Aspe Volume 4 PDF

American Society of Plumbing Engineers
Plumbing Engineering
Design Handbook
A Plumbing Engineers Guide to System Design and Specifications
Volume 4
Plumbing Components
and Equipment

8614 W. Catalpa Avenue, Suite 1007
Chicago, IL 60656-1116
2008 PEDH Data Book Vol 4.indd 1 10/16/2008 11:57:16 AM

The ASPE Plumbing Engineering Design Handbook is designed to provide accurate and authoritative information for the design and
specification of plumbing systems. The publisher makes no guarantees or warranties, expressed or implied, regarding the data and infor-
mation contained in this publication. All data and information are provided with the understanding that the publisher is not engaged in
rendering legal, consulting, engineering, or other professional services. If legal, consulting, or engineering advice or other expert assistance
is required, the services of a competent professional should be engaged.

8614 W. Catalpa Avenue, Suite 1007
Chicago, IL 60656-1116
(773) 693-ASPE Fax: (773) 695-9007
E-mail: aspehq@aol.com Internet: www.aspe.org
Copyright 2008 by American Society of Plumbing Engineers
All rights reserved, including rights of reproduction and use in any form or by any means, including the making of copies
by any photographic process, or by any electronic or mechanical device, printed or written or oral, or recording for
sound or visual reproduction, or for use in any knowledge or retrieval system or device, unless permission in writing is
obtained from the publisher.
ISBN 978-1-891255-28-1
Printed in China
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

Plumbing Engineering and Design Handbook
Volume 4
Plumbing Components and Equipment
Chair Jason McDonald, CPD
ASPE Vice President, Technical Norman Parks, CPD, CET
Editorial Review Gretchen Pienta
Layout & Design David Ropinski
CONTRIBUTORS
Chapter 1: Plumbing Fixtures Chapter 8: Grease Interceptors

Joseph Ficek, CPD Dennis Richards, CPD
Mark J. Kaulas
Chapter 2: Piping Systems
Mike Gauthier
Bruce Weiss, CPD
Greg Aymong
Chapter 3: Valves
Chapter 9: Cross-connection Control
Tom A. Wilson, CPD
Steven Skattebo, PE
Jason Geller
Chapter 10: Water Treatment
Chapter 4: Pumps
David DeBord, LEED, CPD
Steven Skattebo, PE
Chapter 11: Thermal Expansion
Chapter 5: Piping Insulation
Jodie Sherven, CPD
Dennis Richards, CPD
Bruce Weiss, CPD Chapter 12: Potable Water Coolers and
Central Water Systems
Chapter 6: Hangers and Supports
Frank Sanchez, CPD
Jason McDonald, CPD
Chapter 13: Bioremediation
Chapter 7: Vibration Isolation
Pretreatment Systems
Mark Stickney
Max Weiss
Chapter 14: Green Plumbing
David DeBord, LEED, CPD

About ASPE
The American Society of Plumbing Engineers (ASPE) is the international organization for professionals skilled in
the design and specification of plumbing systems. ASPE is dedicated to the advancement of the science of plumbing
engineering, to the professional growth and advancement of its members, and to the health, welfare, and safety of
the public.
The Society disseminates technical data and information, sponsors activities that facilitate interaction with
fellow professionals, and, through research and education programs, expands the base of knowledge of the plumbing
engineering industry. ASPE members are leaders in innovative plumbing design, effective materials and energy use,
and the application of advanced techniques from around the world.
Worldwide Membership ASPE was founded in 1964 and currently has 7,000 members. Spanning the globe,
members are located in the United States, Canada, Asia, Mexico, South America, the South Pacific, Australia, and
Europe. They represent an extensive network of experienced engineers, designers, contractors, educators, code
officials, and manufacturers interested in furthering their careers, their profession, and the industry. ASPE is at the
forefront of technology. In addition, ASPE represents members and promotes the profession among all segments of the
construction industry.
ASPE Membership Communication All members belong to ASPE worldwide and have the opportunity to
belong to and participate in one of the 59 state, provincial, or local chapters throughout the U.S. and Canada. ASPE
chapters provide the major communication links and the first line of services and programs for the individual member.
Communication with the membership is enhanced through the Societys magazine, Plumbing Systems & Design,
and the newsletter ASPE Report, which is incorporated as part of the magazine.
Technical Publications The Society maintains a comprehensive publishing program, spearheaded by the
professions basic reference text, the Plumbing Engineering Design Handbook. The Plumbing Engineering Design
Handbook, encompassing 49 chapters in four volumes, provides comprehensive details of the accepted practices and
design criteria used in the field of plumbing engineering. In 2008, the Plumbing Engineering and Design Handbook
of Tables joined ASPEs published library of professional technical manuals and handbooks.
Convention and Technical Symposium The Society hosts biennial Conventions in even-numbered years and
Technical Symposia in odd-numbered years to allow professional plumbing engineers and designers to improve their
skills, learn original concepts, and make important networking contacts to help them stay abreast of current trends
and technologies. In conjunction with each Convention is an Engineered Plumbing Exposition, the largest gathering
of plumbing engineering and design products, equipment, and services. Everything from pipes to pumps to fixtures,
from compressors to computers to consulting services is on display, giving engineers and specifiers the opportunity to
view the newest and most innovative materials and equipment available to them.
Certified in Plumbing Design ASPE sponsors a national certification program for engineers and designers of
plumbing systems, which carries the designation Certified in Plumbing Design or CPD. The certification program
provides the profession, the plumbing industry, and the general public with a single, comprehensive qualification of
professional competence for engineers and designers of plumbing systems. The CPD, designed exclusively by and for
plumbing engineers, tests hundreds of engineers and designers at centers throughout the United States. Created to
provide a single, uniform national credential in the field of engineered plumbing systems, the CPD program is not
in any way connected to state-regulated Professional Engineer (PE) registration.
ASPE Research Foundation The ASPE Research Foundation, established in 1976, is the only independent,
impartial organization involved in plumbing engineering and design research. The science of plumbing engineering
affects everything, from the quality of our drinking water to the conservation of our water resources to the building
codes for plumbing systems. Our lives are impacted daily by the advances made in plumbing engineering technology
through the Foundations research and development.

Plumbing Engineering Design Handbook
(4 Volumes 49 Chapters)
Volume 1 Fundamentals of Plumbing Engineering (Revised 2004)

Chapter 1 Formulas, Symbols, and Terminology
2 Standards for Plumbing Materials and Equipment
3 Specifications
4 Plumbing Cost Estimation
5 Job Preparation, Plumbing Drawings, and Field Reports
6 Plumbing for People (or Persons) with Disabilities
7 Energy and Resource Conservation in Plumbing Systems
8 Corrosion
9 Seismic Protection of Plumbing Equipment
10 Acoustics in Plumbing Systems
11 Basics of Value Engineering
12 Green Design for Plumbing Systems
Volume 2 Plumbing Systems (Revised 2006)

Chapter 1 Sanitary Drainage Systems
2 Grey Water (Water Reuse) Systems
3 Vents and Venting
4 Storm Drainage Systems
5 Cold Water Systems
6 Domestic Water Heating Systems
7 Fuel-Gas Piping Systems
8 Private Onsite Wastewater Treatment Systems (POWTS)
9 Private Water Wells
10 Vacuum Systems
11 Water Treatment, Conditioning, and Purification
12 Special-Waste Drainage Systems
Volume 3 Special Plumbing Systems (Revised 2007)

Chapter 1 Fire Protection Systems
2 Plumbing Design for Health Care Facilities
3 Treatment of Industrial Waste
4 Irrigation Systems
5 Reflecting Pools and Fountains
6 Public Swimming Pools
7 Gasoline and Diesel Oil Systems
8 Steam and Condensate Piping
9 Compressed Air Systems
10 Solar Energy
11 Site Utility Systems
(The chapters and subjects listed for these volume are subject to modification, adjustment and change.
The contents shown for each volume are proposed and may not represent the final contents of the volume.
A final listing of included chapters for each volume will appear in the actual publication.)

Table of Contents
Chapter 1: Plumbing Fixtures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

Accessibility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Applicable Standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
LEED and Plumbing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Water Closets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Shape and Size . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Bariatric Water Closets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Water Closet Seat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Flushing Performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Installation Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Flushing Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Urinals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Urinal Styles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Flushing Performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Installation Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Flushing Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Lavatories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Size and Shape . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Installation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Kitchen Sinks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Residential Kitchen Sinks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Commercial Kitchen Sinks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Service Sinks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Sinks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Laundry Trays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Faucets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Faucet Categories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Flow Rates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Backflow Protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Drinking Fountains . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Showers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Shower Valves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Bathtubs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

ii ASPE Plumbing Engineering Design HandbookVolume 4
Bathtub Fill Valve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

Bidet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Floor Drains . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Emergency Fixtures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Minimum Fixture Requirements for Buildings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Single-occupant Toilet Rooms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Chapter 2: Piping Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

Installation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
Specification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
Cast Iron Soil Pipe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
Hub and Spigot Pipe, No-hub Pipe and Fittings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
Hubless Pipe and Fittings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Ductile Iron Water and Sewer Pipe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Concrete Pipe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
Copper Pipe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
Copper Water Tube . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
Copper Drainage Tube . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
Medical Gas Tube . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
Natural and Liquefied Petroleum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
Glass Pipe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
Steel Pipe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
Plastic Pipe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
Polybutylene . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
Polyethylene . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
Crossed-linked Polyethylene . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
Crossed-linked Polyethylene, Aluminum, Crossed-linked Polyethylene . . . . . . . . . . 52
Polyethylene/Aluminum/Polyethylene . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
Polyvinyl Chloride . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
Chlorinated Polyvinyl Chloride . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
Acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
Polypropylene . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
Polyvinylidene Fluoride . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
Teflon (PTFE) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
Low-extractable PVC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
Fiberglass and Reinforced Thermosetting Resin Pipe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
Vitrified Clay Pipe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
Duriron Pipe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
Special-purpose Piping Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
Aluminum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
Stainless Steel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
Corrugated Stainless Steel Tubing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
Double Containment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
Joining Practices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
Mechanical Joints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
Compression Joints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60

Table of Contents iii
Lead and Oakum Joints (Caulked Joints) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60

Shielded Hubless Coupling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
Mechanically Formed Tee Fittings for Copper Tube . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
Mechanical Joining of Copper Tube . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
Joining Plastic Pipe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
Assembling Flanged Joints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
Making Up Threaded Pipe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
Thread Cutting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
Welding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
Joining Glass Pipe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
Bending Pipe and Tubing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
Electrofusion Joining . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
Accessories and Joints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
Anchors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
Dielectric Unions or Flanges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
Expansion Joints and Guides . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
Ball Joints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
Flexible Couplings (Compression or Slip) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
Gaskets (Flanged Pipe) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
Mechanical Couplings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
Hangers and Supports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
Pipe Unions (Flanged Connections) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
Pipe Sleeves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
Service Connections (Water Piping) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
Piping Expansion and Contraction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
Chapter 3: Valves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
Approval Organizations and Standard Practices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
Glossary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
Types of Valves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
Gate Valve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
Globe Valve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
Angle Valve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
Ball Valve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
Butterfly Valve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
Check Valve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
Plug Valve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
Valve Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
Brass and Bronze . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
Iron . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
Malleable Iron . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
Stainless Steel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
Thermoplastic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
Valve Ratings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
Valve Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
Stems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79

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Bonnets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
End Connections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
Water-pressure Regulators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
Regulator Selection and Sizing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
Common Regulating Valves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
Common Types of Regulator Installations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
Valve Design Choices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
Service Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
Multi-turn Type . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
Quarter-turn Type . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
Check Type . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
Design Detail: Gate Valve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
Advantages and Recommendations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
Disadvantages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
Disc and Seat Designs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
Design Detail: Globe and Angle Globe Valve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
Disadvantages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
Disc and Seat Designs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
Design Detail: Check Valve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
Design Detail: Quarter-turn Ball Valve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
Disadvantages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
Body Styles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
Port Size . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
Handle Extensions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
Design Detail: Quarter-turn Butterfly Valve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
Disadvantages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
Body Styles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
Design Detail: Quarter-turn Valve, Lubricated Plug Cock . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
Disadvantages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
Valve Sizing and Pressure Losses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
General Valve Specification by Service . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
Hot and Cold Domestic Water Service . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
Compressed Air Service . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
Vacuum Service . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
Medical Gas Service . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
Low-pressure Steam and General Service . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
Medium-pressure Steam Service . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
High-pressure Steam Service . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
High-temperature Hot Water Service . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
Gasoline and LPG Service . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
Fire Protection Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89

Table of Contents v
High-rise Service . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
Chapter 4: Pumps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
Pump Basics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
Efficiency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
Comparison of Similar Centrifugal Pumps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
Performance Curves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
Terminology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
Staging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
Pump Service . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
Environmental Concerns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
Pump Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
Pump Installation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
Chapter 5: Piping Insulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105

Glossary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
Water Vapor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
Flame and Smoke Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
Cleaning and Sterilization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
Types of Insulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
Fiberglass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
Elastomeric . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
Cellular Glass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
Foamed Plastic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
Calcium Silicate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
Insulating Cement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
Types of Jacket . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
All-service Jacket . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
Aluminum Jacket . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
Stainless Steel Jacket . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
Plastic Jacket and Laminates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
Wire Mesh . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
Lagging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
Installing Insulation for Valves and Fittings for Piping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
Installing Insulation for Tanks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
Pipe Support Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
Selection of Insulation Thickness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
Controlling Heat Loss . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
Condensation Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
Personnel Protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
Economics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
Freeze Protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
Insulation Design Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115

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Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
Chapter 6: Hangers and Supports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117

Hanger and Support Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
Hangers and Supports as Part of the Piping System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
Thermal Stresses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
Pressure Fluctuations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
Structural Stresses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
Natural Environmental Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
Reactivity and Conductivity Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
Acoustics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
Manmade Environmental Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
Hanger and Support Selection and Installation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
Hanger Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
Selection Criteria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
Hanger and Support Spacing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
Anchoring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
Sleeves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
Hangers, Supports, and Anchor Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
Glossary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
Chapter 7: Vibration Isolation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145

Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
Theory of Vibration Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
Types of Vibration and Shock Mountings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
Cork . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
Elastomers and Neoprene Rubber . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
Steel Spring Isolators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
Chapter 8: Grease Interceptors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153

Principle of Operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
Retention Period . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
Flow-through Period . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
Factors Affecting Flotation in the Ideal Basin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
Grease Interceptor Design Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
Solution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
Practical Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
Hydromechanical Grease Interceptors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
Semiautomatic Units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
Grease Removal Devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
Timer-controlled Units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
Sensor-controlled Units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159

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FOG Disposal Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160

Gravity Grease Interceptors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
Field-formed Concrete Units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
Equipment Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
Flow Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
Guidelines for Sizing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
Code Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
Summary of Uniform Plumbing Code Requirements for Interceptors . . . . . . . . . . 164
Summary of International Plumbing Code Requirements for Hydromechanical
Grease Interceptors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
Operation and Maintenance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
Economics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
Chapter 9: Cross-connection Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169

Hydrostatic Fundamentals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
Causes of Reverse Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
Hazards in Water Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
Control Paradox . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
Classification of Hazards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
Control Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
Passive Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
Active Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
Installations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
Installation Shortfalls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
Quality Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
Product Standards and Listings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
Field Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
Regulatory Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
Glossary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
Appendix 9-A Sample Water Department Cross-connection Control
Program/Ordinance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
Appendix 9-B Plumbing System Hazards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
Appendix 9-C American Water Works Association Statement of Policy . . . . . . . . . . . 184
Appendix 9-D Application of Cross-connection control Devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
Appendix 9-E Safe Drinking Water Act Maximum Contaminant Levels . . . . . . . . . . 186
Appendix 9-F Index of Water Treatment Equipment/Water Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
Appendix 9-G Case Studies of Cross-Contamination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
Human Blood in Water Supply . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
Chemical Burn in the Shower . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
Propane Gas in Water Supply . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188
Boiler Water Enters High School Drinking Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188
Carwash Water in City Main . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188
Shipyard Backflow Contamination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189

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Hexavalent Chromium in Water Supply . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189

Dialysis Machine Contamination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
Chapter 10: Water Treatment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193

Need and Purpose for Water Treatment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
Damage by Untreated Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
External and Internal Treatment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
Basic Water Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
Methods of Producing High-grade Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
Water Conditions and Recommended Treatments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
Turbidity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
Hardness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
Aeration and Deaeration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
Minerals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
Ion ExchangeTheory and Practice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
Controls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198
Internal Arrangements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198
Ion Exchange Water Softeners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198
Basic Water Treatment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
Chlorination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
Clarification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200
Filtration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
Water Softening . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
Water Softener Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
Salt Recycling Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
Salt Storage Options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
Distillation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
Distillation Equipment Applications and Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212
Feed Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214
Specialized Water Treatment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
Chlorination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
Ozone Treatment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
Ultraviolet Light Treatment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216
Reverse Osmosis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216
Nanofiltration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220
Ultrafiltration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220
Copper-Silver Ionization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220
Glossary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220
Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224
Chapter 11: Thermal Expansion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227

Aboveground Piping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
Pressure Piping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
Drain, Waste, and Vent Piping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
Underground Piping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
Expansion Tanks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231

Table of Contents ix
Expansion of Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232

Expansion of Material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232
Boyles Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234
Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235
Chapter 12: Potable Water Coolers and Central Water Systems . . . . . 237
Water in the Human Body . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
Unitary Coolers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
Options and Accessories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240
Water Cooler Features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240
Refrigeration Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242
Stream Regulators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242
Water Conditioning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242
Ratings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
Central Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
Chillers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
Distribution Piping System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244
Drinking Water Coolers and Central Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244
Drinking Fountains . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244
System Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244
Refrigeration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244
Circulating Pump . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245
Storage Tank . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245
Distribution Piping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246
Installation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
Standards, Codes, and Regulations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
Chapter 13: Bioremediation Pretreatment Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249

Principle of Operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249
Separation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250
Retention . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250
Disposal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250
Flow Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251
Sizing Guidelines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251
Design Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251
Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252
Concrete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252
Stainless Steel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252
Fiberglass Reinforced Polyester . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252
Polyethylene . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252
Structural Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252
Dimension and Performance Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253
Installation and Workmanship . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253
Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253

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Chapter 14: Green Plumbing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255

The Big Picture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255
Water Use Facts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255
Water and Sanitation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255
Water and Disease . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256
Water and Economic Growth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256
What Is Sustainable Design? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256
Standards and Validation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256
U.S. Green Building Council . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256
How Can LEED Help? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257
The LEED Certification Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257
The LEED Rating System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257
Real Life Financial Benefits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258
Obstacles and Objections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258
Domestic Water Use Reduction for Irrigation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258
Domestic Water Use Reduction for Fixtures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258
Low-flow Fixtures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258
Wastewater Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259
Rainwater Capture and Reuse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260
Graywater and Black Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261
Biosolids Technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261
Energy Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264
Energy Efficiency and Energy-saving Strategies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264
Solar Water Heating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264
Geothermal Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265
Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265
Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267

