Ancient Indian Culture and Technology

1/9/2016 Culture|EvernoteWeb
Culture
Indus Valley Civilization
Science & Technology
Astronomy
1. They were aware of directions given they had trade routes, their dead were buried in N-S
directions, their town planning made use of directionsetc.So they must have used astronomical
bodies to gauge direction.
2. Recently observatories were excavated from Lothal and Dholavira.
Medical Science
1. They were aware of surgery as evidence of skull surgery has been found from Kalibangan and
Lothal.
Chemical Science
1. They used different colors on their pots.
Mathematics
1. Weights and measures of specific standards were used.
2. The brisk trade indicates some knowledge of basic mathematics.
Metallurgy
1. Bronze working + copper, gold, silver and tin working.
Civil Engineering
1. They constructed public buildings, embankments, drains, used burnt bricks.
2. They knew the technique of water-proofing.
Arts & Crafts Techniques

1. Industry: Seal making, precious stone working, bead making and terracotta making were quite
advanced.
2. Agriculture: They used to plough their fields with wooden ploughs as is evident from terracotta
plough figurines from Banwali. Plough furrows discovered in Kalibangan. They also had irrigation
and water conduits (underground in some areas) and small scale inundation canals (to lead the
water where desired) have been found.
Architecture
Features
1. Used permanent material on a large scale: In villages mud bricks were used with stone being
used in foundations and drains. In cities, burnt bricks were used. In Kutch, stones were used on a
large scale.
2. Planned: The bricks were laid in English bond style. The bricks had standard ratio. There is no
correlation between planning and size of the settlement.
3. Technical knowhow: They knew the technique of water-proofing. Houses had separate
bathrooms near the well and the bathing area was sloping towards the drain and water-proof.
4. Secular.
5. House structure: Houses sizes differ from large to small ones. People generally lived in houses
with a central courtyard and rooms surrounding it. Doors and windows opened in side streets
not the main street. There were double storied houses and staircases as well. Doors were
sometimes painted or carved.
Monuments
1. Cities were fortified. They had well laid out roads and drains.
2. Great bath, assembly hall, granaries.
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Pillars
1. Remains of stone pillars have been found from Dholavira.
Paintings
1. They used to paint the outer side of their pots with geometrical designs, birds, animals etc. The
outer surface of their pots used to be red on which paintings were made in black.
Sculpture
1. They made use of metal, alloys, stones and terracotta figurines. Terracotta masks and faience
bangles were also made.
2. The images were both secular and religious in nature. Examples are numerous terracotta
figurines of mother goddess, animals etc., the bearded priest, the bronze dancing girl, the red
torso etc.
Music & Dance

1. The statue of dancing girl shows they were aware of music and dance.
2. Images of a stringed musical instrument too have been found on some pots.
Pottery
1. The pottery was black-on-red ware where both inner and outer surfaces werered. On the outer
red surface, designs of birds, animals, geometry were painted in black color.
2. The rims of the pots are strong to help in lifting them and moving around. The bottom portion
has additional clay as well.
Vedic Age
Astronomy
1. Various astronomical bodies like sun, moon, jupiter, venus, mars, saturn are mentioned in Vedas
but perhaps their astronomical significance was missing and they were more for astrological /
religious use.
Medical Science
1. The system of Ayurveda emerged in this age.
Chemical Science
1. They knew fermentation techniques and made somaras.
2. They knew tanning of leather.
3. They used different colors on pots.
Mathematics
1. Fire altars.
Metallurgy
1. Technique of bronze making and later iron making were present.

1. Industry:Carpentry and chariot making were advanced professions.
Architecture
Monuments
1. Vedic texts contain references of huge palaces of kings but no such imposing structures have
been found.
2. Wood, mud bricks and thatched roofs were used.
Stupas
1. The term stupa has been referred to in Rig Veda but not in the context as we know it. The term
then referred to the fire coming out of the sacrificial altar.
Paintings
1. They used to paint their pots. The outer surface of the pots was grey on which they painted
floral and geometrical designs.
2. On the grey surface, blue color was used to make the designs.
Dance & Music

1. Music witnessed progress in the form of the hymns of Sam Veda.
Pottery
1. PGW was the distinctive pottery. It was coarse with medium fabric. The outside surface was grey
on which blue floral and geometrical designs were made.
Pre-Mauryan Age
Astronomy
1. Astrological charts etc. were prepared.
Medical Science
1. Taxila was a famous centre of medical science.Aitrayawasafamousteacherthere.
2. Bimbisara's personal doctor Dhanvantri was a famous doctor.
Chemical Science
1. The polish of NBPW was very glossy. The method to make this polish is also described in detail
in contemporary works.
Mathematics
1. Sulvasutra is a text on geometry. It talks about circles, triangles, squares and rectangles. It tells
how to make a circle equal in area to a square or a rectangle.
Civil Engineering
1. We find evidences of fortifications and embankments.

1. Agriculture & industry:The use of iron became widespread.
2. Trade:Punched marked coins came into existence. They along with NBPW distribution help us in
tracking the trade routes of the age.
Architecture
Features
1. Wood, mud-bricks, thatched roofs etc. were used.
2. Stone fortifications were also used.
Monuments
1. We find evidences of wooden palisade in PP. Stone fortifications existed in Rajgir and Licchavi
republic.
Dance & Music

1. They were patronized by the court which maintained courtesans. Amrapali was a famous
courtesan in Licchavi.
Sculpture
1. There is a reference in King Kharvela's Hathigumpha inscription that Nanda king took away a jina
image when he conquered Kalinga.
Pottery
1. The distinctive pottery of the age was NBPW. It was highly glossy, medium to fine fabric and
would have been used by rich.
Mauryan Age
Architecture
Features
1. Stone masonry reached new heights.
2. Shining polish of NBPW was also applied to the stone pillars.
3. Permanent material like burnt bricks, stone began to be used again along with wood.It enabled
them to construct larger and durable structure which made denser habitations possible and
hence growth of towns and spread of Mauryan culture.
4. Ring wells were another distinct feature. Water could be stored in these and also they could be
used for sanitation. Hence it became possible to have denser habitations farther away from the
rivers.
5. It was both religious and secular in character.
6. It was pan-Indian in character.
7. Art and architecture received court patronage. Private merchants ad craftsmen also donated for
religious causes.
8. Large monuments show that architecture was technologically advanced.
Foreign (Iranian) Influence on Mauryan Architecture
(a) Similarities
1. There are similarities between CGM's palace and Darius'.

