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m
bi si
G s i 0
n
(4-43)
ai si
i 0
bm s z1 s z2 s zm
G s (6-7)
an s p1 s p2 s pn
where {zi} are the zeros and {pi} are the poles.
Solution
The response of this system to a step change in input is
y t KM 1 a 1 et /1 a 2 et / 2 (6-12)
1 2 2 1
Case a: a 1
Case b: 0 a 1
Case c: a 0
Summary: Effects of Pole and Zero Locations
1. Poles
j 1 x Real axis
x
2. Zeros
Note: Zeros have no effect on system stability.
Zero in RHP: results in an inverse response to a step change in
the input
Imaginary axis
Real inverse
x response
axis
Point 1 Point 2
Figure 6.5
Assume that the velocity profile is flat, that is, the velocity
is uniform over the cross-sectional area. This situation is
analyzed in Example 6.5 and Fig. 6.6.
Example 6.5
For the pipe section illustrated in Fig. 6.5, find the transfer
functions:
(a) relating the mass flow rate of liquid at 2, w2, to the mass flow
rate of liquid at 1, w1,
(b) relating the concentration of a chemical species at 2 to the
concentration at 1. Assume that the liquid is incompressible.
Solution
(a) First we make an overall material balance on the pipe
segment in question. Since there can be no accumulation
(incompressible fluid),
c2 t c1 t (6-32)
C2 s
e s (6-33)
C1 s
Y s
e s (6-34)
U s
Note that has units of time (e.g., minutes, hours)
Polynomial Approximations to es :
s 2 s 2 3 s 3 4 s 4
e 1 s (6-35)
2! 3! 4!
The approximation is obtained by truncating after only a few
terms.
2. Pad Approximations:
Many are available. For example, the 1/1 approximation is,
1 s
e s 2 (6-36)
1 s
2
dh1
Mass Balance: A1 qi q1 (1)
dt
1
Valve Relation: q1 h1 (2)
R1
H1 s R1 K1
(6)
Qi s A1R1s 1 1s 1
Q2 s 1 1
(9)
H 2 s R2 K 2
Q2 s Q2 s H 2 s Q1 s H1 s
(10)
Qi s H 2 s Q1 s H1 s Qi s
or
Q2 s 1 K 2 1 K1
(11)
Qi s K 2 2 s 1 K1 1s 1
Q2 s 1
(12)
Qi s 1s 1 2 s 1
1
q1 h1 h2 (13)
R1
In Exercise 6.15, the reader can show that >1 by analyzing the
denominator of (14); hence, the transfer function is overdamped,
second order, and has a negative zero.
Model Comparison
Noninteracting system
Q2 ( s ) 1
(12)
Qi( s ) ( 1s 1)( 2 s 1)
where 1 A1 R1 and 2 A2 R2
Interacting system
Q2 ( s ) 1
2 2
Qi( s ) s 2 s 1
where 1 and 1 2
General Conclusions
1. The interacting system has a slower response.
(Example: consider the special case where =
2. Which two-tank system provides the best damping
of inlet flow disturbances?
Approximation of Higher-Order Transfer
Functions
In this section, we present a general approach for
approximating high-order transfer function models with
lower-order models that have similar dynamic and steady-state
characteristics.
e 0 s 1 0 s (6-57)
1 1
e 0 s (6-58)
e 0 s 1 0 s
Example 6.4
Consider a transfer function:
K 0.1s 1
G s (6-59)
5s 1 3s 1 0.5s 1
Derive an approximate first-order-plus-time-delay model,
Kes
G s
(6-60)
s 1
using two methods:
(a) The Taylor series expansions of Eqs. 6-57 and 6-58.
(b) Skogestads half rule
Ke 2.1s
GSk s
(6-64)
6.5s 1
The normalized step responses for G(s) and the two approximate
models are shown in Fig. 6.10. Skogestads method provides
better agreement with the actual response.
Figure 6.10
Comparison of the
actual and
approximate models
for Example 5.4.
Example 6.5
Consider the following transfer function:
K 1 s e s
G s (6-65)
12s 1 3s 1 0.2s 1 0.05s 1
Use Skogestads method to derive two approximate models:
(a) A first-order-plus-time-delay model in the form of (6-60)
(b) A second-order-plus-time-delay model in the form:
s
Ke
G s (6-66)
1s 1 2 s 1
Compare the normalized output responses for G(s) and the
approximate models to a unit step input.
Solution
(a) For the first-order-plus-time-delay model, the dominant time
constant (12) is retained.
One-half of the largest neglected time constant (3) is allocated to
the retained time constant and one-half to the approximate time
delay.
Also, the small time constants (0.2 and 0.05) and the zero (1) are
added to the original time delay.
Thus the model parameters in (6-60) are:
3.0
1 0.2 0.05 1 3.75
2
3.0
12 13.5
2
0.2
1 0.05 1 2.15
2
1 12, 2 3 0.1 3.1
In this case, the half rule is applied to the third largest time
constant (0.2). The normalized step responses of the original and
approximate transfer functions are shown in Fig. 6.9.
Multiple-Input, Multiple Output
(MIMO) Processes
Most industrial process control applications involved a number
of input (manipulated) and output (controlled) variables.
These applications often are referred to as multiple-input/
multiple-output (MIMO) systems to distinguish them from the
simpler single-input/single-output (SISO) systems that have
been emphasized so far.
Modeling MIMO processes is no different conceptually than
modeling SISO processes.
(6-104)
Figure 6.12. A multi-input, multi-output thermal mixing process.
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Normal method, but interactions may present
tuning problems.
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