Phases and Microstructure

Fe-Fe3C phase diagram

Iron and Steel
Steel Microstructures

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 2
Iron-Iron carbide phase diagram
0.18

0.10

2.11

0.77

0.008 at RT

Identify the terminal phases and its solubility

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Dr. Shashank Shekhar Univ. of Tennessee Handout for MSE300
 Iron-Iron Carbide Phase Diagram
3

Iron-Iron carbide phase diagram

Its not a true equilibrium phase diagram because
iron carbide is not a stable phase
Iron carbide decomposes into iron and carbon
(graphite)
Even at elevated temperature (like 700C), it will take
several years for decomposition
Hence for all practical purpose Iron-Iron carbide
phase diagram represents equilibrium changes

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 4

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Source: Wikipedia
 Iron-Iron Carbide Phase Diagram
5

Carbon being a very small atom gets into the

interstitial of ferrite/ austenite phases to form solid
solution
Ferrous metals - based on iron, comprises about 75%
of metal tonnage in the world. Broadly three main
alloys
Iron = C content < 0.008 wt%
Steel = Fe-C alloy (0.008 to 2.11% C)
Cast iron = Fe-C alloy (2.11% to 6.7% C)

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 6

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Materials Science and Metallurgy by Pollack
 Allotropes of Iron and various phases
7

1538 -ferrite (BCC)

Max solubility of C is 0.022 wt %
1394
RT solubility of C is 0.008 wt %
Temperature

-austenite (FCC)
912 Max solubility of C is 2.14 wt %
768
-ferrite (BCC)
Stable only at high T
Max solubility of C is 0.10 wt %

Fe3C (iron carbide/ cementite)

Orthorhombic structure
Why is solubility of C higher in Intermetallic
FCC than in BCC? Brittle
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 Transformation Temperatures
8

A1 = Temperature at which austenite begins to form

during heating
A2 = Temperature at which iron becomes non-
magnetic
A3 = Temperature at which transformation of iron
to austenite is completed during heating
A4 = Temperature at which austenite transforms to
delta ferrite
Am = Temperature at which solutionizing of
cementite in austenite is complete
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 Various Transformation Reactions and
development of Microstructure
9

Peritectic Reaction:
L+

Eutectic Reaction: Eutectic of austenite and

cementite is known as ledeburite
L + Fe3C
Eutectoid Reaction: Eutectoid of ferrite and
cementite is known as pearlite. The ferrite and
cementite phases occur as alternate layers
+ Fe3C

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 Definition of Microstructure
10

The microstructure of crystalline materials is defined

by the type, structure, number, shape and
topological arrangement of phases and/or lattice
defects .

Elements of microstructure: Point defects,

point-defect clusters, dislocations, stacking faults,
grain boundaries, interphase interfaces are
important elements of the microstructure of most
materials.

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 Steels
11

Steels can be categorized as

Low carbon steels (C < 0.3 %)

Medium carbon steels (0.3 < C <0.6)

High carbon steels (C>0.6 %)

Steels can also be grouped as (a) plain carbon steels,

(b) low alloy steels (c) stainless steels and (d) tool
steels
Hypoeutectoid steels (C between 0.022 to 0.77) and
Hypereutectoid steels ( C > 0.77)
Several solid state transformations take place in steel

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 Microstructure of Eutectoid steel
12

When Fe-alloy of 0.77% of C is

cooled slowly it transforms
from single phase of austenite
to pearlite structure, a lamellar
or layered structure of two
phases: ferrite and cementite
In the micrograph, dark
regions are cementite and
bright regions are ferrite

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Dr. Shashank Shekhar Univ. of Tennessee Handout for MSE300
Why layered structure?
13
Layered structures are
formed because of
redistribution of C atoms
between ferrite (0.022 wt %)
and cementite (6.7 wt %) by
diffusion
Mechanical properties of
pearlite are in between that
of ferrite (soft) and
cementite (brittle)
What is the fraction of ferrite
for this eutectoid alloy?
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 Microstructure of hypoeutectoid steel
14

