Chapter-1

Bricks,Beads and Bones

1. Write the salient features of Harappan Agriculture technologies? OR What type of evidence
found in Harappan sites related to agriculture technology?

 Representation on seals and terracotta sculpture indicate that the bull Was known Oxen
were used for ploughing.
 Archaeologists have also found evidence of a ploughed field of Kalibangan The field had
two sets of furrows at right angles to each other, suggesting that two different crops
were grown together.
 Archaeologists have also tried to identify the tools used for harvesting. The Harappans
use stone blades set in wooden handles and metal tools.
 Most Harappan sites are located in semi-arid lands, where irrigation was probably
required for agriculture. Traces of canals have been found at the Harappan site of
Shortughai in Afghanistan, but not in Punjab or Sind.
 It is possible that ancient canals silted up long ago. It is also likely that water drawn
from wells was used for irrigation. Besides, water reservoirs found in Dholavira (Gujarat)
may have been used to store water for agriculture.

2. How you can say that there was a break between the early Harappan and the late Harappan
Civilization?

 There is evidence of large scale burning at some places or sites.

 The abandonment of certain settlements.
 Some drastic change we can see in town planning, drainage system and otherpatterns.

3. How have historians provided new insight into the subsistence strategies of the Harappan
culture?

 According to historians mature Harappan culture developed in some of the areas

occupied by the Early Harappan cultures. These cultures also shared certain common
elements including subsistence strategies.
 The Harappans ate a wide range of plant and animal products, including fish and meat,
wheat, maize, millets, pulses, rice and another eatables.
 Cattle, sheep, goat, buffalo and pig were domesticated by the Harappans for their
sustenance.
  The evidence of wild species like boar, deer and gharial have also been traced from the
remains of bones, but it is not sure whether the Harappans hunted these animals
themselves or obtained meat from other hunting community.
 Archaeological evidences suggested that oxen were used for ploughing and two
different crops were grown together. As most of the sites are located in semi-arid lands,
it is evident that water from canals and wells was used for irrigation.

4. One of the most distinctive features of the Harappan cities was the carefully planned
drainage system.’ Elaborate

 One of the most distinctive features of Harappan Civilisation was its carefully planned
drainage system.
 If we look at the plan of the Lower Town, we can find that roads and streets were laid
out along an approximate ‘grid’ pattern, intersecting at right angles.
 Every house had one wall alongside the street having drain connected to the street
drain to flow out domestic waste water. It seems that streets with drains were laid out
first and then houses built along them.
 Every house was connected to the street drains. The main channels were made of bricks
set in Mortar and were covered with loose bricks that could be removed for cleaning.
Sometimes limestone was used for the covers.
 In Harappa, house drains first emptied into a sump or cesspit into which solid matter
settled while waste water flowed out into the street drains. Very long drainage channels
. were provided at intervals with sumps for cleaning.
 Little heaps of material mostly sand were found lying alongside drainage channels, it
meant that the debris was not always carted away when the drain was cleared.
 Drainage systems were mostly found in smaller settlement, but were not unique to the
larger cities. For example, at Lothal while houses were built of mud bricks, drains were
made of burnt bricks. Therefore, we can say that Harappan cities have carefully planned
drainage system.

5. Explain the distinctive features of the residential buildings of Mohenjodaro.

 The most unique feature of the Harappan Civilisation was the development of urban
centres. Mohenjodaro is the most well-known site of Harappan Civilisation.
 The following are the most unique architectural feature of Mohenjodaro: Citadel It was
smaller but higher. It was walled and was physically separated from the lower town.
Here the buildings w’ere constructed with mud, bricks platform. Here, we find some
structures that were probably used for special public purposes.
  These include the warehouse, a massive structure and the ‘Great Bath’. The uniqueness
of the structure of ‘Great Bath’ suggested that it was meant for some kind of special
ritual bath.
 The Lower Town The lower town was also walled. Several buildings were built on
platforms, which served as foundations. All building activity within the city was
restricted to a fixed area on the platforms. Sun-dried or baked bricks were used at all
Harappan settlements.
 The courtyard of the houses was the centre of activities like cooking and weaving,
particularly during hot and dry weather. There were no windows in the walls along the
ground level. Besides, the main. entrance did not give a direct view of the interior or the
courtyard.
 Drainage System Mohenjodaro had carefully planned drainage system. The roads and
the streets were laid out along an approximate ‘grid’ pattern, intersecting at right
angles. It seems that streets with drains were laid out first and then houses built along
them.
 Every house had its own bathroom paved with bricks, with drains connected through
the walls, to the street drains. Drainage systems were not only unique to the larger
cities, but were found in smaller settlements also. All these features indicated that
Mohenjodaro had a well planned architectural system.

