Chap 11P Dual Nature of Radiation and Matter Arvind 2023

Chap 11: Dual Nature of Radiation & Matter
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Work Function
The minimum amount of energy required by an
electron to just escape from the metal surface is
called work function of the metal.
The work function depends on (i) the nature of

the metal & (ii) the conditions of its surface.
Denoted by 𝑊0 (𝑜𝑟 ∅0 )
Measured in (eV)
Electron Volt
One electron volt is the kinetic energy gained by an
electron when it is accelerated through a potential
difference of 1 volt.
𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑎𝑛 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛

= 𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑏𝑦 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 = 𝑞𝑉
𝟏 𝒆𝑽 = 𝟏. 𝟔𝟎𝟐 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟗 𝑱
Electron volt is commonly used unit of energy in

atomic and nuclear physics.
Work Functions of some Photosensitive Metals
Metal Work Function Metal Work Function
(eV) (eV)
Cs 2.14 Al 4.28
K 2.30 Hg 4.49
Na 2.75 Cu 4.65
Ca 3.20 Ag 4.70
Mo 4.17 Ni 5.15
Pb 4.25 Pt 5.65
Electron Emission
The phenomenon of emission of electrons from a metal
surface is called electron emission.
For their release from the metal surface, electrons are supplied
required amount of energy by any one of the following method:
1. Thermionic emission ( e called thermo electrons)

2. Field emission
3. Photoelectric emission ( e called photoelectrons)
4. Secondary emission ( e called Secondary electrons)
Photoelectric Effect
When light of suitable frequency illuminates a metal surface,
electrons are emitted from the metal surface. The phenomenon is
called photoelectric effect.
Or
The phenomenon of emission of electrons from a metal surface,
when electromagnetic radiations of sufficiently high frequency
are incident on it, is called photoelectric effect.
The photo (light) – generated electrons are called photoelectrons.
Hertz’s Observations
The phenomenon of photoelectric effect was discovered by Heinrich Hertz

in 1887.
While demonstrating the existence of electromagnetic waves, Hertz found

that high voltage sparks passed across the metal electrodes of the
detector loop more easily when the emitter plate was illuminated by
ultraviolet light from an arc lamp. The ultraviolet light falling on the metal
surface caused the emission of negatively charged particles, which are
now known to be electrons, into the surrounding space and hence
enhanced the high voltage sparks.
Hertz’s Observations
Lenard’s Observations
Lenard observed that when ultraviolet
radiations are allowed to fall on the emitter
plate of an evacuated glass tube enclosing two
electrodes (cathode C and anode A), a current
flows in the circuit. As soon as ultraviolet
radiations are stopped, the current also stops.
These observations again indicate that

ultraviolet radiations incident on the emitter
plate C eject out same negatively charged
particles from it. These particles are attracted
by the collector plate A, setting up a current
through the evacuated glass tube.
Lenard’s Observations
Hallwachs and Lenard also observed that when the

frequency of the incident light was less than a
certain minimum value, called the threshold
frequency, no photoelectrons were emitted at all.
Experimental Study of Photoelectric Effect
1. Effect of Intensity of Light on Photoelectric Current: The number of
photoelectrons emitted per second is proportional to the intensity of
incident radiation.
Fixed Frequency
Fixed accelerating potential
Intensity not fixed
2. Effect of Potential: The photoelectric current increases with the increase
in accelerating potential till a stage is reached when the photoelectric
current becomes maximum and does not increase further with the increase
in the accelerating potential. This maximum value of photoelectric current is
called the saturation current.
Fixed Frequency
Fixed Intensity
accelerating potential not
fixed
2. Effect of Potential: The value of retarding potential at which the
photoelectric current becomes zero is called cut off or stopping potential for
the given frequency of the incident radiation
For a given frequency, the stopping potential is independent of its intensity.

Thus in turn implies that the max K.E. of the photoelectrons is independent
of the intensity of incident radiation.
1 2
𝐾𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑚𝑣𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑒𝑉0
2
3. Effect of frequency of incident radiation on stopping potential: The minimum value
of the frequency of incident radiation below which the photoelectric emission stops
altogether is called threshold frequency.
the value of stopping potential increases with the

frequency of incident radiation.
For frequencies 𝝂𝟑 > 𝝂𝟐 > 𝝂𝟏 , the
corresponding stopping potentials vary in the
order
𝑽𝟎𝟑 > 𝑽𝟎𝟐 > 𝑽𝟎𝟏
This implies that greater the frequency of the
incident radiation, greater is the maximum
kinetic energy of the photoelectrons and hence
greater is the retarding potential required to stop
such electrons completely.
3. Effect of frequency of incident radiation on stopping potential: if we plot a
graph between the frequency of incident radiation and the corresponding stopping
potential for different metals, we get straight line.
(i) The stopping potential increases linearly with the