2. Both Asokan and Archimidean pillars use stone, glossy polish and have a bell shaped part.
Because the Archimidean pillars were older, the concept of pillars itself was borrowed by Asoka
from Iran.
(b) Differences
1. CGM's palace was made of wood but Darius' palace was made of stone.
2. In pillars, the shaft of Asokan pillars is monolithic whereas the Archimidean pillars have joints.
3. The shaft of Asokan pillars tapers from bottom to top whereas Archimidean pillars are
cylindrical.
4. The shaft of Asokan pillars is smooth whereas thatof Archimidean pillars has got grooves.
5. Asokan pillars are erected without any support base whereas Archimidean pillars have a support
base.
6. The bell shaped part of Asokan pillars is at top while that in Archimidean pillars is at bottom. In
reality, the so called bell shaped part of Asokan pillars is an inverted lotus.
7. The Asokan pillars were not a part of any other structure. The purpose behind their construction
was to engrave instructions and carry them fat.But Archimidean pillars were part of palace and
their job was to support the roof.
8. The Asokan pillars have capitals which have sculptures of lions, elephants and bulls. But the
Archimidean pillars have no capitals and only images of humans are engraved on their shafts.
9. The gloss polish was known to Indians from NBPW independent of Iran.
Monuments
1. Stone masonry was introduced on a wide scale. The palace of CGM at Kumrahar (Patna) had 80
stone pillars.
2. During Asokan time, the tradition of wooden arch gave way to stone arch.
Pillars
1. Asokan pillars made use of white spotted red sandstone in Mathura and grey colored sandstone
in Chunar and were monolith in style. Only their capitals in form of lions, elephants and bulls
were joined from the top. Stone polishing was as shiny as NBPW.
Caves
1. The practice of cutting caves into rocks began with the Lomarishi caves in Barabar hills and
also Nagarjuni Hills which were donated to Ajivika sect. These caves, however, were simple and
without much ornamentation. But their gates were carved out as if wooden.
Stupas
1. Initially stupas were Buddha's relic places. Then it got extended to his followers as well and
gradually stupa itself became an object of worship.According to Buddhist tradition, Asoka built
84K stupas.
2. Some stupas have been found in Sanchi, Sarnath, Deorkothar, Lumbini. Huen Tsang mentions
seeing stupas at Tamralipti, Karnasuvarna, Samtata.
Painting
1. 63 rock shelters have been found in Deorkothar (Rewa, MP) with paintings. One of them had a
painting of stupa and a tree together enclosed in a railing.
Dance & Music

1. It was patronized by the court and courtesanswere maintained by the court.
2. Nuts, acrobats, singers, musicians, dancers lived in the society and entertained the public
specially on fairs and festivals.
Sculpture
1. Multiple images of the folk deities such as yaksha and yakshini and animals such as elephants
have been found from Parkham (Mathura) and PP.
2. The capitals of Asokan pillars were beautiful carved images and were added later to the top of
the pillars.
3. From Dhauli (Odisha), rock sculpture of front part of an elephant has been made. It looks like the
elephant is in forward motion and is coming out of the rock.
4. A naked and headless torso of a jina tirthankara has been recovered from Lohanipur (Patna). This
is the earliest Jaina image found.
Pottery
1. NBPW continued.
The Leisurely Activities

1. Fairs and festivals were organized where magicians, acrobats, dancers, musicians and actors
performed.
2. Bull fights, chariot races, horse races and elephant fights, huntingwere popular sport.
3. Both men and women wore ornaments.
4. Courtesans were maintained in the royal court.

Chemical Science
1. The glossy polish of NBPW continued.In addition, the glossy polish appeared on Asokan pillars.

Civil Engineering
1. Use of burnt bricks and ring wells.
2. Stone masonry reached new heights.
3. Palaces were constructed. Sudarshan lake was built.

1. Trade:There was great development in means of transport as is evident from the transportation
of Asokan pillars.
Post-Mauryan Age (North India)

Architecture
Features
1. Burnt bricks were now used for flooring and tiles for both flooring and
roofing.Thiswasofindigenousorigin.
Temples
1. Hindu temples followed 3 main architectural designs - oblong, apsidal or square. Examples of
oblong are Vishnu temple @ Besnagar, Siva and Vishnu temples @ Dangwada, Vishnu temple @
Nagari. Examples of apsidal are Lakshmi temple @ Atiranjikhera, Matrikas and Naga temples @
Sonkh. Example of square temple is Siva temple @ Gudimallam. Nagarjunkonda contains temples
of all three types.
2. In the oblong temples, there were 2 ellipse. The main shrine was in the inner ellipse which was
separated from the outer ellipse by a gap which usually was the circumambulatory path. The
outer ellipse had rectangular projection leading out to the entrance. The temple usually had a
plinth made of bricks or mud or stones and the superstructure was made of wood and mud. The
temples were usually east facing.
3. The apsidal temples had apsidal rooms, plinths of brick or mud or stone and superstructure of
wood and mud.
4. The Nagarjunkonda temples apart from having all three designs, sometimes had multiple shrines
in which case each shrine had a mandapa (pillared hall) too. The pillars were made of stone and
brick was used for the temple superstructure.
Caves
(a) Evolution of Buddhist Cave Architecture
1. Phase 1:It began with the construction of Lomarishi and Sudama caves in Barabar Hills by Asoka.
These were simple caves and the cave ran parallel to the rock face after entry. There was one
large rectangularroom followed by a smaller circular room.
2. Phase 2: The second stage (100 BC) showed up at Konditve. The cave was cut perpendicular to
the rock face and the inner room now contained a stupa and a circumambulatory path around it.
3. Phase 3: The next stage was when rows of pillars were built parallel to the walls creating a
circumambulatory passage right after entering. The central roof was high, vaulted and side roof
was low and half-vaulted. Bhaja, Pitalkhora, Bedsa caves are examples. Sometimes cells, rock cut
beds were cut around the central hall. An example is Bedsa caves.
4. Phase 4: During the Kshatrap-Satvahna kings, caves got royal patronage and became more
elaborate and ornamented. The basic features of previous phase continued. A variety of mithun
couples were carved on the gates, the pillars came to have elaborate capitals, the side roof
became flat. Multi-storied caves came up. Double storied viharas came up at Karle and triple
storied at Ajanta. Other examples are Nasik caves, Junnar, Kanheri caves, Pitalkhora.
(b) Jaina Caves vs Buddhist Caves