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Dr. Shashank Shekhar Univ. of Tennessee Handout for MSE300
Microstructure of hypereutectoid steel
15

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Univ. of Tennessee Handout for MSE300
 16

Microstructures of (a) Hypoeutectoid

steel (ferrite + pearlite) (b) Eutectoid
steel (c) Hypereutectoid steel (pearlite
with network of cementite)

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Heat Treatment by Rajan, Sharma and Sharma
Microstructure of steel with C < 0.022
17

In this steel content is less than

T3 0.022 wt % so transformation
begins at temperature on
T4 intersection of NM (T3)
Transformation gets completed
by T4, much earlier than for
hypoeutectoid
No change until T5
Below T5, excess carbon gets
rejected in the form of Fe3C
T5
In most practical cases, since
cooling is not slow enough,
microstructure remains 100%
ferrite
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 Cast Iron
18

Cast Iron, as defined earlier, has C concentration

greater than 2.11 % and less than 6.7%
Cast iron can be further subdivided into two
categories
White cast iron: carbon is present in the form of
cementite
Grey cast iron : carbon is present in the free form as
graphite

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 Cast Iron
19

Grey cast iron : carbon is present in the free form as

graphite
Contains Si (1 to 3 %) which causes formation of graphite
flakes distributed throughout the cast product upon
solidification
Presence of graphite gives a grey color to the fractured surface
Good vibration damping because of dispersion of graphite
flakes
Internal lubricating qualities which make it machinable
Products made from gray cast iron include automotive engine
blocks and heads, machine tool bases
When chemically treated to form spheroids rather than flakes,
we end up with ductile iron. It is stronger and more ductile

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 Cast Iron
20

White cast iron: carbon is present in the form of

cementite
Contains 0.5 to 2% Si and lower C content
Formed by rapid cooling of the molten metal
Its hard, brittle and excellent wear resistance
Applications include railway brake shoes
When cast iron is heat treated to separate carbon out of
solution and form graphite, resulting metal is called malleable
(upto 20%)
Malleable cast iron is utilized for pipe fitting and flanges

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 Microstructures of eutectic cast Iron
21
0.18
On solidification,
0.10
ledeburite is formed
On further cooling,
excess carbon comes
2.11
out as cementite from
eutectic austenite
At 727 C, eutectic
0.77
austenite would
contain 0.77 % C and
0.008 at RT
would decompose
into pearlite

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Univ. of Tennessee Handout for MSE300
 Microstructures of hypoeutectic cast Iron
22
0.18
In this case, at
0.10 temperature just below
1147 C, consists of
proeutectic austenite
and ledeburite
2.11 On further cooling,
excess carbon comes
out as cementite from
proeutectic and eutectic
austenite
0.77
At 727 C, both eutectic
and proeutectic
0.008 at RT austenite would contain
0.77 % C and would
decompose into pearlite

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Univ. of Tennessee Handout for MSE300
 Microstructures of hypereutectic cast Iron
23
0.18
In this case, at
0.10 temperature just
below 1147 C, consists
of proeutectic
cementite and
2.11 ledeburite
On further cooling,
excess carbon comes
out as proeutectoid
0.77 cementite from
eutectic austenite
0.008 at RT At 727 C, eutectic
austenite would
decompose into
pearlite
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 24

Microstructures of (a) Hypoeutectic steel

(ledeburite + pearlite +cementite) (b)
Eutectic steel (ledeburite) (c)
Hypereutectic steel (ledeburite + primary
cementite)

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Heat Treatment by Rajan, Sharma and Sharma
 Effect of alloying elements on Iron-Iron carbide
phase diagram
25

Steel consists of several other alloying elements

Cr: improves strength, hardness, wear resistance, hot hardness,
hardenability. In significant proportions, Cr improves corrosion
resistance
Mn: improves the strength and hardness of steel
Mo: increases toughness and hot hardness. Also provides
hardenability and wear resistance
Ni: improves strength and toughness. In significant amounts, it
improves corrosion resistance
V: grain refiner and hence improves strength and toughness
Some alloying elements affect the relative stabilities of
alpha and gamma iron and as such are grouped as ferrite
stabilizers or austenite stabilizers

