

Chile, Costa Rica, Cte d'Ivoire, Ecuador, Egypt, France, Germany,
Ghana, Greece, Hungary, India, Indonesia, Iraq, Israel, Italy, Malaysia,
Mexico, Netherlands, New Zealand, Pakistan, Peru, Philippines, Poland,
Syria, Thailand, Turkey, United Kingdom, united States of America, Viet
Nam and Yugoslavia.

This publication contains a compilation of all available scientific and

technical data on the irradiation of spices, herbs and other vegetable
seasonings. It is intended to assist governments in considering the
authorization of this particular application of radiation processing of food
and in ensuring its control in the facility and the control of irradiated
food products moving in trade. The Compilation was prepared in response to
the requirement of the Codex General Standard for Irradiated Foods and
associated Code that radiation treatment of food be justified on the basis of
a technological need or of a need to improve the hygienic quality of the food.
It was prepared also in response to the recommendations of the
FAO/IAEA/WHO/ITC-UNCTAD/GATT International Conference on the Acceptance,
Control of and Trade in Irradiated Food (Geneva, 1989) concerning the need
for regulatory control of radiation processing of food.

It is hoped that the information contained in this publication will

assist governments in considering requests for the approval of radiation
treatment of spices, herbs and other vegetable seasonings, or requests for
authorization to import such irradiated products.

It is suggested that the various guidelines, codes and other documents

adopted by ICGFI or prepared under ICGFI's auspices be also consulted (see
References).

The present Compilation of Data was prepared by Prof. J. Farkas,

University of Horticulture and Food Industry, Budapest, Hungary, on behalf of
ICGFI. It has been referenced as ICGFI Document No. 12.

EDITORIAL NOTE

In preparing this material for the press, staff of the International Atomic Energy Agency have
mounted and paginated the original manuscripts and given some attention to presentation.
The views expressed do not necessarily reflect those of the governments of the Member States or
organizations under whose auspices the manuscripts were produced.
The use in this book of particular dsignations of countries or territories does not imply any
judgement by the publisher, the IAEA, as to the legal status of such countries or territories, of their
authorities and institutions or of the delimitation of their boundaries.
The mention of specific companies or of their products or brand names does not imply any
endorsement or recommendation on the pan of the IAEA.
This text was compiled before the unification of Germany in October 1990. Therefore the names
German Democratic Republic and Federal Republic of Germany have been retained.
 CONTENTS

1. INTRODUCTION ....................................................................................... 7

2. SCOPE AND PURPOSE ............................................................................... 8

3. JUSTIFICATION OF THE PROCESS .............................................................. 11

3.1. Alternative methods for reducing the microbial contamination
of diy commodities ................................................................................ 11
3.2. Description of the radiation decontamination process ...................................... 12
3.3. Recommended dose ranges ...................................................................... 16
3.4. Requirements for the commodities to be irradiated ......................................... 18
3.5. Requirements for packaging/storage ........................................................... 19
3.6. Labelling requirements ............................................................................ 20
3.7. Methods of detection/determination of irradiation treatment .............................. 21
3.8. Dosimetry and process control .................................................................. 25
3.9. End product specification ........................................................................ 28

4. WHOLESOMENESS DATA .......................................................................... 29

5. NATIONAL AND INTERNATIONAL CLEARANCES ........................................ 34

6. RECOMMENDATIONS ON CONTROL AND REGULATORY PROVISIONS .......... 38

REFERENCES .................................................................................................. 41

BIBLIOGRAPHY ............................................................................................... 51
 1. INTRODUCTION

The International Document on Food Irradiation (Anon., 1989a) adopted by

the Joint FAO/IAEA/WHO/ITC-UNCTAD/GATT Conference on the Acceptance, Control
of and Trade in Irradiated Food, Geneva, 12-16 December 19B8, recommended
that consideration be given to the application of food irradiation technology
for public health benefits, for the reduction of post-harvest losses and for
quarantine treatment of certain foods. Reference is made to the Codex General
Standard for Irradiated Foods (Anon., 1984a) and the Recommended
International Code of Practice for the Operation of Irradiation Facilities
used for the Treatment of Foods (Anon., 1984b) which have been sent to
Governments for acceptance. These documents were established on the basis of
the Report of a Joint FAO/IAEA/WHO Expert Committee on Wholesomeness of
Irradiated Food (JECFI, 1981). After evaluation of the results of extensive
wholesomeness studies on irradiated foods, including dry food ingredients,
the JECFI which met in 1980 concluded that irradiation of any food commodity
up to an overall average dose of 1O kGy presents no toxicological hazard and
irradiated foods do not pose specific microbiological and nutritional
problems.

Among food irradiation applications, radiation decontamination of

spices, condiments and dried herbs has the most immediate application
potential in many countries. This compilation was prepared under the
sponsorship of ICGFI, and it is intended to provide justification for the
radiation decontamination of spices, herbs and other vegetable seasonings,
and to provide information for Governments when developing regulations
permitting this specific application of food irradiation and/or permitting
the importation of such irradiated commodities. Governments are invited to
notify the Secretariat of ICGFI of their intended action concerning the
authorization of the food irradiation process, and sale of irradiated foods,
and/or importation of irradiated foods, especially from other ICGFI member
countries.
 2. SCOPE AND PURPOSE

According to the International Trade Centre UNCTAD/GATT "spices may be

defined as one of the various strongly flavoured or aromatic substances of
vegetable origin obtained from tropical and other plants, commonly used as
condiments or employed for other purposes on account of their fragrance and
preservative qualities" (Anon., 1982a). Condiments are spices alone, or
blends of spices which have been formulated with other flavour potentiators
to enhance the flavour of foods. The so-called "true spices" (pepper,
cinnamon, nutmeg, cloves, etc.) are products of tropical plants, and may be
bark, roots, buds, fruit or other parts. Herbs are usually from leafy parts
of plants of the temperate zone (oregano, marjoram, basil, etc.)- Spice seeds
(mustard, caraway, celery, anise, etc.) may be either from tropical or
temperate areas. Dehydrated vegetable seasonings (onion, garlic, parsley,
etc.) are also important items. The characteristics and nomenclature of all
commonly recognized spices and condiments have been reviewed by Pruthi (198O).

Under the prevailing production and handling conditions, most spices,

herbs and other vegetable seasonings contain a large number of microorganisms
capable of causing spoilage, or, more rarely, disease. The microorganisms are
those which are indigenous to the soil and surroundings in which herbs and
spices are grown, and which survive the drying process. The source of
contamination may be dust, insects, faecal materials from birds and rodents,
and possibly the water used in some processes, e.g. for soaking pepper in the
preparation of white pepper. Fungal growth may occur prior to drying, or
during drying, storage, and shipping.

The viable cell counts of spices and herbs of various origins can show
deviations of several log cycles, and large variations may occur in the
microbial count of different lots of the same commodity (ICMSF, 198O)
(Table 1 ). There is no apparent correlation between the country of origin,
the seasoning quality and numbers of microorganisms of predominant flora.
Black pepper, turmeric, paprika, allspice, and marjoram are the spices most
highly contaminated with bacteria.

The aerobic plate count of these spices may sometimes reach the 8O- to
lOO-million-per-gram level. Anaerobes are less numerous than aerobic
bacteria. Dry herbal teas have also revealed significant levels of microbial
 Table 1

Contamination of untreated spices and herbs with bacteria and moulds

Product Percentage incidence of

aerobic plate count/g mould count/g

"105 -106 >107 104 >105 >106

Allspice 90 45 3 25 7 0
Anise 41 5 0 13 0 0
Basile 86 38 0 6 0 0
Bay 10 3 0 11 0 0
Capsicum 61 43 12 19 12 5
( Chili )
Caraway 24 6 0 7 0 0
Cardamom 40 33 0 0 0 0
Cassia 3 0 0 15 10 0
Cinnamon 25 4 2 6 0 0
Cloves 4 0 0 4 0 0
Coriander 63 26 13 35 9 0
Cumin 67 25 0 13 13 0
Fennel 26 13 0 0 0 0
Fenugreek 50 20 0 25 25 0
Garlic 37 9 0 0 0 0
Ginger 52 7 0 11 0 0
Mace 7 0 0 4 0 0
Marjoram 78 33 5 29 0 0
Mustard 10 1 0 2 0 0
Nutmeg 8 4 0 9 0 0
Oregano 32 9 0 9 0 0
Paprika 89 80 18 5 0 0
Pepper 97 92 42 30 25 23
( black )
Pepper 62 5 0 61 25 2
( white )
Sage 47 6 0 50 0 0
Savory 10 0 0 0 0 0
Thyme 85 53 0 87 6 0
Turmeric 96 75 29 3 0 0

Source: ICMSF, 1980 (see REFERENCES)

contamination (Grnewald, 1984; Saint-Lbe et. al., 1985). In one study,
7
total counts as high as 10 to 1O microorganisms per gram were found in
about 1O% of charoomile samples investigated, while about 8O% of the samples
c o
contained between 1O and 1O microorganisms per gram (Katusin-Razem et
al., 1983).