Table of Contents xi
Figures
Figure 1-1 The older styles of water closets were identified as (A) reverse trap, (B)
blowout, and (C) siphon jet, to name a few. Though still used in the industry, these
terms are no longer used in the standards. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Figure 1-2 Water closets are identified as (A) close coupled, (B) one piece, and (C)
flushometer types. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Figure 1-3 A floor-mounted, back outlet water closet is supported on the floor with the
piping connection through the back wall. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Figure 1-4 A wall hung water closet attaches to the back wall; the water closet does not
contact the floor. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Figure 1-5 The standard rough-in dimension is 12 inches from the centerline of the
water closet outlet to the back wall. The floor flange must be permanently secured to
the building structure. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Figure 1-6 The minimum size water closet compartment is 30 in.60 in. Spacing is
required from the centerline of the water closet to a side wall or obstruction and
from the front lip of the water closet to any obstruction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Figure 1-7 Minimum Chase Sizes for Carriers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Figure 1-8 (A) A Gravity Tank and (B) a Flushometer Tank . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Figure 1-9 Urinal spacing must be adequate to allow adjacent users to access the
urinals without interference. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Figure 1-10 Minimum Chase Sizes for Urinals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Figure 1-11 Recommended Installation Dimensions for a Lavatory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Figure 1-12 Minimum Chase Sizes for Lavatories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Figure 1-13 Standard dimensions for a kitchen sink include a counter height of 36
inches above the finished floor. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Figure 1-14 When grease-laden waste is possible, the sink must discharge to a grease
interceptor. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Figure 1-15 Drinking fountain height can vary depending on the application. . . . . . . 14
Figure 1-16 Built-in-place showers require a pan below the floor. The drain must have
weep holes at the shower pan level. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Figure 1-17 A standard bathtub is 5 ft in length. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Figure 1-18 A trench drain can be used as a floor drain in a building. A separate trap is
required for each section of trench drain. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Figure 1-19 Floor Drain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Figure 1-20 Emergency Shower . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Figure 2-1 Cast Iron Soil Pipe Joints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
Figure 2-2 Cast Iron Soil Pipe (extra-heavy and service classes) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24

xii ASPE Plumbing Engineering Design HandbookVolume 4
Figure 2-3 Hubless Cast Iron Soil Pipe and Fittings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24

Figure 2-4 Joints and Fittings for Ductile Iron Pipe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
Figure 2-5 Copper Tube Flared Fittings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
Figure 2-6 Copper and Bronze Joints and Fittings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
Figure 2-7 Copper Drainage Fittings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
Figure 2-8 Standard Glass Pipe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
Figure 2-9 Standard Glass Pipe Couplings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
Figure 2-10 Typical Glass Pipe Joint Reference Chart . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
Figure 2-11 Standard Glass Fittings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
Figure 2-12 Plastic Pipe Fittings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
Figure 2-13 Fusion Lock Process in Operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
Figure 2-14 Duriron Pipe (A) Duriron Joint (B) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
Figure 2-15 Copper Pipe Mechanical T-joint . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
Figure 2-16 Typical Welding Fittings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
Figure 2-17 Types of Welded Joints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
Figure 2-18 Anchors and Inserts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
Figure 2-19 Dielectric Fittings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
Figure 2-20 Expansion Joints and Guides . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
Figure 2-21 Compression Fittings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
Figure 2-22 Mechanical Joint . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
Figure 2-23 Hangers, Clamps, and Supports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
Figure 2-24 Pipe Union . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
Figure 2-25 Sleeves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
Figure 3-1 Gate Valve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
Figure 3-2 Globe Valve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
Figure 3-3 Angle Valve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
Figure 3-4 Ball Valve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
Figure 3-5 Butterfly Valve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
Figure 3-6 Check Valve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
Figure 3-7 Valve Stems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
Figure 4-1 Portion of a Close-coupled Centrifugal Pump With an
End-suction Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
Figure 4-2 Inline Centrifugal Pump with a Vertical Shaft . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
Figure 4-3 Enclosed Impeller . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
Figure 4-4 Centrifugal Pump with a Double-suction Inlet Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
Figure 4-5 Net Fluid Movement From an Impeller Represented by Vector Y . . . . . . . 96
Figure 4-6 Typical Pump Curve Crossing a System Curve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
Figure 4-7 Multistage or Vertical Lineshaft Turbine Pump . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
Figure 4-8 Cross-section of a Grinder Pump with Cutting Blades at the Inlet . . . . . 100
Figure 5-1 Split Ring Hanger Detail . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
Figure 5-2 Clevis Hanger - High Density Inserts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
Figure 5-3 Temperature Drop of Flowing Water in a Pipeline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
Figure 6-1 Types of Hangers and Supports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
Figure 6-2 Types of Hanger and Support Anchors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
Figure 6-3 Hanger and Support Anchors for Particular Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131

Table of Contents xiii
Figure 7-1 Transmissibility vs. Frequency Ratio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146

Figure 7-2 Calculator for Vibration Isolation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
Figure 7-2(M) Calculator for Vibration Isolation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
Figure 7-3 Typical Cork . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
Figure 7-4 Typical Elastomer and Elastomer-cork Mountings. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
Figure 7-5 Typical Steel Spring Mounting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
Figure 8-1 Rising and Settling Rates in Still Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
Figure 8-2 Cross-section of a Grease Interceptor Chamber . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
Figure 8-3 Trajectory Diagram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
Figure 8-4 (A) Hydromechanical Grease Interceptor (B) Timer-controlled Grease
Removal Device (C) FOG Disposal System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
Figure 8-5 (A) Gravity Grease Interceptor (B) Passive, Tank-type Grease Interceptor . . 160
Figure 9-1 Hydrostatics Showing Reduced Absolute Pressure in a Siphon . . . . . . . . 170
Figure 9-2 Pipe Network With Four Endpoints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
Figure 9-3 Five Typical Plumbing Details Without Cross-connection Control . . . . . 170
Figure 9-4 Siphon Sufficiently High to Create a Barometric Loop . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
Figure 9-5 Five Typical Plumbing Details With Cross-connection Control . . . . . . . . 172
Figure 9-6 Example of Cross-connection Controls in a Building . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
Figure 9-7 Double-check Valve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
Figure 9-8 Reduced-pressure Principle Backflow Preventer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
Figure 9-9 Dual-check with Atmospheric Vent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
Figure 9-10 Atmospheric Vacuum Breaker . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
Figure 9-11 Hose Connection Vacuum Breaker . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
Figure 10-1 Ion Exchange VesselInternal Arrangements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198
Figure 10-2 Hydrogen-Sodium Ion Exchange Plant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
Figure 10-3 Sodium Cycle Softener Plus Acid Addition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
Figure 10-4 Automatic Chlorinators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200
Figure 10-5 Manual Control Chlorinator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
Figure 10-6 Settling Basin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
Figure 10-7 Mechanical Clarifier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202
Figure 10-8 Gravity Sand Filter (Rectangular shaped, material) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202
Figure 10-9 Vertical Pressure Sand Filter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
Figure 10-10 Backwashing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
Figure 10-11 Filtration and Backsplash Cycles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
Figure 10-12 Mudballs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204
Figure 10-13 Fissures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204
Figure 10-14 Gravel Upheaval . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204
Figure 10-15 Leaf Design, Diatomaceous Earth Filter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204
Figure 10-16 Lime Deposited from Water of 10 Grains Hardness as a
Function of Water Use and Temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
Figure 10-17 Water Softener Survey Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
Figure 10-18 Water Softener Sizing Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210
Figure 10-19 Water Softener with Salt Recycling System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
Figure 10-20 Distillation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
Figure 10-21 Typical Air Filter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214
Figure 10-22 Schematic Diagram of a Large-scale System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215

xiv ASPE Plumbing Engineering Design HandbookVolume 4
Figure 10-23 Simplified Plan View . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216

Figure 10-24 Reverse Osmosis Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
Figure 10-25 Osmotic Pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
Figure 10-26 Approaches to Providing Laboratory-grade and Reagent-grade Water . . . 219
Figure 10-27 Silver Ionization Unit and Control Panel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220
Figure 11-1 Expansion Loop Detail . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
Figure 11-2 Closed Hot Water System Showing the Effects as Water and Pressure
Increase from (A) P1 and T1 to (B) P2 and T2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230
Figure 11-3 Effects of an Expansion Tank in a Closed System as Pressure and
Temperature Increase from (A) P1 and T1 to (B) P2 and T2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
Figure 11-4 Sizing the Expansion Tank . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234
Figure 12-1 Early Drinking Faucet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
Figure 12-2 Bottled Water Cooler . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238
Figure 12-3 Wheelchair-accessible Pressure-type Water Cooler . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238
Figure 12-4 Pressure-type Pedestal Water Cooler . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238
Figure 12-5 Wheelchair-accessible Unit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239
Figure 12-6 Dual-height Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239
Figure 12-7 Dual-height Design with Chilling Unit Mounted Above Dispenser . . . . 239
Figure 12-8 Floor-mount Water Cooler . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240
Figure 12-9 Wall-hung water cooler . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240
Figure 12-10 Fully Recessed Water Cooler . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240
Figure 12-11 Fully Recessed Water Cooler with Accessories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241
Figure 12-12 Fully Recessed, Barrier-free Water Cooler for Wheelchair Access . . . . 241
Figure 12-13 Semi-recessed or Simulated Recessed Water Cooler . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241
Figure 12-14 Water Cooler Accessories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241
Figure 12-15 Upfeed Central System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
Figure 12-16 Downfeed Central System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244
Figure 12-17 Drinking Fountain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244
Figure 12-18 Drinking Fountain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244
Figure 13-1 Kinetically Operated Aerobic Bioremediation System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250
Figure 14-1 Typical Small Rainwater Cistern System Diagram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260
Figure 14-2 Graywater versus Black Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262
Figure 14-3 Simple Solar Domestic Water Heater Diagram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264

Table of Contents xv
Tables
Table 1-1 Plumbing Fixture Standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

Table 1-2 Faucet Flow Rate Restrictions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Table 1-3 Minimum Number of Required Plumbing Fixtures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Table 1-4 Minimum Plumbing Facilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
Table 2-1 Dimensions of Hubs, Spigots, and Barrels for Extra-heavy Cast Iron
Soil Pipe and Fittings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Table 2-1(M) Dimensions of Hubs, Spigots, and Barrels for Extra-heavy Cast Iron
Soil Pipe and Fittings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
Table 2-2 Dimensions of Hubs, Spigots, and Barrels for Service Cast Iron Soil Pipe
and Fittings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
Table 2-2(M) Dimensions of Hubs, Spigots, and Barrels for Service Cast Iron Soil Pipe and
Fittings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
Table 2-3 Dimensions of Spigots and Barrels for Hubless Pipe and Fittings . . . . . . . . 27
Table 2-4 Standard Minimum Pressure Classes of Ductile Iron Single-thickness
Cement-lined Pipe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
Table 2-5 Dimensions and Approximate Weights of Circular Concrete Pipe . . . . . . . . 30
Table 2-6 Commercially Available Lengths of Copper Plumbing Tube . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
Table 2-7 Dimensional and Capacity DataType K Copper Tube . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
Table 2-7(M) Dimensional and Capacity DataType K Copper Tube . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
Table 2-8 Dimensional and Capacity DataType L Copper Tube . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
Table 2-8(M) Dimensional and Capacity DataType L Copper Tube . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
Table 2-9 Dimensional and Capacity DataType M Copper Tube . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
Table 2-9(M) Dimensional and Capacity DataType M Copper Tube . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
Table 2-10 Dimensional DataType DWV Copper Tube . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
Table 2-11 Dimensional and Capacity DataSchedule 40 Steel Pipe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
Table 2-11(M) Dimensional and Capacity DataSchedule 40 Steel Pipe . . . . . . . . . . . 45
Table 2-12 Dimensional and Capacity DataSchedule 80 Steel Pipe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
Table 2-12(M) Dimensional and Capacity DataSchedule 80 Steel Pipe . . . . . . . . . . . 47
Table 2-13 Plastic Pipe Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
Table 2-13(M) Plastic Pipe Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
Table 2-14 Physical Properties of Plastic Piping Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
Table 2-14(M) Physical Properties of Plastic Piping Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
Table 2-15 Dimensions of Class 1 Standard Strength Perforated Clay Pipe . . . . . . . . 57
Table 2-15(M) Dimensions of Class 1 Standard Strength Perforated Clay Pipe . . . . . 57
Table 2-16 Dimensions of Class 1 Extra Strength Clay Pipe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
Table 2-16(M) Dimensions of Class 1 Extra Strength Clay Pipe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58

xvi ASPE Plumbing Engineering Design HandbookVolume 4
Table 2-17 Maximum and Minimum Rod Sizes for Copper Piping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
Table 2-18 Pipe Union Dimensions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
Table 4-1 Centrifugal Pump Affinity Laws . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
Table 5-1 Heat Loss in Btuh/ft Length of Fiberglass Insulation, ASJ Cover 150F
Temperature of Pipe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
Table 5-2 Heat Loss from Piping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
Table 5-3 Insulation Thickness - Equivalent Thickness (in.) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
Table 5-4 Dew-point Temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
Table 5-5 Insulation Thickness to Prevent Condensation, 50F Service Temperature
and 70F Ambient Temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
Table 5-6 Insulation Thickness for Personnel Protection, 120F Maximum
Surface Temperature, 80F Ambient Temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
Table 5-7 Time for Dormant Water to Freeze . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
Table 6-1 Maximum Horizontal Pipe Hanger and Support Spacing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
Table 6-2 Pipe Classification by Temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
Table 6-3 Hanger and Support Selections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
Table 6-4 Recommended Minimum Rod Diameter for Single, Rigid Rod Hangers . . 132
Table 6-5 Load Ratings of Carbon Steel Threaded Hanger Rods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
Table 6-6 Minimum Design Load Ratings for Pipe Hanger Assemblies . . . . . . . . . . . 133
Table 6-7(A) Sample Design Load Tables for Manufacturers Concrete Inserts . . . . 133
Table 6-7(B) Sample Design Load Tables for Manufacturers Concrete Inserts . . . . 133
Table 7-1 The Relative Effectiveness of Steel Springs, Rubber, and
Cork in the Various Speed Ranges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
Table 8-1 Droplet Rise Time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
Table 8-2 Minimum Grease Retention Capacity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
Table 9-1 Air Gap Standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
Table 9-2 Types of Back-pressure Backflow Preventer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
Table 9-3 Types of Vacuum Breakers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
Table 10-1 Chemical Names, Common Names and Formulas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
Table 10-2 Water TreatmentImpurities and Constituents, Possible Effects
and Suggested Treatments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
Table 10-3 Water Consumption Guide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208
Table 10-4 Comparison of Laboratory-grade Water Quality Produced by
Centralized Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218
Table 10-5 Applications of RO Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
Table 11-1 Linear Coefficients of Thermal Expansion or Contraction . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
Table 11-2 Developed Length of Pipe to Accommodate 1-in. Movement . . . . . . . . . 229
Table 11-3 Approximate Sine Wave Configuration With Displacement . . . . . . . . . . . 230
Table 11-4 Thermodynamic Properties of Water at a Saturated Liquid . . . . . . . . . . . 232
Table 11-5 Nominal Volume of Piping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
Table 12-1 Standard Rating Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238
Table 12-2 Drinking-water Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245
Table 12-3 Refrigeration Load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245
Table 12-4 Circulating System Line Loss . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245
Table 12-5 Circulating Pump Heat Input . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245
Table 12-6 Circulating Pump Capacity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245

Table of Contents xvii
Table 12-7 Friction of Water in Pipes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246

Table 12-8 Pressure Drop Calculations for Example 12-1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
Table 14-1 Treatment Stages for Water Reuse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259
Table 14-2 Rainwater Treatment Options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261
Table 14-3 Filtration/Disinfection Method Comparison . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261
Table 14-4 Storage Tank Options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262
Table 14-5 Comparison of Graywater and Black Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262

1 Plumbing Fixtures
It has been said that without plumbing fixtures, there

would be no indoor plumbing. A plumbing fixture is
supplied with water, discharges water and/or waste,
and performs a function for the user. Each fixture
other ceramic materials, vitreous china does not
absorb water because it is not porous. Vitreous
china plumbing fixture surfaces are glazed.
The glazing provides a nice finish that is easily
is designed for a specific activity to maintain public cleaned. Vitreous china is also an extremely
health and sanitation. strong material. Because vitreous china is
The standard plumbing fixtures used in a plumb- nonporous, it has a very high shrinkage rate
ing system include: when fired in a kiln. This accounts for the slight
differences among otherwise identical plumbing
Water closets fixtures.
Urinals Nonvitreous china: Nonvitreous china is a
Lavatories porous ceramic that requires glazing to prevent
any water absorption. Use of nonvitreous china
Kitchen sinks
for lavatories and similar fixtures is growing
Service sinks in popularity. The advantage of nonvitreous
Sinks china is its low shrinkage rate, which allows the
fixture to be more ornately designed.
Laundry trays
Glass: Tempered glass fixtures are being used
Drinking fountains in more lavatories. These fixtures tend to be
Showers ornately designed and can be found in numerous
Bathtubs designs and colors.
Bidets Enameled cast iron: The base of enameled

cast iron fixtures is a high-grade cast iron. The
Floor drains exposed surfaces have an enameled coating,
Emergency fixtures which is fused to the cast iron, resulting in a
hard, glossy, opaque, and acid-resistant surface.
In addition, fixture fittings used in connection with Enameled cast iron plumbing fixtures are heavy,
these plumbing fixtures include: strong, ductile, and long-lasting.
Faucets and fixture fittings Porcelain enameled steel: Porcelain enameled
Shower valves steel is a substantially vitreous or glossy
inorganic coating that is bonded to sheet steel by
Tub fillers
fusion. The sheet steel must be designed for the
application of the porcelain enamel to produce a
FIxTURE MATERIALS high-quality product.
The surface of any plumbing fixture must be smooth,
Stainless steel: A variety of stainless steels are
impervious, and easily cleanable to maintain a high used to produce plumbing fixtures. The different
level of sanitation. Fixture materials are selected types include 316, 304, 302, 301, 202, 201, and
based on these requirements. Common plumbing 430. One of the key ingredients in stainless
fixture materials include the following: steel is nickel. A higher nickel content tends to
Vitreous china: This is a unique material that produce a superior finish in the stainless steel.
is specially suited for plumbing fixtures. Unlike Types 302 and 304 have 8 percent nickel and
2 ASPE Plumbing Engineering Design HandbookVolume 4
Type 316 has 10 percent nickel. These are the LEED and Plumbing
two most common types. The LEED (Leadership in Energy and Environmental
Plastic: Plastic is a generic category for a Design) program is becoming more common in the
variety of synthetic materials used in plumbing construction industry. Many large corporations have
fixtures. The various plastic materials used to committed to certifying all of their new buildings. This
produce plumbing fixtures include acrylonitrile program is put forth by the U.S. Green Building Coun-
butadiene styrene (ABS); polyvinyl chloride cil (USGBC). Its intent is to provide a benchmark for
(PVC); gel-coated, fiberglass-reinforced plastic; the design of energy-efficient buildings.
acrylic; cultured marble; cast-filled fiberglass; The section on water efficiency (WE) applies to
polyester; cast-filled acrylic; gel-coated plastic; plumbing design. The five LEED points are:
and cultured marble acrylic. Plastics used in
plumbing fixtures are subject to numerous tests WE Credit 1.1: Water-efficient Landscaping:
to determine their quality. Some of the testing Reduce by 50 Percent
includes an ignition (torch) test, a cigarette burn WE Credit 1.2: Water-efficient Landscaping: No
test, a stain-resistance test, and a chemical- Potable Water Use or No Irrigation
resistance test. WE Credit 2: Innovative Wastewater
Soapstone: This is an older material used Technologies
predominantly in the manufacture of laundry WE Credit 3.1: Water Use Reduction: 20 Percent
trays and service sinks. Soapstone is steatite, Reduction
which is extremely heavy and very durable.
WE Credit 3.2: Water Use Reduction: 30 Percent
Reduction
Accessibility
Several federal and plumbing industry codes and These points can be obtained through design and
standards require certain plumbing fixtures to be specification of water-efficient products and systems.
accessible to people with disabilities. The
federal guidelines are the Americans with Table 1-1 Plumbing Fixture Standards
Disabilities Act (ADA) Standards for Acces- Plumbing Fixture Applicable Standard Fixture Material
sible Design. Accessibility standards also Water closet ANSI/ASME A112.19.2 Vitreous china
are found in American National Standards ANSI Z124.4 Plastic
Institute (ANSI)/International Code Council Urinal ANSI/ASME A112.19.2 Vitreous china
(ICC) A117.1: Accessible and Usable Build- ANSI Z124.9 Plastic
ings and Facilities. More information about Lavatory ANSI/ASME A112.19.1 Enameled cast iron
accessibility requirements can be found in ANSI/ASME A112.19.2 Vitreous china
Plumbing Engineering Design Handbook, ANSI/ASME A112.19.3 Stainless steel
ANSI/ASME A112.19.4 Porcelain enameled steel
Volume 1, Chapter 6.
ANSI/ASME A112.19.9 Nonvitreous china
ANSI Z124.3 Plastic
Applicable Standards
Sink ANSI/ASME A112.19.1 Enameled cast iron
Plumbing fixtures are regulated by nation- ANSI/ASME A112.19.2 Vitreous china
ally developed consensus standards. These ANSI/ASME A112.19.3 Stainless steel
standards specify materials, fixture designs, ANSI/ASME A112.19.4 Porcelain enameled steel
and testing requirements. ANSI/ASME A112.19.9 Nonvitreous china
While standards for plumbing fixtures ANSI Z124.6 Plastic
are considered voluntary, when they are Drinking fountain ANSI/ASME A112.19.1 Enameled cast iron
referenced in plumbing codes the require- ANSI/ASME A112.19.2 Vitreous china
ments become mandatory. Most fixture ANSI/ASME A112.19.9 Nonvitreous china
manufacturers have their products certified ARI 1010 Water coolers
by a third-party testing laboratory as being in Shower ANSI Z124.2 Plastic
conformance with the applicable standard. Bathtub ANSI/ASME A112.19.1 Enameled cast iron
Table 1-1 identifies the most common ANSI/ASME A112.19.4 Porcelain enameled steel
ANSI/ASME A112.19.9 Nonvitreous china
consensus standards regulating plumbing
ANSI Z124.1 Plastic
fixtures. A complete list of standards can
Bidet ANSI/ASME A112.19.2 Vitreous china
be found in Plumbing Engineering Design ANSI/ASME A112.19.9 Nonvitreous china
Handbook, Volume 1, Chapter 2. Floor drain ANSI/ASME A112.6.3 All materials
Emergency fixtures ANSI Z358.1 All materials
Faucets and fixture fittings ANSI/ASME A112.18.1 All materials
Waste fittings ANSI/ASME A112.18.2 All materials

