Chapter 3

Particle Size Analysis of Soils

3.1 Purpose
The particle size distribution of a soil (also called a gradation curve) is primarily used for classification
purposes. The distribution of particle sizes larger then 0.075 mm (retained on the No. 200 sieve) is deter-
mined by sieving, while distribution of particles sizes smaller then 0.075 mm is determined by sedimentation
process using a hydrometer.

3.2 Standard Reference

ASTM D 422 - Standard test method for particle-size analysis of soils.

3.3 Particle size analysis of coarse grained fraction

3.3.1 Required Materials and Equipment
A scale sensitive to 0.01 g

Sieves, bottom pan, and a lid (The table below provides a list of common sieve sizes)

Mechanical sieve shaker

Sieve No. Opening (mm)

4 4.75
10 2.00
40 0.425
80 0.180
100 0.150
200 0.075

3.3.2 Test Sample

The size of the sample (i.e., the amount of soil) will depend on the maximum size of the particles present in
the sample itself, according to the following table:
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Nominal diameter of Approximate Minimum

largest particles Mass of Portion
in. (mm) g
3/8 (9.5) 500
3/4 (19.0) 1000
1 (25.4) 2000
1.5 (38.1) 3000
2 (50.8) 4000
3 (76.2) 5000

3.3.3 Procedure
1. Clean each sieve to remove any soil left over from previous tests. Use the soft brush on the finer mesh
sieve and the wire brush on the coarser mesh sieve. Take care not to damage the mesh.

2. Measure and record the mass of each sieve, including the bottom pan.

3. Obtain the appropriate amount of sample.

4. Weigh and record the mass of the sample selected.

5. Assemble the sieves in order from largest to smallest so that the coarsest is at the top and the finest is
on the bottom followed by the pan.

6. Place the sample on to the top sieve taking care not to lose any of the mass and place the lid securely
on top.

7. Place the set of sieves in the sieve shaker and adjust the clamps to secure the sieves.

8. Set the shaker on high and set the timer to five minutes.

9. Remove the sieves from the sieve shaker

10. To insure that all the particles passed though the appropriate sieve, tap each sieve over a sheet of paper,
starting with the top sieve. Put any material that falls on to the paper into the next sieve and repeat the
process with the next sieve.

11. Measure and record the mass retained in each sieve.

12. Sum the mass of the material retained on each sieve to verify that there has been no change in the total
mass of the sample. (Note: A mass loss of less than 2% is acceptable.)

3.3.4 Calculations
Determine the weight of soil that is retained on each sieve, Wi .

Calculate the percent of soil that is retained on each sieve (%Ri ):

Wi
%Ri = 100 (3.1)
W

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3. Particle Size Analysis of Soils 11

Calculate the percent passing each sieve (%Pi ):

i
X
%Pi = 100 %Ri (3.2)
k=1

Plot the percent passing values on the grain size analysis chart provided.

3.4 Particle size analysis of fine grained fraction

3.4.1 Required Materials and Equipment
Stirring apparatus.

Hydrometer, type 151H or 152H.

Sedimentation cylinder, glass cylinder marked for a volume of 1000 ml.

A solution of 40 g/l solution of sodium hexametaphosphate (or Calgon) in distilled water is used as a
dispersing agent and will be provided

Thermometer, accurate to 1o F (0.5o C).

Graduated beaker to 250 ml capacity.

Timer.

3.4.2 Hydrometer Calibration

The specific gravity of the solution of water and dispersing agent is higher than the specific gravity of distilled
water. This difference must be accounted for when using the equations for percentage of soil remaining in
suspension in section 3.4.4, which were developed for distilled water. In addition, the hydrometers were
calibrated at a constant temperature of 68o F (20o C), which cannot be ensured in our laboratory. Finally,
hydrometers are graduated by the manufacturer to be read at the bottom of the meniscus formed by the
liquid on the stem. However, given the difficulty of conducting a reading at the bottom of the meniscus
through the soil-water suspension, the readings should be taken at the top of the meniscus and then corrected.
The combined amount of the corrections for these three items is called composite correction and should be
determined before or while conducting the actual test.
For convenience, measurement of the composite correction can be made at a few different temperatures
spanning the range expected during the test, and the result graphed. The correction for intermediate temper-
atures can be estimated using a linear approximation.

Calibration procedure
1. In a graduate cylinder, mix 125 ml of the 40 g/l solution of sodium hexametaphosphate (or Calgon)
and then distilled water up to 1000 ml.