In many spices, the majority of the microbial flora consists of

soil-originated aerobic mesophilic spore-forming bacteria (Fabri et al.,
1985; Ito et al., 1985; Neumayer et al., 1983). Aerobic bacterial spores may
frequently form more than 5O% of the mesophilic total viable count. The
proportion of obligate anaerobe spore formers is usually small. Thermophilic
anaerobes and aerobes are found occasionally, sometimes in moderate numbers.
Concerning potentially pathogenic bacteria, the frequent occurrence of B.
cereus in spices was reported. In extreme cases, B. cereus counts up to
10 /g were found (Baxter and Holzapfel, 1982). A relatively high incidence
of Clostr idium perf r ingens has also been found in some herbs and spices (De
Boer and Boot, 1983). Since spores of these organisms may survive cooking
o
temperatures and will grow in foods at temperatures between 2O and 5O C,
spices harboring these spores must be considered as a potential health hazard.

Although spices may not be suitable substrate for the growth or long
survival of Salmonellae, occasional Salmonella contamination has been found
both in samples of spices and herbs and in some herbal teas (Bockemhl and
Wohlers, 1984; Niemand, 1985). Even this rare presence of Salmonella is of
special concern because spices and herbs are often used on foods that are
consumed raw, or they are added to foods after cooking, while herbal drugs
are frequently consumed after only maceration or infusion, not boiling.
Indeed, black and white pepper have been implicated as vehicles of infection
in some outbreaks of salmonellosis in Canada (Laidley et al., 1974), and
Sweden (Persson, 1988) while black pepper has also proved to be the source of
a Salmonella epidemic in Norway (Anon., 1982b).

Spices play a major etiological part in mould contamination of meat

products. Mould counts of spices do not correlate with the aerobic plate
counts of spices. White pepper, black pepper, chili, and coriander seem to
be most heavily contaminated with moulds (ICMSF, 198O). The main components
of fungal contamination both in spices and herbal drugs are those belonging
to the genera of Aspergillus and Pnicillium (Ito e_t al., 1985). Relatively
high incidence of toxigenic moulds has been detected (ICMSF, 198O; Llewellyn
et. al.., 1981) .

10
 The health- and/or spoilage-hazards presented by a food ingredient must
be evaluated always in the context of its use. The problem of microbial
contamination is of particular concern in the case of foods which are not
heat-treated effectively before consumption (various sauces, smoked products,
instant soup powders, herbal products for infusion, etc.)- While freedom
from pathogenic microorganisms or microbial toxins in levels which may
represent a hazard to health is a general requirement, contamination of
ingredients with heat-resistant bacterial spores is for many food processors
especially troublesome. The thermoduric bacterial spores introduced to food
products with ingredients often necessitate a severe subsequent heat
treatment/ which ensures the microbiological storage stability only at the
cost of a substantial reduction in the nutritional and sensory quality of the
manufactured product. Such problems account for attempts to reduce the viable
cell counts of these ingredients and eliminate specific potentially
pathogenic microorganisms by an appropriate decontamination treatment.

3. JUSTIFICATION OF THE PROCESS

3.1. Alternative Methods for Reducing the Microbial Contamination of Dry

Commodit ies

Because of volatility and/or heat sensitivity of the delicate flavour

and aroma components of spices and herbs, normal heat sterilization cannot be
used (Maarse and Nijssen, 198O) without adversely affecting flavour and
colour (Sorenson, 1989) and steam treatment of coated spice granules or the
extrusion technique (USP, 1985) are also of limited utility. Microwave
treatment (Neumayer et: al., 1983) or ultraviolet irradiation (Eschmann, 1965)
has been tried but is considered unsuitable for decontamination of these dry
commodities. Volatile oils, spice extracts or oleoresins are practically free
from microorganisms, but their flavour quality and spicing power generally do
not equal those of the original spices (Anon, 1982c); further, solvent
residues in the extracts may be of concern (Farkas, 1988).

The most widely used method for decontamination of dry ingredients was
until recently fumigation with ethylene oxide (Gerhardt and Ladd Effio,
1982). Even though ethylene oxide is a relatively efficient microbicidal

11
agent, fumigation is a time-consuming batch procedure, it appears to be beset
with problems concerning the uniformity of decontamination, and it requires
complex process-monitoring (Frohnsdorff, 1981). The residual absorbed
ethylene oxide level may be fairly high after treatment, and although it
decreases continuously during subsequent storage of the fumigated product,
this is frequently due to further chemical reactions rather than simply to
loss of the gas (Gerhardt and Ladd Effio, 1983).

In addition to ethylene glycol, ethylene chlorohydrin (ECH) and ethylene

broraohydrin (EBH) may be formed during ethylene oxide fumigation, and
ethylene chlorohydrin is more persistent than ethylene oxide (Wesley et al.,
1965; Heuser and Scudamore, 1969). Both ethylene oxide and ethylene
chlorohydrin are mutagens and they are also suspected of causing other
chronic or delayed toxic effects (Gerhardt and Ladd Effio, 1983; Wesley et
al., 1965; Heuser and Scudamore, 1969; Pfeiffer and Dunkelberg, 1981;
Ehrenberg and Hussain, 1981; Hogstedt e_t al., 1979; Dunkelberg, 1981;
Kligerraan et aj.., 1983; OSHA, 1984).

Thus ethylene oxide fumigation represents a significant occupational

health hazard for workers in the fumigation plants (OSHA, 1984;
Osterman-Golkar, 1983) and the presence of residues in the treated
commodities gives rise to more and more toxicological concern, and more and
more regulatory restrictions are being introduced (Neumayer et al., 1983;
Gerhardt and Ladd Effio, 1982; OSHA, 1984). The UNEP/ILO/WHO Expert Panel on
Ethylene Oxide (WHO, 1985) concluded that "ethylene oxide should be
considered as a human carcinogen and its levels in the environment should be
kept as low as feasible". The use of ethylene oxide for fumigation of food
and food ingredients has been already banned, for example, in Switzerland
(Grnewald, 1984), Japan (Kawabata, 1982), the FRG (Frank and Beyer, 1984),
Belgium, Denmark and the Netherlands (Loaharanu, 199O). An EC Directive
prohibits the use of ethylene oxide within the European Community after 199O
without derogation (EC, 1989a).

3.2. Description of the Radiation Decontamination Process

Research and development in the past 35 years on a large variety of dry

food ingredients and herbs has proved that treatment with ionizing radiation
is an effective process for destroying contaminating organisms (Farkas,
1988). The largest amount of work so far has been devoted to the irradiation
of spices and condiments.

12
 Radiation decontamination is a technically feasible, economically viable
and safe physical process. It is a well controllable technology, requires no
additives and is highly efficient.

Radiation processing, particularly with gamma rays, is moreover a

relatively simple technology. Materials to be treated are exposed to a
controlled amount of radiation (ionizing energy) from a permissible radiation
source. Appropriate radiation sources and conditions of radiation treatment
are defined in the Codex General Standard for Irradiated Foods (Anon., 1984a)
and the associated Recommended International Code of Practice for the
Operation of Irradiation Facilities used for the Treatment of Foods
(Anon., 1984b).