6. Explain the exclusive features of the craft production in Chanhudaro.

Chanhudaro was a tiny settlement as compared to Mohenjodaro. This area was

exclusively devoted to craft production. Its features are:
1. The main craft productions included bead-making, shell-cutting, metal-working, seal-
making and weight-making.
2. Here variety of materials were used to make beads. Stones like carnelian jasper,
crystal, quartz, steatite; metals like copper, bronze and gold, moreover shell, faience
and terracotta or burnt clay were used.
3. Some beads were made of two or more stones, these were cemented together and
some were made of stones with beautiful gold caps. The shapes were of different types,
e.g. dice cylindrical, spherical, barrel- shaped, etc. Some beads were decorated by
incising or painting and some had designs etched (engraved) on to them.
4. Different techniques were applied in making beads. Steatite was a very soft stone and
could be easily moulded. But how the steatite micro bead was made remains a surprise
for the archaeologists.
5.The red colour of carnelian was obtained by firing the raw material. Grinding, polishing
and drilling completed the full process. Specialised drills have been found at
Chanhudaro, Lothal and Dholavira.
7. Explain the strategies used by the archaeologists to understand socio-economic differences
among the Harappans.

 The archaeologists have tried to find out socio-economic differences among the
Harappans through two types of evidences.
These were:
Burials have been significant evidence to establish social differences within the
Harappan society’.
 The dead were generally laid in pits. There were differences in the way the burial pit was
made. In some cases, the hallowed out spaces were lined with bricks.
 However, whether these variations were an indication of social differences or not, it is
not yet established. Pottery ornaments, jewellery of both men and women have been
found in some burials. But the Harappans did not believe in burying precious things with
the dead.
 Artefacts Two types of artefacts have been found, i.e. luxuries’ and ‘utilitarian’. Luxuries
artefacts were made from costly and rare, non-local material with complicated
technology e.g. little faience pots.
 Utilitarian objects included objects of daily use made of stone clay, e.g. querns, pottery,
needles, flesh-rubbers (body scrubbers), etc.
 As far as distribution of such artefacts is concerned, we find that rare objects made of
valuable materials were generally concentrated in large settlements like Mohenjodaro
and Harappa and are rarely found in smaller settlements.
 Thus, the findings of the above artefacts prove that there were social and economic
differences in Harappan culture.

8. List the raw materials required for craft production in the Harappan Civilisation and discuss
how these might have been obtained.

(a) The raw materials required for craft production in the Harappan civilisation was as given
below:

 Stones like camelian, jasper, crystal, quartz and steatite;

 Metals like copper, bronze and gold, and
 Shell, faience and terracotta, or burnt clay.

(b) The above raw materials might have been obtained as mentioned below :

 They established settlements such as Nageshwar and Balakot in areas where shell was
available. Other places were Shortughai, in far-off Afghanistan, near the best source of
lapis lazuli, a blue stone and Lothal near the sources of camelian, steatite and metal.
  The second way was to send expeditions to areas such as the Khetri region of Rajasthan
for copper and south India for gold.
 The third way to have contact with distant lands. For example, copper was brought from
Oman, on the south-eastern tip of the Arabian peninsula. Mesopotamian texts mention
contact with Meluhha, possibly the Harappan region. It is likely that communication
with Oman, Bahrain or Mesopotamia was by sea.

9. Describe briefly how the centres of craft production are identified.

 In order to identify centres of craft production, archaeologists usually look for the raw
materials, like stone modules, whole shells, copper ore, unfinished objects, rejected and
waste materials.
 Actually waste products indicate craft work. For example, if shell or stone is used to
make any object, then pieces of shell or stone will be discarded as waste at the place of
production.

These can be understood through following points:

 Both Nageshwar and Balakot are near coast and shell objects are found here. These
areas were specialised centre for making shell objects, including bangles, ladles and
inlay, which were taken to other settlement.
 Similarly, some finished products like different pots and beads are found in Lothal and
Chanhudaro, which were taken to the large urban centres such as Mohenjodaro and
Harappa.
 For making beads, stones like carnelian, jasper, crystal, quartz, steatite and metals like
copper, bronze, gold, and other materials like shell, faience, terracotta were used. For
making beads, grinding, polishing and drilling were dome. Specialised drills have found
at Chanhudaro, Lothal and Dholavira.
 In order to identify the craft production centre, archaeologists look for raw materials
and tools. Large- waste pieces of raw materials indicated the specialised craft
production centres. But sometimes minuscule bits suggest that craft production was
also undertaken in large cities like Harappa and Mohenjodaro.