1. Jaina caves were cut in sandstone which is easy to cut but not good for sculpting. But Buddhist
caves were cut into hard rocks and were better for sculpting.
2. The Jaina caves had no congregation halls or rock cut shrines. Later, however, some cells were
enlarged into shrines. The Buddhist caves on the other hand had clear halls and the shrine area.
3. The Jaina cave cells were cut wherever the rock permitted. There was no planning. The Buddhist
cave structure on the other hand was well laid out.
4. The Jaina caves were simple and reflected the asceticism of jina monks. The cells were tiny (not
tall enough to stand, not long enough to stretch while sleeping, small entrances so as to bend
very low). The only luxury was occasional shelves cut into rocks and sloping floor acting as a
pillow but actually designed to keep of water from accumulating. Only the outer portions were
carved sometimes. The Buddhist caves on the other hand were an elaborate and spacious affair.
5. The Jina caves are of two types - those without pillars in verandah or those with pillars. Without
pillars had cells cut along three sides of the verandah. Pillars were square at top and bottom and
octagonal at middle.
6. In terms of similarities, the sculptures use similar motifs like animals, plants. The honeysuckle
style is similar too. Examples of such caves are Khandgiri and Udaigiri in Puri.
Stupas
1. New large stupas were built. The new stupas had a circumambulatory path, a stone railing
around it, two staircases leading up to it, the summit and a stone umbrella over it. The entire
structure was enclosed in stone railings and toran-dwars on all four sides. Sculpture decoration
was found on the railings and the gateways. Examples are the stupas at Sanchi, Bharhut,
Nagarjunkonda, Amrawati.
2. Most earlier stupas used to have a solid core. However, a transition was made towards having a
spoke wheel plan at the centre made of bricks and the spaces filled with mud. Spoked wheel is a
symbol of Buddha's first sermon. Bhattiprolu stupa (200 BC) is from intermediate phase having
central wheel plan (no spokes).
3. In AP stupas, at the 4 cardinal points of the raised platform, 5 free standingpillars were erected.
These represent the 5 important events in Buddha's life - birth, renunciation, enlightenment, first
sermon, death.
4. Jaina stupa is also found in Kankali @ Mathura which is called Devanirmit Stupa.
Pillars
1. The Besnagar pillar erected by the Greek ambassador Heliodorus is an example. He was an
ambassador to the Sunga king. Its shaft contains 4 parts and it has an inverted lotus and a
capital.
Pottery
1. The pottery was red ware, both plain and polished with fine and medium
fabric.TheredpotterywasofCentralAsianorigin.
2. Sprinklers and spouted channels are the distinctive pots of this age.
Sculpture
Image Worship
1. The tradition of image worship became popular and numerous idols were made. Images of
yaksha have been found from Pawaya, Besnagar which represents Kuber. Colossal images of
yakshas and yakshis were built in Mathura which disappeared later as the religion got absorbed
into the dominant religion. Naga images have been found at Mathura and Karimnagar. Gaja-
Lakshmi stone plaque from Atiranjikhera and mukhalinga from Gudimallam are another
examples. In Buddhism, earlier the tradition of image worship was absent and instead symbols of
Buddha were worshipped along with the stupa. Now images began to be built.
2. Terracotta images were made and Chandraketugarh, Mathura emerged as great centers.
Buddhist Relief Sculpture

1. The railings and gateways of Buddhist structures were elaborately worked upon. Human bodies
along with animals, birds and others came up. The landscape didn't form a background but was
very much a part of the sculpture.
2. The sculpture was mainly meant to be seen from one side as against the Mauryan sculpture
which was same as viewed from any side.
3. The sculpture was narratory in nature. It narrated incidents from Buddha's life and Jatak stories.
Sometimes these narrations were just one single screenshot of a story or sometimes it was a
continuous narration of a sequence of events with one scene merging seamlessly into the next.
4. It made use of symbols to tell the stories. Example, wheel for first sermon, birth of buddha as
Maya sitting on a lotus, enlightenment as bodhi tree.
5. The Buddhist sculpture also drew heavily from other religious traditions. For example,
anthromorphs (of copper hoards), yaksha, yakshis, nagas, pipal, animals etc.
The Gandhara School

1. This school emerged from 1 cent BC onwards. It was not patronized by Indo-
GreeksbutbySakasandKushanas. Hadda and Bamiyan were main centers.
2. This was a fusion of Greek and Indian styles from the very beginning. The subjects were Indians
and the style was Greco-Roman. Thus the mother of Buddha resembled a Greek goddess while
Buddha himself too had an Apollo like face. Greek gods were depicted as paying obeisance to
Buddha.
3. The Buddha of this school is depicted with focus on bodily features such as muscular body, curly
hair and semi-transparent clothes.
4. Initially they used soft material such as wood and stucco. Later they began to use blue-grey
stone.
The Mathura School

1. It was the oldest and flourished from 2 cent BC onwards. It was indigenous in origin and was
patronized by local rulers. But later with the advent of Kushanas, foreign influence was visible
clearly.
2. Initial subjects were Buddha, Mahavira and Kanishka. Krishna was ignored before the Gupta
period. Beautiful images of Siva as ardh-nari-ishwar were built. Krishna, balram and Surya too
were its subjects.
3. The images have a deep spiritual outlook. Buddha is shown in meditation mode. Focus is not on
highlighting the bodily features of Buddha but on his spiritualistic aura and content on face.
Popular depictions of Buddha are in the Padmasana-mudra (sitting crossed legged and
meditating) and Dharma-Chakra-Parivartana-Mudra (giving sermons).
4. They used white spotted red sandstone.
The Amrawati / Vengi School
1. It flourished from 1 cent BC onwards in Vengi, Nagarjunkonda, Kurnool and Krishna - Godavari
region.
2. It was indigenous throughout and was patronized by Satvahnas, Ikshavakus and later Vakatakas.
3. It made images of Buddha and brahmanical deities.
4. These images are famous for their feminine beauty and sensuous appeal.
5. They used white marble in their images.
Drama
1. The Greeks introduced the curtain in Indian drama.
Painting
1. The cave paintings of Ajanta began in this period. They were Buddhist in character.


Astronomy
1. Indian astronomy and astrology drew a great deal from the Greeks including the term horasastra
(astrology in Sanskrit) itself from Greek term horoscope. The names of seven days and the
zodiac signs all come from Greeks.
Medical Science
1. Charakbelonged to this period and was associated with Taxilla school of medicine.
2. We find many brahmanical texts on medicine written which could have obviously been written
by those who had a formal education and yet brahmanical literature places medical practitioners
at low level. Thus despite the theoretically low level the social utility of such professions was
high enough to warrant formal education and medical practice. Veterinary sciences developed
and books on horses and elephants were written (obviously driven by military needs).