Food irradiation technology and techniques have a very substantial

literature. Besides countless original articles and reports, they are
described in a number of comprehensive reviews, (e.g. Farkas, 1988; Josephson
and Peterson, 1982-1983; Anon., 1982d; Urbain, 1986; Diehl, 199O).
Fundamentals of the process can be summarized as follows:

For practical reasons, ionizing radiations applied for food irradiation

are limited to gamma rays from isotopic sources such as Co and Cs,
and to machine-produced X-rays (of energies up to 5 MeV) or accelerated
electrons (with energies up to 1O MeV). These radiation sources have been
chosen because:

i) they produce the desired effects with respect to the foods,

ii> they do not induce radioactivity in foods or packaging materials,
and
iii) they are available in quantities and at costs that allow
commercial use of the process. Other kinds of ionizing radiations
fail in one or more respects to meet the requirements for use in
food irradiation.

High energy electron beams for radiation processing are produced by

means of accelerating machines. When a beam of high energy electrons collides
with a dense metal target (such as tungsten or gold) X-rays (Bremsstrahlung)
are produced within the target as the electrons are stopped.

13
 Gamma rays and X-rays are the same type of electromagnetic radiation.
There are, however, differences between "Bremsstrahlung" and gamma radiation,
which influence their utility; in contrast with the discrete energy levels of
gamma rays from isotopic sources , X-ray machines produce electromagnetic
radiation in a broad energy spectrum. Gamma rays are emitted in all
directions, unlike the high energy "Bremsstrahlung", which is emitted
preferentially in the direction of the electron beam which produces it
(forward scattering property).

Gamma rays and X-rays have a high penetrating capacity compared to

accelerated electrons. Penetration depends on the kinetic energy of photons
or electrons and on the density of the product to be treated. The useful
penetration can be increased by irradiating both sides of the material.

Except for differences in penetration, electromagnetic ionizing

radiations and electron beams are equivalent in food irradiation and can be
used interchangeably.

The effect which ionizing radiations have is related to the amount of

energy which the food absorbs from the radiation (the absorbed dose). The
absorbed dose (sometimes referred to simply as dose), is the amount of energy
absorbed per unit mass of irradiated material at a point in the region of
interest. The Si-derived unit of absorbed dose is the gray (Gy). 1 gray is
the dose absorbed by 1 kilogram material when 1 joule energy is transmitted
to it by an ionizing radiation (1 Gy = 1 J/kg).

Treatment of food with ionizing radiation causes almost no temperature

rise in the product. Irradiation can be applied through packaging materials
including those which cannot withstand heat. Since radiation can be applied
to hermetically packaged products, re-contamination or re-infestation can be
prevented by proper packaging prior to radiation treatment.

An irradiation facility can be operated as a component of a food

processing line or bulk store, or it can be operated as a service facility on
a fee paying basis. The necessary size of the facility is governed by the
dose requirement for the product and the throughput (kg per hour), plus the
number of hours per year it is to be operated.

The process of food irradiation must be carried out in facilities

licensed, registered and controlled by the appropriate national authorities,
and be subject to periodic inspection by these authorities. An ICGFI

14
guideline document regarding the licensing of food irradiation facilities is
in draft (ICGFI, 1988b).

Irradiation facilities provide for treatment of foods under controlled

conditions. In any given application, the amount of radiation is controlled
by knowing the rate of energy output of the source, by controlling the
physical relationship (mainly distance) between the source and target
material, and by controlling the time of treatment. Dose rate from gamma
sources is usually below 1O Gy/s. Dose rate from electron accelerators is
O
usually between 1O and 5xlO Gy/s.

Depending on the design of the irradiation facility and the

irradiation requirements, the products can be treated in packages or
containers, or they can be treated in bulk. The commodities concerned in
this monograph are best packaged before irradiation in order to avoid
re-contamination after radiation treatment. Since radiation processing does
not induce radioactivity or heat, products can be handled or shipped as soon
as they have been treated.

Besides the radiation source, basic components of irradiation

facilities are the irradiation cell (biological shield) designed to protect
operating personnel from exposure to radiation, the maze and some form of
carrier or conveyor system to bring the food product in proximity to the
source for processing, and a safety interlock/control console system.

The maze (labyrinth) allows the products to pass through the shielding
without allowing radiation to escape from the irradiation cell. Shielding
materials that have been evolved over the years include high density
concrete, mild steel, lead and earth. The labyrinth makes use of the
property of radiations to travel in straight lines only.

For a given product presented in an established loading pattern and at

a given source size or machine output, the speed of the conveyor movement
will determine the dose absorbed. An interlock system ensures that conveyor
movement occurs when the source is in the "exposure" position or the machine
is switched on. Conversely, no conveyor movement should occur when the
isotopic source is in the "safe" position or the machine source is "off",
thus ensuring that products cannot pass through the cell without receiving
treatment.

15
3.3. Recommended Dose Ranges

Depending on the number and type of microorganisms, and the chemical

composition of the commodity, a radiation dose of up to 2O kGy may be
required to achieve commercial "sterility" (i.e. a total viable cell count of
less than 1O per gram) in natural spices and herbs; however, doses of 3 to 1O
kGy can reduce the viable cell counts to an acceptable level (from 1O
7 4
1O per gram to less than 1O per gram) (Zehnder and Ettel, 1982;
Grnewald, 1984; Farkas, 1988). This dose range is approximately equal in
microbicidal effect to commercial fumigation with ethylene oxide.

The number of bacterial spores normally decreases by at least 2 orders

of magnitude as a result of irradiation with 5 kGy. A dose of 4-5 kGy can
eliminate moulds at least as efficiently as ethylene oxide treatment.
Thermophilic bacteria, of great importance to the canning industry, can be
practically eliminated with the same radiation dose as that necessary for a
sufficient reduction of the total aerobic viable count. Bacteria of the
Enterobacteriaceae family are relatively radiation sensitive even in dry
ingredients, and in most cases a dose of approximately 5 kGy seems to be
sufficient, for their elimination. The germicidal efficiency of irradiation
is much less dependent on the moisture conditions than is that of ethylene
oxide.

The surviving microflora of spices treated with such "pasteurizing"

doses of ionizing radiation have lower heat- and salt-resistance and are more
demanding as regards pH, moisture and growth temperature requirements than
those of untreated spices, which further reduces their ability to survive and
grow in processed food products (Farkas e_t al., 1973; Kiss and Farkas, 1981;
Farkas and Andrassy, 1985). The heat-sensitizing effect of irradiation
increases with increasing radiation dose and the weakening of the surviving
microflora in irradiated dry ingredients is permanent and does not diminish
during normal storage of the ingredients (Farkas and Andrassy, 1984).

No substantial changes were found in the volatile oil content and in

the amount of other chemical constituents of most spices treated with doses
of up to 10-15 kGy (Neumayer e al., 1983; Farkas et al., 1973; Farkas, 1988;
Farkas and Andrassy, 1988; Bahari et al., 1988; Weber, 1983; Zehnder, 198O;
Josimovic, 1983). The doses of 3-1O kGy sufficient for "pasteurization" do
not influence the sensory properties of the overwhelming majority of spices
(Farkas, 1988; Farkas and Andrassy, 1988; Eiss, 1984). The threshold doses

16
required to produce organoleptic changes in spices and herbs detectable by
sensory panels are summarized in Table 2.