Chapter 1Plumbing Fixtures 3
(A) (B) (C)

Figure 1-1 The older styles of water closets were identified as (A) reverse trap, (B) blowout, and (C) siphon jet, to name
a few. Though still used in the industry, these terms are no longer used in the standards.
In many cases, at least one LEED point can be ob- A one-piece water closet is, as the name
tained simply by specifying dual-flush water closets, suggests, one with the tank and bowl as one
reduced-flow urinals (0.5 gallons per flush [gpf] or piece.
less), and low-flow lavatories (0.5 gallons per min- A flushometer water closet is a bowl with a
ute [gpm]). For more information, visit the USGBC spud connection that receives the connection
website at www.usgbc.org or turn to Chapter 14 of from a flushometer valve. Flushometer water
this volume. closets also are referred to as top spud or
back spud bowls depending on the location of
Water Closets the connection for the flushometer valve. (See
Passage of the Energy Policy Act of 1992 by the U.S. Figure 1-2.)
government changed the way water closets (WCs) are
The flushing of a water closet may be identified as
designed. The act imposed a maximum flushing rate of
one of the following:
1.6 gpf (6 liters per flush [lpf]). This was a significant
drop in the quantity of water used, which previously In a gravity flush, used with tank-type water
was 3.5 gpf, and was considered to be a water savings. closets, the water is not under pressure and
Prior to the first enactment of water conservation in flushes by gravity.
the late 1970s, water closets typically flushed between With a flushometer tank, the water is stored in a
5 and 7 gallons of water. The greatest water use, 7 gpf, pressurized vessel and flushed under a pressure
was by blowout water closets. Ultra-low-flow WCs now
flush as little as 0.4 gpf (1.5 lpf). Dual-flush models
also are available. These give the user the option to
flush the full 1.6 gallons for solid waste or one-third
less for liquid waste.
With the modification in water flush volume, the (A)
style of each manufacturers water closet changed,
and the former terminology for identifying water
closets no longer fit. Water closets previously were
categorized as blowout, siphon jet, washout, reverse
trap, and washdown. Of these styles, the only one
currently in use is the siphon jet (see Figure 1-1).
This WC uses a jet of water at the bottom of the bowl (B)
to induce the siphon, thus clearing the bowl more
efficiently.
To meet the new standards, WC manufactur-
ers have re-engineered the bowls and trapways to
increase efficiency. The trapways are now glazed
and much smoother. Many manufacturers also have
increased the size of the trapway to further increase (C)
efficiency and facilitate waste removal.
Water closets currently are categorized as the
following:
Figure 1-2 Water closets are identified
A close-coupled water closet is one with a two- as (A) close coupled, (B) one piece, and
piece tank and bowl fixture. (C) flushometer types.

Figure 1-3 A floor-mounted, back outlet water closet is

supported on the floor with the piping connection through
the back wall.
Figure 1-5 The standard rough-in dimension is 12 inches

from the centerline of the water closet outlet to the back
wall. The floor flange must be permanently secured to the
building structure.
interfere with the cleaning of the floor. (See

Figure 1-4.)
Floor-mounted, back-outlet water closets are
supported by the floor yet connect to the piping
through the wall. The advantage of the floor-
Figure 1-4 A wall-hung water closet attaches to the
back wall; the water closet does not contact the floor. mounted, back-outlet water closet is that floor
penetrations are reduced. However, it is difficult
ranging between 25 and 35 pounds per square for manufacturers to produce a floor-mounted,
inch (psi). back-outlet water closet that meets current
flushing performance requirements.
A flushometer valve type of flush uses the water
supply line pressure to flush the water closet. Shape and Size
Because of the demand for a flush of a large A water closet bowl is classified as either a round front
volume of water in a short period, the water or elongated. An elongated bowl has an opening that
supply pipe must be larger in diameter than that extends 2 inches farther to the front of the bowl. Most
for gravity or flushometer tank types of flush. plumbing codes require elongated bowls for public
Another distinction used to identify a water and employee use. The additional 2 inches provides
closet is the manner of mounting and connection. a larger opening, often called a target area. With
The common designations for water closets are the the larger opening, there is a greater likelihood of
following: maintaining a cleaner water closet for each user.
For floor-mounted water closets, the outlet is iden-
A floor-mounted water closet is supported by
tified based on the rough-in dimension. The rough-in
the floor and connected directly to the piping
is the distance from the back wall to the center of the
through the floor. (See Figure 1-3.)
outlet when the water closet is installed. A standard
A wall-hung water closet is supported by a wall rough-in bowl outlet is 12 inches. Most manufactur-
hanger and never comes in contact with the ers also make water closets with a 10-inch or 14-inch
floor. Wall-hung water closets are considered rough-in. (See Figure 1-5.)
superior for maintaining a clean floor in the The size of the bowl also is based on the height of
toilet room since the water closet doesnt the bowls rim measured from the floor.

A standard water closet has a rim height of 14 to flush of three different flushes. The polypropylene
15 inches. This is the most common water closet balls are intended to replicate the density of human
to install. feces.
A childs water closet has a rim height of 10 The granule test utilizes approximately 2,500 disc-
inches above the floor. Many plumbing codes shaped granules of polyethylene. The initial flush of
require these water closets in daycare centers three different flushes must result in no more than
and kindergarten toilet rooms for use by small 125 granules on average remaining in the bowl. The
children. granule test is intended to simulate a flush of watery
feces (diarrhea).
A water closet for juvenile use has a rim height
of 13 inches. The ink test is performed on the inside wall of the
water closet bowl. A felt-tip marker is used to draw
A water closet for the physically challenged has a line around the inside of the bowl. After flushing,
a rim height of 18 inches. With the addition of no individual segment of line can exceed inch. The
the water closet seat, the fixture is designed to total length of the remaining ink line must not exceed
conform to accessibility requirements. 2 inches. This test determines that the water flushes
Bariatric Water Closets all interior surfaces of the bowl.
Bariatric WCs are made to accommodate overweight The dye test uses a colored dye added to the water
and obese people. These WCs support weights of 500 closets trap seal. The concentration of the dye is
to 1,000 pounds. They are available in vitreous china determined both before and after flushing the water
as well as stainless steel. Wall-hung fixtures require closet. A dilution ratio of 100:1 must be obtained for
special carriers designed for the increased loads. The each flush. This test determines the evacuation of
chase for wall-hung bariatric WCs need to be deeper urine in the trap seal.
to accommodate the larger carriers. The most com- The water consumption test determines that the
monly used bariatric WCs are floor mounted, which water closet meets the federal mandate of 1.6 gpf.
can safely accommodate weights in excess of 1,000 The trap seal restoration test determines that the
pounds. Bariatric WCs should be mounted at the water closet refills the trap of the bowl after each
accessibility-required height. flush. The remaining trap seal must be a minimum
of 2 inches in depth.
Water Closet Seat
The water rise test evaluates the rise of water in
A water closet seat must be designed for the shape
the bowl when the water closet is flushed. The water
of the bowl to which it connects. Two styles of water
cannot rise above a point 3 inches below the top of
closet seat are available: solid and split rim. Plumbing
the bowl.
codes typically require a split rim seat for public and
The back pressure test is used to determine that
employee use. The split rim seat is designed to facili-
the water seal remains in place when exposed to a
tate easy wiping by females and to prevent contact
back pressure (from the outlet side of the bowl) of
between the seat and the penis with males. This is to
2 inches of water column (wc). This test determines
maintain a high level of hygiene in public facilities.
that no sewer gas will escape through the fixture when
Many public water closets have a plastic wrap
high pressure occurs in the drainage system piping.
around the seat. The intent of this seat is to allow
The rim top and seat fouling test determines if the
a clean surface for each use. The seat is intended
water splashes onto the top of the rim or seat of the
to replace the split rim seat in public and employee
water closet. This test ensures that the user does not
locations.
encounter a wet seat when using the water closet.
Flushing Performance The drainline carry test determines the perfor-
The flushing performance requirements for a water mance of the water closets flush. The water closet is
closet are found in ANSI/American Society of Me- connected to a 4-inch drain 60 feet in length pitched
chanical Engineers (ASME) A112.19.6: Hydraulic inch per foot. The same 100 polypropylene balls
Performance Requirements for Water Closets and used in the flush test are used in the drainline carry
Urinals. This standard identifies the test protocol that test. The average carry distance of all the polypro-
must be followed to certify a water closet. The tests pylene balls must be 40 feet. This test determines
include a ball removal test, granule test, ink test, dye the ability of the water closet to flush the contents
test, water consumption test, trap seal restoration in such a manner that they properly flow down the
test, water rise test, back pressure test, rim top and drainage piping.
seat fouling test, and a drainline carry test. A proposed bulk media test is a test of a large
The ball removal test utilizes 100 polypropylene quantity of items placed in the bowl. The bowl can-
balls that are inch in diameter. The water closet not be stopped up by the bulk media during the flush,
must flush at least an average of 75 balls on the initial and a certain flushing performance of the bulk media

Figure 1-6 The minimum size water closet compartment is 30 in.60 in. Spacing is required from the centerline of the
water closet to a side wall or obstruction and from the front lip of the water closet to any obstruction.
is required. The debate over this test is the repeat- this load can be transferred to the piping system.
ability of the test. It is expected that, after round Water closet carriers must conform to ANSI/ASME
robin testing is completed, the test will be added to A112.6.1: Supports for Off-the-Floor Plumbing Fix-
the standard. tures for Public Use. For bariatric WCs, the loads as
In Canada, water closets must conform to Cana- listed by the manufacturers vary from 650 to 1,000
dian Standards Association (CSA) B45 Series 02: pounds. These carriers must conform to ANSI/ASME
Plumbing Fixtures. While Canada does not have A112.6.1 as well.
a federal mandate requiring 1.6-gpf water closets, The minimum spacing required for a water closet
many areas require these water closets. Canada is 15 inches from the centerline of the bowl to the side
does require a bulk media test for water closet flush wall and 21 inches from the front of the water closet
performance. to any obstruction in front of the water closet. The
Installation Requirements standard dimension for a water closet compartment
is 30 inches wide by 60 inches long. The water closet
The water closet must be properly connected to the
must be installed in the center of the standard com-
drainage piping system. For floor-mounted water
partment. The minimum distance required between
closets, a water closet flange is attached to the piping
water closets is 30 inches (see Figure 1-6).
and permanently secured to the building. For wood-
The 1.6-gpf flushing requirement has affected
frame buildings, the flange is screwed to the floor. For
the piping connection for back-to-back water closet
concrete floors, the flange sits on the floor.
installations. With a 3.5-gpf water closet, the common
Noncorrosive closet bolts connect the water closet
fitting used to connect back-to-back water closets was
to the floor flange. The seal between the floor flange
either a 3-inch double sanitary tee or a 3-inch double
and the water closet is made with either a wax ring
fixture fitting. With the superior flushing of the 1.6-
or an elastomeric sealing connection. The connection
gpf water closet, the plumbing codes have prohibited
formed between the water closet and the floor must
the installation of a double sanitary tee or double
be sealed with caulking or tile grout.
fixture fitting for back-to-back water closets. The only
For wall-hung water closets, the fixture must con-
acceptable fitting is the double combination wye and
nect to a wall carrier. The carrier must transfer the
eighth bend. The fitting, however, increases the spac-
loading of the water closet to the floor. A wall-hung
ing required between the floor and the ceiling.
water closet must be capable of supporting a load
The minimum spacing required to use a double
of 500 pounds at the end of the water closet. When
sanitary tee fitting is 30 inches from the centerline of
the water closet is connected to the carrier, none of

Figure 1-7 Minimum Chase Sizes for Carriers

Courtesy of Plumbing and Drainage Institute
the water closet outlet to the entrance of the fitting. Plumbing and Drainage Institute [PDI]). Carrier sizes
This spacing rules out a back-to-back water closet vary by manufacturer. Always check before commit-
connection. ting to chase size. Also, wall-hung bariatric carriers
One of the problems associated with short pattern require more space than indicated by PDI. Bariatric
fittings is the siphon action created in the initial flush chases should be coordinated with the specified car-
of the water closet. This siphon action can draw the rier manufacturer.
water out of the trap of the water closet connected Flushing Systems
to the other side of the fitting. Another potential
problem is the interruption of flow when flushing Gravity Flush
a water closet. The flow from one water closet can The most common means of flushing a water closet is
propel water across the fitting, interfering with the a gravity flush (see Figure 1-8). This is the flush with
other water closet. a tank-type water closet, described above, wherein the
Proper clearances within chases for wall-hung water is not pressurized in the tank. The tank stores
carriers should be maintained. Figure 1-7 shows the a quantity of water to establish the initial flush of
minimum chase sizes for carriers (as published by the the bowl. A trip lever raises either a flapper or a ball,

allowing the flush to achieve the maximum siphon in The flushometer tank WC tends to be noisier than
the bowl. After the flush, the flapper or ball reseals, the gravity tank WC. Their advantage over grav-
closing off the tank from the bowl. On the dual-flush ity tanks is that the increased velocity of the waste
WC, the trip lever raises the flapper or ball a bit less, stream provides as much as a 50 percent increase in
which results in a reduced-volume flush. drainline carry. In long horizontal run situations, this
The ballcock, located inside the tank, controls means fewer sewer/drainline blockages.
the flow of water into the tank. A float mechanism Flushometer Valve
opens and closes the ballcock. The ballcock directs the A flushometer valve also is referred to as a flush
majority of the water into the tank and a smaller por- valve. The valve is designed with upper and lower
tion of water into the bowl to refill the trap seal. The chambers separated by a diaphragm. The water
ballcock must be an antisiphon ballcock conforming pressure in the upper chamber keeps the valve in
to American Society of Sanitary Engineering (ASSE) the closed position. When the trip lever is activated,
1002: Performance Requirements for Antisiphon Fill the water in the upper chamber escapes to the lower
Valves for Water Closet Tanks. This prevents the chamber, starting the flush. The flush of 1.6 gallons
contents of the tank from being siphoned back into passes through the flush valve. The valve is closed by
the potable water supply. Dual-flush systems are be- line pressure as water reenters the upper chamber.
ing used to meet LEED criteria. This type of system For 1.6-gpf water closets, flushometer valves are
gives the user the option to flush with one-third less set to flow 25 gpm at peak to flush the water closet.
water when flushing only liquid waste. The flushing cycle is very short, lasting 4 to 5 seconds.
Flushometer Tank The water distribution system must be properly de-
A flushometer tank (see Figure 1-8) has the same signed to allow the peak flow during heavy use of the
outside appearance as a gravity tank. However, inside plumbing system.
the tank is a pressure vessel that stores the water for Flushometer valves have either a manual or an
flushing. The water in the pressure vessel must be a automatic means of flushing. The most popular
minimum of 25 psi to operate properly. Thus, the line manual means of flushing is a handle mounted on
the side of the flush valve. Automatic,
electronic sensor flushometer valves
are available in a variety of styles. The
sensor-operated valves can be battery
operated or directly connected to the
power supply of the building.
Urinals
A urinal was developed as a fixture to
expedite the use of a toilet room. It
is designed for the removal of urine
(A) (B)
and the quick exchange of users. The
Energy Policy Act of 1992 included
Figure 1-8 (A) A Gravity Tank and (B) a Flushometer Tank requirements for the water consump-
tion of urinals. A urinal is restricted to
a maximum water use of 1.0 gpf. This
pressure on the connection to the flushometer tank change in water consumption resulted in a modified
must be a minimum of 25 psi. A pressure regulator design of the fixture. Some urinals now use 0.5 gpf
prevents the pressure in the vessel from rising above or less.
35 psi (typical of most manufacturers). One of the main concerns in the design of a urinal
The higher pressure from the flushometer tank is the maintenance of a sanitary fixture. The fixture
results in a flush similar to a flushometer valve. One must contain the urine, flush it down the drain, and
of the differences between the flushometer tank and wash the exposed surfaces. Prior to the passage of
the flushometer valve is the sizing of the water dis- the Energy Policy Act of 1992, urinals were developed
tribution system. The water piping to a flushometer using large quantities of water to flush the contents.
tank is sized the same as the water piping to a gravity This included a blowout model that could readily
flush tank. Typically, the individual water connection remove any of the contents thrown into the urinal
is inch in diameter. For a flushometer valve, there in addition to urine. Blowout urinals were popular
is a high flow rate demand, resulting in a large piping in high-traffic areas such as assembly buildings.
connection. A typical flushometer valve for a water However, these blowout urinals required more than
closet has a connection of 1 inch in diameter. 1 gallon of water to flush. Newer fixtures identified

as blowout urinals do not have the same forceful The dye test uses a colored dye to evaluate the
flush. Low-flow (0.5 gpf), ultra-low-flow (0.125 gpf), water exchange rate in the trap. After one flush, the
and waterless urinals are becoming more common in trap must have a dilution ratio of 100:1. The dye test
LEED-certified buildings. is performed only on urinals with an integral trap.
Urinal Styles This includes blowout, siphon-jet, and washout uri-
nals. It is not possible to dye test stall and washdown
Urinals are identified as blowout, siphon jet, washout,
urinals since they have external traps. This is one of
stall, washdown, and waterless. A stall urinal is a type
the concerns that has resulted in the restricted use
of washdown urinal. Blowout, siphon-jet, and washout
of these fixtures.
urinals all have integral traps. Stall and washdown
The water consumption test determines that the
urinals have an outlet to which an external trap is
urinal flushes with 1 gallon of water or less.
connected. Many plumbing codes prohibit the use of
stall and washdown urinals in public and employee Installation Requirements
toilet rooms. One of the concerns with stall and wash- The minimum spacing required between urinals is
down urinals is the ability to maintain a high level 30 inches center to center. The minimum spacing
of sanitation after each flush. Waterless urinals are
gaining acceptance by code enforcement bodies, but
are not allowed in all jurisdictions.
The style identifies the type of flushing action in
the urinal. Blowout and siphon-jet types rely on com-
plete evacuation of the trap. Blowout urinals tend to
force the water and waste from the trap to the drain.
Siphon-jet urinals create a siphon action to evacuate
the trap. Washout urinals rely on a water exchange to
flush, with no siphon action or complete evacuation
of the trapway. Stall and washdown urinals have an
external trap. The flushing action is a water exchange;
however, it is a less efficient water exchange than that
of a washout urinal.
Urinals with an integral trap must be capable of
passing a -inch-diameter ball. The outlet connection
is typically 2 inches in diameter. Stall and washdown
urinals can have a 1-inch outlet with an external
1-inch trap.
Waterless urinals are used in many jurisdictions
as a means to reduce water consumption. Waterless
urinals utilize a cartridge filled with a biodegradable
liquid sealant. Urine is heavier than the sealant, so it
flows through the cartridge while leaving the sealant. Figure 1-9 Urinal spacing must be adequate
to allow adjacent users to access the urinals
According to manufacturer literature, a typical car- without interference.
tridge lasts for 7,000 uses. Waterless urinals are also
inexpensive to install. The waste and vent piping are
the same, but no water piping is required. The inside between a urinal and the sidewall is 15 inches. This
walls of the urinal must be washed with a special solu- spacing provides access to the urinal without the user
tion on a periodic basis for proper sanitation. coming in contact with the user of the adjacent fixture.
Flushing Performance The minimum spacing required in front of the urinal
is 21 inches (see Figure 1-9).
The flushing performance for a urinal is regulated
For urinals with an integral trap, the outlet is lo-
by ANSI/ASME A112.19.6. There are three tests for
cated 21 inches above the floor for a standard-height
urinals: the ink test, dye test, and water consump-
installation. Stall urinals are mounted on the floor.
tion test.
Wall-hung urinals must be mounted on carriers that
In the ink test, a felt-tip marker is utilized to draw
transfer the weight of the urinal to the floor. The
a line on the inside wall of the urinal. The urinal is
carrier also connects the urinal to the waste piping
flushed, and the remaining ink line is measured. The
system. Sufficient room should be provided in the
total length of the ink line cannot exceed 1 inch, and
chase for the carrier. Figure 1-10 shows minimum
no segment can exceed inch in length.
chase sizes as recommended by PDI.