1. Industry:Leather shoes,glass making (due to contact with Romans).
2. Trade: The Greek coins were a great improvement over the ill-designed punch marked coins.
Pliny tells us that Indian ships were 75 tonnes and some other sources tell us they could carry
700 persons.
3. Agriculture: A hydraulic lift has been found in Sringverapura which may not have been used for
irrigation per se but the technology for moving water by varying the water levels may have been
derived from or influenced irrigation. We also find the use of wheel to draw water from the well.
The literature as well as inscription provide ample evidence of tanks, wells and embankments.
Metallurgy
1. Indian iron and steel technologies made rapid advancements and large number of iron
implements were made which were even exported to Abyssinian ports.
Civil Engineering
1. The Sudarshan lake was repaired by Rudradaman.
2. Cave architecture progressed, highly ornamented multi storied viharas were built.
Post-Mauryan Age (Satvahnas)

Architecture
Use of Burnt Bricks and Tiles
1. From Peddabankur (Karimnagar), we have found use of flat baked bricks, perforated roof tiles
and 22 brick wells. This facilitated dense habitation as it addressed the issues of sanitation,
drinking water and durability of structures.
Fortifications
1. The Satvahna towns were fortified. Pliny talks of over 30 walled towns.
Caves
1. The tradition of cutting into rocks reached new heights under Satvahnas. It became associated
wit Buddhism and many chaityas (shrines) and viharas (monasteries) were cut out in
rocks.Famous chaitya is at Karle and viharas at Nasik.Chaitya was a large hall with a number of
pillars. Vihara was a large hall which was entered by a door which separated it from the verandah
in front.
Stupas
1. FamousstupasareatAmaravatiandNagarjunkonda.
SangamStatesinTamilLand
Literature
1. TheSangamtextsarethemostimportantpiecesofwork.TheywerecomposedbybrahmansofPrakrit
Sanskritlearning.
2. Tamil text Tolkkapiyam deals with grammar and poetics and Tirukkal with philosophy. Then there are
epicsSilappadikaranandManimekalai.SilappadikaranwaswrittenbyaJainascholarandisalovestory
of a dignitary preferring a courtesan over his wife. Manimekalai is the adventure story of his daughter.
TheseepicsthrowlightonthesocioeconomiclifeoftheSangamage.
GuptaAge
ReligiousPractices
1. Idol worship reached its true popularity in this age. The agricultural festivals were also given much of
theirreligiouscolorandfanfareinthisage.
Paintings
1. ThegreatestspecimenofBuddhistartinGuptatimesistheAjantacavepaintings.Theywerebuiltfroma
period spanning from 1 cent to 7 cent AD. But most work was done in Gupta
age. They depict various scenes from the life of Buddha and his previous births. They are life
like,naturalandhavebrilliantcolorsevenafterallthesecenturies.Ajantapaintingsweredominatedby
buddha, bodhistava, jatak stories, natural scenery, animals etc.
ButitcannotbesaidthatGuptaspatronizedthesepaintings.
2. Eventhoughthethemeisreligiousinmostpaintings,wealsofindaglimpseofthelivesoftheprinces,
kings, samantas etc. in them. But there is no reflection of the common man's life in these paintings. In
thiswaytheyreflectthecontemporarysocietyanditsvaluesaswell.
3. Baghapaintingshaveamaterialisticthemeandtellusaboutthecontemporaryclothingstyle,hairstyles,
makeup,ornamentsetc.BaghapaintingsweremadeinGuptaperiodonlyasagainsttheAjantapaintings
which were spread over multiple periods. So they have more uniformity. They also have more secular
themeandscenesandthusaremorevaluableasahistoricalsource.
4. Boththefresco and the tempera styles were used. The fresco style paintings are made on wet plaster
andthetemperastylepaintingsaremadeondryplaster.
5. Kamasutratellsusthatpaintingwasanestablishedformofartandwasstudiedinasystematicway.
Sculpture
1. TheMathura,theGandharaandtheAmaravatischoolscontinuedandnewschooldevelopedatBenaras
/Sarnath.PPalsobecameanimportantcenter.
2. Statuesweremadeofbothstoneandmetalsandcarvedoncaves,templesorfreestanding.Therelief
sculptureshowedscenesfromreligionaswellaseverydaylife.
3. StatuesofBuddhawerebuiltatMathuraandSarnath.Buddhaimagesnowhadmoremudrasandwore
transparentclothes.OnebronzeimageofBuddhahasbeenfoundfromSultanganj.TheBuddhaimages
fromeastUPandBiharshowBuddhainaserenespiritualform(asagainsttheemphasisonthebodyas
in the Gandhara form). The images had a large and clear prabhamandal as against the Gandhara
images where such a feature was not prominent. The Buddhist relief sculpture made an attempt to
absorbtheyaksha,gandharva,apsaratraditionsbydepictingthemontheirreliefsculpture.
4. Images of Jina tirthankaras were also sculpted. Inscriptions at Udayagiri (Vidisha) and Kahaum
(Gorakhpur)talkaboutestablishingtirthankaraimages.
5. ForthefirsttimeimagesofHindugodswerebuilt.Sometimestheseimagesweresoloandsometimes
theimageofthemaingodwasaccompaniedwithotherminorgods.Vishnuimagesinhuman,varahas
well as anthromorphic forms. Shiva images came up in linga and anthromorphic forms. Images were
oftenmoresymbolicthanrepresentationalthusthegodsandgoddessesmayhavemultiplehandseach
holdingasymbol.
Architecture
Features
1. Bothreligiousandsecularcharacterwasvisiblethoughreligiouswasmoreprominent.
2. Templearchitecturecameup.Thefirststylewasthenagarastyle.
3. Therewasincreasinguseofreusedorbrokenbricks.Eg.BhitainAllahbad.
4. Guptaperiodcanbecalledthegoldenageofsculptureandimagemaking.Butthesamecan'tbesaid
for architecture because the temple architecture form (nagara) just emerged in this phase and yet it
peaked only in the post Gupta age. Thus while impressive buddhist viharas and chaityas can be seen
fromtheGuptaage,wehavetowaituntilthe8thcenturytoseeimpressivetemples.
Monuments
1. TheBuddhistuniversityofNalandacameupinthisage(5centAD).Itsearlieststructuresweremadeof
bricksinthisage.
2. JinatempleswereconstructedmostlyinSIndiabyKadambas.TheHoskote(Bangalore)andBanavasi
inscriptionareexampleswhichmentionoflandgrantstosuchtemples.