Table 2

Threshold doses causing organoleptic changes in spices and

herbs detectable by sensory panels
Product Threshold dose (T.D.)
in kGy

Allspice (pimento) 15.0

Basil >10.0
Caraway 12.5
Cardamom 7.5
Cayenne pepper 10.0
Celery seed >10.0
Charlock 10.0
Chive 4.0< T.D. <8.0
Cinnamon 10.0< T.D. <20.0
Cloves <20.0
Coriander < 5.0
(odour)
<5.0 but also >10.0
Cumin 6.0 - 10.0
Curry >10.0
Dill tips >10.0
Fennel >10.0
Fenugreek < 5.0
(odour)
10.0
Garlic powder 3.0< T.D. <4.5
(aged sample)
>10.0
(fresh sample)
Ginger (dry) >10.0
Juniper >15.0
Lemon peel (powdered) 5.0< T.D. <10.0
Marjoram < 5.0
(odour)
5.0< T.D <10.0 but also >10.0
Mustard seed >10.0
Nutmeg >10.0
Onion powder <10.0
(optical index, colour)
8.0< T.D. <16.0
(smell, taste)
Orange peel (powdered) 5.0< T.D. <10.0
Oregano >10.0
Paprika > 8.0
Pepper, black > 7.5
Pepper, white > 9.0
Red pepper 10.0
Sage >10.0
Thyme >10.0
Turmeric 5.0< T.D. <10.0

Source: Farkas, 1988 (see REFERENCES)

17
 Experiments have demonstrated packaging and storage conditions to
affect the quality of spices more than radiation treatment. The antioxidant
properties of some spices remained unaltered by the radiation decontamination
treatment (Ito et al., 1985; Kuruppu e_t al., 1985). Varied results
concerning the threshold dose of organoleptic changes in some spices and
herbs as shown in Table 2 may be due to various reasons. One of them is that
radiation sensitivity may depend on the age of the seasoning being
irradiated. Aged samples, where aroma qualities deteriorated in storage or
typical aroma had been at a low level prior to decontamination treatment, may
be more sensitive to radiation treatment than fresh, aroma-intensive batches
(Funke e_t al., 1984).

Recent comparative flavour profile studies with selected spices (black

pepper, paprika, onion powder, and garlic powder) showed less change in the
flavour .profile of radiation decontaminated than fumigated samples (Farkas
and Andrassy, 1988). It should be noted that even in cases where the
sensitive methods of sensory panels may detect a statistically significant
difference in flavour between untreated and radiation decontaminated spices,
the spicing power is usually not influenced or not to an extent which affects
the applicability of radiation decontaminated spices in the food industry
(Eiss, 1984).

Because of the much greater sensitivity of insects than

microorganisms, it goes without saying that radiation treatment for
microbiological purposes always ensures insect disinfestation as well, the
dose requirement for which does not exceed 1 kGy.

3.4. Requirements for the Commodities to be Irradiated

Food and food ingredients for all types of further processing should
be handled hygienically. Therefore, irradiation of spices, condiments and
dried herbs should only be used as an additional safeguard when good
manufacturing practice (GMP) has been met. Minimum requirements of hygiene
for harvesting and post-harvest technology of spices and herbs (curing,
bleaching, drying, cleaning, grinding, packing, transportation and storage)
are described in the Proposed Draft Code of Hygienic Practice for Spices and
Condiments (Codex, 1989a).

Regarding specific microbiological requirements for spices, herbs, and

vegetable seasoning to be further processed, including by irradiation, an
ICGFI Consultation has concluded that some provisional guidelines may be

18
useful to orientate both processors and food control authorities concerning
the probability of problems in manufacturing, and handling practices worthy
of further investigation. According to the Report of that Consultation (WHO,
1989), most untreated spices, herbs and vegetable seasonings, harvested and
handled under hygienic conditions and tested by appropriate methods of
sampling and examination should contain

4
- not more than 1O coliform bacteria per gram;
- not more than 10 mould propagules per gram.

However, the Consultation recommended that systematic studies should

be performed to establish more relevant microbiological data on
representative samples of lots of spices and herbs produced under good
manufacturing, handling and storage practices.

3.5. Requirements for Packaging/Storage

Most types of packaging and packaging materials required to maintain

quality and prevent infestation and contamination of spices, condiments and
dried herbs, are also suitable to ensure that the post-irradiation quality of
the product is maintained under proper storage conditions. Most of packaging
materials do not undergo deleterious changes as a result of irradiation
within the recommended upper limit of 1O kGy (Killoran, 1983).

Because irradiation may brown glass, this material may be unsuitable

for terminal irradiation (irradiation in final package) whenever the
darkening which eventually results might be a disadvantage (ICGFI, 1988a).
In some cases, however, brown glass is preferred.

The size and shape of product packages are determined in part by

product transport systems of the irradiation plant and the radiation sources
used, as they relate to the dose distribution obtained within the package.

No special requirements exist for the post-irradiation handling and

storage of spices and dried herbs, and the storage stability of dry
ingredients is not impaired by radiation decontamination (Farkas, 1988; Eiss,
1984). On the contrary, it was demonstrated that due to radiation damage of
survivors radiation decontamination doses may prevent mould growth in
properly packaged spices even under high relative humidity, which is an
important additional potential benefit, particularly for spice-producing

19
developing countries (Ito e_t al., 1985; Farkas, 1988; Lebai Juri et al.,
1986).

3.6. Labelling Requirements

The Codex General Standard for Irradiated Foods (Anon., 1984a) states
that for irradiated foods, whether prepackaged or not, the declaration of the
fact of irradiation shall be made clear on the relevant shipping documents,
which shall give also appropriate information to identify the registered
facility which has irradiated the food, the date(s) of treatment and lot
identification.

For pre-packaged foods intended for direct consumption the

requirements are described in the Codex General Standard for the Labelling of
Prepackaged Foods (Codex, 1989b). While foods treated by other physical
preservation processes such as heating, refrigeration or freezing are not
required to be labelled that they are so treated, the Codex General Standard
for the Labelling of Prepackaged Food, as amended by the 19th Session of the
Codex Alimentarius Commission, states that:-

"5.2.1. The label of a food which has been treated with ionizing
radiation shall carry a written statement indicating that treatment in close
proximity to the name of the food. The use of the international food
irradiation symbol, as shown below , is optional, but when used it shall be
in close proximity to the name of the food.

5.2.2. When an irradiated product is used as an ingredient in another

food, this shall be so declared in the list of ingredients.

5.2.3. When a single ingredient product is prepared from a raw

material which has been irradiated, the label of the product shall contain a
statement indicating the treatment."

Labelling of minor ingredients and second generation products produced

with irradiated ingredients is a complicated and controversial issue
(Ladomery and Nocera, 198O), and views of governments vary significantly from

20
no labelling of "second generation irradiated food" in the USA, to labelling
of all irradiated ingredients in the food in the case of Denmark. A survey
of national regulations, including labelling, has been prepared under the
aegis of ICGFI (3CGFI, 1991).

Labelling should not only identify the food as irradiated, but also
serve to inform the purchaser as to the purpose and benefits of the
treatment. The label may bear the food irradiation symbol developed in the
Netherlands and adopted by several countries, and a phrase e.g.
"....(product's name) decontaminated/disinfected by irradiation."

3.7. Methods of Detection/Determination of Irradiation Treatment

Laboratory tests, which can identify irradiated samples would be

advantageous to enforce labelling rules.

In general, no reliable routine test has been developed yet for

simple identification of irradiated foods. In special cases, however,
some tests are showing promising results. Advances in the identification
of irradiated food were reviewed recently by Delince and Ehlermann
(1989). The Joint FAO/IAEA Division of Nuclear Techniques in Food and
Agriculture has published a review of literature on analytical detection
methods for irradiated foods (IAEA-TECDOC-587).

In chemically multicomponent ingredients such as spices,

condiments and dried herbs, detection of radiolytic products, formed in
extremely low concentrations, is so difficult that chemical
identification of radiation processing is in most cases non-feasible.

Japanese authors proposed recently to identify irradiated whole

spices by using gas chromatography to measure the amount of hydrogen gas
which is formed and trapped in organic substances irradiated with
ionizing radiation (Dohmaru et al., 1989). The problem of this method is
that retention of hydrogen in the irradiated material is strongly
affected by both storage time and storage temperature, and it is probably
a function of many other factors such as particle size, packaging, etc.

Modern methods of multicomponent analysis combined with

multivariate statistical evaluation holds some promise for detection of
chemical changes specific to irradiation (Delince and Ehlermann, 1989).

21
Attempts in this direction have already been made using multivariate
statistics with irradiated and unirradiated constituents separated by
high power liquid chromatography (HPLC) (Takagi e_t al., 1988). In
another study, multiple regression analysis has been performed for
spectral data acquired at three different wavelengths by near infrared
spectroscopy of irradiated and unirradiated pepper, which were related to
applied dose levels. A linear correlation was found up to 2O kGy (Suzuki
et al., 1988).