2. Allow the temperature of the solution to become in equilibrium with the temperature in the room.

3. Place the hydrometer in the solution, allow to adjust to the temperature and stop moving.

4. Read the hydrometer at the top of the meniscus formed on the stem.

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5. The composite correction for hydrometer 151H is the difference between this reading and one; for
hydrometer 152GH it is the difference between the reading and zero.

6. Repeat the measurement in parallel with your hydrometer measurements in the soil-water-dispersing
agent mix, when the room temperature changes.

3.4.3 Procedure
1. Obtain the equivalent of 50 g of air dried soil from the material passing the #200 sieve (do not oven
dry the soil).

2. Determine the hygroscopic water content (due to humidity in the air) using an additional 10-15 g of
soil.

3. Mix the soil to a thick slurry using 125 ml of the distilled water-dispersing agent solution.

4. Mix the slurry in a stirring apparatus for 60 seconds.

5. Transfer to the sedimentation cylinder and fill with distilled water up to the 1000 ml mark.

6. Mix thoroughly: cover the sedimentation cylinder mouth using a rubber glove and your hand and turn
the cylinder upside down and back for 1 minute.

7. Set the cylinder down and quickly start the timer. Take readings using the hydrometer at 4, 15, 30, 60,
90, 120 seconds. Be careful in inserting the hydrometer, so that it will be stabilized as soon as possible
and leave in the suspension for the first 2 minutes. Take readings at the top of the meniscus.

8. Repeat the mixing process and take a second set of readings for the first 2 minutes.

9. Remove the hydrometer from the suspension and place with a spinning motion in a cylinder filled with
distilled water. To take the following readings, carefully place the hydrometer in the suspension about
20-25 s before the reading is due.

10. Take readings at 5, 15, 30, 60, and 1140 minutes. Place the hydrometer into the distilled water imme-
diately after each reading. After each reading, take the temperature of the suspension by inserting the
thermometer into the suspension.

11. At the end of the experiment, obtain the final dry weight of soil.

3.4.4 Calculations
Hygroscopic correction factor

Determine the hygroscopic correction factor based on the determination of the hygroscopic water content
results:

Ws
HygroscopicCF = (3.3)
Wt
where: Ws is the weight of the soil after oven drying and Wt is the initial weight of the air dry sample.

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3. Particle Size Analysis of Soils 13

Diameter of soil particles

The diameter of the soil particles is calculating according to Stokes law, assuming that the particles are
spherical, and measuring the density of the suspension:
s
18L
D= (3.4)
(Gs G1 )w T
where:

= viscosity of water (10.09 millipoise at 20o C)

L = depth at which the density of the suspension is being measured (that is, where the center of gravity
of the hydrometer is). See appendix for values of L given hydrometer reading.
w = unit weight of water
Gs = specific gravity of the solid particles
G1 = specific gravity of the solution (usually assumed to be 1)
T = elapsed time

For convenience, the above calculations can be simplified as follows:

r
L
D(mm) = K (3.5)
T
where: K is a constant that depends on temperature and specific gravity of the solid particles, given in
the appendix.

Percentage of soil in suspension

Calculate the (oven) dry weight (W) of the soil by multiplying the air-dry weight of the soil to be used in the
hydrometer analysis by the hygroscopic correction factor.
The percentage of soil remaining in suspension at the level at which the hydrometer is measuring the
density is calculated differently for the two hydrometers.
For Hydrometer 151H:

100, 000 Gs
P = (Rh G1 ) (3.6)
W Gs G1
For Hydrometer 152H:

Rh
P = 100 (3.7)
W
where:

P = percentage of soil remaining in suspension at the level at which the hydrometer is measuring
Rh = corrected hydrometer reading
W = weight of the oven dry soil, after hygroscopic correction
Gs = specific gravity of the solid particles
G1 = specific gravity of the dispersing solution (usually 1)
= correction factor, see appendix

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14 CVEN365 Laboratory Manual

3.5 Forms
Sieve Analysis of Coarse Fraction
Sample No. Project

Boring No. Location

Depth

Description of sample

Date Tested by

Total weight of sample

Sieve No. Weight of Weight of Weight of Soil Percentage Percentage

Sieve Sieve + Soil Retained Retained Passed
(g) (g) (g) (%) (%)

Total weight of soil (g)