frequency v of the incident radiation for a given
photosensitive material.
(ii) There exists a certain minimum cut-off frequency for

which the stopping potential is zero.
The minimum value of the frequency of incident radiation
below which the photoelectric emission stops altogether is
called threshold frequency.
(iii) For two different metals A and B, these graphs are

parallel straight lines i.e., they have same slope. But the
threshold frequencies are different for the two metals.
Above Observations imply two imp. facts
(i) The maximum kinetic energy of the photoelectrons increases

linearly with the frequency of the incident radiation, but is
independent of its intensity.
(ii) For a frequency v of the incident radiation less than the

threshold frequency 𝝂𝟎 , no photoelectric emission is possible,
howsoever large is the intensity of incident radiation.
Laws of Photoelectric Emission
1. For a given photosensitive material and frequency of incident
radiation, (above the threshold frequency), the photoelectric
current is directly proportional to the intensity of light. The
saturation current is directly proportional to the intensity of
incident radiation.
2. For a given photosensitive material, there exists a certain minimum

cut-off frequency below which no photoelectrons are emitted,
howsoever high is the intensity of incident radiation. This frequency
is called threshold frequency.
Laws of Photoelectric Emission
3. Above the threshold frequency, the stopping potential or
equivalently the maximum kinetic energy of the photoelectrons
is directly proportional to the frequency of incident radiation,
but is independent of its intensity.
4. The photoelectric emission is an instantaneous process. The

time lag between the incidence of light radiation and the
emission of photoelectrons is very small, even less than 10−9 𝑠
Failure of Classical Wave Theory
The classical wave theory of radiation could not explain the main features of
photoelectric effect.
1. The independence of 𝐾𝑚𝑎𝑥 on intensity

2. The existence of threshold frequency 𝑣0
3. The instantaneous nature of the phenomenon.
Einstein’s Theory of Photoelectric Effect
In 1905, Einstein explained photoelectric effect on the basis of Planck’s
quantum theory according to which a light radiation travels in the form of
discrete photons. Each photon carries ℎ𝜈 energy.
The main points of the Einstein’s theory of photoelectric effect are:
1. Photoelectric emission is the result of interaction of two particles – one a

photon of incident radiation and the other an electron of photosensitive
metal.
2. The free electrons are bound within the metal due to restraining forces
on the surface. The minimum energy required to liberate an electron
from the metal surface is called work function 𝑊0 of the metal.
3. Each photon interacts with one electron. The energy ℎ𝜈 of the incident photon
is used up in two parts:
(a) A part of the energy of the photon is used in liberating the electron from the
metal surface, which is equal to the work function 𝑊0 of the metal,
(b) The remaining energy of the photon is used in imparting kinetic energy of the
ejected electron.
4. Very few (< 1%) photons, whose energies are greater than 𝑊0 , are
capable of ejecting the photo-electrons.
By the conservation of energy,
𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑝ℎ𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑛
= 𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝐾. 𝐸. 𝑜𝑓 𝑝ℎ𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛 + 𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝟏
𝑲𝒎𝒂𝒙 = 𝒎𝒗𝒎𝒂𝒙 𝟐 = 𝒉𝝂 − 𝑾𝟎
𝟐
If the incident photon is of threshold frequency 𝜈0 then its energy ℎ𝜈0 is just
sufficient to free electron from the metal surface and does not give it any
kinetic energy. So ℎ𝜈0 = 𝑊0 . Hence
𝟏
𝑲𝒎𝒂𝒙 = 𝒎𝒗𝒎𝒂𝒙 𝟐 = 𝒉𝝂 − 𝒉𝝂𝟎
𝟐
Einstein’s explanation of Photoelectric Effect
1. Explanation of effect of intensity: Increase of intensity means increase

in the no. of photons striking the meatal surface per unit time. As each
photon ejects only one electron, so the no. of ejected photoelectrons
increases.
2. Explanation of threshold frequency: If 𝜈 < 𝜈0 the K.E. of

photoelectrons becomes negative. This has no physical meaning. So
photoelectric emission does not occur below threshold frequency.
𝟏
𝑲𝒎𝒂𝒙 = 𝒎𝒗𝒎𝒂𝒙 𝟐 = 𝒉𝝂 − 𝒉𝝂𝟎
𝟐
Einstein’s explanation of Photoelectric Effect
3. Explanation of K.E. : If 𝜈 > 𝜈0 then
𝟏
𝑲𝒎𝒂𝒙 = 𝟐 𝒎𝒗𝒎𝒂𝒙 𝟐 = (𝒉𝝂 − 𝒉𝝂𝟎 ) ∝ 𝝂
The max K.E. of the electrons increases linearly with the frequency.
Moreover the increase in intensity increases only the no. of incident photons & not
their energy. Hence max KE is independent of the intensity.
4. Explanation of time lag: Photoelectric emission is the result of an elastic