Formation and disappearance of radiation-induced radicals have

been investigated in irradiated spices first by electron-spin resonance
(ESR) measurements (Beczner et al., 1974; Shieh and Wierbicki, 1985; Yang
et al., 1987; Wieser, 1988), and more recently on the basis of the
chemiluminescence effect (Heide et al., 1987a). The latter method is
based on the observation that, due to oxidative free radicals, light is
emitted on dissolving or at least suspending irradiated solids in certain
liquids. The light emission can be significantly amplified by the use of
a photosensitizer such as Luminol. Much more light is emitted during the
chemiluminescence/lyoluminescence reaction when "pure" and completely
soluble solid substances e.g. salt or sugar, are irradiated. In fact,
various dosimetric methods have been developed on the basis of
lyoluminescence/chemiluminescence of irradiated alkali halides,
saccharides, and amino acids (Ettinger and Puite, 1982).

A multitude of factors may influence, however, the formation of

free radicals and their longevity, and thereby the ESR- or
chemiluminescence-detection of irradiation of dry food ingredients. The
chemiluminescence phenomena induced by UV light (Heide and BogI/ 1988),
and autooxidative processes may reduce the reliability of the
chemiluminescence signal (Heide and Bgl, 1985). Temperature conditions
may have also a great effect. In organic matrices such as spices and
herbs, the formation and disappearance of radiation-induced free radicals
are found to be strongly affected also by the moisture content of
samples. If a sample of low-moisture content containing a high
concentration of free radicals was placed in an atmosphere of higher
moisture content, the free radicals decayed rapidly (Delince and
Ehlermann, 1989; Beczner e_t al. , 1974? Delince, 1987).

More encouraging are the results with thermoluminescence

measurements for detecting treatment of spices with ionizing radiation

22
(Heide arid Bgl, 1984; 1985). Thermoluminescence is based on the fact
that electrons which are transferred to an excited state by ionizing
radiation/ and trapped in the solid matrix, return with emission of light
to a ground state, when irradiated solid samples are heated. By measuring
the light intensity as a function of temperature, the so-called glow
curve is obtained. (Thermoluminescence technique is widely applied to
radiation dosimetry using natural and synthetic phosphors, and also,
using naturally occurring minerals for the age determination of
archeological samples).

In general, the measurement of thermoluminescence is more

sensitive than chemiluminescence measurements. Both chemiluminescence and
thermoluminescence intensities can be very different from one spice to
another, and individual spices showed very different dose-response
curves. Intensity increases in samples treated with 10 kGy varied
between factor 1 (no effect) and approximately 1OOO in comparison to
untreated samples. Recent studies demonstrated that the
thermoluminescence signal is basically due to contaminating minerals
present in variable amounts in many spices and herbs (Sanderson et al.,
1989; Gksu-Ogelmann and Regulla, 1989).

In spite of the above difficulties, the FRG considered the results

of intercomparison studies positive enough to include the luminescence
techniques in the official collection of food control methods (Heide and
Bgl, 1987; Anon., 1989b,c).

Rheological methods may contribute to the detection of specific

dry ingredients including some spices. Namely, the reduction of viscosity
observed in irradiated hydrocolloids seems to be utilizable for detection
of irradiation of some spices which give normally highly viscous
suspensions when their suspensions are boiled (Mohr and Wichman, 1985;
Heide et al., 1987b). This is mainly due to the heat-gelatinization of
their starch content. Approx. 1O % suspension of a number of spices, such
as black and white peppers, mustard seed, savory, cinnamon, nutmeg and
ginger showed marked differences in such measurements between untreated
and irradiated (dose /4-8 kGy) samples, most probably as a consequence of
radiation damage of starches (Heide e_t al., 1987b; Farkas et al.,
199Oa,b).

23
 Due to a very large reduction of viable cell counts by irradiation
of spices, the combined use of the direct epifluorescent filter technique
(DEFT) and the counting of viable cells, e.g. by aerobic plate counting,
may provide a bacteriological screening test for radiation decontaminated
spices and herbs (Sjberg et al., 199O). However, the effects of other
possible decontamination treatments must be taken into concideration.

While use and positive results of the above methods, particularly

in combination with microbiological tests, may hint at radiation
treatment, further studies would be necessary if it were desired that the
identification method should be used as proof for legislatory control
purposes, even in the absence of the comparable unirradiated samples, and
over the expected storage life of the commodities (Delince and
Ehlermann, 1989).

The range of "natural" variation of properties on which the

promising detection methods are based, should be established by
investigating the differences between varieties of the same unirradiated
commodity as influenced by geographic origin, or manufacturing and
storage conditions, in order to establish the minimum radiation doses
producing enough changes to enable identification. Inter-laboratory and
international comparisons should corroborate the validity of
identification methods (Heide e_t al., 1989).

At present none of the potential methods for identification of

foods which have been radiation processed can reliably estimate the
absorbed dose (post-irradiation dosimetry) or detect irradiated
ingredients in composite foods (Beczner et al., 1974).

It is worthwhile to mention, however, that even the lack of

routine tests for reliable identification of irradiated ingredients
should not hamper the application of the radiation decontamination
process. Its effectiveness can be checked by microbiological tests of the
processed product and by control of the process itself, and by record
keeping. This practice is not unique to irradiation, because a similar
situation exists with heat-sterilized food where bacteriological control
is statistically too unreliable, and with certain heat-pasteurized food
where no suitable enzyme tests have been developed for routine control of
process effectiveness. The irradiation process is, for physical reasons,
easier to control and check (by dosimetry) than are traditional processes.

24
3.8. Dosimetry and Process Control

As it is not easy to distinguish irradiated food from

non-irradiated by inspection or by any other means, it is necessary to
depend on process control at the radiation facility.

One of the advantage of ionizing radiation over fumigation is that

radiation permits precise process control (Frohnsdorff, 1981; Farkas,
1984). However, it is essential that no sub-standard commodity should be
presented for irradiation, nor should inadequate handling and storage
procedures precede or follow irradiation processing.

In the framework of the FAO/WHO International Food Standards

Programme, the Codex Alimentarius Commission has already established a
Recommended International Code of Practice for the Operation of
Irradiation Facilities used for the Treatment of Foods (Anon., 1984b). It
is required that "good irradiation practices" be followed and that doses
be measured and recorded using standardized dosimetry.

The primary process control programme which incorporates "good

irradiation practice" in a food irradiation plant is fully compatible
with other hygienic practices used to ensure general food safety. To be
most effective it should be based on the Hazard Analysis and Critical
Control Point (HACCP) system {Farkas, 1984). The HACCP system identifies
points in the operation where food safety and quality are determined and
then monitors those aspects to ensure that the operation is under
control. HACCP is highly process-and product-specific. The World Health
Organization at a recent Consultation (Brussels, 22nd November 1989)
considered HACCP as a means for better control of food production (ICMSF,
1988). The Consultation recognized, as others have, that HACCP requires
the close co-operation of the industry and the Authorities in developing
and applying the system and recommended that "the regulatory agency
should not develop HACCP programme on its own but should identify the
basic elements of a programme on a commodity basis."

In the U.S., the Food Safety Inspection Services (FSIS) of the

U.S. Department of Agriculture developed two sets of HACCP guidelines for
preparing products for irradiation and for irradiating food products
(Crawford, 199O). These guidelines, which are based on work done by the
American Society for Testing and Materials and the Codex Alimentarius

25
Commission, can be considered to be applicable also to radiation
treatment of spices and herbs. A Code of Good Irradiation Practice for
the Control of Pathogens and other Microflora in Spices, Herbs and other
Vegetable Seasonings has been also prepared by ICGFI for food irradiators
(ICGFI, 1988a).

Control of the food irradiation process in all type of facilities

involves the use of accepted methods of measuring the absorbed radiation
dose and the distribution of dose in the product package, and of
monitoring of the physical parameters of the process (Anon., 1977a; ASTM,
1987; Thalacker et al., 1986).