Temples
1. Thefirstbrickandstonetempleswerebuiltinthisage.TheywereofNagarastyle.
2.
3. Theearlytemplewasbuiltonaraisedplatform.Therewasamaindeityroomcalledgarbhagrihathen
two rows of pillars leading to a smaller room in the front of the garbhagriha called the mandapa. The
mandapa was used to house the devotees. The garbha
griha had a flat roof and a pole on top. The entire compound was like and enclosed courtyard and
walled with gates for entry and exit. Temple walls were plain but the doorways were profusely carved.
Templesweregenerallybuiltfromrock.
4. Examples of such brick temples are Bhitargaon (Kanpur), Paharpur (Rajshahi, Bangladesh), Sirpur
(Raipur,Chattisgarh),Vishnutemple@DeogarhandTighwa,Shivatemple@BhumraandKoh,Parvati
temple@Nachna.ThereareremainsofatemplefromDahParbatiainAssam.
5. LatertheinfluenceofDravidianstylealsobecamevisible.Thetemplehadaplinthandashikhara.The
pillarsofthesetempleshavecapitalsintheformofkalash.Deogarhtempleisonesuchexamplewitha
vimanaontop.
Caves
1. TheBuddhistcavesincludeBaghacaves,MandargiriandUdaigiri.Thepillarswererichlycarvedandon
thestupa,aBuddhawascarved.Intheviharas,ashrineroomwasnowintroduced.
2. ShivacaveswerebuiltinElephanta.
Pillars
1. TheMehrauliironpillar.
2. TheBhitaristonepillarinscriptionofSkandagupta.
Stupas
1. Theindependentstupabuildingactivitylostmomentum.FewexamplesareDhamekhstupa@Sarnath,
Charsada,Taxila.However,thestupabuildinginBuddhistcavescontinued.
Drama
1. Twothingsareevidentfromplaysofthisage.First,thehigherclassesspeakSanskritwhereasshudras
andwomenspeakPrakrit.Second,noneofthemaretragedies.
2. The Sanskrit drama Mrichchakatika (by Sudrak) was composed in this age. It was the love story of a
brahmaninlovewiththedaughterofacourtesan.
3. 13playswerewrittenbyBhasa.
Literature
1. A different ornate style of Sanskrit was developed during this period which was different from the old
simpleSanskrit.Greateremphasiswaslaidonkavyathanonprose.Theaudienceofthekavyaliterature
was mainly an urbanite and it was played in goshtis and festivals. This literature was not for religious
purposesbutfocusedonurbanlife.
2. ThetransitionfromPrakrittoSanskritinroyalinscriptionswascomplete.
3. Patanjali composed Mahabhashya and Panini composed Ashthadhyayi. Amarsimha composed
Amarkosha.KamandakwroteNitisaraandVatsayanwroteKamasutra.
4. The epics, the sutras etc. were compiled in this age. Panchatantra too was written under Vakatakas.
Variouscommentariesonphilosophicalschoolswerewritteninthisperiod.
5. Playswereromanticcomediesandtragedywasavoided.MrichchhakatikawaswrittenbyShudrakand
givesadescriptionofurbanlife.MudrarakshashawaswrittenbyVishakhadutta.
Dance&Music
1. Gupta rulers patronized music and dance and some rulers themselves were indulged in it.
Samudraguptaisdepictedasplayingveenainsomeofhiscoins.
2. Thegrowthoftemplesledtogrowthofdanceandmusicaswell.Theinstitutionofdevdasisbegan.
Science&Technology
Metallurgy
1. BronzeandirontechnologiesadvancedfurtherasevidentfromtheMehraulipillarandBuddha'sbronze
statues.
Astronomy
1. Aryabhatta came up with Aryabhattika in 5 cent AD. He also gave true reason for the occurrence of
eclipsesandmeasuredthecircumferenceofearth.Hebelievedthatearthwassphericalandrotatedon
itsownaxis.
2. Varhamirain6centADexplainedthemovementofsomeheavenlybodiesinhisbookBrihadSamhita.
3. Previouslytheyearwasdividedinto3unitsof4monthseach.Nowitcametobedividedinto12equal
lunarmonths.Thiswasusefulforagriculturaloperations.(MatharasofOdisha)
Mathematics
1. Aryabhattacameupwithzero,threevariableequations,conceptofplacevalueandthedecimalsystem.
MedicalScience
1. Benarasschoolwasafamousschoolofsurgery.Sushrutacamefromthere.
2. DhanvantriwasagreatphysicianandinthecourtofCGV.
3. PalkapyawroteHastiAyurveda.SialhotrawroteAsvaShastra.
4. Nagarjunadiscoveredmedicinalpropertiesofcertainmetalsandherbaljuices.
ChemicalScience
1. Varhamira and Kalidasa in their respective works talk about the method of preparing various colored
pastes.
2. ThepaintingsincavesofAjantaandBaghauserichcolors.
CivilEngineering
1. BricktemplesbegantobeconstructedintheNagarastyle.
Arts&CraftsTechniques
1. Trade:Shipbuildingindustryflourished.Largeshipscapableofcarrying500personswerebuilt.
AnEstimateofGuptaAge
1. Aryabhatta's and Varahmihira's principles were not all indigenous. THey had also borrowed from the
RomansandtheGreeks.
2. Kalidasa'sworkarenotasymbolofanyHinduintellectualrenaissancebuttheyaremerelyadeveloped
formofanolderstyleofwriting.Evenpuranasandepicswerecomposedinearlierage,Guptascholars
merelycompiledthem.
3. BhaktimovementinVishnuandSivasectswasnotanewphenomenon.Itwasamerecontinuationand
strengtheningofanolderstrand.
PostGuptaAge
1. The growing feudal order in the society limited inter regional mobility and gave a boost to the
developmentofregionalculturalstrands.Eventheinscriptionsareinalldifferentscriptssuchthatevenif
weknowGuptabrahmiscript,itwouldbedifficulttoreadvariousregionalinscriptions.
Science&Technology
Astronomy
1. Brahmagupta in 7 cent AD in his book BrahmaSphutiSiddhanta talked about various astronomical
instrumentsandsuggestsobservationbasedastronomy.
2. Bhaskaracharya in 12 cent AD in his book SiddhantaShiromani explained the motion of heavenly
bodies.
MedicalScience
1. Vaghavatta in 8 cent AD wrote AshtangaHridaya which explained the functioning of different parts of
heart.DhanvantriwroteNighantu.
ChemicalScience
1. Indianchemistsmadegreatprogressinalchemy(duetotantricandmagicinfluence).Theyweretrying
toconvertmetalslikeiron,copperetc.intogold.Obviouslytheydidn'tsucceedinthatbutintheprocess
theymademanyacidsandbases.
Mathematics
1. Bhaskaracharya'sbookhadanelaboratechapteronmathematicscalledLeelavati.
2. Brahmagupta developed the concept of cyclical quadrilateral i.e. sum of the the opposite angles of a
quadrilateralis180ifallitsverticeslieonacircle.
Metallurgy
1. Largeumberoffinebronzesculpturesweremadespeciallyofthenatrajatheme.
CivilEngineering