collision between a photon & an electron.
Q. In an experiment of photoelectric emission, Following observations
were made
1. Wavelength of the incident light = 2 × 10−7 𝑚
2. Stopping potential = 3𝑉
Find
(i) Kinetic energy of photoelectrons with maximum speed
(ii) Work function and
(iii) Threshold frequency ℎ = 6.62 × 10−34 𝐽𝑠 .
Q. Monochromatic light of frequency 6 × 1014 𝐻𝑧 is produced by a laser.
The power emitted is 2.0 × 10−3 𝑊. How many photons per second on an
average are emitted by the source?
Q. One milliwatt of light of wavelength λ = 4560 Å is incident on
a cesium metal surface. Calculate the electron current liberated.
Assume a quantum efficiency of η = 0.5%. [Work function for
cesium = 1.89 𝑒𝑉]. 𝑇𝑎𝑘𝑒 ℎ𝑒 = 12400 𝑒𝑉 Å.
Q. The work function of caesium metal is 2.14 eV. When light of frequency 6 × 1014 Hz
is incident on the metal surface, photoemission of electrons occurs. What is the
(a) Maximum kinetic energy of the emitted electrons?
(b) Stopping potential and (c) maximum speed of emitted electrons?
Q. (a) Ultraviolet light of wavelength 2271 Å from a 100 W mercury source
is incident on a photocell made of molybdenum metal. If the stopping
potential is 1.3 V, estimate the work function of the metal.
(b) How would the photocell respond to high intensity 105 𝑊/𝑚2 red light
of wavelength 6328 Å produced by a He – Ne laser?
Particle Nature of Light: The Photon
When light interacts with matter, it behaves as if it is made
up of discrete packets of energy, called quanta.
The fact that a light quantum has definite energy as well as
momentum allows us to associate a particle with it. This
particle was called Photon.
Some basic features of the photon picture of electromagnetic radiation are
1. When radiation interacts with matter, it behaves as if it is made up of particles,

called photons.
ℎ𝜈 ℎ
2. Each photon has energy 𝐸 = ℎ𝜈 and momentum 𝑝(= 𝑐 = 𝜆), and speed 𝑐 in
vacuum.
3. All photons of light of a particular frequency 𝜈 or wavelength 𝜆, have the same

ℎ𝜈
energy 𝐸 = ℎ𝜈 = ℎ𝑐/𝜆 and momentum 𝑝(= 𝑐 = ℎ/𝜆), independent of the
intensity of the radiation.
4. Photons are electrically neutral and are not deflected by electric and magnetic
fields.
Some basic features of the photon picture of electromagnetic radiation are
5. In a photon particle ( or photon-electron) collisions, the total energy & total

momentum is conserved. However the number of photons may not be
conserved. The photon may be absorbed or a new photon may be created.
6. If the intensity of light of a given wavelength is increased, there is a increase in

the number of photons incident on a given area in a given time. But the energy
of each photon remains the same.
Determination of Plank’s Constant & Work Function
1
𝐾𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑚𝑣𝑚𝑎𝑥 2 = (ℎ𝜈 − ℎ𝜈0 )
2
𝑒𝑉0 = ℎ𝜈 − 𝑊0
ℎ 𝑊0
𝑉0 = 𝜈−
𝑒 𝑒
Compare with Straight Line equation
𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑐
𝐴𝐶 ℎ
𝑚 = tan 𝜃 = = 𝑊0 = 𝑒 × 𝑀𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑝𝑡 𝑜𝑛 𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠
𝐵𝐶 𝑒
𝑒 × ∆𝑉
ℎ=
∆𝜈 Click the link to Watch this video  Arvind Academy YouTube Channel
Q. Using the graph shown in the fig for stopping potential versus the
incident frequency of photons, calculate Planck’s constant.
Q. Photoelectrons are emitted from a metal surface when UV light of
wavelength 𝜆 = 300 𝑛𝑚 is incident on it. The minimum negative potential
required to stop the emission of electrons is 0.54 V. Calculate :
(i) the energy of the incident photons
(ii) the maximum kinetic energy of the photoelectrons emitted
(iii) the work function of the metal.
Express all answers in eV.
Q. Light of wavelength 5000 Å falls on a metal surface of work function 1.9 eV.
Find
(i) the energy of photons in eV
(ii) the K.E. of photoelectrons and
(iii) the stopping potential.
Dual Nature of Radiation
Light has dual nature. It manifests itself as a wave in
diffraction, interference, polarisation, etc., while it
shows particle nature in photoelectric effect, Compton
scattering, etc.
Dual Nature of Matter: De-Broglie Waves
De-Broglie put forward the bold hypothesis that “material particles in
motion should display wave – like properties”.
His reasoning was based on the following two considerations:

1. Two physical quantities which govern all the form of the physical
universe are mass and energy
The Einstein's Mass – energy relationship: 𝐸 = 𝑚𝑐 2
2. Nature loves symmetry, therefore, from symmetry

considerations, de – Broglie predicted that matter also posses
dual nature.
The waves associated with material particles in motion are called matter or
de Broglie waves and their wavelength is de Broglie wavelength.
𝑑𝑒 − 𝐵𝑟𝑜𝑔𝑙𝑖𝑒 ′ 𝑠 𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

ℎ ℎ
𝜆= =
𝑚𝑐 𝑝
ℎ ℎ
𝜆= =
𝑝 𝑚𝑣
From de Broglie wave equation, we find that
1
1. 𝜆 ∝ 𝑝
2. If 𝑣 = 0, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝜆 = ∞.
3. To be associated with a de Broglie wave, a particle need not have a

charge. That is why, de-Broglie waves are also known as matter waves.
4. De Broglie wave cannot be electromagnetic in nature because

electromagnetic waves are only associated with accelerated charged
particles.
De- Broglie Wavelength of an Electron
De- Broglie Wavelength of electron is
ℎ ℎ ℎ 12.3 0
𝜆= = = = 𝐴
𝑝 2𝑚𝐾 2𝑚𝑒𝑉 𝑉
V is here accelerating potential.
Q. An electron is accelerated through a potential difference of 100 V.
What is the de Broglie wavelength associated with it? To which part of the
electromagnetic spectrum does this value of wavelength correspond?
[CBSE 2010]
Q. An 𝛼 − 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒 and a proton are accelerated from rest by the same
potential. Find the ratio of their de-Broglie wavelengths. [CBSE 2010]
ArvindSir One Shot
औरों से अलग
1. All Topics Covered
2. Zero to Hero
3. Pure Teaching, No Faltu Talks
For Presentations & Notes
Arvind Academy
Telegram Channel
Arvind Academy
App
Class 12, 11 & NEET
Download Now

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Chap 11: Dual Nature of Radiation & Matter

One Shot Video

The work function depends on (i) the nature of

𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑎𝑛 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛

Electron volt is commonly used unit of energy in

1. Thermionic emission ( e called thermo electrons)

The photo (light) – generated electrons are called photoelectrons.

The phenomenon of photoelectric effect was discovered by Heinrich Hertz

While demonstrating the existence of electromagnetic waves, Hertz found

These observations again indicate that

Hallwachs and Lenard also observed that when the

For a given frequency, the stopping potential is independent of its intensity.

the value of stopping potential increases with the

(i) The stopping potential increases linearly with the

(ii) There exists a certain minimum cut-off frequency for

(iii) For two different metals A and B, these graphs are

(i) The maximum kinetic energy of the photoelectrons increases

(ii) For a frequency v of the incident radiation less than the

2. For a given photosensitive material, there exists a certain minimum

4. The photoelectric emission is an instantaneous process. The

1. The independence of 𝐾𝑚𝑎𝑥 on intensity

The main points of the Einstein’s theory of photoelectric effect are:

1. Photoelectric emission is the result of interaction of two particles – one a

1. Explanation of effect of intensity: Increase of intensity means increase

2. Explanation of threshold frequency: If 𝜈 < 𝜈0 the K.E. of

4. Explanation of time lag: Photoelectric emission is the result of an elastic

1. When radiation interacts with matter, it behaves as if it is made up of particles,

3. All photons of light of a particular frequency 𝜈 or wavelength 𝜆, have the same

5. In a photon particle ( or photon-electron) collisions, the total energy & total

6. If the intensity of light of a given wavelength is increased, there is a increase in

His reasoning was based on the following two considerations:

2. Nature loves symmetry, therefore, from symmetry

𝑑𝑒 − 𝐵𝑟𝑜𝑔𝑙𝑖𝑒 ′ 𝑠 𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

3. To be associated with a de Broglie wave, a particle need not have a

4. De Broglie wave cannot be electromagnetic in nature because

V is here accelerating potential.

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