Dosimetry for food irradiation is analogous to heat penetration

measurements in thermal processing, with dosimeters being the analogs of
thermo-couples in that they are employed to provide an accurate measure
of the rate of energy delivery and total energy delivered or absorbed.
There are several types of dosimeters, the most common ones being based
on a chemical change that is linear within a practical dose range.

Dosimetry is the keystone of the proper radiation processing.

Careful dosimetry is required to ensure that a technologically useful
dose has been aplied, while maintaining the best possible dose uniformity
ratio.

In addition, a knowledge of the absorbed dose is needed in order

to ensure that it does not exceed the established legal dose limit.
Therefore, prior to the commissioning of the plant, extensive dosimetric
calibrations of the irradiator are carried out, and are followed during
the processing by a routine dosimetry. Routine dosimetric systems are now
sufficiently accurate, easy to use and reasonably priced to meet the
requirements of industrial production and control. The dose distribution
in the irradiated materials is monitored systematically to keep the
absorbed dose between the minimum and maximum permissible values.
This is easier in packaged products and gamma irradiators than in
transported bulk material or in machine irradiator systems. The source
geometry and the mode of irradiation container or carrier movement will
determine the dose distribution throughout the carrier. This can be
measured directly using a "dummy" or "phantom" target, which is designed
to fill a typical carrier and allow dosimeters to be distributed in a
manner which will give the dose distribution at numerous points

26
throughout the carrier, ensuring measurements at the points of minimum
and maximum dose. Validation dosimetry is repeated following any major
change in plant design or source size to ensure that the dose
distribution in the carrier has not changed.

In the case of electron accelerators, the dose is mainly

determined by the beam current. Coverage is ensured by the proper scan
width. Quantitative measurements of dose can be made using various dyed
films placed under product targets, both "phantom" and actual.

Having established the most convenient points at which to place

dosimeters for routine dosimetry, dosimeters should be used at regular
intervals in the case of a "continuous" plant. With a radiation plant
operating on the "batch" principle, there must be at least one dosimeter
within each batch carrier during the irradiation (Ley, 1985).

It should be emphasized that in batch type irradiations with

discontinuous material transport, it is highly important to pay attention
to the need for very accurate checking of the absorbed dose, as during
the manual handling of the materials the containers may be exchanged
accidentally. This possibility is excluded in the case of constrained
route irradiations of a continuous operation.

In continuous plants, special attention must be paid to continuous

monitoring the dose rate when the plant is operating routinely.
Semiconductor detectors are fixed at the places in the irradiation
chamber and in the maze where the dose rate is relatively low.
The detectors are attached to a recorder, allowing follow-up of any
variations in the dose rate. This enables the management of the plant to
provide a document for the authorities which certifies that the source
has not been brought back into storage position during irradiation
periods, and that the goods have been given a continuous uniform
radiation treatment.

Because it is not possible to distinguish irradiated from

unirradiated products by inspection of their appearance, it is important
that appropriate indicator devices which undergo radiation-induced colour
change be attached to each container/package, and that physical barriers
be employed in the radiation plant to keep the irradiated and
non-irradiated products separate.

27
 In addition to the labelling requirements described in Chapter
3.6, the documentation kept by the irradiation plant shall be such as to
allow each batch of irradiated product to be identified with the
irradiation facility and with the treatment given. Coupled with an
administrative inventory control, dosimetry can provide a guarantee that
the process has been correctly applied, and regulatory release of
irradiated food can be based on accurate and reproducible absorbed dose
measurement (Miller and Chadwick, 1989).

3.9 End Product Specification

As minimum hygienic requirements, the Proposed Draft Code of

Hygienic Practice for Spices and Condiments (Codex, 1989a) states that:-

"7.9.3. When tested by appropriate methods of sampling and

examination, the products

(a) should be free from pathogenic micro-organisms in levels

which may represent a hazard to health; and
(b) should not contain any substance originating from
microorganisms, particularly aflatoxin, in amounts which
exceed the tolerance or criteria established by the official
agency having jurisdiction."

Furthermore:

"7.10. The products should comply with the provisions for food
additives, contaminants, and with maximum levels for pesticide
residues, recommended by the concerned official agency."

The Codex Alimentarius Commission is developing a Code of Hygienic

Practice for Spices including a code for spices for use in the
manufacture of meat products.

Besides these general requirements regarding health hazard, the

spoilage hazard presented by a food ingredient must be evaluated always
in the context of its use. In the spice trade, total aerobic viable cell
3 4
counts below a level of 10 to 1O /g were traditionally required and
accepted as a maximal count of decontaminated spices (in German:
"entkeimte Gewrze").

28
 A Proposed Draft Guide for the Microbiological Quality of Spices
and Herbs used in Processed Meat and Poultry Products developed by the
Codex Committee on Processed Meat and Poultry Products has recommended as
an endproduct specification for such ingredients, after a decontamination
treatment, including irradiation, that "4.3. When tested by appropriate
methods of sampling and examination, the products should meet the
following microbiological end-product specifications: Spores of aerobic
bacteria should not be recovered from any of five sample units examined
in a number exceeding 1O,OOO per gram (n=5, M=1O,OOO). (Anon., 1989d).
However, these end product specifications have been deleted in later
drafts of the Codex Guide.

4. WHOLESOMENESS DATA

Reference is made to the reports of JECFI described in Chapter 1

(JECFI, 1981), as well as to literature compilations on chemical,
microbiological and toxicological data on irradiated spices and herbs
published by the Institut fr Strahlenhygiene, Bundesgesundheitsamt,
Neuherberg b/Mnchen, FRG (Schttler and Bgl, 1984).

It is clearly established that irradiation with energy levels

foreseen for processing of spices and herbs (up to 5 MeV for gamma- and
X-rays, and up to 1O MeV for electrons) does not produce measurable
radioactivity in the foods so treated (JECFI, 1981; Diehl, 199O). This
has also recently been proved with 1O MeV electron-irradiated pepper
(Furuta et al., 199O). Chemical studies on many foods and ingredients
demonstrated that radiation treatment produces only very small amounts of
reaction products and does not leave residues. In various spices
irradiated with a dose of 45 kGy, gas-chromatographic studies revealed
radiation-induced compounds at a level less than O.O1% of the total
volatile constituents (Tjaberg e_t al. , 1972).

The major factors in influencing product yields are the

composition, the physical state, and the processing parameters of foods.
Research on product formation and reaction mechanism have shown that
despite the complexity of the primary radiolytic events, only a few key

29
radicals are ultimately formed and become precursors of major final
products. Since the ultimate fate of radicals formed depends on their
ability to migrate or to twist into position for bimolecular reaction,
factors that alter their environment can influence their pathways to
decay and hence their lifetimes. For non-lipid components/ the presence
of water is of particular importance. Water forms a primary set of
radicals, i.e. OH radicals, H atoms and hydrated electrons. Such radicals
are responsible for the indirect action of radiation in foods, because
these primary radicals react with food components to form a second set of
radicals and ultimately final radiolysis products. Therefore, the state
of hydration is important both in radiolysis and product quality (Taub,
1983). In dehydrated systems the reactions are limited due to the lack
of water for primary radical formation. The influence of water on
migration of other reactive entities (e.g. oxygen) is also important.
This is the reason, why in general, dry or semidry foods can take higher
doses without deleterious effect to product quality.

Compared with those in moist systems, the decay of free radicals

in dry products is much slower, though considerable differences could be
observed among these products in changes of residual radicals during
storage (Farkas, 1988). Therefore, in dry substances the presence of free
radicals can be expected as a result of irradiation (see also
Chapter 3.7).

It should be pointed out that free radical formation is not

limited to irradiated foods. Although the generation and subsequent
reaction of free radicals comprise the major route by which radiolytic
products are formed, such reactions are also common during conventional
food processing and storage. On the other hand, irradiated dry
ingredients are generally used in other foods that contain water. Thus,
the manner in which these commodities are used generally provides a means
for rapid dissipation of the free radicals, thereby precluding their
ingestion.