Lavatories
A lavatory is a washbasin used for personal hygiene.
In public locations, a lavatory is intended to be used
for washing ones hands and face. Residential lavato-
ries are intended for hand and face washing, shaving,
applying makeup, cleaning contact lenses, and similar
hygienic activities.
Lavatory faucet flow rates are regulated as part of
the Energy Policy Act of 1992. The original flow rate
established by the government was 2.5 gpm at 80 psi
for private-use lavatories and 0.5 gpm, or a cycle dis-
charging 0.25 gallons, for public-use lavatories. Now
the regulations require 2.2 gpm at 60 psi for private
(and residential) lavatories and 0.5 gpm at 60 psi, or a
cycle discharging 0.25 gallons, for public lavatories.
Lavatory faucets are also available with electronic
valves. These faucets can reduce water usage by sup-
plying water only when hands are inside the bowl.
Size and Shape
Manufacturers produce lavatories in every conceivable
size and shape: square, round, oblong, rectangular,
shaped for corners, with or without ledges, decorative
bowls, and molded into countertops.
The standard outlet for a lavatory is 1 inches in
diameter. The standard lavatory has three holes on
the ledge for the faucet. With a typical faucet, the two
outside holes are 4 inches apart. The faucets installed
in these lavatories are called 4-inch centersets. When
spread faucets are to be installed, the spacing between
the two outer holes is 8 inches.
For many years, the fixture standards required
lavatories to have an overflow. This requirement was
based on the use of the fixture whereby the basin was
filled prior to cleaning. If a user left the room while
Figure 1-10 Minimum Chase Sizes for Urinals the lavatory was being filled, the water would not
Courtesy of Plumbing and Drainage Institute
overflow onto the floor.
Many plumbing codes require urinals for public Studies have shown that lavatories are rarely used
and employee use to have a visible trap seal. This in this capacity. It is more common to not fill the basin
refers to blowout, siphon-jet, or washout urinals. with water during use. As a result, overflows became
an optional item for lavatories. Some plumbing codes,
Flushing Requirements however, still require overflows for lavatories.
With the federal requirements for water consumption, To avoid a hygiene problem with the optional
urinals must be flushed with a flushometer valve. overflows, the fixture standard added a minimum
The valve can be either manually or automatically size for the overflow. The minimum cross-sectional
actuated. area must be 118 inch.
A urinal flushometer valve has a lower flush vol- Another style of lavatory is the circular or semi-
ume and flow rate than a water closet flushometer circular group washup. The plumbing codes consider
valve. The total volume is 1 gpf, and the peak flow every 20 inches of space along a group washup to be
rate is 15 gpm. The water distribution system must be equivalent to one lavatory.
properly sized for the peak flow rate for the urinal.
Urinal flushometer valves operate the same as
Installation
water closet flushometer valves. For additional infor- The standard height of a lavatory is 31 inches above
mation, see the discussion of flushing systems under the finished floor. A spacing of 21 inches is required
Water Closets earlier in this chapter. in front of the lavatory to access the fixture (see
Figure 1-11).

Figure 1-11 Recommended Installation

Dimensions for a Lavatory
Lavatories can be counter mounted, under-counter

mounted, or wall hung. When lavatories are wall hung
in public and employee facilities, they must be con-
nected to a carrier that transfers the weight of the
fixture to the floor. Proper clearances within chases
for wall-hung lavatories should be maintained. Figure
1-12 shows recommended minimum chase sizes as
recommended by PDI.
Kitchen Sinks
A kitchen sink is used for culinary purposes. The
two distinct classifications of kitchen sink are resi-
dential and commercial. Residential kitchen sinks
can be installed in commercial buildings, typically
in kitchens used by employees. Commercial kitchen
sinks are designed for restaurant and food-handling
establishments.
The Energy Policy Act of 1992 regulates the flow
rate of faucets for residential kitchen sinks. The
original flow rate was 2.5 gpm at 80 psi. The fixture
standards have since modified the flow rate to 2.2
gpm at 60 psi.
Residential Kitchen Sinks
Common residential kitchen sinks are single- or
double-compartment (or bowl) sinks. No standard
dimension for the size of the sink exists; however, Figure 1-12 Minimum Chase Sizes for Lavatories
most kitchen sinks are 22 inches measured from the Courtesy of Plumbing and Drainage Institute
front edge to the rear edge. For single-compartment
sinks, the most common width of the sink is 25 inches. is to accommodate the installation of a food waste
For double-compartment kitchen sinks, the most grinder.
common width is 33 inches. The common depth of Some specialty residential kitchen sinks have three
the compartments is 9 to 10 inches. Accessible sinks compartments. Typically, the third compartment is
are 5.5 to 6.5 inches deep. smaller and does not extend the full depth of the other
Most plumbing codes require the outlet of a resi- compartments.
dential kitchen sink to be 3 inches in diameter. This

Kitchen sinks have one, three, or four holes for sinks are often freestanding sinks with legs to sup-
the installation of a faucet. Some single-lever faucets port the sink.
require only a one hole for installation. The three- In commercial kitchens, three types of sinks
hole arrangement is for a standard two-handle valve typically are provided: hand sinks, prep sinks, and
installation. The four holes are designed to allow the triple-basin sinks. Prep sinks usually are single basin
installation of a side spray or other kitchen appurte- and are used in conjunction with food preparation.
nance such as a soap dispenser. Triple-basin sinks are used for washing pots, pans,
The standard installation height for a residential and utensils.
kitchen sink is 36 inches above the finished floor. Because of health authority requirements, most
Most architects tend to follow the 6-foot triangle rule commercial kitchen sinks are stainless steel. Another
when locating a kitchen sink. The sink is placed no health authority requirement is for either a two- or
more than 6 feet from the range and 6 feet from the three-compartment sink in every commercial kitchen.
The more popular requirement is a three-com-
partment sink. The historical requirement for a
three-compartment sink dates back to the use of
the first compartment for dishwashing, the sec-
ond compartment for rinsing the dishes, and the
third compartment for sanitizing the dishes. With
the increased use of dishwashers in commercial
kitchens, some health codes have modified the
requirements for a three-compartment sink.
Commercial kitchen sinks used for food prepa-
ration are required to connect to the drainage
system through an indirect waste. This prevents
the possibility of contaminating food in the event
of a drainline backup resulting from a stoppage
Figure 1-13 Standard dimensions for a kitchen sink include a in the line.
counter height of 36 inches above the finished floor.
Commercial kitchen sinks that could discharge
grease-laden waste must connect to either a
grease interceptor or a grease trap (see Figure
1-14). Plumbing codes used to permit the grease
trap to serve as the trap for the sink if it was
located within 60 inches of the sink. Most plumb-
ing codes have since modified this requirement
by mandating a trap for each kitchen sink. The
grease trap no longer is permitted to serve as a
trap. A separate trap provides better protection
against the escape of sewer gas. An alternative
to this is to spill the sink into an indirect waste
drain that flows to a grease trap.
Service Sinks
Figure 1-14 When grease-laden waste is possible, the sink A service sink is a general-purpose sink intended
must discharge to a grease interceptor. to be used for facilitating the cleaning or decorat-
ing of a building. The sink is commonly used to
refrigerator (see Figure 1-13). fill mop buckets and dispose of their waste. It
Residential kitchen sinks mount either above or also is used for cleaning paint brushes, rollers, and
below the counter. Counter-mounted kitchen sinks paper-hanging equipment.
are available with a self-rimming ledge or a sink There is no standard size, shape, or style of a
frame. service sink. They are available both wall mounted
and floor mounted. Mop basins, installed on the floor,
Commercial Kitchen Sinks
qualify as service sinks in the plumbing codes.
Commercial kitchen sinks are typically larger in size
A service sink typically is located in a janitors
and have a deeper bowl than residential kitchen sinks.
storage closet or a separate room for use by custodial
The depth of the bowl ranges from 16 to 20 inches for
employees. The plumbing codes do not specify the
most commercial kitchen sinks. Commercial kitchen
location or a standard height for installing a service

sink. Furthermore, the flow rate from the service sink faucet styles are used strictly in commercial applica-
faucet has no limitations. tions. These include self-metering lavatory faucets
Service sinks are selected based on the anticipated that discharge a specified quantity of water and elec-
use of the fixture and the type of building in which tronic lavatories that operate on sensors.
it is installed. The plumbing codes require either a Flow Rates
1-inch or 2-inch trap for the service sink.
The flow rates are regulated for lavatories and non-
Sinks commercial kitchen sinks. Table 1-2 identifies the
flow rate limitations of faucets.
A general classification for fixtures that are neither
kitchen sinks nor service sinks is simply sinks. This Table 1-2 Faucet Flow Rate Restrictions
category contains those fixtures typically not required
Type of Faucet Maximum Flow Rate
but installed for the convenience of the building users.
Some installations include doctors offices, hospitals, Kitchen faucet 2.2 gpm @ 60 psi
laboratories, photo-processing facilities, quick marts, Lavatory faucet 2.2 gpm @ 60 psi
and office buildings. Lavatory faucet (public use) 0.5 gpm @ 60 psi
Sinks come in a variety of sizes and shapes. There Lavatory faucet (public use, 0.25 gal per cycle
are no height or spacing requirements, and the flow metering)
rate from the faucet is not regulated. Most plumbing
codes require a 1-inch drain connection. Backflow Protection
In addition to controlling the flow of water, a faucet
Laundry Trays must protect the potable water supply against back-
A laundry tray, or laundry sink, is located in the flow. This is often a forgotten requirement, since
laundry room and used in conjunction with washing most faucets rely on an air gap to provide protection
clothes. The sink has either one or two compart- against backflow. When an air gap is provided between
ments. The depth of the bowl is typically 14 inches. the outlet of the faucet and the flood-level rim of the
There are no standard dimensions for the size of fixture (by manufacturer design), no additional pro-
laundry trays; however, most single-compartment tection is necessary.
laundry trays measure 22 inches by 24 inches, and Backflow protection becomes a concern whenever a
most double-compartment laundry trays measure 22 faucet has a hose thread outlet, a flexible hose connec-
inches by 45 inches. tion, or a pull-out spray connection. For these styles
Plumbing codes permit a domestic clothes washer of faucet, additional backflow protection is necessary.
to discharge into a laundry tray. The minimum size The hose or hose connection eliminates the air gap
for a trap and outlet for a laundry tray is 1 inch. by submerging the spout or outlet in a nonpotable
At one time, laundry trays were made predomi- water source.
nantly of soapstone. Today, the majority of laundry The most common form of backflow protection for
trays are plastic. However, stainless steel, enameled faucets not having an air gap is the use of a vacuum
cast iron, and porcelain enameled steel laundry trays breaker. Many manufacturers include an atmospheric
also are available. vacuum breaker in the design of faucets that require
additional backflow protection. The standard at-
Faucets mospheric vacuum breaker must conform to ASSE
Every sink and lavatory needs a faucet to direct and 1001: Performance Requirements for Atmospheric-type
control the flow of water into the fixture. A faucet Vacuum Breakers.
performs the simple operations of opening, closing, Faucets with pull-out sprays or gooseneck spouts
and mixing hot and cold water. While the process is can be protected by a vacuum breaker or a backflow
relatively simple, fixture manufacturers have devel- system that conforms to ANSI/ASME A112.18.3:
oped extensive lines of faucets. Performance Requirements for Backflow Protection
Devices and Systems in Plumbing Fixture Fittings.
Faucet Categories
This standard specifies testing requirements for a
Faucets are categorized by application. The types of faucet to be certified as protecting the water supply
faucets include lavatory faucets, residential kitchen against backflow. Many of the new pull-out spray
sink faucets, laundry faucets, sink faucets, and kitchen faucets are listed in ANSI/ASME A112.18.3.
commercial faucets. The classification commercial These faucets have a spout attached to a flexible hose
faucets includes commercial kitchen faucets and whereby the spout can detach from the faucet body
commercial sink faucets. It does not include lavatory and be used similarly to a side spray.
faucets. All lavatories are classified the same, whether Side-spray kitchen faucets must have a diverter
they are installed in residential or commercial build- that is listed in ASSE 1025: Performance Require-
ings. It should be noted, however, that some lavatory

ments for Diverters for Plumbing Faucets with Hose Many plumbing codes permit bottled water or the
Spray, Antisiphon Type, Residential Applications. The service of water in a restaurant to be substituted for
diverter ensures that the faucet switches to an air gap the installation of a drinking fountain.
whenever the pressure in the supply line decreases.
The most important installation requirement is Showers
the proper location of the backflow preventer (or A shower is designed to allow full-body cleansing.
the maintenance of the air gap). When atmospheric The size and configuration of a shower must permit
vacuum breakers are installed, they must be located an individual to bend at the waist to clean lower-body
a minimum distance above the flood-level rim of the extremities. Plumbing codes require a minimum
fixture, as specified by the manufacturer. size shower enclosure of 30 inches by 30 inches. The
codes further stipulate that a shower must have a
Drinking Fountains 30-inch-diameter circle within the shower to allow
A drinking fountain is designed to provide drinking free movement by the bather.
water to users. The two classifications of drinking The water flow rate for showers is regulated by the
fountains are water coolers and drinking fountains. A Energy Policy Act of 1992. The maximum permitted
water cooler has a refrigerated component that chills flow rate from a shower valve is 2.5 gpm at 80 psi.
the water. A drinking fountain is a nonrefrigerated Three different types of shower are available:
water dispenser. prefabricated shower enclosure, prefabricated shower
Drinking fountains and water coolers come in base, and built-in-place shower. Prefabricated shower
many styles. The height of a drinking fountain is not enclosures are available from plumbing fixture
manufacturers in a variety of sizes and shapes. Pre-
fabricated shower bases are the floors of the showers
designed so that the walls can be either prefabricated
assemblies or built-in-place ceramic walls. Built-in-
place showers are typically ceramic installations for
both the floor and walls.
Prefabricated shower enclosures and prefabricated
shower bases have a drainage outlet designed for a
connection to a 2-inch drain. Certain plumbing codes
have lowered the shower drain size to 1 inches. The
connection to a 1-inch drain also can be made with
prefabricated showers.
A built-in-place shower allows the installation of a
shower of any shape and size. The important instal-
lation requirement for a built-in-place shower is the
shower pan. (See Figure 1-16.) The pan is placed on
the floor prior to the installation of the ceramic base.
The pan must turn up at the sides of the shower a
Figure 1-15 Drinking fountain height can vary minimum of 2 inches above the finished threshold of
depending on the application. the shower (except the threshold entrance). The ma-
terials commonly used to make a shower pan include
regulated, except for accessible drinking fountains sheet lead, sheet copper, PVC sheet, and chlorinated
conforming to ANSI/ICC A117.1. For grade school in- polyethylene sheet. The sheet goods commonly are
stallations, drinking fountains typically are installed referred to as a waterproof membrane.
30 inches above the finished floor to the rim of the At the drainage connection to the shower pan,
fountain. In other locations, the drinking fountain weep holes are required to be installed at the base of
is typically 36 to 44 inches above the finished floor. the shower pan. The weep holes and shower pan are
(See Figure 1-15.) intended to serve as a backup drain in the event that
Space must be provided in front of the drinking the ceramic floor leaks or cracks.
fountain to allow proper access to the fixture. Plumb-
ing codes prohibit drinking fountains from being Shower Valves
installed in toilets or bathrooms. Shower valves must be thermostatic mixing, pressure
The water supply to a drinking fountain is 38 inch balancing, or a combination of thermostatic mixing
or inch in diameter. The drainage connection is and pressure balancing and conform to ASSE 1016:
1 inches. Performance Requirements for Automatic Compensat-
ing Valves for Individual Showers and Tub/Shower

shower, the total water flow rate is still 2.5 gpm at

80 psi.
The shower valve typically is located 48 to 50
inches above the floor. The installation height for a
showerhead ranges from 65 to 84 inches above the
floor of the shower. The standard height is 78 inches
for showers used by adult males.
Bathtubs
The bathtub was the original fixture used to bathe or
cleanse ones body. Eventually, the shower was added
to the bathtub to expedite the bathing process. The
standard installation is a combination tub/shower.
Some installations come with a separate whirlpool
bathtub and shower; however, it is still common to
have a whirlpool bathtub with an overhead shower
as the main bathing fixture.
Bathtubs tend to be installed within residential
Figure 1-16 Built-in-place showers require a pan below

the floor. The drain must have weep holes at the shower
pan level.
Combinations. Shower valves control the flow and

temperature of the water, as well as any variation
in the temperature of the water. These valves pro-
vide protection against scalding as well as sudden
changes in water temperature, which can cause slips
and falls.
A pressure-balancing valve maintains a constant
temperature of the shower water by constantly adjust-
ing the pressure of the hot and cold water supply. If
the pressure on the cold water supply changes, the hot
water supply balances to the equivalent pressure set-
ting. When tested, a pressure-balancing valve cannot
have a fluctuation in temperature that exceeds 3F.
Figure 1-17 A standard bathtub is 5 ft in length.
If the cold water shuts off completely, the hot water
shuts off as well.
Thermostatic mixing valves adjust the tem- units only. The standard bathtub size is 5 feet long
perature of the water by maintaining a constant by 30 inches wide, with a depth of 14 to 16 inches (see
temperature once the water temperature is set. This Figure 1-17). However, a variety of sizes and shapes
is accomplished by thermally sensing controls that of bathtubs and whirlpool bathtubs is available. The
modify the quantity of hot and cold water to keep the drain can be either a left-hand (drain hole on the left
set temperature. side as you face the bathtub) or right-hand outlet.
The difference between a thermostatic mixing When whirlpool bathtubs are installed, the controls
valve and a pressure-balancing valve is that a ther- for the whirlpool must be accessible.
mostatic mixing valve adjusts the temperature when All bathtubs must have an overflow drain. This is
the temperature of either the hot or cold water fluc- necessary since the bathtub often is filled while the
tuates. With a pressure-balancing valve, when the bather is not present. Porcelain enameled steel and
temperature of either the hot or cold water changes, enameled cast-iron bathtubs are required to have a
the temperature of the shower water changes ac- slip-resistant base to prevent slips and falls. Plastic
cordingly. bathtubs are not required to have the slip-resistant
The maximum flow rate permitted for each shower surface since the plastic is considered to have an in-
is 2.5 gpm at 80 psi. If body sprays are added to the herent slip resistance. However, slip resistance can
be specified for plastic bathtub surfaces.