10. Describe the opinions of the archaeologists over the central authority of the Harappan
Civilisation.

 Some archaeologists opine that Harappan society had no rulers and that everybody
enjoyed equal status.
 Other scholars have the opinion that there was no single ruler but several. Mohenjodaro
had a separate ruler, Harappans had another. In the same way, other regions had
different rulers.
  Some scholars also argued that there was a single state given the similarity in artefacts,
the evidence for planned settlements, the standardised ratio of brick size and the
establishments near source of raw material.
 Of all, the last theory seems to be the most plausible as it is unlikely that entire
communities could have collectively made and implemented such complex decisions.

11. What are the evidences found by the archaeologists which show that the Harappans had
contacts with distant lands? Does it show that the contact proved to have good trade relations
with each other.

 The archaeologists found many evidences which show that the Harappans had contacts
with distant lands. The important evidences are
 1. Recent archaeological finds suggest that copper was probably brought from Oman, on
the South-Eastern tip of the Arabian found Peninsula. Moreover chemical analysis
proved traces of nickel both in Omani copper and Harappan artefacts. This suggests a
common origin of both.
 2. A large Harappan jar coated with a thick layer of black clay was found at Omani sites.
It is possible that the Harappans exchanged the contents of these vessels for Omani
copper.
 3. Mesopotamian texts of third millennium BCE referred that copper came from a region
called Magan. Historians thought that probably it was another name of Oman.
Mesopotamian texts also mentioned contact with regions named Dilmun (probably the
Island of Bahrain), Magan and Meluhha, possibly the Harappan region. Meluhha was a
land of seafarers. Many products of Meluhha were mentioned. These were carnelian,
lapis lazuli, copper, gold and varieties of wood.
 4. Other archaeological finds suggest of long distance contacts which include Harappan
seals, weights, dice and beads. All these evidences suggest that Harappan Civilisation
was connected with Oman, Bahrain or Mesopotamia by sea.
 5. Depictions of ships and boats on seals indicate the trade relations between different
countries.
 6.Cylinder seal found in Mesopotamia has humped bull motif which can be derived from
the Indus region. The round ‘Persian Gulf seal found in Bahrain sometimes carries
Harappan motifs. Local ‘Dilmun’ weights followed the Harappan standard.
 All these evidences show that Harappan civilisation had good trade relations with other
regions.

12. What factors in your opinion are responsible for the collapse of a mature Harappan
Civilisation by 1800 BCE?
  There is strong evidence that by 1800 BCE, most of the mature Harappan sites in regions
like Cholistan had been . abandoned. Simultaneously, there was a growth of settlements
in Gujarat, Haryana and Western Uttar Pradesh.
 At that time, distinctive artefacts of civilisation like weights, seals, special beads, writing,
long-distance trade and craft specialisation disappeared. House construction technique
deteriorated and large public structures were not produced.

A variety of explanations were given by scholars to explain the decline of mature Harappan
Civilisation.

These reasons are:

 Climatic change
 Deforestation
 Excessive floods
 Shifting and drying up of rivers
 Overuse of the landscape
 Some of these reasons may be holding true for certain settlements, but they do not
account for the collapse of the entire civilisation.
 No single reason was responsible for the decline of this civilisation. The civilisation might
be destroyed by invaders which was proved by the bulk of bones found. It indicated a
slaughter.
 But the skeletons found did not belong to the same period according to George Dales.
Thus, it was not concluded in favour of a dramatic collapse, rather it was believed that
the end of Harappan culture was a gradual process.

13. How were Harappa seals and sealings used to facilitate long distance communication? What
did the sealings convey?

 Harappa seals and sealings were used to facilitate long distance communication. The
mouth of the bag of goods was tied up with rope and on the knot was affixed some wet
clay on which one or more seals were pressed, leaving an impression.
 This sealing conveyed that if the bag reached with its sealing intact, then it had not been
tampered with and also it conveyed the true identity of the sender of the goods.

14. Why do archaeologists and historians find Harappan script enigmatic? Explain reasons.

 Archaeologists and historians found Harappan script enigmatic. The reasons behind it
were:
 Harappan seals usually had a line of writing, containing the name and title of the owner,
sometimes the motif conveyed a meaning to those who could not read.
  The script was non-alphabetical, it had many signs, somewhere between 375 and 400. It
was written from right to left.
 Most inscriptions were short, the longest contained about 26 signs, each sign stood for a
vowel or consonant. Sometimes it contained wider space, sometimes shorter, had no
consistency. Till today, the script remains undeciphered.