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Effect of alloying elements on Iron-Iron carbide
phase diagram
26

Cr is also a Ferrite Stabilizer

Other elements which tend to stabilize
ferrite are W, Mo, V and Si
These elements are more soluble in -
phase than in -phase
Most of these elements are BCC
They decrease the amount of carbon
present in the gamma-iron and thus
favor formation of larger quantity of
free carbide
Reduce the austenite region by
lowering A4 point and raising A3 point
For Cr > 12.8%, austenite phase
completely disappeare and -ferrite
and -ferrite merge
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Heat Treatment by Rajan, Sharma and Sharma
Effect of Chromium (Ferrite Stabilizer)
27

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Heat Treatment by Rajan, Sharma and Sharma
 Effect of alloying elements on Iron-Iron carbide
phase diagram
28
Ni is also a Austenite Stabilizer
Other elements which tend to
stabilize austenite are Mn and Cu
These elements are more soluble
in gamma-phase than in alpha-
phase
Most of these elements are FCC
Carbon also has stabilizing effect
(at HT)
Reduce the austenite region by
raising A4 point and lowering A3
point
These elements can make it stable
even at room temperature
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Heat Treatment by Rajan, Sharma and Sharma
Effect of Nickel (austenite stabilizer)
29

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Heat Treatment by Rajan, Sharma and Sharma
 Phases and Microstructure
30

Microstructure
of annealed mild
steel (0.1% C)

Microstructure of annealed SS316L Microstructure of annealed duplex steel

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 Different grades and their applications
31

(a) plain carbon steels

Low-C: automobile sheet metal
Medium-C : engine parts (crank-shaft)
High-C: springs, blades
(b) low alloy steels:
Various automotive components
(c) stainless steels
Austenitic: chemical & food processing equipment
Ferritic: kitchen utensils to jet engine components
Martensitic: cutlery, surgical instruments
(d) tool steels:
high speed tool, shock-resistant tools, die

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 Different grades and their applications
32

Dual-phase steel (ferrite + martensite):

Automotive structural parts, longitudinal beams

Duplex stainless steel (austenite + ferrite):

Heat exchangers, turbocharger pumps

Precipitation hardening stainless stee:

Aerospace and nuclear application

Gray cast iron

Automotive engine blocks and heads, machine tool bases

White cast iron

pipe fitting and flanges

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 Stainless Steel
33

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Dr. Shashank Shekhar Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing by Groover
 34

Changing only the C

concentration, itself has
substantial change on the
microstructure and properties of
steel

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Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing by Groover
Phase transformations

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 36

Phase diagram only tells

us about the
equilibrium phase. It
does not tell us about
the non-equilibrium
phases

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Dr. Shashank Shekhar Univ. of Tennessee Handout for MSE300
 37

Solid Lines are Diffusional

Dotted is Diffusionless

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 What is Martensite?
38

Martensite forms when

austenite is rapidly cooled
(quenched) to room T.
Martensite is metastable -
can persist indefinitely at
room temperature, but will
transform to equilibrium
phases on annealing at an
elevated temperature.
Its a Non Equilibrium
Phase: Does not appear on
Phase Diagram
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 What is Bainite?
39

Upper bainite consists of

needles of ferrites
separated by long
cementite particles
It occurs in the T ~300 -
540C
Lower bainite consists of
thin plates of ferrite
containing very fine rods
or blades of cementites
It occurs in T~200-300C
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 Bainite
40

For T~300-450C, upper bainite For T~200-300 C, lower bainite consists

consists of needles of ferrite of thin plates of ferrite containing very
separated by long cementite particles fine rods or blades of cementites
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Univ. of Tennessee Handout for MSE300
Time-temperature
path to obtain
combination of
microstructures

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 42

slide borrowed from Dr. Swati Sharma

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Dr. Shashank Shekhar