Bathtub Fill Valve the plumbing code is 2 inches. Most plumbing codes
The two types of bathtub fill valve are the tub filler do not require floor drains; it is considered an optional
and the combination tub and shower valve. Tub and fixture that the plumbing engineer may consider
shower valves must be pressure-balancing, thermo- installing. Most public toilet rooms have at least one
static mixing, or combination pressure-balancing and floor drain. Floor drains also are used on the lower
thermostatic mixing valves conforming to ASSE 1016. levels of commercial buildings and in storage areas,
The tub filler is not required to meet these require- commercial kitchens, and areas subject to potential
ments, although pressure-balancing and thermostatic leaks. Floor drains also may serve as indirect waste
mixing tub filler valves are available. receptors for condensate lines, overflow lines, and
The spout of the tub filler must be properly in-
stalled to maintain a 2-inch air gap between the outlet
and the flood-level rim of the bathtub. If this air gap
is not maintained, the outlet must be protected from
backflow by some other means. Certain decorative
tub fillers have an atmospheric vacuum breaker in-
stalled to protect the opening that is located below
the flood-level rim.
The standard location of the bathtub fill valve is
14 inches above the top rim of the bathtub. The spout
typically is located 4 inches above the top rim of the
bathtub to the centerline of the pipe connection.
Bidet
The bidet is a fixture designed for cleaning the Figure 1-18 A trench drain can be used as a floor drain in
perineal area. The bidet often is mistaken to be a a building. A separate trap is required for each section of
fixture designed for use by the female population trench drain.
only. However, the fixture is meant for both male and
female cleaning. The bidet has a faucet that comes similar indirect waste lines.
with or without a water spray connection. When a A trench drain is considered a type of floor drain
water spray is provided, the outlet must be protected (see Figure 1-18). Trench drains are continuous
against backflow since the opening is located below drains that can extend for a number of feet in length.
the flood-level rim of the bidet. Manufacturers pro- Trench drains are popular in indoor parking struc-
vide a decorative atmospheric vacuum breaker that tures and factory and industrial areas. Each section
is located on the deck of the bidet. of a trench drain must have a separate trap.
Bidets are vitreous china fixtures that are mounted When floor drains are installed for emergency pur-
on the floor. The fixture, being similar to a lavatory,
has a 1-inch drainage connection. Access must be
provided around the bidet to allow a bather to straddle
the fixture and sit down on the rim. Most bidets have
a flushing rim to cleanse the fixture after each use.
The bidet is used only for external cleansing. It is
not designed for internal body cleansing. This often is
misunderstood since the body spray may be referred
to as a douche (the French word for shower).
Floor Drains
A floor drain is a plumbing fixture that is the excep-
tion to the definition of a plumbing fixture. There is
no supply of cold and/or hot water to a floor drain.
Every other plumbing fixture has a water supply. Figure 1-19 Floor Drain
Floor drains typically are provided as an emergency Source: Courtesy of Jay R. Smith Company.
fixture in the event of a leak or overflow of water.
They also are used to assist in the cleaning of a toilet poses, the lack of use can result in the evaporation of
or bathroom. the trap seal and the escape of sewer gas. Floor drain
Floor drains are available in a variety of shapes and traps subject to such evaporation are required to be
sizes. The minimum size drainage outlet required by protected with trap seal primer valves or devices.

is 1 inch. The showerhead typically is installed 7 feet

above the finished floor.
Eyewash stations are for washing the eyes. Unlike
in emergency showers, in eyewash stations the water
flow rate is gentle so that the eyes can remain open
during the washing process. The flow rates for an
eyewash station range from 1.5 to 6 gpm.
Most plumbing codes do not require a drain for
emergency showers and eyewash stations. This is to
allow greater flexibility in the location of the fixtures
and the spot cleanup of any chemicals that may be
washed off the victim.
The standard regulating emergency fixtures is
ANSI Z358.1: Emergency Eyewash and Shower
Equipment. This standard requires the water supply
to emergency fixtures to be tepid. The temperature
of tepid water is assumed to be in the range of 85F
to 95F. When controlling the water temperature, the
thermostatic control valve must permit full flow of
cold water in the event of a failure of the hot water
supply. This can be accomplished with the use of a
fail-safe thermostatic mixing valve or a bypass valve
for the thermostatic mixing valve. Since showers
and eyewash stations are for extreme emergencies,
a supply of water to the fixtures always must be
available.
Minimum Fixture
Requirements for Buildings
The minimum number of required plumbing fixtures
Figure 1-20 Emergency Shower for buildings is specified in the plumbing codes. See
Source: Courtesy of Haws Corporation.
Table 1-3, which reprints Table 403.1 of the Interna-
tional Plumbing Code, and Table 1-4, which reprints
These valves or devices ensure that the trap seal Table 4-1 of the Uniform Plumbing Code.
remains intact and prevents the escape of sewer gas. Both the International Plumbing Code and the
(See Figure 1-19.) Uniform Plumbing Code base the minimum number
of plumbing fixtures on the occupant load of the build-
Emergency Fixtures
ing. It should be recognized that the occupant load
The two types of emergency fixture are the emergency
and occupancy of the building are sometimes signifi-
shower and the eyewash station. Combination emer-
cantly different. For example, in an office building,
gency shower and eyewash stations also are available.
the occupancy is typically 25 percent of the occupant
These fixtures are designed to wash a victim with
load. The fixture tables have taken this into account
large volumes of water in the event of a chemical spill
in determining the minimum number of fixtures
or burn or another hazardous material spill.
required. Most model plumbing codes do not provide
Emergency fixtures typically are required by Oc-
occupancy criteria. The occupant load rules can be
cupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA)
found in the building codes.
regulations. In industrial buildings and chemical
laboratories, emergency fixtures are sometimes added Single-occupant Toilet Rooms
at the owners request in addition to the minimum The International Plumbing Code has added a re-
number required by OSHA. quirement for a single-occupant toilet room for use
An emergency shower also is called a drench by both sexes. This toilet room is also called a unisex
shower because of the large volume of water dis- toilet room. The single-occupant toilet room must be
charged through the emergency shower (see Figure designed to meet the accessible fixture requirements
1-20). A typical low-end flow rate through an emer- of ANSI/ICC A117.1. The purpose of the single-
gency shower is 25 gpm, but the flow rate can be as occupant toilet room is to allow a husband to help a
high as 100 gpm. The minimum size water connection wife or vice versa. It also allows a father to oversee a
daughter or a mother to oversee a son. These rooms

are especially important for those temporarily inca- identified as family toilet rooms. This is to clearly
pacitated and the severely incapacitated. indicate that the rooms are not reserved for the physi-
The International Plumbing Code requires the cally challenged.
single-occupant toilet room in mercantile and assem-
bly buildings when the total number of water closets
required (both men and women) is six or more. When
installed in airports, the facilities must be located to
allow use before an individual passes through the
security checkpoint.
Another feature typically added to single-occupant
toilet rooms is a diaper-changing station. This allows
either the mother or the father to change a babys
diaper in privacy. To allow all possible uses of the
single-occupant toilet room, the rooms often are
Table 1-3 Minimum Number of Required Plumbing Fixtures

Water Closets (Urinals Drinking
See Section 419.2) Lavatories Bathtubs/ Fountain (See
No. Classification Occupancy Description Male Female Male Female Showers Section 410.1) Other
1 Assembly (see Theaters and other
Sections 403.2, buildings for the
A-1d 1 per 125 1 per 65 1 per 200 1 per 500 1 service sink
403.4 and performing arts and
403.4.1) motion pictures
Nightclubs, bars,
taverns, dance halls
1 per 40 1 per 40 1 per 75 1 per 500 1 service sink
and buildings for
A-2
d
similar purposes
Restaurants, ban
quet halls and food 1 per 75 1 per 75 1 per 200 1 per 500 1 service sink
courts
Auditoriums without
permanent seating,
art galleries, exhibi
tion halls, museums, 1 per 125 1 per 65 1 per 200 1 per 500 1 service sin
lecture halls, librar
ies, arcades and
A-3
d
gym nasiums
Passenger terminals
and transportation 1 per 500 1 per 500 1 per 750 1 per 1,000 1 service sink
facilities
Places of worship
and other religious 1 per 150 1 per 75 1 per 200 1 per 1,000 1 service sink
services.
1 per 75
1 per first
for the first
Coliseums, arenas, for the first
1,500 and
skating rinks, pools r 60 and 1
1 per 120
A-4 and tennis courts per 60 for 1 per 200 1 per 150 1 per 1,000 1 service sink
for the
for indoor sporting the remain
remainder
events and activities der exceed
exceeding
ing 1,500
1,500
1 per 75 1 per 40
for the first for the
Stadiums, amuse
1,500 and first 1,500
ment parks, bleach
1 per 120 and 1 per
A-5 ers and grandstands 1 per 200 1 per 150 1 per 1,000 1 service sink
for the 60 for the
for outdoor sporting
remainder remainder
events and activities
exceeding exceeding
1,500 1,500
2 Business (see Buildings for the
Sections 403.2, transaction of busi
403.4 and ness, professional
403.4.1) services, other 1 per 25 for the first 1 per 40 for the first
B services involving 50 and 1 per 50 for the 80 and 1 per 80 for the 1 per 100 1 service sink
merchandise, office remainder exceeding 50 remainder exceeding 80
buildings, banks,
light industrial and
similar uses

Water Closets (Urinals Drinking

See Section 419.2) Lavatories Bathtubs/ Fountain (See
No. Classification Occupancy Description Male Female Male Female Showers Section 410.1) Other
3 Educational E Educational facilities 1 per 50 1 per 50 1 per 100 1 service sink
4 Factory and Structures in which
industrial occupants are en
gaged in work fabri (see Section
F-1 and F-2 1 per 100 1 per 100 1 per 400 1 service sink
cating, assembly or 411)
processing of prod
ucts or materials
5 Institutional I-1 Residential care 1 per 10 1 per 10 1 per 8 1 per 100 1 service sink
Hospitals ambula
1 service sink per
tory nursing home 1 per roomc 1 per roomc 1 per 15 1 per 100
floor
patientsb
I-2 Employees, other
b 1 per 25 1 per 35 1 per 100
than residential care
Visitors, other than
1 per 75 1 per 100 1 per 500
residential care
I-3 Prisonsb 1 per cell 1 per cell 1 per 15 1 per 100 1 service sink
Reformitories
detention centers,
I-3 1 per 15 1 per 15 1 per 15 1 per 100 1 service sink
and correctional
centersb
Adult day care and
I-4 1 per 15 1 per 15 1 per 100 1 service sink
child care
6 Mercantile Retail stores, service
(see Sections stations, shops,
403.2, 403.4, M salesrooms, mar 1 per 500 1 per 750 1 per 1,000 1 service sink
403.4.1 and kets and shopping
403.4.2) centers
7 Residential Hotels, motels,
1 per sleep
R-1 boarding houses 1 per sleeping unit 1 per sleeping unit 1 service sink
ing unit
(transient)
Dormitories, fraterni
ties, sororities and
R-2 1 per 10 1 per 10 1 per 8 1 per 100 1 service sink
boarding houses
(not transient)
1 kitchen sink per
dwelling unit; 1
1 per dwell automatic clothes
R-2 Apartment house 1 per dwelling unit 1 per dwelling unit
ing unit washer connec
tion per 20 dwell
ing units
1 kitchen sink per
dwelling unit; 1
One- and two-family 1 per dwell automatic clothes
R-3 1 per dwelling unit 1 per dwelling unit
dwellings ing unit washer connec
tion per dwelling
unit
Residential care/as
R-4 1 per 10 1 per 10 1 per 8 1 per 100 1 service sink
sisted living facilities
8 Storage (see Structures for the
Sections 403.2, storage of goods,
403.4 and warehouses, store
S-2 1 per 100 1 per 100 Section 411 1 per 1,000 1 sink
403.4.1) house and freight
depots. Low and
Moderate Hazard
Source: 2006 International Plumbing Code, Copyright 2006, Washington, DC: International Code Council. Reproduced with permission. All rights reserved. www.iccsafe.org
a. The fixtures shown are based on one fixture being the minimum required for the number of persons indicated or any fraction of the number of persons indicated. The number of
occupants shall be determined by the International Building Code.
b. Toilet facilities for employees shall be separate from facilities for inmates or patients.
c. A single-occupant toilet room with one water closet and one lavatory serving not more than two adjacent patient sleeping units shall be permitted where such room is provided with
direct access from each patient room and with provisions for privacy.
d. The occupant load for seasonal outdoor seating and entertainment areas shall be included when determining the minimum number of facilities required.

Table 1-4 Minimum Plumbing Facilities

Each building shall be provided with sanitary facilities, including provisions for persons with disabilities as prescribed by the Department Having Jurisdiction. For requirements for persons
with disabilities, ICC/ANSI A117.1, Accessible and Usable Buildings and Facilities, may be used.
The total occupant load shall be determined by minimum exiting requirements. The minimum number of fixtures shall be calculated at fifty (50) percent male and fifty (50) percent female
based on the total occupant load.
The occupant load and use of the building or space under consideration shall first be established using the Occupant Load Factor Table A. Once the occupant load and uses are determined,
the requirements of Section 412.0 and Table 4-1 shall be applied to determine the minimum number of plumbing fixtures required.
This table applies to new buildings, additions to a bui ding, changes of occupancy or type in an existing building resulting in increased occupant load (example:change an assembly room
from fixed seating to open seating). Exception:New cafeterias for employee use are the only use exempted from this requirement.
Water Closets14 Urinals 5, 10 Lavatories Bathtubs or Showers Drinking Fountains 3, 13, 18
Type of Building or Occupancy2 (Fixtures per Person) (Fixtures per Person) (Fixtures per Person) (Fixtures per Person) (Fixtures per Person)
Assembly places theatres, Male Female Male Male Female
auditoriums, convention halls, 1:1-15 1:1-15 0:1-9 1 per 40 1 per 40
etc. for permanent employee 2:16-35 3:16-35 1:10-50
use 3:36-55 4:36-55 Add one fixture for each
Over 55, add 1 fixture for additional 50 males.
each additional 40 persons.
Assembly places theatres, Male Female Male Male Female 1:1-150
auditoriums, convention Halls, 1:1-100 3:1-50 1:1-100 1:1-200 1:1-200 2:151-400
etc. for public use 2:101-200 4:51-100 2:101-200 2:201-400 2:201-400 3:401-750
3:201-400 8:101-200 3:201-400 3:401-750 3:401-750 Over 750, add one fixture for
11:201-400 4:401-600 Over 750, add one fixture for each additional 500 persons.
Over 400, add one fixture lor Over 600, add 1 fixture for each additional 500 persons.
each additional 500 males each additional 300 males.
and 1 for each additional
125 females.
Dormitories9 School or labor17 Male Female Male Male Female 1 per 8 1 per 15012
1 per 10 1 per 8 1 per 25 1 per 12 1 per 12 For females, add 1 bathtub
Add 1 fixture for each Over 150, add 1 fixture for Over 12, add one fixture per 30. Over 150, add 1
additional 25 males (over each additional 50 males. fo each additional 20 males bathtub per 20.
10) and 1 for each additional and 1 for each 15 additional
20 females (over 8). females.
Dormitories for staff use17 Male Female Male Male Female 1 per 8
1:1-15 1:1-15 1 per 50 1 per 40 1 per 40
2:16-35 3:16-35
3:36-55 4:36-55
Over 55, add 1 fixture for
Dwellings4 1 per dwelling 1 per dwelling 1 per dwelling
Single dwelling
Multiple dwelling or apartment 1 per dwelling or 1 per dwelling or 1 per dwelling or
house17 apartment unit apartment unit apartment unit
Hospital waiting rooms 1 per room 1 per room 1 per 15012
Hospitals for employee use Male Female Male Male Female
1:1-15 1:1-15 0:1-9 1 per 40 1 per 40
2:16-35 3:16-35 1:10-50
3:36-55 4:36-55 Add one fixture for each
Hospitals Individual room Ward 1 per room 1 per room 1 per room 1 per 15012
room 1 per 8 patients 1 per 10 patients 1 per 20 patients
Industrial6 warehouses, Male Female Up to 100, 1 per 10 1 shower for each 15 1 per 15012
workshops, foundries, and similar 1:1-10 1:1-10 persons persons exposed to
establishments for employee 2:11-25 2:11-25 Over 100, 1 per 15 excessive heat or to skin
use 3:26-50 3:26-50 persons contain ination with poison
4:51-75 4:51-75 sus, infectious, or irritating
5:76-100 5:76-100 material
Institutional other than hospitals Male Female Male Male Female 1 per 8 1 per 15012
or penal institutions (on each 1 per 25 1 per 20 0:1-9 1 per 10 1 per 10
occupied floor) 1:10-50
Add one fixture far each
additional 50 males.
Institutional other than hospitals Male Female Male Male Female 1 per 8 1 per 15012
or penal institutions (on each 1:1-15 1:1-15 0:1-9 1 per 40 1 per 40
occupied floor) for employee 2:16-35 3:16-35 1:10-50
use 3:36-55 4:36-55 Add one fixture for each
Office or public buildings Male Female Male Male Female 1 per 15012
1:1-100 3:1-50 1:1-100 1:1-200 1:1-200
:
2:101 200 4:51-100 2:101-200 2:201-400 2:201-400
3:201-400 8:101-200 3:201-400 3:401-750 3:401-750
11:201-400 4:401-600 Over 750, add one fixture for
Over 400, add one fixture for Over 600, add 1 fixture for each additional 500 persons.
each additional 500 males each additional 300 males.
and 1 for each additional
150 females.
Office or public buildings for Male Female Male Male Female
employee use 1:1-15 1:1-15 0:1-9 1 per 40 1 per 40
2:16-35 3:16-35 1:10-50

Water Closets14 Urinals 5, 10 Lavatories Bathtubs or Showers Drinking Fountains 3, 13, 18