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 Hydrometer Analysis
Date Tested by
Sample No. Project Boring Depth

(A) Hygroscopic water content

(1) Cup No. (2) Mass of cup

Texas A&M University

(3) Mass cup + soil (air dry) (4) Mass cup + soil (oven dry)
(5) Mass of water (6) Mass of soil (oven dry)
(7) Mass of soil (air dry) (8) Hygroscopic water content
(9) Hygroscopic correction factor
3. Particle Size Analysis of Soils

(B) Hydrometer Analysis

Hydrometer Type Specific Gravity of Soil (Gs )
Mass of air dry soil Calculate mass of oven dry soil
Date Time Elapsed Actual Hy- Composite Hydrometer Temperature Effective K from table Diameter of Percent
Time drometer Correction Reading - Hydrome- particle, D finer in
Reading Correction ter Depth suspension
(min) (rh ) (Rh ) (degrees C) (mm) (%)

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3. Particle Size Analysis of Soils 17

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G. Biscontin Civil Engineering Department

Chapter 4

Atterberg Limits: Liquid Limit, Plastic

Limit, and Plasticity Index of Soils

4.1 Purpose
The liquid limit, plastic limit, and the plasticity index of soils are used extensively to correlate with engi-
neering behavior such as compressibility, hydraulic conductivity, shrink-swell, and shear strength. Atterberg
defined four possible states of consistency for soils: liquid, plastic, semi-solid and solid. The liquid limit
divides the plastic and liquid states and is defined as the water content at which the soil flows to close a
standard size groove when shaken in a standardized device. At this water content the soil has an approximate
shear strength of 2.5 kPa. The plastic limit separates plastic and semi-solid states. At water contents below
the plastic limit the soil cannot be molded without cracking.

4.2 Standard Reference

ASTM D 4318 - Standard test method for liquid limit, plastic limit, and plasticity index of soils.

4.3 Determination of Liquid Limit (Multi-Point Method)

4.3.1 Required Materials and Equipment

Liquid limit device cup

Grooving tool

200-250 g of soil passing the No. 40 sieve, 425m aperture size

Scale with accuracy of 0.001 g

Water content cup

Spatula and mixing tools

20 CVEN365 Laboratory Manual

Figure 4.1: Procedure for adjusting the liquid limit device.

4.3.2 Preparation
Inspection of Wear
Clean the liquid limit device and make sure it is in good working order. The results of the test will be
incorrect if the device is not working properly. In particular, check for:

signs of wear on the base where the cup makes contact. The worn spot should be no greater than
10mm ( 38 in.) in diameter.

wear on the rim of the cup (reduced to no less than half its original thickness). and in the center where
the groove is dug into the soil (indentation should be less than 1mm or 0.004 in.).

side to side movement of the cup should be less than 3mm ( 81 in.).

the cup should not drop before the cup hanger loses contact with the cam

excessive wear of the grooving tool

If your liquid limit device is not in good order please alert your laboratory instructor to obtain a new
liquid limit device.

Calibration
It is very important to calibrate your device so that the drop height is correct. The wrong drop height will
cause the test results to be incorrect.
Adjust the height of drop of the cup so that the point on the cup that comes in contact with the base rises
to a height of 10 0.2 mm. Place a piece of masking tape across the contact spot on the bottom of the cup
and running parallel to the hinged side. Slide the height gage (usually at the end of the grooving tool) under
the cup. The gage should touch both the cup and the tape (see fig. 4.1). If the drop height is correct you
should hear a clicking sound, but produce no motion when cranking the handle. Adjust as needed.

4.3.3 Procedure
Soils should be tested starting from the natural water content to ensure the results are more representative of
the actual field conditions. In our laboratory we will be using air dried samples because it is easier to store
the soil and ensure a constant supply.