1. Largeembankments,canalsetc.werebuiltinthisperiodforirrigationalpurposes.
2. Hugetempleswerealsobuilt.
Arts&CraftsTechniques
1. Agriculture Technology: Irrigation increased, use of animals for threshing and milling sugar and oil,
persianwheel,anduseofonehumpedcamelindryareas.
2. ManufacturingTechnology:Cottongincameupinweaving.
3. MilitaryTechnology:Leatherandwoodenstirrupsweretherebutironstirrups,concavesaddlesandiron
horseshoe were absent. Horsearchery was also absent. Use of firearms and mangonels was absent
aswell.
Architecture
Features
1. Religious.
2. Courtpatronage.
3. Rockcut,shapedoruseofpermanentmaterial.
4. Theydidn'tusearch,vault,domeandmortar.Sowhentheybegantoconstructhugebuildingstherewas
no way other than constructing tapering pyramidical tops or to install thick pillars to support heavy
beams.Solargerandlargerstoneshadtobeusedandthisnecessitatedtheneedforsculptingthemfor
aestheticappeal.
5. Highlyornamented,elaborate,massiveandadvancedtechnology.
6. Multidimensionali.e.manyformsofarchitecturewerepursued.
7. Indigenous.
8. Thenotionthatthearchitectmustremainanonymouswasbeliedinthetemplesofthisageandthemost
famousarchitectwasKokasa.Individualenterpriseandstylewasencouragedbutatthesametimetexts
werewrittenonarchitecture(vastusastra)whichledtosomestandardization.Italsoprovesthatdespite
the brahmanical literary rhetoric, architect caste was not held in low esteem in reality (otherwise why a
brahman would study architecture and write a text on it). Similarly shilpashastras were written on
sculpture.Thesutradharawasanexaltedpositionandhesupervisedtheconstructionactivitywhilethe
stapathiwasthemasterbuilder.Someofthemevenreceivedlandgrantsandwereheldasbelongingto
thevisvakarmalineage.
Styles
1. Thedravidastyletemples:ItwasprevalentinthesouthofKrishnariver.Inthephase1,themainfeature
wasbuildingpyramidicalshikharaabovethegarbhgriha(chiefdeityroom).Theshikharahadadomeat
the top and this entire structure was called vimana. Later in phase 2, in front of the vimana was a
pillared hall with elaborately cared pillars and flat roof called mandapa. A circumambulatory path was
providedaroundthegarbhgrihaandimagesofmultiplegodswerecarvedalongthispassage.Theentire
structure was walled and had lofty gates called gopuram. In phase 3, additional structures began to
comeupinthetemplecomplexandtheygrewhorizontallyandbecamemoremassive.AjantaandEllora
areexamplesaswell.
2. Thenagarastyle was prevalent north of Vindhyas. It consists of (a) a square elevated platform with a
numberofprojectionsinthemiddleofeachsidegivingitacruciformshape,and(b)inthelateragethe
flat roofed temples gave way to a shikhara (which reflected the temple's plan) on the main shrine and
smallershikharasonthesecondaryshrines.
3. Therath temple style: In the rath temples, entire rock was cut and shaped from outside to give it the
shapeofatemple.Beautifulimageswerethencarvedonit.
4. TheChalukyasofBadamipatronizedthevesarastyle(prevalentbetweentheKrishnaandtheVindhyas)
whichwasafusionofthedravidianstyleandthenagarastyle.Suchexamplesarefound@Aiholeand
Pattadakal.ItwasprevalentfromVindhyastoKrishna.Likedravidianstyleithadavimana,amandapa
andinsomecasesanadditionalopenmandapa.Likenagarstylethevimanawasheavilysculpted.Like
nagarastyleitscircumambulatorypathwasopen.Likenagarastyletheouterwallshadchariotscarved
out on them. Other examples are Jaina temples in Dharwad and Kalleshwar temple in Kukanoor
(Hyderabad).
Caves
1. The Pallavas: They built the cave temples of 4th generation with elaborate pillars and ornamented
entries.ThiswasundertheMahindrastyle(64074AD)andtheMamallastyle(64074AD).Thecave
pillarsaresquarefrombottomandtopandoctagonalinthemiddle.Thesecavesarelesscomplexthan
those@AjantaandEllora.
2. TheChalukyasofBadami:Theytoopatronizedcavearchitecture.4thgenerationcaveswerecut.
ElloraCaves
1. Political Dimension: They represent different dynasties. The famous Kailashnath temple was built by
Rashtrakutas.
2. ReligiousDimension: They represent different different religions. Caves are there from Jaina, Buddhist
and Hindu traditions. Even in Hindu tradition, they represent multiple gods and multiple forms of the
same god as well. The Buddhist cages represent the last in the tradition of Buddhist cave cutting. It
shows a development over previous styles. They are multistoreyed and highly ornamented. The
KailashnathtemplecontainsimagesofShivapantheonaswellasVishnu.
3. Architectural Features Dimension: They represent multiple styles of architecture. The famous
KailashnathtemplehasasuperstructureinDravidianstyle.Itismultistoreyedandhighlyornamented.
Temples
1. TheGangarulersofOdisha:Theypatronizedtemplesbetween812centAD.TheLingarajatemple@
Bhubneswar,Jagannathtemple@PuriandSuntemple@Konarkwereallbuiltduringthisperiod.The
Odishatempleshavepyramidicalshikharasontheirmandapsaswell.Theyalsotypicallyhavechariots
carved out on their outer walls. Moreover the main shikhara has multiple smaller shikharas at the top.
There is a gate in each direction. The sculpture of the Konark temple shows clear evidence of tantric
influencelikethetemplesofKhajuraho.
2. The Solanki rulers of Gujarat: They patronized many temples in Mt. Abu. The Dilawara and Tejpala
temples are most famous Abu temples. White marble was used in construction. They also built the
Karnameru temple @ Anhilwara and Rudramallah temple @ Siddhpur. The temples of Gujarat are
immenselyrichandwerestuddedwithsemipreciousandpreciousstones.Suchalavishtemplebuilding
waspossibleonlyduetoimmenseprosperitybroughtbythetrade.Italsoreflectedthehighlevelofskills
mastered by the guilds of sculptors in Gujarat. A characteristic feature of this style was the present of
bawrisinthebasementforwaterstorage.
3. TheChandelarulersofBundelkhand:TheypatronizedtheKhajurahotemples.Thesetemplesarebuiltof
granite and red sandstone. Kanderiya temple @ Khajuraho is the only temple in Khajurao to have
shikhara(reflectingDravidianinfluence).ThecentralIndiantemplesareknownfortheirextensiveuseof