Type of Building or Occupancy2 (Fixtures per Person) (Fixtures per Person) (Fixtures per Person) (Fixtures per Person) (Fixtures per Person)
12
Penal institutions for employee Male Female Male Male Female 1 per 150
use 1:1-15 1:1-15 0:1-9 1 per 40 1 per 40
2:16-35 3:16-35 1:10-50
Penal institutions for prison use
Cell 1 per cell Male 1 per cell 1 per cell block floor
Exercise room 1 per exercise room 1 per exercise room 1 per exercise room 1 per exercise room
Public or professional offices15 Same as Office or Public 15 Same as Office or Public 15 Same as Office or Public 15 Same as Office or Public 15
Buildings for employee use Buildings for employee use Buildings for employee use Buildings for employee use
11,
Restaurants, pubs, and lounges Male Female Male Male Female
15, 16
1:1-50 1:1-50 1:1-150 1:1-150 1:1-150
2:51-150 2:51-150 Over 150, add 1 fixture for 2:151-200 2:151-200
3:151-300 4:151-300 each additional 150 males. 3:201-400 3:201-400
Over 300, add 1 fixture for Over 400, add 1 fixture for
each additional 200 persons. each additional 400 persons.
Retail or Wholesale Stores Male Female Male One for each two 0:1-3017
1:1-100 1:1-25 0:0-25 water closets 1:31-150
2:101-200 2:26-100 1:26-100 One additional drinking
3:201-400 4:101-200 2:101-200 fountain for each 150
6:201-300 3:201-400 persons thereafter
8:301-400 4:401-600
Over 400, add one fixture Over 600, add one fixture for
for each additional 500 each additional 300 males
males and one for each 150
females
Schools for staff use All schools Male Female Male Male Female
1:1-15 1:1-15 1 per 50 1 per 40 1 per 40
2:16-35 2:16-35
3:36-55 3:36-55
Schools for student use Nursery Male Female Male Female 1 per 150
1:1-20 1:1-20 1:1-25 1:1-25
2:21-50 2:21-50 2:26-50 2:26-50
Over 50, add 1 fixture for Over 50, add 1 fixture for
each additional 50 persons. each additional 50 persons.
Elementary Male Female Male Male Female 1 per 150
1 per 30 1 per 25 1 per 75 1 per 35 1 per 35
Secondary Male Female Male Male Female 1 per 150
1 per 40 1 per 30 1 per 35 1 per 40 1 per 40
Others (colleges, universities, Male Female Male Male Female 1 per 150
adult centers, etc.) 1 per 40 1 per 30 1 per 35 1 per 40 1 per 40
Worship places educational and Male Female Male 1 per 2 water closets 1 per 150
activities Unit 1 per 150 1 per 75 1 per 150
Worship places principal Male Female Male 1 per 2 water closets 1 per 150
assembly place 1 per 150 1 per 75 1 per 150
Source: 2006 Uniform Plumbing Code, International 9. Laundry trays, one (1) for each fifty (50) persons. 13. There shall be a minimum of one (1) drinking
Association of Plumbing and Mechanical Officials Service sinks, one (1) for each hundred (100) fountain per occupied floor in schools, theatres,
persons. auditoriums, dormitories, offices, or public
1. The figures shown are based upon one (1) buildings.
10. General. In applying this schedule of facilities,
fixture being the minimum required for the
consideration shall be given to the accessibility 14. The total number of water closets for females
number of persons indicated or any fraction
of the fixtures. Conformity purely on a numerical shall be at least equal to the total number of
thereof.
basis may not result in an installation suited to water closets and urinals required for males. This
2. Building categories not shown on this table shall the needs of the individual establishment. For requirement shall not apply to Retail or Wholesale
be considered separately by the Authority Having example, schools should be provided with toilet Stores.
Jurisdiction. facilities on each floor having classrooms. 15. For smaller-type Public and Professional Offices
3. Drinking fountains shall not be installed in toilet a. Surrounding materials, wall, and floor space to a such as banks, dental offices, law offices, real
rooms. point two (2) feet (610 mm) in front of urinal lip and estate offices, architectural offices, engineering
4. Laundry trays. One (1) laundry tray or one (1) four (4) feet (1219 mm) above the floor, and at least offices, and similar uses. A public area in these
automatic washer standpipe for each dwelling two (2) feet (610 mm) to each side of the urinal offices shall use the requirements for Retail or
unit or one (1) laundry tray or one (1) automatic shall be lined with nonabsorbent materials. Wholesale Stores.
washer standpipe, or combination thereof, for b. Trough urinals shall be prohibited. 16. A unisex facility (one water closet and one
each twelve (12) apartments. Kitchen sinks, lavatory) may be used when the customer
11. A restaurant is defined as a business that sells food
one (1) for each dwelling or apartment unit. occupant load for the dining area, including
to be consumed on the premises.
5. For each urinal added in excess of the minimum outdoor seating area, is 10 or less and the total
a. The number of occupants for a drive-in restaurant
required, one water closet may be deducted. number of employees for the space is 4 or less.
shall be considered as equal to the number of
The number of water closets shall not be reduced 17. Recreation or community room in multiple
parking stalls.
to less than two-thirds (2/3) of the minimum dwellings or apartment buildings, regardless
b. Employee toilet facilities shall not be included in
requirement. or their occupant load, shall be permitted to
the above restaurant requirements. Hand-washing
6. As required by ANSI Z4.1, Sanitation in Places of have separate single-accommodation facilities
facilities shall be available in the kitchen for
Employment. in common-use areas within tracts or multi-
employees.
7. Where there is exposure to skin contamination family residential occupancies where the
12. Where food is consumed indoors, water stations
with poisonous, infectious, or irritating materials, use of these areas is limited exclusively to
may be substituted for drinking fountains. Offices,
provide one (1) lavatory for each five (5) persons. owners, residents, and their guests. Examples
or public buildings for use by more than six (6)
8. Twenty-four (24) lineal inches (610 mm) of persons shall have one (1) drinking fountain for are community recreation or multi-purpose areas in
wash sink or eighteen (16) inches (457 mm) of a the first one hundred fifty (150) persons and apartments, condos, townhouses, or tracts.
circular basin, when provided with water outlets one (1) additional fountain for each three hundred 18. A drinking fountain shall not be required in
for such space, shall be considered equivalent to one (300) persons thereafter. occupancies of 30 or less. When a drinking
(1) lavatory. fountain is not required, then footnotes 3,12, and
13 are not applicable.

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2 Piping Systems
The selection of piping materials depends on the

pressure, velocity, temperature, and corrosiveness
of the medium conveyed within, initial cost, instal-
SPECIFICATION
Only new materials should be specified. A typical pip-
ing specification should include the following items:
lation costs, operating costs, and good engineering
Type of system
practice. This chapter provides information and
guidance regarding common types of pipe materials. Type of material
The information is offered for general applications Applicable standards
of the various pipe materials. It should be noted that
Wall thickness
plumbing codes and regulations differ from one state
to another and should be referred to prior to the be- Method of joining
ginning of any design. Methods of support
INSTALLATION Type of end connection
Pipes should be neatly arrangedstraight, parallel, Type of weld or solder
or at right angles to wallsand cut accurately to es- Bolting
tablished measurements. Pipes should be worked into
place without springing or forcing. Sufficient headroom Gasket materials
should be provided to enable the clearing of lighting Testing
fixtures, ductwork, sprinklers, aisles, passageways, Piping usually is tested at 1.5 times the working
windows, doors, and other openings. Pipes should not pressure of the system. It should not be buried, con-
interfere with access to maintain equipment. cealed, or insulated until it has been inspected, tested
Pipes should be clean (free of cuttings and foreign and approved. All defective piping is to be replaced
matter inside), and exposed ends of piping should be and retested.
covered during site storage and installation. Split, Note: All domestic water piping and fittings must
bent, flattened, or otherwise damaged pipe or tubing conform to National Sanitation Foundation (NSF) 61:
should not be used. Sufficient clearance should be Drinking Water System Components.
provided from walls, ceilings, and floors to permit the
welding, soldering, or connecting of joints and valves. CAST IRON SOIL PIPE
A minimum of 6 to 10 inches (152.4 to 254 millime- Cast iron soil pipe primarily is used for sanitary drain,
ters) of clearance should be provided. Installation of waste, vent, and storm systems. The extra-heavy class
pipe over electrical equipment, such as switchgear, often is used for underground applications. Cast iron
panel boards, and elevator machine rooms, should soil pipe used in the United States is classified into
be avoided. Piping systems should not interfere with two major types: hub and spigot and hubless (no hub).
safety or relief valves. Cast iron soil pipe is made of gray cast iron with a
A means of draining the piping systems should be compact close grain. Three classifications arc used:
provided. A -inch or -inch (12.7-mm or 19.1-mm) XH (extra heavy), SV (service), and hubless.
hose bib (provided with a threaded end and vacuum The reference standards for cast iron soil pipe are:
breaker) should be placed at the lowest point of the
piping system for this purpose. Constant grades American Society for Testing and Materials
(ASTM) A74: Standard Specification for Cast
should be maintained for proper drainage, and piping
Iron Soil Pipe and Fittings
systems should be free of pockets due to changes in
elevation.
ASTM A888: Standard Specification for Hubless ASTM C564: Standard Specification for Rubber
Cast Iron Soil Pipe and Fittings for Sanitary Gaskets for Joining Cast Iron Soil Pipe and
and Storm Drain, Waste, and Vent Piping Fittings
Applications ASTM C1540: Standard Specification for Heavy-
Cast Iron Soil Pipe Institute (CISPI) 301: duty Shielded Couplings Joining Hubless Cast
Standard Specification for Hubless Cast Iron Iron Soil Pipe and Fittings
Soil Pipe and Fittings for Sanitary and Storm Hub and Spigot Pipe, No-hub Pipe and
Drain, Waste, and Vent Piping Applications
Fittings
CISPI 310: Specification for Coupling for Use in Hub and spigot pipe and fittings have hubs into which
Connection with Hubless Cast Iron Soil Pipe and the spigot (plain end) of the pipe or fitting is inserted.
Fittings for Sanitary and Storm Drain, Waste, Hub and spigot pipe and fittings are available in two
and Vent Piping Applications classes or thicknesses: service (SV) and extra heavy
ASTM A74: Standard Specification for Cast Iron (XH). Sizes include 2-inch to 15-inch (50.8-mm to
Soil Pipe and Fittings 381-mm) diameters and 5-foot or 10-foot (1.5-meter
Figure 2-1 Cast Iron Soil Pipe Joints
Figure 2-2 Cast Iron Soil Pipe (extra-heavy and service classes)
Notes : 1 . Laying length, all sizes:single hub 5 ft; double hub 5 ft less Y, 5-ft lengths; single hub 10 ft; double hub 10 ft less Y, for 10 ft lengths. 2. If a bead is
provided on the spigot end, M may be any diameter between J and M. 3. Hub ends and spigot ends can be made with or without draft, and spigot ends
can be made with or without spigot bead.
Figure 2-3 Hubless Cast Iron Soil Pipe and Fittings

Chapter 2Piping Systems 25
or 3.1-meter) lengths for extra heavy and service pipe. Couplings for use in joining hubless pipe and
It is available in single and double hub. Service and fittings are also available in these size ranges from
extra heavy classes have different outside diameters various manufacturers.
and are not readily interchangeable. These two dif- The following methods of joining are used:
ferent types of pipe and fittings can be connected No-hub shielded couplings
with adapters available from the manufacturer. (See
Tables 2-1 and 2-2.) Heavy-duty shielded couplings
The following methods of joining are used:
Ductile Iron Water and Sewer
Rubber (neoprene) compression gasket Pipe
Molten lead and oakum Ductile iron pipe primarily is used in water and sewer
systems for underground and industrial applications.
Hubless Pipe and Fittings Ductile iron pipe is a high-strength material and is
Hubless cast iron soil pipe and fittings are simply pipe not as brittle as cast iron pipe. It is available in seven
and fittings manufactured without a hub. The method classes (5056) and in 3-inch to 64-inch (76-mm to
of joining these pipes and fittings utilizes a hubless 1,626-mm) diameters. The pipe is manufactured with
coupling, which slips over the plain ends of the pipe bell ends and has lengths of either 18 feet or 20 feet
and fittings and is tightened to seal the joint. Hubless (5.49 m or 6.1 m). Pressure ratings for the working
cast iron soil pipe and fittings are made in only one pressure are available in all sizes to 350 pounds per
class, or thickness. Hubless cast iron pipe and fittings square inch (psi) (2,414 kilopascals [kPa]). (See Table
include 1-inch to 15-inch (38.1-mm to 254-mm) 2-4.)
diameters, and the pipe is manufactured in 5-foot to Cement-lined piping typically is required for water
10-foot (1.5-m to 3.1-m) lengths. Piping is also avail- distribution systems. The cement lining provides a
able with beaded ends. Many varied configurations of protective barrier between the potable water supply
fittings are available ranging in size and shape. (See and the ductile iron pipe to prevent impurities and
Figures 2-1, 2-2, and 2-3 and Table 2-3.)
Table 2-1 Dimensions of Hubs, Spigots, and Barrels for Extra-heavy Cast Iron Soil Pipe and Fittings
Nominal Inside Outside Outside
Inside Diameter of Diameter of Diameter of Telescoping
Diameter Hub (in.) Spigota (in.) Barrel (in.) Length (in.) Thickness of Barrel (in.)
Size (in.) A M J Y T (nominal) T (minimum)
2 3.06 2.75 2.38 2.50 0.19 0.16
3 4.19 3.88 3.50 2.75 0.25 0.22
4 5.19 4.88 4.50 3.00 0.25 0.22
5 6.19 5.88 5.50 3.00 0.25 0.22
6 7.19 6.88 6.50 3.00 0.25 0.22
8 9.50 9.00 8.62 3.50 0.31 0.25
10 11.62 11.13 10.75 3.50 0.37 0.31
12 13.75 13.13 12.75 4.25 0.37 0.31
15 16.95 16.25 15.88 4.25 0.44 0.38
Distance from
Lead Groove to
Nominal Width of Hub Width of Spigot End, Pipe and
Inside Thickness of Hub (in.) Beadb (in.) Beadb (in.) Fittings (in.) Depth of Lead Groove (in.)
Diameter Hub Body Over Bead
Size (in.) S (minimum) R (minimum) F N P G (minimum) G (maximum)
2 0.18 0.37 0.75 0.69 0.22 0.10 0.19
3 0.25 0.43 0.81 0.75 0.22 0.10 0.19
4 0.25 0.43 0.88 0.81 0.22 0.10 0.19
5 0.25 0.43 0.88 0.81 0.22 0.10 0.19
6 0.25 0.43 0.88 0.81 0.22 0.10 0.19
8 0.34 0.59 1.19 1.12 0.38 0.15 0.22
10 0.40 0.65 1.19 1.12 0.38 0.15 0.22
12 0.40 0.65 1.44 1.38 0.47 0.15 0.29
15 0.46 0.71 1.44 1.38 0.47 0.15 0.22
Note: Laying length, all sizes: single hub 5 ft; double hub 5 ft less Y, 5-ft lengths; single hub 10 ft; double hub 10 ft less Y, for 10 ft lengths.
a
If a bead is provided on the spigot end, M may be any diameter between J and M.
b
Hub ends and spigot ends can be made with or without draft, and spigot ends can be made with or without spigot bead.

Table 2-1(M) Dimensions of Hubs, Spigots, and Barrels for Extra-heavy Cast Iron Soil Pipe and Fittings
Nominal Inside Inside Diameter of Outside Diameter of Outside Diameter of Telescoping
Diameter Size Hub (mm) Spigot a (mm) Barrel (mm) Length (mm) Thickness of Barrel (mm)
(in.) A M J Y T (nominal) T (minimum)
2 77.72 69.85 60.45 63.50 4.83 4.06
3 106.43 98.55 88.90 69.85 6.35 5.59
4 131.83 123.95 114.30 76.20 6.35 5.59
5 157.23 149.35 139.70 76.20 6.35 5.59
6 182.63 174.75 165.10 76.20 6.35
Distance from
Width of Lead Groove to
Nominal Width of Hub Spigot Beadb End, Pipe and
Inside Thickness of Hub (mm) Beadb (mm) (mm) Fittings (mm) Depth of Lead Groove (mm)
2 4.57 9.40 19.05 17.53 5.59 2.54 4.83
3 6.35 10.92 20.57 19.05 5.59 2.54 4.83
4 6.35 10.92 22.35 20.57 5.59 2.54 4.83
5 6.35 10.92 22.35 20.57 5.59 2.54 4.83
6 6.35 10.92 22.35 20.57 5.59 2.54 4.83
8 8.64 14.99 30.23 28.45 9.65 3.81 5.59
10 10.16 16.51 30.23 28.45 9.65 3.81 5.59
12 10.16 16.51 36.54 35.05 11.94 3.81 5.59
15 11.68 18.03 36.54 35.05 11.94 3.81 5.59
Note: Laying length, all sizes: single hub 1.5 m; double hub 1.5 m less Y, 1.5 m lengths; single hub 3.1 m; double hub 3.1 m less Y, for 3.1 m lengths.
a
b
Table 2-2 Dimensions of Hubs, Spigots, and Barrels for Service Cast Iron Soil Pipe and Fittings
Outside
Nominal Inside Diameter Outside
Inside Diameter of Spigota Diameter of Telescoping
Diameter of Hub (in.) (in.) Barrel (in.) Length (in.) Thickness of Barrel (in.)
2 2.94 2.62 2.30 2.50 0.17 0.14
3 3.94 3.62 3.30 2.75 0.17 0.14
4 4.94 4.62 4.30 3.00 0.18 0.15
5 5.94 5.62 5.30 3.00 0.18 0.15
6 6.94 6.62 6.30 3.00 0.18 0.15
8 9.25 8.75 8.38 3.50 0.23 0.17
10 11.38 10.88 10.50 3.50 0.28 0.22
12 13.50 12.88 12.50 4.25 0.28 0.22
15 16.95 16.00 15.88 4.25 0.36 0.30
Distance from
Width of Lead Groove to
Nominal Width of Hub Spigot End, Pipe and
Inside Thickness of Hub (in.) Beadb (in.) Beadb (in.) Fittings (in.) Depth of Lead Groove (in.)
2 0.13 0.34 0.75 0.69 0.22 0.10 0.19
3 0.16 0.37 0.81 0.75 0.22 0.10 0.19
4 0.16 0.37 0.88 0.81 0.22 0.10 0.19
5 0.16 0.37 0.88 0.81 0.22 0.10 0.19
6 0.18 0.37 0.88 0.81 0.22 0.10 0.19
8 0.19 0.44 1.19 1.12 0.38 0.15 0.22
10 0.27 0.53 1.19 1.12 0.38 0.15 0.22
12 0.27 0.53 1.44 1.38 0.47 0.15 0.22
15 0.30 0.58 1.44 1.38 0.47 0.15 0.22
Note: Laying length, all sizes: single hub 5 ft; double hub 5 ft less Y, 5-ft lengths; single hub 10 ft; double hub 10 ft less Y, for 10 ft lengths.
a
b