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4. Atterberg Limits: Liquid Limit, Plastic Limit, and Plasticity Index of Soils 21

The liquid limit is defined as the water content at which a standard groove cut in the remolded soil sample
by a grooving tool closes over a length of 13 mm (0.5 in) at exactly 25 blows of the liquid limit cup falling
from a height of 10 mm on a hard rubber base. It is very difficult to mix the soil at the right water content,
even after a number of trials. However, if different trials are plotted on a semi-logarithmic scale they should
lie on a straight line and the liquid limit could be taken as the value of water content where the line crosses
the 25 blows mark. For this reason, in a liquid limit test we try to mix the soil at least three different water
contents aiming at blow counts above and below 25.
1. Mix the soil thoroughly with enough distilled water to reach a consistency requiring about 25 to 35
blows of the liquid limit device to close the groove. This is about the consistency of creamy peanut
butter. Keep in mind that it is easier to add water than to take it away, so try to aim for the thicker
consistency.
2. Using a spatula, place a portion of the prepared soil in the cup of the liquid limit device at the point
where the cup rests on the base, squeeze it down, and spread it into the cup to a depth of about 10 mm
at its deepest point, tapering to form an approximately horizontal surface. Take care to eliminate air
bubbles from the soil pat, but form the pat with as few strokes as possible. Keep the unused soil in the
mixing/storage dish. Cover the dish to retain the moisture in the soil.
3. Form a groove in the soil pat by drawing the tool, beveled edge forward, through the soil on a line
joining the highest point to the lowest point on the rim of the cup. When cutting the groove, hold the
grooving tool against the surface of the cup and draw in an arc, maintaining the tool perpendicular to
the surface of the cup throughout its movement.
4. Verify that no crumbs of soil are present on the base or the underside of the cup. Lift and drop the cup
by turning the crank at a rate of approximately 2 drops per second until the two halves of the soil pat
come in contact at the bottom of the groove along a distance of 13mm ( 12 in).
5. Record the number of drops, N, required to close the groove.
6. Quickly remove a slice of soil approximately the width of the spatula, along the groove and including
the portion of the groove in which the soil flowed together, place in a container of known mass, and
obtain a water content. Try to determine water content as soon as possible. The sample is small and
looses water quickly through evaporation.
7. Return the soil remaining in the cup to the mixing cup. Wash and dry the cup and grooving tool and
reattach the cup to the carriage in preparation for the next trial.
8. Remix the entire soil specimen in the dish adding distilled water to increase the water content of the
soil and decrease the number of blows required to close the groove.
9. Repeat steps 1-8 for at least two additional trials producing successively lower numbers of blows to
close the groove. One of the trials shall be for a closure requiring 25 to 35 blows, one for closure
between 20 and 30 blows, and one trial for a closure requiring 15 to 25 blows.

4.3.4 Calculation
Plot the relationship between the water content, wn , and the corresponding number of drops, N, on the
graph provided. Draw the best straight line through the three or more plotted points.
Take the water content corresponding to the intersection of the line with the 25-drop abscissa as the
liquid limit of the soil and round to the nearest whole number. Computational methods may be substi-
tuted for the graphical method for fitting a straight line to the data and determining the liquid limit.

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4.4 Determination of Plastic Limit

4.4.1 Required Materials and Equipment
Ground glass plate

Metal rod, 3.2 mm diameter

Balance

Water content cup

4.4.2 Procedure
1. Select about 20 g of soil from the material prepared for the liquid limit test.

2. Reduce the water content of the soil to a consistency at which it can be rolled without sticking to the
hands by spreading or mixing on the glass plate.

3. From this plastic limit specimen, select a 1.5 to 2.0 g portion. Form the selected portion into a ball.

4. Roll the mass between the palm or fingers and the glass plate to form a thread of uniform diameter
throughout its length. Keep rolling until the thread reaches 3.2 mm ( 81 in) diameter. Compare to the
metal rod to determine if the diameter is 3.2 mm. The process should take no more than 2 minutes for
each thread.

5. When the thread has reached a 3.2 mm diameter, break it into pieced and knead together in a ball.
Repeat the rolling and kneading process until the thread crumbles and the soil can no longer be rolled
into a 3.2 mm thread. Do not cheat, be consistent: apply the same rolling pressure during each stage of
the rolling and do not pretend to roll while you wait for the soil to dry and crumble. If the soil breaks
into threads of shorter length, roll each of these shorter pieces into threads 3.2 mm in diameter and
repeat the kneading and rolling process.

6. Collect the broken pieces in a water content cup and cover to prevent further drying while rolling the
next 1.5-2.0 g of soil.

7. Select another 1.5 to 2.0 g portion of soil from the plastic limit specimen and repeat the operations
steps 3-6 until the container has at least 6g of soil.

8. Use the 6 g of soil to obtain the water content according to the procedures in chapter 2.

9. Go through the procedure in steps 1-8 until you have obtained two 6 g samples and water content
values. The water contents should not have a difference of more than 1.4%. The plastic limit is the
average of the two water content values.