15. Mention any two changes that were observed after 1900 BCE in Harappan Civilisation. What
could have brought these changes? Explain.

 After 1900 BCE, very’ few Harappan sites were continued and significant changes
appeared in the civilisation. These were:
 In this period, distinctive artefacts like weights, seals, special beads, writing, long-
distance trade and craft specialisation disappeared.
 (House construction technique deteriorated and large public structures were no longer
produced. Late Harappan Civilisation indicates a rural way of life. Long distance trade
also disappeared.

The reasons for these changes were:

 These changes were probably the result of climate change, deforestation and excessive
flood.
 The shifting or drying up of rivers and overuse of the landscape might be the cause.
There was also decline and abandonment of cities due to these reasons.

16. Who was Cunningham? Mention any one account used by him to locate the early
settlements of Harappan’ civilisation. (Delhi 2013)

 Cunningham was the first Director General of the Archaeological Survey of India who
began archaeological excavation in the mid-nineteenth century.
 Cunningham used the accounts left by Chinese Buddhist pilgrims who visited the
subcontinent between the 4th and 7th century CE to locate early settlements.

17. Who was John Marshall? How did he mark a change in the Indian archaeology?

Describe the contribution of John Marshall, to Indian archaeology,

 John Marshall was the Director-General of the Archaeological Survey of India.

 The two discoveries in seals in Harappa and Mohenjodaro by Daya Ram Sahni and
Rakhal Das Banerji led to the conjecture that these two sites were part of a single
archaeological culture. Based on these finds, in 1924, John Marshall, Director General of
the ASI announced the discovery’ of a-new civilisation in the Indus valley to the world.
  Similar seals were also found in the excavation of archaeological sites of Mesopotamia.
In this way, not only new civilisation came to limelight but we also came to know that
this civilisation was contemporary to Mesopotamia.
 Sir John Marshall’s term as the Director General of ASI was actually a term of major
change in Indian archaeology. He was the first professional archaeologist who worked in
India
 He brought with himself his experience of Greece and Crete. Like Cunningham, he was
also interested in spectacular findings. But he was equally interested in looking for
patterns of daily life.
 John Marshall tended to excavate along regular horizontal units, measured unit formly
throughout the mound, ignoring the stratigraphy of the site and this was the biggest
drawback in his excavation process.
 It means all the artefacts, found from the same unit, were grouped together, even if
they were found at different stratigraphic layers. As a result, valuable information found
about the civilisation was lost forever.

18. Who was R.E.M Wheeler? Mention any one of his contributions in the field of archaeology?

 R.E.M Wheeler was the Director-General of tire Archaeological Survey of India.

 He was the first person who recognized that it was necessary’ to follow the stratigraphy
of the mound rather than dig mechanically along uniform horizontal line which rectified
the previous problems faced by the archaeologists.

19.What were the differences in techniques adopted by Marshall and wheeler in studying Indus
Valley Civilization.

 Marshall tended to excavate along regular horizontal units, measured uniformly

throughout the mound ignoring the stratigraphy of the site. Due to this technique
valuable information about the context of these finds waw irretrievably lost.
 Wheelers recognized that it was necessary to follow the stratigraphy of the mound
rather than digging mechanically along uniform horizontal lines.

20. Early Harappan archaeologists thought that certain objects which seem unusual and
unfamiliar may have had a religious significance’. Substantiate

or

Describe briefly how seals of Harappan period help in reconstructing their religious beliefs.
 Giving archaeologic interpretation to reconstruct religious practices of Harappan
civilisation was not eaeasy The important facts to reconstruct the religious belief of the
Harappan period are as follows:
 1. Archaeologists thought that certain objects which seemed unusual or unfamiliar may
have had a religious significance. These included terracotta figurines of women, heavily
jewelled with elaborate head dresses. These were regarded as mother Goddesses.
 2. Rare stone statuary of men seated with one hand on the knee was regarded as ‘priest
king’. Other structures found in Harappan Civilisation, like the great bath and fire altars
found at Kalibangan and Lothal also were taken as significant for ritual practices.
 3. Attempts were made to reconstruct religious beliefs and practices by examining
different seals.
 4. Mythical creatures like unicorn, figure seated cross-legged in yogic posture,
sometimes surrounded by animals, regarded as ‘proto-shiva’ were all examples of Hindu
religion. Conical stone objects were classified as Tingas’.
 Many reconstructions of Harappan religion are made on the assumption that later
traditions provide similarity with earlier ones. It follows from the rule that
archaeologists try to know the facts by following the process of ‘known to the
unknown.’ Thus, reconstructing religious practices was not easy for the archaeologists.