Table 2-2(M) Dimensions of Hubs, Spigots, and Barrels for Service Cast Iron Soil Pipe and Fittings
Nominal Inside Outside Outside
Inside Diameter of Diameter of Diameter of Telescoping
Diameter Hub (mm) Spigot a (mm) Barrel (mm) Length (mm) Thickness of Barrel (mm)
2 74.68 66.55 58.42 63.50 4.32 3.56
3 100.08 91.95 83.82 69.85 4.32 3.56
4 125.48 117.35 109.22 76.20 4.57 3.81
5 150.88 142.75 134.62 76.20 4.57 3.81
6 176.28 168.15 160.02 76.20 5.57
Spigot Beadb Lead Groove
Inside of Hub (mm) (mm) to End (mm) Lead Groove (mm)
Size (in.) S (minimum) R (minimum) F P G (minimum) G (maximum)
2 3.30 8.64 19.05 5.59 2.54 4.83
3 4.06 9.40 20.57 5.59 2.54 4.83
4 4.06 9.40 22.35 5.59 2.54 4.83
5 4.06 9.40 22.35 5.59 2.54 4.83
6 4.57 9.40 22.35 5.59 2.54 4.83
8 4.83 11.26 30.23 9.65 3.81 5.59
10 6.86 13.46 30.23 9.65 3.81 5.59
12 6.86 13.46 36.58 11.94 3.81 5.59
15 7.62 14.73 36.58 11.94 3.81 5.59
Note: Laying length, all sizes: single hub 1.5 m; double hub 1.5 m less Y, 1.5 m lengths; single hub 3.1 m; double hub 3.1 m less Y, for 3.1 m lengths.
a
b
Table 2-3 Dimensions of Spigots and Barrels for Hubless Pipe and Fittings
Gasket
Nom. Inside Diam. Outside Diam. Outside Diam. Width Spigot Positioning Laying
Size Barrel Barrel Spigot Bead Thickness of Barrel Lug Length, La, b
(in.) (in.) (mm) (in.) (mm) (in.) (mm) (in.) (mm) (in.) (mm) (in.) (mm) (in.) (mm) (in.)
B J M N T-Nom. T-Min. W 5 Ft 10 Ft
1 1.50 38.1 1.90 48.26 1.96 48.78 0.25 6.35 0.16 3.3 0.13 0.33 1.13 28.7 60 120
2 1.96 49.8 2.35 59.69 2.41 61.21 0.25 6.35 0.16 3.3 0.13 0.33 1.13 28.7 60 120
3 2.96 75.2 3.35 85.09 3.41 86.61 0.25 6.35 0.16 3.3 0.13 0.33 1.13 28.7 60 120
4 3.94 100.08 4.38 111.25 4.44 112.78 0.31 7.87 0.19 3.81 0.15 0.38 1.13 28.7 60 120
5 4.94 125.48 5.30 134.62 5.36 136.14 0.31 7.87 0.19 3.81 0.15 0.38 1.50 38.1 60 120
6 5.94 150.88 6.30 160.02 6.36 161.54 0.31 7.87 0.19 3.81 0.15 0.38 1.50 38.1 60 120
8 7.94 201.68 8.38 212.85 8.44 214.38 0.31 7.87 0.23 4.32 0.17 0.43 2.00 50.8 60 120
10 10.00 254 10.56 268.22 10.62 269.75 0.31 7.87 0.28 5.59 0.22 0.56 2.00 50.8 60 120
12 11.94 303.28 12.50 317.5 12.62 320.55 0.31 7.87 0.28 5.59 0.22 2.75 69.85 60 120
15 15.11 383.79 15.83 402.08 16.12 409.55 0.31 7.87 0.36 7.62 0.30 2.75 69.85 60 120
a
Laying lengths as listed are for pipe only.
b
Laying lengths may be either 5 ft 0 in. or 10 ft 0 in. (1.5 or 3.1 m) long.

contaminants from leaching Table 2-4 Standard Minimum Pressure Classes of Ductile Iron Single-thickness
into the water supply. Cement-lined Pipe
The reference standards Pressure Weight in Pounds
for ductile iron pipe are: Size Rating Nominal Wall Pipe O.D. Per Foot Maximum
(in.) (psi) Thickness (in.) (in.) Plain End Flange Fastite Bell Length
American National 4 350+ 0.32 4.8 13.8 13 10 262
Standards Institute 6 350+ 0.34 6.9 21.4 17 15 450
(ANSI)/American Water 8 350+ 0.36 9.05 30.1 27 21 635
Works Association 10 350+ 0.38 11.1 39.2 38 27 830
(AWWA) C104/A21.4: 12 350+ 0.4 13.2 49.2 59 32 1050
Cement Mortar Lining 14 350+ 0.42 15.3 60.1 70 57 1300
for Ductile Iron Pipe 16 350+ 0.43 17.4 70.1 90 64 1520
and Fittings for Water 18 350+ 0.44 19.5 80.6 88 73 1735
ANSI/AWWA C105/ 20 350+ 0.45 21.6 91.5 112 81 1980
A21.5: Polyethylene 24 350+ 0.47 25.8 114.4 155 96 2480
Encasement for Ductile 30 250 0.51 32 154.4 245 164 3420
Iron Pipe Systems 36 250 0.58 38.3 210.3 354 214 4670
42 250 0.65 44.5 274 512 289 6140
ANSI/AWWA C110/ 48 250 0.72 50.8 346.6 632 354 7745
A21.10: Ductile Iron and 54 250 0.81 57.56 441.9 716 439 9770
Gray Iron Fittings for 60 250 0.83 61.61 485 1113 819 11390
Water 64 250 0.87 65.67 542 1824 932 13320
ANSI/AWWA C111/
A21.11: Rubber Gasket Concrete Pipe
Joints for Ductile Iron Pressure Pipe and Concrete pipe is used for sanitary sewers, storm sew-
Fittings ers, culverts, detention systems, and low-pressure
ANSI/AWWA C115/A21.15: Flanged Ductile Iron force mains. Reinforced concrete pipe is the most
Pipe with Ductile Iron or Gray Iron Threaded durable and economical of all piping products. It is
Flanges recommended for installations where low, moderate,
ANSI/AWWA C116/A21.16: Protective Fusion- or severe cover and/or live load conditions exist and
bonded Epoxy Coatings for the Interior and structural failure might endanger life or property.
Exterior Surfaces of Ductile Iron and Gray Iron Reinforced pipe, even after ultimate failure, retains its
Fittings for Water Supply Service shape and will not collapse. Concrete pipe is installed by
site contractors during site preparation more usually
ANSI/AWWA C150/A21.50: Thickness Design of
Ductile Iron Pipe than it is installed by the plumbing trade.
This pipe is available in 4-inch to 36-inch (100-mm
ANSI/AWWA C151/A21.51: Ductile Iron Pipe, to 900-mm) diameters. Nonreinforced concrete pipe
Centrifugally Cast, for Water or Other Liquids is not available in all markets. Reinforced concrete
ANSI/AWWA C153/A21.53: Ductile Iron Compact pipe is made by the addition of steel wire or steel
Fittings for Water Service bars. It is used primarily for sewage and storm drain-
ANSI/AWWA C600: Installation of Ductile Iron age and is available in 12-inch to 144-inch (300-mm
Water Mains and Their Appurtenances to 3,600-mm) diameters (see Table 2-5). Concrete
pipe is available as a bell and spigot or gasketed bell
AWWA C651: Disinfecting Water Mains design.
ASTM A716: Standard Specification for Ductile The reference standards for concrete pipe are:
Iron Culvert Pipe
ASTM C14: Standard Specification for
ASTM A746: Standard Specification for Ductile Nonreinforced Concrete Sewer, Storm Drain, and
Iron Gravity Sewer Pipe Culvert Pipe
The methods of joining are: ASTM C76: Standard Specification for
Push-on rubber (neoprene) compression gasket Reinforced Concrete Culvert, Storm Drain, and
Sewer Pipe
Mechanical
ASTM C655: Standard Specification for
Flanged Reinforced Concrete D-Load Culvert, Storm
Special joints are also available, such as restrained, Drain, and Sewer Pipe
ball and socket, and grooved and shouldered. (See
Figure 2-4.)

Figure 2-4 Joints and Fittings for Ductile Iron Pipe

Table 2-5 Dimensions and Approximate Weights of Circular Concrete Pipe

Reinforced Concrete Culvert, Storm Drain and Sewer Pipe
Waterway WALL B WALL C
Internal Internal Area, square Minimum Wall Approximate Minimum Wall Approximate
Diameter, in. Diameter, mm meters Thickness, mm Weight, Kg/meter Thickness, mm Weight, Kg/meter
8* 200 0.03 51 90
10* 250 0.05 51 130
12 300 0.07 51 140
15 375 0.11 57 190
18 450 0.16 64 250
21 525 0.22 70 320
24 600 0.29 76 390 95 545
27 675 0.37 83 480 102 625
30 750 0.46 89 570 108 710
33 825 0.55 95 670 114 820
36 900 0.66 102 780 121 975
42 1050 0.89 114 1020 133 1205
48 1200 1.17 127 1290 146 1505
54 1350 1.48 140 1590 159 1800
60 1500 1.82 152 1925 171 2190
66 1650 2.21 165 2295 184 2580
72 1800 2.62 178 2695 197 3000
78 1950 3.08 190 3125 210 3585
84 2100 3.57 203 3585 222 3960
90 2250 4.1 216 4075 235 4495
96 2400 4.67 229 4600 248 4990
102 2550 5.27 241 5180 260 5595
108 2700 5.91 254 5750 273 6190
Table 2-6 Commercially Available Lengths of Copper Plumbing Tube

The first of the three principal classes of copper tubular products is commonly referred to as commodity tube. It includes
types K (heaviest), L (standard), and M (lightest) wall thickness schedules as classified by ASTM B88, Specification for
Seamless Copper Water Tube; type DWV of ASTM B306, Specification for Copper Drainage Tube (DWV); and medical
gas tube of ASTM B819, Specification for Seamless Copper Tube for Medical Gas Systems. In each case, the actual
outside diameter is 1/8 in. (0.32 cm) larger than the nominal or standard size.
Copper TubeTypes, Standards, Applications, Tempers, Lengths
Tube type: Type K
Color code: Green ASTM B88a
Commercially Available Lengthsb
Straight Lengths Coils
Pipe Diameter Drawn Annealed Pipe Diameter Drawn Annealed
to 8 in. 20 ft 20 ft to 1 in. 60 ft 100 ft
10 in. 18 ft 18 ft 1 and 1 in. 60 ft
12 in. 12 ft 12 ft 2 in. 40 ft 45 ft
Standard applicationsc: Domestic water service and distribution, fire protection, solar, fuel/fuel oil, HVAC, snow melting
Tube type: Type L

Color code: Blue ASTM B88
b
Commercially Available Lengths
to 8 in. 20 ft 20 ft to 1 in. 60 ft 100 ft
12 in. 18 ft 18 ft 1 and 1 in. 60 ft
2 in. 40 ft 45 ft
Standard applicationsc: Domestic water service and distribution, fire protection, solar, fuel/fuel oil, HVAC, snow melting, natural gas,
liquefied petroleum gas

Table 2-6 Commercially Available Lengths of Copper Plumbing Tube (continued)
Tube type: Type M

Color code: Red ASTM B88
b
to 12 in. 20 ft
c
Standard applications : Domestic water service and distribution, fire protection, solar, fuel/fuel oil, HVAC, snow melting
Tube type: DWV

Color code: Yellow ASTM B306
b
to 8 in. 20 ft
c
Standard applications : Drain, waste, and vent, solar, HVAC
Tube type: ACR

Color code: Blue ASTM B280
b
d
3
8 to 418 in. 20 ft 1
8 and 158 in. 50 ft
c
Standard applications : Air-conditioning, refrigeration, natural gas, liquefied petroleum gas
Tube type: OXY, MED, OXY/MED, OXY/ACR, ACR/MED

Color code: (K) Green, (L) Blue ASTM B819
b
to 8 in. 20 ft N/A
c
Standard applications : Medical gas
Tube type: Type G

Color code: Yellow ASTM B837
b
3
8 to 118 in. 12 ft 12 ft 3
8 to 78 in. 60 ft 100 ft
Standard applicationsc: Natural gas, liquefied petroleum gas
a Tube made to other ASTM standards is also intended for plumbing applications, although ASTM B88 is by far the most widely used. ASTM B698: Standard Classifications lists six
plumbing tube standards, including ASTM B88.
b Individual manufacturers may have commercially available lengths in addition to those shown in this table.
c Many other copper and copper alloy tubes and pipes are available for specialized applications. For information on these products, contact the Copper Development Association.
d Available as special order only.

ASTM C443: Standard Specification for Joints Type M being the thinnest. All three types of tube are
for Concrete Pipe and Manholes, Using Rubber commonly manufactured from copper alloy C12200,
Gaskets which has a chemical composition of a minimum of
The methods of joining are: 99.9 percent copper (Cu) and silver (Ag) combined
and a maximum allowable range of phosphorous (P)
Rubber (elastomeric) gasket of 0.0150.040 percent.
Cement plaster (becoming obsolete) Seamless copper water tube is manufactured in
sizes of -inch to 12-inch (6.35-mm to 304.8-mm)
Copper Pipe (nominal) diameter. Types K and L are manufactured
Copper pipe is for water supply; drain, waste, and in drawn temper (hard) of -inch to 12-inch (6.35-
vent (DWV); boiler feed lines; refrigeration; and mm to 304.8-mm) and annealed temper (soft) coils
similar purposes. of -inch to 2-inch (6.35-mm to 50.8-mm) (nominal)
The reference standards for copper pipe include diameter, while Type M is manufactured only in
the following: drawn (hard) temper of -inch to 12-inch (6.35-mm
to 304.8-mm) (nominal) diameter. See Table 2-6 for
ASTM B88: Standard Specification for Seamless the commercially available lengths of copper plumb-
Copper Water Tube
ing tube. See Tables 2-7, 2-8, and 2-9 for dimensional
ASTM B280: Standard Specification for and capacity data for Type K, L, and M copper tube
Seamless Copper Tube for Air-conditioning and respectively.
Refrigeration Field Service Seamless copper water tube of drawn temper is
ASTM B306: Standard Specification for Copper required to be identified with a colored stripe that
Drainage Tube (DWV) contains the manufacturers name or trademark, the
type of tube, and the nation of origin. This colored
ASTM B819: Standard Specification for
Seamless Copper Tube for Medical Gas Systems strip is green for Type K, blue for Type L, and red for
Type M. In addition to the colored stripe, the tube is
ASTM B837: Standard Specification for incised with the type of tube and the manufacturers
Seamless Copper Tube for Natural Gas and name or trademark at intervals not in excess of 1
Liquified Petroleum (LP) Gas Fuel Distribution feet. Annealed (soft) coils or straight lengths are not
Systems required to be identified with a color stripe.
American Society of Mechanical Engineers Fittings in copper water tube may be those con-
(ASME) B16.22: Wrought Copper and Copper forming to ASME B16.22, ASME B16.18, ASME
Alloy Solder Joint Pressure Fittings B16.26: Cast Copper Alloy Fittings for Flared Cop-
ASME B16.18: Cast Copper Alloy Solder Joint per Tubes, or ASME B16.24, Cast Copper Alloy Pipe
Pressure Fittings Flanges and Flanged Fittings, Classes 150, 300,
600, 900, 1,500, and 2,500. Various other fittings of
ASTM B75: Standard Specification for Seamless
the compression, grooved, and mechanical type also
Copper Tube
may be used.
ASTM B584: Standard Specification for Copper Joints in copper water tube typically are soldered,
Alloy Sand Castings for General Applications flared, or brazed, although roll-grooved or mechanical
ASME B16.29: Wrought Copper and Wrought joints also are permitted.
Copper Alloy Solder Joint Drainage Fittings Soldered joints should be installed in accordance
(DWV) with the requirements and procedures detailed in
ASME B16.23: Cast Copper Alloy Solder Joint ASTM B828: Standard Practice for Making Capil-
Drainage Fittings (DWV) lary Joints by Soldering of Copper and Copper Alloy
Tube and Fittings, and the flux used should meet the
National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) 99: requirements of ASTM B813: Standard Specification
Standard for Healthcare Facilities
for Liquid and Paste Fluxes for Soldering of Copper
NFPA 99C: Standard on Gas and Vacuum and Copper Alloy Tube.
Systems The mechanical joining of copper tubing can be
accomplished with specially manufactured fittings of
Copper Water Tube different types. One type known as press-connect is
Copper water tube is a seamless, almost pure copper fastened with a crimping tool with interchangeable
material manufactured to the requirements of ASTM jaws of inch to 4 inches (12.7 mm to 101.6 mm).
B88. It has three basic wall thickness dimensions, des- Another known as push-connect is pushed on the
ignated as Types K, L, and M, with Type K being the tube to make a connection and is held in place by
thickest, Type L being of intermediate thickness, and an internal or integral stainless steel gripper ring. A

Table 2-7 Dimensional and Capacity DataType K Copper Tube

Diameter (in.) Cross-sectional area (sq. in.) Weight per foot (lb)
Wall of tube
Nominal Actual Actual thickness of tube of water and
(in.) inside outside (in.) Outside Inside Metal alone in tube water
0.305 0.375 0.035 0.110 0.073 0.034 0.145 0.033 0.167
3
8 0.402 0.500 0.049 0.196 0.127 0.069 0.269 0.055 0.324
0.527 0.625 0.049 0.307 0.218 0.089 0.344 0.094 0.438
5
8 0.652 0.750 0.049 0.442 0.334 0.108 0.418 0.145 0.563
0.745 0.875 0.065 0.601 0.436 0.165 0.641 0.189 0.830
1 0.995 1.125 0.065 0.993 0.778 0.216 0.839 0.338 1.177
1 1.245 1.375 0.065 1.484 1.217 0.267 1.04 0.53 1.57
1 1.481 1.625 0.072 2.072 1.722 0.350 1.36 1.22 2.58
2 1.959 2.125 0.083 3.546 3.013 0.533 2.06 1.31 3.37
2 2.435 2.625 0.095 5.409 4.654 0.755 2.93 2.02 4.95
3 2.907 3.125 0.109 7.669 6.634 1.035 4.00 2.88 6.88
3 3.385 3.625 0.120 10.321 8.999 1.322 5.12 3.91 9.03
4 3.857 4.125 0.134 13.361 11.682 1.679 6.51 5.07 11.58
5 4.805 5.125 0.160 20.626 18.126 2.500 9.67 7.87 17.54
6 5.741 6.125 0.192 29.453 25.874 3.579 13.9 11.2 25.1
8 7.583 8.125 0.271 51.826 45.138 6.888 25.9 19.6 45.5
10 9.449 10.125 0.338 80.463 70.085 10.378 40.3 30.4 70.7
12 11.315 12.125 0.405 115.395 100.480 14.915 57.8 43.6 101.4
Ft2 of Surface per Contents of Tube per

Nominal Circumference (in.) Lineal Foot Lineal Foot Lineal Feet to Contain
Diam. 1Lb of
(in.) Outside Inside Outside Inside Ft3 Gal 1 Ft3 1 Gal Water
1.178 0.977 0.098 0.081 .00052 .00389 1923 257 30.8
3
8 1.570 1.262 0.131 0.105 .00088 .00658 1136 152 18.2
1.963 1.655 0.164 0.138 .00151 .01129 662 88.6 10.6
5
8 2.355 2.047 0.196 0.171 .00232 .01735 431 57.6 6.90
2.748 2.339 0.229 0.195 .00303 .02664 330 37.5 5.28
1 3.533 3.124 0.294 0.260 .00540 .04039 185 24.8 2.96
1 4.318 3.909 0.360 0.326 .00845 .06321 118 15.8 1.89
1 5.103 4.650 0.425 0.388 .01958 .14646 51.1 6.83 0.817
2 6.673 6.151 0.556 0.513 .02092 .15648 47.8 6.39 0.765
2 8.243 7.646 0.688 0.637 .03232 .24175 30.9 4.14 0.495
3 9.813 9.128 0.818 0.761 .04607 .34460 21.7 2.90 0.347
3 11.388 10.634 0.949 0.886 .06249 .46745 15.8 2.14 0.257
4 12.953 12.111 1.080 1.009 .08113 .60682 12.3 1.65 0.197
5 16.093 15.088 1.341 1.257 .12587 .94151 7.94 1.06 0.127
6 19.233 18.027 1.603 1.502 .17968 1.3440 5.56 0.744 0.089
8 25.513 23.811 2.126 1.984 .31345 2.3446 3.19 0.426 0.051
10 31.793 29.670 2.649 2.473 .48670 3.4405 2.05 0.291 0.033
12 38.073 35.529 3.173 2.961 .69778 5.2194 1.43 0.192 0.023