Notwithstanding the fact that free radicals trapped in dry

substances are eliminated on soaking, a long-term feeding study was
especially designed to look for possible effects of an irradiated diet
containing a high free radical concentration. The results have been
negative both with regard to chronic toxic effects and tumor formation,

30
and to mutagenic effects in a dominant lethal assay (Renner and Reichert,
1973; Renner e_t al. , 1973; Saint-Lbe t al., 1982).

Radiation chemistry studies relevant to wholesomeness of dry

vegetable ingredients demonstrated that none of the radiolytic products
was present in sufficient amount to be toxic, and that all of them could
also be produced by other processes of food preservation (Saint-Lbe et
al., 1982; Raff i and Saint-Lbe, 198O). Although some of these compounds
are toxic to unicellular organisms, they are not toxic to mammals in the
concentration produced by irradiation (Diehl, 199O).

Spices were accorded a high priority in the wholesomeness testing

program of the International Project in the Field of Food Irradiation
(IFIP), a co-operation in which 25 countries eventually took part under
the aegis of the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) and the
International Atomic Energy Agency between 1971 and 1981 (Phillips and
Elias, 1979). Specific animal feeding tests as well as teratogenicity and
genotoxicity studies with various irradiated dry ingredients were
executed, mainly in Hungary, France, The Netherlands, Belgium, and
Germany, within the framework of IFIP (Farkas, 1988).

In the wholesomeness testing of spices, herbs, and dry vegetable

seasonings, we face the difficulty that feeding tests with hot and
pungent materials, or those containing high concentrations of
biologically active compounds, i.e. those found in many of the important
spices and herbs, are extremely difficult or even impracticable to
perform. There are exceptions to this, e.g. the powder of sweet
(capsaicin-free) paprika, which was consumed by albino rats at a 35%
level of total diet for months without adverse effects (Farkas, 1975;
Barna, 1973). A subacute wholesomeness test was performed then without
any difficulty with irradiated (15 kGy) and/or heat-treated (autoclaved)
paprika powder at the same 35% level in the diet. In spite of the
above-mentioned difficulties, feeding studies in rats fed a diet
containing a spice mixture at levels ranging from 2 to 25% have been
completed (Barna, 1975, 1976; Anon., 1977b). Apart from the lower growth
rate caused by the lower feed consumption by rats of feed containing high
levels of spice, the data show no evidence of adverse effects from
feeding of spices whether irradiated (15 kGy), unirradiated, or treated
with ethylene oxide, even up to a 25% dietary level. Nevertheless, it was
felt that in the course of a long term study, feeding high levels of

31
spice would produce underweight animals and this might lead to further
complications. Therefore, further research programs included short-term
tests on mutagenicity and teratogenicity and the identification of some
radiation-induced chemical changes in individual spices.

For teratogenicity studies, groups of pregnant CF albino rats

were fed either stock ration (controls) or diets containing either
nonirradiated or irradiated (15 kGy) spices at levels of 3.5, 25, and 25%
for ground black pepper, mild paprika, and spice mixture, respectively
(CFRI, 1976). Between 1O and 15 dams per group were used, and the test
diets were made available to the animals from the 6th to the 15th days of
gestation only. This first experiment was conducted within 2 weeks of the
irradiation treatment of the spices. A similar study was conducted in
which the irradiated spice had been stored for 3 months. The food
consumption and growth of the dams were similar in all groups. The dams
were killed on day 20 of gestation, and the contents of the uteri were
examined. No treatment-related effects were reported in the numbers of
implantation sites, rsorptions (which were low), or viable fetuses or in
the number of gross, soft-tissue, or skeletal abnormalities in the
offspring. Similar findings were obtained in the experiment with the
stored irradiated spices. It was concluded from these studies that no
teratogenic effects were associated with the consumption of diets
containing either irradiated or non-irradiated black pepper, mild
paprika, or spice mixture. (The spice mixture was made up of 55%
paprika, 14% black pepper, 9% coriander, 9% allspice, 7% marjoram, 4%
cumin and 2% nutmeg).

Cytogenetic effects of irradiated paprika were studied with

micronucleus tests in mice (Chaubey ejc al., 1979). Groups of 5 female
Swiss mice were fed for 12 days on diets containing O (control), 2O% (dry
weight) paprika (capsaicin free) or 2O% (dry weight) irradiated paprika
(capsaicin free). A further group of animals was fed on control diet and
at 3O and 6 h before killing was given 1OO mg/kg hycanthone sulfonate
(positive control). At the end of the feeding period the animals were
killed and bone marrow preparations made. No differences were observed
between the control and paprika-fed groups in the incidence of
micronucleated erythrocytes. The sensitivity of the test was confirmed
by the positive findings with hycanthone methane sulfonate.

32
 The possible mutagenic effects of irradiated paprika (capsaicin
free), black pepper, and the spice mixture mentioned above were studied
using the Ames test and host-mediated assays as well (CFRI, 1977; Farkas
et al., 1981). Extracts were prepared from heat-treated paprika or
irradiated (5O kGy) paprika by solvent extraction with dimethyl sulfoxide
(DMSO). Samples of both paprika samples and their DMSO extracts were
subjected to bacterial mutagen icity tests using Salmonella typhimurium
strains TA1535, TA98, and TA1975. No difference in the incidence of
revertants was reported between the paprika samples and their extracts or
between the heat-treated and the irradiated paprika. In a further study
to compare the mutagenic potential of the heat-treated paprika with
irradiated (5O kGy) paprika, groups of male CFLP albino mice were fed for
1 week on diets containing O (control), 35% heat-treated paprika, or 35%
irradiated (5O kGy) paprika. A host-mediated assay was conducted using
S. typhimurium TA153O as the test organism. There was a high variability
in the results observed, though no pattern emerged to indicate any
treatmentrelated effect. In neither study were the results indicative of
a mutagenic effect on the part of irradiated paprika.

Extracts were prepared from a spice mixture, irradiated with 15 or

45 kGy, by solvent extraction with DMSO and subjected to bacterial
mutagenicity tests using Salmonella typhimurium strains TA1537, 1538 and
98 with metabolic activation (S9). No effects were observed with either
sample. In a further study, groups of albino rats were fed for 6 days on
diets containing O (control), 25% nonirradiated spice mixture, 25%
irradiated (5 kGy) spice mixture, 25% irradiated (15 kGy) spice mixture,
25% nonirradiated paprika, 25% irradiated (5 kGy) paprika, 25% irradiated
(15 kGy) paprika, 3.5% nonirradiated black pepper, 3.5% irradiated (5
kGy) black pepper, or 3.5% irradiated (15%) black pepper. Samples of
urine collected from these rats were subjected to bacterial mutagenicity
tests using S. typhiraurium strains TA1537, 1535, 1538, 98 and 1OO. No
treatment-related effects were reported in the results of these tests.
The results of these studies indicate a lack of mutagenic potential not
only on the part of various irradiated spice extracts but also on the
part of their urinary metabilites in rats (Farkas et al., 1978).
Prophage induction tests for potential carcinogens using blood samples of
the same animals were also performed with negative results (Farkas and
Andrassy, 1981a). None of these experiments has indicated induction of,
or increase in, reverse mutations or other DNA-damaging effects due to
irradiated spices. Irradiated garlic and onion powders did not reveal any

33
mutagenic activity using the Salmonella/mammalian microsome mutagenicity
assay, and the in vitro sister chromatid exchange test (Mnzner and
Renner, 1981; Farkas and Andrassy, 1981b; Anon., 198O), or in recessive
sex-linked lethal tests in Drosophila (Mittler, 1981; Mittler and Eiss,
1982), respectively. Possible genotoxic effects of irradiated onion
powder by means of prophage induction (Inductest) also gave negative
results (Farkas and Andrassy, 1982).

5. NATIONAL AND INTERNATIONAL CLEARANCES

The national legislative recognition of the safety of irradiated

foods is gradually following the achievements at the UN level described
in Chapter 1. As regards spices, condiments, herbs and dried vegetable
seasonings, clearances issued at national level are summarized in Table
3. It can be seen from Table 3 that twenty-four countries had granted
some sort of clearances for these types of commodities by 1989.