richlycarvedpillars.Eachmandapahasthinshikharas.Thekhajuraotemplesareinpanchyatanstylei.e.
therearesmallertemplesonthe4cornersoftheplinth.Alltemplesarebuiltonaplinth.Thesetemples
clearlyshowtheinfluenceoftantricism.
4. The Pallavas: Their architecture was divided into the Mahindra style (61040 AD), the Mamalla style
(64074AD),theRajsimhastyle(674800AD)andtheNandivarmanstyle(800875AD).Cavetemples
calledmandapswerecutinMahindrastyle.Theywereessentiallychaityasandviharasof4thgeneration.
Examplesare@PallavaramandMahendrabad.IntheMamallastyle,rathtempleswerecutinaddition
to the cave temples which became more ornamented. There are 5 Pandava rathas. Examples of both
styles are @ Mahabalipuram. In the Rajsimha style, cave and ratha temples were discontinued and
independent dravidian style temples emerged. Examples are the Shore temple @ Mahabalipuram and
Kanchi. In the Nandivarman style, the Pallava power was on a decline and this was reflected in the
templesaswellwhichbecamesmallerandlesselaborate.Examplesare@KanchiandGudimallam.
5. The Cholas: They picked up on the the dravidian style and took it to new heights. The early Chola
templeswererelativelysmallandsuperbinsimplicity.OneexampleistheNarttamalaitempleof9thcent
a free standing temple facing some rock cut caves. From 11th cent AD the vimanas (pyramidical
shaped)andgopurams(whichgraduallyoverwhelmedtheshikharas)becamemassive.Thegarbhgriha
was entered by one or more massive mandaps with multiple pillars. The balanced proportion of the
structuregaveitaestheticquality.Thetemplecomplexgrewhorizontallyasnumeroussmallerstructures
came up. This was linked to the military victories of the Chola kings. Examples are @ Padupattu &
Tanjore. After there decline we can see that no attempt was made to maintain the grandeur of the
templesandthisisareflectionoftheeconomicdeclinewhichhadsetin.
6. Kerala:Herethetemplesweremadeofwoodinsteadofstoneandmanytempleswerecircularinform
thecircularsanctumbeingsurroundedbyconcentricallyarrangedareas.
7. The Chalukyas of Badami: The Chalukyan temples evolved from Gupta style and their architecture
developed into the Vesara style which is a fusion of dravidian style and nagara style. Examples are
sometemples@Aihole&Patdakal.TheDurgatemple@AiholeisacontinuationoftheBuddhistchaitya
plan. Aihole had megalithic stone worship centers in the vicinity and thus emerged as a sacred town.
Cave temples are located @ Badami. The Ladkhan temple @ Aihole has a flat roof and a pillared
mandapa.ThecomparisonofplansofLadkhantempleandtheVirupakshatempleshowustherapidity
ofthechangeinarchitecturalstyles.
8. TheHosyals:TheybuiltelaboratetemplesinHalebid,SomnathpuraandBelur.Theirtemplesareknown
for excellence in relief sculpture. Earlier they just picked up from the Chalukya style. Gradually they
becamemoreornate(theybegantousesoapstoneratherthansandstonewhichissofter).Theground
planofthesetempleswasnolongerrectanglebutstarshapedorpolygonalandthewholecomplexwas
built on a raised platform. There was not so much emphasis (as in Chola temples) on shikharas and
gopurams and thus the overall temples appear 'flat'. On the temple walls elaborate sculpting is done
usinganimalandfloralmotifs,musicians,dancers,battlescenes,andreligiousliteratureevents.Thestar
shapedplanprovidedmorespaceforsculpting.Thewide,circularpillarsareadistinctivefeature.
Sculpture
TempleRelief
1. The temple walls were carved with images of gods and goddesses and their attendants, yaksha and
yakshis,kingsandqueensetc.
2. They show scenes of wars, love, dance and music. The Tiruparantik form of Diva is popular in the
Brihadeshwaratemple@Tanjore.
3. In N India the sculpture @ Khajurao, Odisha shows clear tantric influences. The sculptures are
exquisitely materialistic in appearance an reflect the contemporary society. We can see the cosmetics,
clothingstyle,hairstylesetc.ofwomeninthesociety.
4. ThePallavasculpturewasinspiredmorefromtheBuddhisttraditionofAmaravatischoolandremained
linearandavoidedoverornamentationsomethingwhichwaspresentintheChalukyansculpture.
IndependentSculpture
1. The bronze dancing figure of Shiva i.e. Natraja became a popular theme under Cholas and
Rashtrakutas.ThedancingSivahas2typesangryandpacificsymbolizingthecreationanddestruction
ofuniverse.ThesnakeistheornamentandGangainhishairlocks.Twobackhandsholdaflameanda
drumwhilethefronthandsareinabhayamudraandonepointsdowntowardsfeet.
2. The bronze images used lostwax technique. These figures were solid from inside unlike the N Indian
sculpturewhichwashollowfrominside.
3. Imagesofkingsandqueenswerealsobuiltinthisperiodandplacedinthetemples.
4. World'slargestmonolithicstatueistheJinastatueofGomteswarispresentatSravanaBelgola(Hassan,
Karnataka).
5. In S India, there was a tradition of hero stones or viragals. They hold a sword in right hand, bow /
shieldinleftandarrowsonshoulder.Usuallythereisaninscriptionrecordingthedeedsofthehero.
6. InNIndiatheimageslackthegrandeuroftheGuptaageprobablybecausenowtheyweremostlyof
godsandgoddessestobeusedmostlyforworship.
Painting
1. TheChalukyasofBadami:ThecavepaintingsofElloraandElephantabelongtothisperiodandcontain
themesofsecularnature,brahmanicalreligion,BuddhismaswellasJainism(Ellora).Onecavepainting
showsPulakesinIIreceivingaPersianambassador.
2. TheRashtrakutas:TheycontinuedtheElloraandElephantacavepaintings.Kailashtemplewasbuiltby
KrishnaI.
Dance&Music
1. Temples played a vital role through the institution of devdasis, employing dancers, musicians, singers
etc. and also through multiple festivals from the Pallava period onwards. The devdasis initially also
composedpoemsandperformedsometempleritualswhichwererelatedtotheideaofthespecialpower
embedded in women (a S Indian original concept) and rituals and dance were an expression of it. But
graduallythiswaslatermisusedtoprovidingentertainmenttoinfluentialpriestsandpersons.
2. First books on music began to come up. Narad wrote Sangeetam Karanand, Someshwar wrote
Manollas.