4.5 Plasticity Index

Calculate the plasticity index as follows:

P I = LL P L (4.1)
where:

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4. Atterberg Limits: Liquid Limit, Plastic Limit, and Plasticity Index of Soils 23

LL = liquid limit
PL = plastic limit

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Atterberg Limits Determination

Sample No. Project
Boring No. Location
Depth
Description of sample
Date Tested by

Liquid Limit Determination

Can No.
Mass of can (g)
Mass of wet soil + can (g)
Mass of dry soil + can (g)
Mass of dry soil (g)
Mass of water (g)
Water content, (%)
No. of drops

LIQUID LIMIT =
PLASTIC LIMIT =
PLASTICITY INDEX =

Plastic Limit Determination

Can No.
Mass of can (g)
Mass of wet soil + can (g)
Mass of dry soil + can (g)
Mass of dry soil (g)
Mass of water (g)
Water content, (%)

G. Biscontin Civil Engineering Department

Chapter 5

Liquid Limit of Soils using the Drop Cone

Penetrometer

by S.E. Tucker and Z. Medina-Cetina

5.1 Purpose
This apparatus is used commonly in Europe as a replacement for Casagrandes method of determining the
liquid limit of soils. It has been argued that this method is better because it is a static test relying only on
the shear strength of the soil. For certain soils, sometimes it is difficult to obtain repeatable results using the
Casagrande method in a reasonable amount of time. In this method the liquid limit is the water content at
which a cone penetrates the soil for a calibrated distance when it is allowed to free fall for 5 seconds.

5.2 Standard Reference

British Standard 1377: 1990 Part 2

5.3 Determination of Liquid Limit Using Drop Cone Penetrometer

5.3.1 Required Materials and Equipment
Drop cone penetrometer apparatus

200 g of dry soil passing the No 200 sieve

Glass plate

Water content cup

Spatula and mixing tools

5.3.2 Procedure
1. Place the air dried soil in a plastic bag.
26 CVEN365 Laboratory Manual

Figure 5.1: Drop cone penetrometer in contact with soil surface.

2. Add a small amount of distilled water to the soil in the bag, mix the sample thoroughly with the bag
sealed. Continue to add water and mix the sample until the soil reaches a consistency near the plastic
limit.

3. Seal the plastic bag and allow the soil to equilibrate for 24 hours.

4. Remove the soil from the bag and place it on the glass plate.

5. If necessary, add a small amount of water to the soil and mix it so that the first cone reading will be
approximately 15mm. This consistency will be below the liquid limit.

6. Push the soil into the sample cup (try not to allow any voids for air pockets while also not over working
the soil).

7. Use the spatula to create a smooth surface that is level with the edge of the cup.

8. Adjust the drop cone penetrometer using the knob on the right side so that the cone is close to the top
of the sample.

9. Using the smaller knob on the face of the dial, lower the cone so that it barely comes into contact with
the surface of the soil. The cone must be able to travel freely for a minimum of 30 mm.

10. Using the outer knob on the face of the dial, adjust the pointer to zero.

11. Press and hold the release button for 5 seconds.

12. Using the smaller know on the dial which moves the cone, lower the dial gauge to meet with the new
position of the cone shaft.

13. Read the gauge to the nearest 0.1 mm, this is the distance that the cone penetrated.

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5. Liquid Limit of Soils using the Drop Cone Penetrometer 27

Figure 5.2: Drop cone penetrometer release button.

Figure 5.3: Drop cone penetrometer dial gauge reading.

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14. The first reading should be approximately 15 mm, if it is higher than 17 the soil must be dried and the
test rerun.

15. Retract the cone from the cup and remove approximately 10-15 grams of soil using a spatula so that
the water content may be obtained.

16. Remove the rest of the soil from the cup and remix with the soil on the plate, add very little water to
this (1-2 ml) and mix the soil thoroughly.

17. Clean the cup and repeat steps 6-15 until a minimum of 4 points have been collected, moving from
drier to wetter conditions.

5.3.3 Calculation
Plot the penetration depth versus the water content for each test and fit the data with a best fit line

On the same graph, plot the following points and fit them with a best fit line. This is the calibration
line
Penetration (mm) Water Content (%)
20.5 25
21 40
22 72
23 100

Where the calibration line and best fit line for your data intersect is the water content where the samples
liquid limit occurs

G. Biscontin Civil Engineering Department