The ICGFI has recently prepared a comprehensive review on current

national laws and regulations on"food irradiation (ICGFI, 199O).

At international level, the Scientific Committee for Food of the

Commission of the European Community (CEC) verified the conclusions of
the JECFI (CEC, 199O). Since commercial application of food irradiation
is a reality in several EC countries, and in light of the member
countries' intention to create an unrestricted common market by the year
1992, a proposed Directive (EC, 1989a) is being considered by the EC
under the Single Law Act, to be finalized before the end of 1992. The
proposed Directive lists a number of food items including spices which
will be permitted to be irradiated in EC countries.

34
 Table 3

List of clearance on radiation decontamination of spices.

condiments, herbs and dried vegetable seasonings
( As of 31 Dec., 1991, Grouped according to country )

Country Product Sort of Dose Date of

clearance (kGy) approval

ARGENTINA spices unconditional up to 30 11.83

BANGLADESH spices unconditional up to 10 28.12.83

BELGIUM black/white provisional up to 10 16.10.80

pepper

paprika powder provisional up to 10 16.10.80

different provisional up to 10 29.09.83

spices (78
products)

herbal teas up to 10 30.11.88

BRAZIL different unconditional up to 10 07.03.85

spices (13
products)

CANADA spices and unconditional up to 10 03.10.84

certain dried
seasonings

onion powder unconditional up to 10 12.12.83

CHILE spices and unconditional up to 10 29.12.82

condiments

DENMARK spices and unconditional up to 15 23.12.85

herbs (max.)
up to 10 (aver.)

FINLAND dry and de- unconditional up to 10 13.11.87

hydrated (aver.)
spices and
herbs

FRANCE spices and unconditional up to 11 10.02.83

aromatic
substances
(72 products
inclusive
powdered onion
and garlic)
aromatic herbs unconditional up to 10 15.05.88
(frozen)

35
 Table 3 (cont.)

Country Product Sort of Dose Date of

clearance (kGy) approval

HUNGARY spices unconditional 6 19.08.86

(aver . )

INDIA spices for export up to 10 01.86

only (overall average)

INDONESIA dried spices unconditional up to 10 29.12.87

ISRAEL spices unconditional up to 10 17.02.87

(61 different
products)

dry and dried unconditional up to 10 17.02.87

vegetable and (average)
edible plants

KOREA, dried spices uncondit ional up to 10 01.09.88

REPUBLIC OF (average)

NETHERLANDS spices and temporary up to 10 20.10.88

herbs for 2 years

NEW ZEALAND herbs and provisional up to 10 03.85

spices
(one batch)

NORWAY dried spices unconditional up to 10 07.82

PAKISTAN spices unconditional up to 10 13.06.88

POLAND spices and herbs unconditional up to 10 10.90

SOUTH various unconditional up to 10 82

AFRICA spices

herbal teas uncond i t ional 82

various dehy- uncond i t ional

drated vegetables

SYRIAN ARAB spices and unconditional up to 10 02.08.86

REPUBLIC condiments,
dried onion
and onion
powder

36
 Table 3 (cont.)

Country Product Sort of Dose Date of

clearance (kGy) approval

THAILAND spices & unconditional up to 10 04.12.86

condiments,
dehydrated,
onions and
onion powder

TAIWAN, CHINA spices unconditional up to 30 30.11.87

UNITED KINGDOM spices and unconditional up to 10 01.01.91

condiments (overall average)

UNITED spices and unconditional up to 30 05.07.83

STATES dry vegetable
OF AMERICA seasonings
(38 commodi-
ties)

dry or dehydr. unconditional up to 30 18.04.86

aromatic veg.
substances

YUGOSLAVIA herbal teas unconditional up to 10 17.12.84

spices unconditional up to 10 17.12.84

dehydrated unconditional up to 10 17.12.84

fruit and
vegetables
condiments

Note; The term "provisional" indicates that the approval is

limited in time and/or quantity.

37
 6. RECOMMENDATIONS ON CONTROL AND REGULATORY PROVISIONS

Industry should have the primary responsibility and obligation to

assure the safety and quality of its products. The competent authority,
however, has a duty to verify such practices and to keep them under
regular monitoring (Pothisiri, 1989). The general food hygiene
regulations of a country are applicable to all food processing
activities, including food processing by ionizing radiation. General
hygienic reguirements for handling spices and condiments are described in
the Proposed Draft Code of Hygienic Practices for Spices and Condiments
(Codex, 1989a). General provisions on good irradiation practice are given
in the Codex General Standard for Irradiated Foods and the Code of
Practice (Anon., 1984a, 1984b). In addition to requirements defined in
these documents, the following provisions should be considered from the
point of view of quality assurance and regulatory requirements for the
HACCP system for radiation decontamination of spices, condiments and
dried herbs. (These provisions summarize the information contained in
Chapter 3).

a) As part of the pre-processing evaluation, it should be verified

that:-

- the commodities intended for radiation treatment are packed

in packaging materials approved for food irradiation, and
approriate for maintaining the integrity of the product, and
for preventing reinfestation and recontamination,
- the packages are undamaged,
the packages bear proper labels,
the microbiological quality of the incoming product does not
indicate hygienically unacceptable manufacturing and handling
practices. The provisional guidelines mentioned in Chapter
3.4 can be considered for evaluating microbiological quality.
Although it is of interest also to a service irradiator to be
assured that the commodities received for irradiation
treatment are of acceptable hygienic quality, primarily it is
the responsibility of the product's owner to ensure that the
product meets the quality standard(s) set for the specific
product, and that it was produced in accordance with good
manufacturing practice.

38
b) Processing evaluation should verify that:-

processing parameters are properly set,

- dosimeters for routine measurements are correctly positioned,
- the dosimeters are appropriate to the dose range being
applied,
suitable go/no-go indicator labels are attached to the
packages,
records of processing required by the responsible authorities
are made. Such operational records should include e.g. the
nature and quality of commodities treated, their lot number,
the consignee, the date of irradiation, the type of packaging
used during treatment, and dosimetry data. Documentation kept
by the plant and accessible to control officials include
commissioning information, dose mapping for individual
products, product loading pattern, conveyor operation, the
number and duration of processing interruptions, and start
and stop times of processing.

c) Post-processing evaluation should check that:-

- the condition of the product remained satisfactory after

treatment, and that the packages are in a proper condition to
prevent reinfestt ion/recontaminat ion,
- the radiation dose received is within the approved limits,
i.e. minimum effective dose and maximum dose requirements for
product quality tolerance or statutory observance are met.
The minimum dose requirement shall be based on the dose
prescribed either for elimination of specific potentially
pathogenic microorganism or for the necessary reduction of
the microflora critical for further technological use of the
product.

the product is properly labelled with indications prescribed

by the appropriate clearances or regulations,
- verification of the process is duly recorded on commercial
documents prepared in accordance with the regulations.

The International Dose Assurance Service operated by the IAEA

provides an additional assurance complementary to the calibration
traceable to national standards (Nam, 1985). This service sends

39
dosimeters to radiation plants for irradiation during product processing
alongside previously calibrated routine dosimeters. The IAEA arranges a
central read-out of their dosimeters to assess the dose, and compares it
with that quoted by the facility operator. In this way, the operator can
gain additional assurance that his calibrated dosimeter system is
measuring the process dose reliably.

Besides dosimetry, which is the primary monitoring means for

quality assurance in good irradiation practice, monitoring the Tnicrobial
quality to meet end-product specifications set by relevant authorities or
by the user of the product may be necessary. (See for example the
Proposed Draft Guide for the Microbial Quality of Spices and Herbs used
in Processed Meat and Poultry Products, referred to in Chapter 3.9).

Inspection of radiation facilities by authorized agencies should

include (Pothisiri, 1989):

- checking that the operation meets all the conditions laid

down in the licence and that the plant is well maintained,
- reviewing the logs and records, the results of various tests,
maintenance and monitoring programs,
- conducting periodic audits to ensure that the quality
assurance programme is being properly carried out,
- checking that the recommendations made after a previous
inspection have been taken into account.

40
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