Literature
1. While Sanskrit was the language of the elites, a remarkable feature was the growth in literature of
regionallanguages.Bytheendofthisage,regionallanguageshadovertakensanskrit.
2. The literature of this age also mentions brahmanical rituals less frequently indicating growth of bhakti.
Eroticmysticismalsofindsitswayintotheliteratureoftheagereflectingtheinfluenceofbhakti.Bilhana's
ChaurpanchasikaandJayadeva'sGeetGovindaareexamples.
3. MediumofinstructionofformallanguagewasSanskritwhichshowsitsgrowingdistancefromdaytoday
life.Professionaleducationwasprovidedbytheguilds.Butinsomeprofessionswedofindsanskritworks
beingwrittenindicatingsomeconfluence.
JainaLiterature
1. Sanskrit also began to be widely used by Jainas and Buddhists by this time. The jainas were
prolific in writing biographies, chronicles of kings and courts and texts on religion. Hemchandra
(12th cent) and Merutunga (14th cent) were famous scholars. An interesting aspect was writing
stories on Rama from a jaina perspective.
2. The jains insisted on literacy and thus preserved and re-copied their texts as a treasury in the
jaina temples. These developed into impressive libraries. By now a new sharda script was used
which was closer to devanagari than brahmi.
Sanskrit
1. In most sanskrit works of the age we find lack of original and innovative thinking. They were merely
commentaries on old subjects from epics etc. This age also lacks important texts on politics like
Arthasastra and Nitisara. Focus was more on linguistic proficiency. The spread of Sanskrit grew in S
IndiaalongwiththespreadofBrahmansandbecauseoftheproximitytokingsmuchoftheliteraturehas
politicalmotives.
2. There was a trend of growing ornate style in Sanskrit championed by Banabhatta. This was specially
becauseoftheroyalpatronagescholarsusedtoreceive.Thisperiodwitnessedthegrowthofkavyaas
wellasgrammar.
3. There was a growing trend of writing histriographies like Kalhana and Bilhana (Vikramankdevcharit a
historicalepicbutwrittentopleaseakingwhohadusurpedthethronefromhiselderbrother).Attempts
weremadetoprovidevanshavaliswheredescentwastracedfrommythologicallines.
4. Anewstyleknownas"shleshastyle"emerged.AnexampleisShrutikirti'sDwisandhanwhichwhenread
fromlefttorighttellsthestoryofRamaandwhenreadfromrighttolefttellsthestoryofKauravs.
5. Brahmagupta, Bhaskaracharya, Vaghavatta and Kalhana wrote in this age. Sanskrit dictionary was
composedinthiserabyAmarsimha(Amarkosha).ImportantplayswereMudrarakshahbyVishakhdatta,
BalRamayanandBalBharatbyRajshekhar.
6. Sanskrit texts on various professions like krishiparashar, shilpashastras, vastushastras, veterinary
sciencesetc.werewrittenreflectingsocialpriorities.
RegionalLanguages
1. Prakrit:ItgraduallybecameveryheavyandlostouttoPaliandSanskritandevenJainascholarsbegan
towriteinSanskritwhilebuddhistscholarsinPali.
2. Tamil>AlvarsandNaynarsaintspopularizeditfrom69AD.Theirwritingswerecollectivelycompiledin
12th cent and called Tirumurais. Tamil literature witnessed great development. Sometime the subjects
were taken from Sanskrit works like Kamban wrote Ramayna in Chola period but it was not merely a
translation of the Valmiki ramayna as the style, treatment of gender and even the narrative was varied
accordingtothelocaltradition.ThushetreatsRavaninamuchmoresympatheticwaythanValmiki.In
thePallavaagethetamilpoemscontainrichdescriptionofgeneralcountrylifeaswellasthetownlifein
Kaveripattnam.ConfidenceinTamilcanbeseeninitsusealongwithSanskritininscriptions.
3. Kannada>Amoghavarsha(Rashtrakutaking)wrotethefirstworkinKannadapoetry.Itwaspatronized
byRashtrakutas,ChalukyasandHosyals.Pampa,PonnaandRanna(the3Kannadajewels)wroteinthis
age.
4. Apbhramsha > The Rashtrakutas patronized it and many poets in this language lived in their courts.
The doha style of writing began to come up in this age and specially popularized by the bhakti
movement.ThebhaktisaintsalsopopularizedotherlanguageslikeOdiya,Bengali.
5. Telugu>ItwaspatronizedbyRashtrakutas,ChalukyasandHosyals.Mahabharatawaswrittenunder
Chalukyankings.
Vijaynagar
Architecture
Features
1. Religiousaswellassecular.
2. Courtpatronage.
3. Rockcut,shapedoruseofpermanentmaterial.
4. Highlyornamented,elaborate,massiveandadvancedtechnology.
5. Multidimensionali.e.manyformsofarchitecturewerepursued.
6. In the 14th century, it was influenced by deccani style of Chalukyas and Rashtrakutas. During 15th
century,atypicalVijaynagarstylecalledprovidastyleemerged.Basicallyitwasanadvancedversionof
the dravidian style. In 17th cent, the nayak style emerged (nayaks were the feudatories of Vijaynagar
kings).
Temples
1. In the provida style, the structures of the chief god and goddess were separated and the goddess
structurewascalledshrineofthe"Amma".Anewstructurecalledkalyanmandapcameupwhichwas
usedfortheceremonialunionofthechiefgodandthegoddess.Athousandpillarhallwascreatedinthe
templecomplexforthedevotees.Thegopuramsbecamebiggerandmoreornamented.
2. ExamplesareViruprakashtempleandHazaraswamitemple@Hampi.
3. Thenayakstyletempleswerebiggerandmoreornamented.ExampleisMeenakshitemple@Madurai.
Monuments
1. Palaces,queens'baths,stablesetc.wereconstructed.ExampleisLotuspalaceofKrishnadevrai.
Sculpture
1. Secularsculpturedevelopedwithbronzeimagesmadeofkingsandqueens.

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1/9/2016 Culture|EvernoteWeb

Arts & Crafts Techniques

Music & Dance

Arts & Crafts Techniques

Dance & Music

Arts & Crafts Techniques

Dance & Music

Foreign (Iranian) Influence on Mauryan Architecture

1. There are similarities between CGM's palace and Darius'.

Dance & Music

The Leisurely Activities

Science & Technology

Arts & Crafts Techniques

Post-Mauryan Age (North India)

(b) Jaina Caves vs Buddhist Caves

Buddhist Relief Sculpture

The Gandhara School

The Mathura School

The Amrawati / Vengi School

Science & Technology

Arts & Crafts Techniques

Post-Mauryan Age (Satvahnas)

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