Table 2-7(M) Dimensional and Capacity DataType K Copper Tube

Diameter Cross-sectional area (103 mm2) Weight per foot (kg)
Actual Actual Wall of tube
Nominal inside outside thickness of tube of water and
(in.) (mm) (mm) (mm) Outside Inside Metal alone in tube water
7.90 9.53 0.89 0.071 0.049 0.022 0.216 0.049 0.249
3
8 10.21 12.70 1.25 0.127 0.082 0.045 0.401 0.082 0.483
13.39 15.88 1.25 0.198 0.141 0.057 0.512 0.140 0.652
5
8 16.56 19.05 1.25 0.285 0.216 0.070 0.623 0.216 0.839
18.92 22.23 1.65 0.388 0.281 0.107 0.955 0.282 1.236
1 25.27 28.58 1.65 0.641 0.501 0.139 1.250 0.504 1.753
1 31.62 34.93 1.65 0.957 0.785 0.172 1.549 0.789 2.339
1 37.62 41.28 1.83 1.337 1.111 0.226 2.026 1.817 3.843
2 49.76 53.98 2.11 2.288 1.944 0.344 3.068 1.951 5.020
2 61.85 66.68 2.41 3.490 3.003 0.487 4.364 3.009 7.373
3 73.84 79.38 2.77 4.948 4.280 0.668 5.958 4.290 10.248
3 85.98 92.08 3.05 6.659 5.806 0.853 7.626 5.824 13.450
4 97.97 104.78 3.40 8.620 7.537 1.083 9.697 7.552 17.248
5 122.05 130.18 4.06 13.307 11.694 1.613 14.404 11.722 26.126
6 145.82 155.58 4.88 19.002 16.693 2.309 20.704 16.682 37.387
8 192.61 206.38 6.88 33.436 29.121 4.444 38.578 29.194 67.772
10 240.01 257.18 8.59 51.912 45.216 6.696 60.027 45.281 105.308
12 287.40 307.98 10.29 74.448 64.826 9.623 86.093 64.942 151.035
M2 of surface per Contents of Tube per

Nominal Circumference (mm) Meter Lineal Foot Lineal Feet to Contain
Diam. 1 kg of
(in.) Outside Inside Outside Inside (L) (L) 1L 1L Water
29.92 24.82 0.030 0.025 0.048 0.048 20.699 20.696 20.678
3
8 39.88 32.06 0.040 0.032 0.077 0.082 12.228 12.240 12.219
49.86 42.04 0.050 0.042 0.140 0.140 7.126 7.135 7.117
5
8 59.82 51.99 0.060 0.052 0.216 0.216 4.639 4.638 4.632
69.80 59.41 0.070 0.059 0.282 0.331 3.552 3.020 3.545
1 89.74 79.35 0.090 0.079 0.502 0.502 1.991 1.997 1.987
1 109.68 99.29 0.110 0.099 0.785 0.785 1.270 1.272 1.269
1 129.62 118.11 0.130 0.118 1.819 1.819 0.550 0.550 0.549
2 169.49 156.24 0.170 0.156 1.944 1.943 0.515 0.515 0.514
2 209.37 194.21 0.210 0.194 3.003 3.002 0.333 0.333 0.332
3 249.25 231.85 0.249 0.232 4.280 4.279 0.234 0.234 0.233
3 289.26 270.10 0.289 0.270 5.806 5.805 0.170 0.172 0.173
4 329.01 307.62 0.329 0.308 7.537 7.536 0.133 0.133 0.132
5 408.76 383.24 0.409 0.383 11.694 11.692 0.086 0.085 0.085
6 488.52 457.89 0.489 0.458 16.693 16.690 0.060 0.060 0.060
8 648.03 604.80 0.648 0.605 29.121 29.115 0.034 0.034 0.034
10 807.54 753.62 0.807 0.754 45.216 42.724 0.022 0.023 0.022
12 967.05 902.44 0.967 0.903 64.826 64.814 0.015 0.016 0.015

Table 2-8 Dimensional and Capacity DataType L Copper Tube

Wall of tube
0.315 0.375 0.030 0.110 0.078 0.032 0.126 0.034 0.160
3
8 0.430 0.500 0.035 0.196 0.145 0.051 0.198 0.063 0.261
0.545 0.625 0.040 0.307 0.233 0.074 0.285 0.101 0.386
5
8 0.666 0.750 0.042 0.442 0.348 0.094 0.362 0.151 0.513
0.785 0.875 0.045 0.601 0.484 0.117 0.445 0.210 0.665
1 1.025 1.125 0.050 0.993 0.825 0.168 0.655 0.358 1.013
1 1.265 1.375 0.055 1.484 1.256 0.228 0.884 0.545 1.429
1 1.505 1.625 0.060 2.072 1.778 0.294 1.14 0.77 1.91
2 1.985 2.125 0.070 3.546 3.093 0.453 1.75 1.34 3.09
2 2.465 2.625 0.080 5.409 4.770 0.639 2.48 2.07 4.55
3 2.945 3.125 0.090 7.669 6.808 0.861 3.33 2.96 6.29
3 3.425 3.625 0.100 10.321 9.214 1.107 4.29 4.00 8.29
4 3.905 4.125 0.110 13.361 11.971 1.390 5.38 5.20 10.58
5 4.875 5.125 0.125 20.626 18.659 1.967 7.61 8.10 15.71
6 5.845 6.125 0.140 29.453 26.817 2.636 10.2 11.6 21.8
8 7.725 8.125 0.200 51.826 46.849 4.977 19.3 20.3 39.6
10 9.625 10.125 0.250 80.463 72.722 7.741 30.1 31.6 61.7
12 11.565 12.125 0.280 115.395 104.994 10.401 40.4 45.6 86.0

Diam. 1Lb of
1.178 0.989 0.098 0.082 .00054 .0040 1852 250 29.6
3
8 1.570 1.350 0.131 0.113 .00100 .0075 1000 133 16.0
1.963 1.711 0.164 0.143 .00162 .0121 617.3 82.6 9.87
5
8 2.355 2.091 0.196 0.174 .00242 .0181 413.2 55.2 6.61
2.748 2.465 0.229 0.205 .00336 .0251 297.6 40.5 4.76
1 3.533 3.219 0.294 0.268 .00573 .0429 174.5 23.3 2.79
1 4.318 3.972 0.360 0.331 .00872 .0652 114.7 15.3 1.83
1 5.103 4.726 0.425 0.394 .01237 .0925 80.84 10.8 1.29
2 6.673 6.233 0.556 0.519 .02147 .1606 46.58 6.23 0.745
2 8.243 7.740 0.688 0.645 .03312 .2478 30.19 4.04 0.483
3 9.813 9.247 0.818 0.771 .04728 .3537 21.15 2.83 0.338
3 11.388 10.760 0.949 0.897 .06398 .4786 15.63 2.09 0.251
4 12.953 12.262 1.080 1.022 .08313 .6218 12.03 1.61 0.192
5 16.093 15.308 1.341 1.276 .12958 .9693 7.220 1.03 0.123
6 19.233 18.353 1.603 1.529 .18622 1.393 5.371 0.718 0.0592
8 25.513 24.465 2.126 2.039 .32534 2.434 3.074 0.411 0.0492
10 31.793 30.223 2.649 2.519 .50501 3.777 1.980 0.265 0.0317
12 38.073 36.314 3.173 3.026 .72912 5.454 1.372 0.183 0.0219

Table 2-8(M) Dimensional and Capacity DataType L Copper Tube

8.00 9.53 0.76 0.071 0.050 0.021 0.188 0.051 0.239
3
8 10.92 12.70 0.89 0.127 0.094 0.033 0.295 0.094 0.389
13.84 15.88 1.02 0.198 0.150 0.048 0.425 0.150 0.575
5
8 16.92 19.05 1.07 0.285 0.225 0.061 0.539 0.225 0.764
19.94 22.23 1.14 0.388 0.312 0.076 0.678 0.313 0.991
1 26.04 28.58 1.27 0.641 0.532 0.108 0.976 0.533 1.509
1 32.13 34.93 1.40 0.957 0.810 0.147 1.317 0.812 2.129
1 38.23 41.28 1.52 1.337 1.147 0.190 1.698 1.147 2.845
2 50.42 53.98 1.78 2.288 1.996 0.292 2.607 1.996 4.603
2 62.61 66.68 2.03 3.490 3.077 0.412 3.694 3.083 6.777
3 74.80 79.38 2.29 4.948 4.392 0.556 4.960 4.409 9.369
3 87.00 92.08 2.54 6.659 5.945 0.714 6.390 5.958 12.348
4 99.19 104.78 2.79 8.620 7.723 0.897 8.014 7.745 15.759
5 123.83 130.18 3.18 13.307 12.038 1.269 11.335 12.065 23.400
6 148.46 155.58 3.56 19.002 17.301 1.701 15.193 17.278 32.471
8 196.22 206.38 5.08 33.436 30.225 3.211 28.747 30.237 58.984
10 244.48 257.18 6.35 51.912 46.917 4.994 44.834 47.068 91.902
12 293.75 307.98 7.11 74.448 67.738 6.710 60.176 67.921 128.097

Diam. 1 kg of
29.92 25.12 0.030 0.025 0.050 0.050 19.935 20.132 19.872
3
8 39.88 34.29 0.040 0.034 0.093 0.093 10.764 10.710 10.742
49.86 43.46 0.050 0.044 0.151 0.150 6.645 6.652 6.626
5
8 59.82 53.11 0.060 0.053 0.225 0.225 4.448 4.445 4.438
69.80 62.61 0.070 0.063 0.312 0.312 3.203 3.261 3.196
1 89.74 81.76 0.090 0.082 0.532 0.533 1.878 1.876 1.873
1 109.68 100.89 0.110 0.101 0.810 0.810 1.235 1.232 1.229
1 129.62 120.04 0.130 0.120 1.149 1.149 0.870 0.870 0.866
2 169.49 158.32 0.170 0.158 1.995 1.994 0.501 0.502 0.500
2 209.37 196.60 0.210 0.197 3.077 3.077 0.325 0.325 0.324
3 249.25 234.87 0.249 0.235 4.393 4.392 0.228 0.228 0.227
3 289.26 273.30 0.289 0.273 5.944 5.943 0.168 0.168 0.169
4 329.01 311.46 0.329 0.312 7.723 7.722 0.130 0.130 0.129
5 408.76 388.82 0.409 0.389 12.038 12.037 0.078 0.083 0.083
6 488.52 466.17 0.489 0.466 17.301 17.298 0.058 0.058 0.040
8 648.03 621.41 0.648 0.621 30.225 30.225 0.033 0.033 0.033
10 807.54 767.66 0.807 0.768 46.917 46.903 0.021 0.021 0.021
12 967.05 922.38 0.967 0.922 67.738 67.728 0.015 0.015 0.015

Table 2-9 Dimensional and Capacity DataType M Copper Tube

Wall of tube
3
8 0.450 0.500 0.025 0.196 0.159 0.037 0.145 0.069 0.214
0.569 0.625 0.028 0.307 0.254 0.053 0.204 0.110 0.314
0.811 0.875 0.032 0.601 0.516 0.085 0.328 0.224 0.552
1 1.055 1.125 0.035 0.993 0.874 0.119 0.465 0.379 0.844
1 1.291 1.375 0.042 1.48 1.31 0.17 0.682 0.569 1.251
1 1.527 1.625 0.049 2.07 1.83 0.24 0.94 0.83 1.77
2 2.009 2.125 0.058 3.55 3.17 0.38 1.46 1.35 2.81
2 2.495 2.625 0.065 5.41 4.89 0.52 2.03 2.12 4.15
3 2.981 3.125 0.072 7.67 6.98 0.69 2.68 3.03 5.71
3 3.459 3.625 0.083 10.32 9.40 0.924 3.58 4.08 7.66
4 3.935 4.125 0.095 13.36 12.15 1.21 4.66 5.23 9.89
5 4.907 5.125 0.109 20.63 18.90 1.73 6.66 8.20 14.86
6 5.881 6.125 0.122 29.45 25.15 2.30 8.92 11.78 20.70
8 7.785 8.125 0.170 51.83 47.58 4.25 16.5 20.7 37.2
10 9.701 10.125 0.212 80.46 73.88 6.58 25.6 32.1 57.7
12 11.617 12.125 0.254 115.47 105.99 9.48 36.7 46.0 82.7

Diam. 1Lb of
3
8 1.570 1.413 0.131 0.118 0.00110 0.00823 909 122 14.5
1.963 1.787 0.164 0.149 0.00176 0.01316 568 76.0 9.09
2.748 2.547 0.229 0.212 0.00358 0.02678 379 37.3 4.47
1 3.533 3.313 0.294 0.276 0.00607 0.04540 164.7 22.0 2.64
1 4.318 4.054 0.360 0.338 0.00910 0.06807 109.9 14.7 1.76
1 5.103 4.795 0.425 0.400 0.01333 0.09971 75.02 10.0 1.20
2 6.673 6.308 0.556 0.526 0.02201 0.16463 45.43 6.08 0.727
2 8.243 7.834 0.688 0.653 0.03396 0.25402 29.45 3.94 0.471
3 9.813 9.360 0.818 0.780 0.04847 0.36256 20.63 2.76 0.330
3 11.388 10.867 0.949 0.906 0.06525 0.48813 15.33 2.05 0.246
4 12.953 12.356 1.080 1.030 0.08368 0.62593 11.95 1.60 0.191
5 16.093 15.408 1.341 1.284 0.13125 0.98175 7.62 1.02 0.122
6 19.233 18.466 1.603 1.539 0.18854 1.410 5.30 0.709 0.849
8 25.513 24.445 2.126 2.037 0.33044 2.472 3.03 0.405 0.484
10 31.793 30.461 2.649 2.538 0.51306 3.838 1.91 0.261 0.312
12 38.073 36.477 3.173 3.039 0.73569 5.503 1.36 0.182 0.217

Table 2-9(M) Dimensional and Capacity DataType M Copper Tube

3
8 11.43 12.70 0.64 0.127 0.103 0.024 0.216 0.103 0.319
14.45 15.88 0.71 0.198 0.164 0.034 0.304 0.164 0.468
20.60 22.23 0.81 0.388 0.333 0.055 0.489 0.334 0.823
1 26.80 28.58 0.89 0.641 0.564 0.077 0.693 0.565 1.258
1 32.79 34.93 1.07 0.955 0.845 0.110 1.016 0.848 1.864
1 38.79 41.28 1.25 1.336 1.181 0.155 1.400 1.236 2.636
2 51.03 53.98 1.47 2.290 2.045 0.245 2.175 2.011 4.186
2 63.38 66.68 1.65 3.490 3.155 0.336 3.024 3.158 6.182
3 75.2 79.38 1.83 4.948 4.503 0.445 3.992 4.513 8.505
3 87.86 92.08 2.11 6.658 6.065 0.596 5.332 6.077 11.409
4 99.95 104.78 2.41 8.619 7.839 0.781 6.941 7.790 14.731
5 124.64 130.18 2.77 13.310 12.194 1.116 9.920 12.214 22.134
6 149.38 155.58 3.10 19.000 16.226 1.484 13.286 17.546 30.832
8 197.74 206.38 4.32 33.439 30.697 2.742 24.577 30.833 55.410
10 246.41 257.18 5.39 51.910 47.664 4.245 38.131 47.813 85.944
12 295.07 307.98 6.45 74.497 68.381 6.116 54.665 68.517 123.182

Diam. 1 kg of
3
8 39.88 35.89 0.040 0.036 0.102 0.102 9.784 9.825 9.735
49.86 45.39 0.050 0.045 0.164 0.163 6.114 6.120 6.103
69.80 64.69 0.070 0.065 0.033 0.333 4.080 3.004 3.001
1 89.74 84.15 0.090 0.084 0.564 0.564 1.773 1.772 1.772
1 109.68 102.97 0.110 0.103 0.845 0.845 1.183 1.184 1.182
1 129.62 121.79 0.130 0.122 1.238 1.238 0.808 0.805 0.806
2 169.49 160.22 0.170 0.160 2.045 2.044 0.489 0.490 0.488
2 209.37 198.98 0.210 0.199 3.155 3.154 0.317 0.317 0.316
3 249.25 237.74 0.249 0.238 4.503 4.502 0.222 0.222 0.222
3 289.26 276.02 0.289 0.276 6.62 6.062 0.165 0.165 0.165
4 329.01 313.84 0.329 0.314 7.774 7.773 0.129 0.129 0.128
5 408.76 391.36 0.409 0.391 12.194 12.191 0.082 0.082 0.082
6 488.52 469.04 0.489 0.469 17.516 17.509 0.057 0.057 0.570
8 648.03 620.90 0.648 0.621 30.699 30.697 0.033 0.033 0.325
10 807.54 773.71 0.807 0.774 47.665 47.660 0.021 0.021 0.210
12 967.05 926.52 0.967 0.926 68.348 68.336 0.015 0.015 0.146
Table 2-10 Dimensional DataType DWV Copper Tube

Nominal Dimensions Calculated Values, Based on Nominal Dimensions
Nominal Outside Wall Cross Sectional
Size Diameter Inside Diameter Thickness Area of Bore External Surface Internal Surface Weight kg
2
(in.) (in.) (mm) (in.) (mm) (in.) (mm) (in. ) (cm2) (ft2/lin ft) (m2/m) (ft2/lin ft) (m2/m) (/lf) (/m)
1 1.375 34.93 1.295 32.89 .040 1.02 1.32 8.52 0.360 0.03 0.339 0.03 0.65 0.29
1 1.625 41.28 1.541 39.14 .042 1.07 1.87 12.06 0.425 0.04 0.403 0.04 0.81 0.37
2 2.125 53.98 2.041 51.84 .042 1.07 3.27 21.10 0.556 0.05 0.534 0.05 1.07 0.49
3 3.125 79.38 3.030 76.96 .045 1.14 7.21 46.52 0.818 0.08 0.793 0.07 1.69 0.77
4 4.125 104.78 4.009 101.83 .058 1.47 12.6 81.29 1.08 0.10 1.05 0.10 2.87 1.30
5 5.125 130.18 4.981 126.52 .072 1.83 19.5 125.81 1.34 0.12 1.30 0.12 4.43 2.01
6 6.125 155.58 5.959 151.36 .083 2.11 27.9 180.00 1.60 0.15 1.56 0.15 6.10 2.77
8 8.125 206.38 7.907 200.84 .109 2.77 49.1 316.77 2.13 0.20 2.07 0.19 10.6 4.81

Figure 2-5 Copper Tube Flared Fittings
Figure 2-6 Copper and Bronze Joints and Fittings

Figure 2-7 Copper Drainage Fittings

Figure 2-8 Standard Glass Pipe
Figure 2-9 Standard Glass Pipe Couplings
third method is accomplished by roll-grooving the end

of the tube and using a gasketed fitting
O-rings in fittings are to be ethylene propylene
diene monomer (EPDM) or hydrogenated nitrile buta-
diene rubber (HNBR). (See Figures 2-5 and 2-6.)
The methods of joining are:
Soldered
Flared
Brazed
Roll-grooved and mechanical coupling
Press-type fitting
Push-type fitting
T-drill
Copper Drainage Tube

Copper drainage tube for DWV applications is a seam-
less copper tube conforming to the requirements of
ASTM B306. Copper drainage tube is furnished in
drawn (hard) temper only in sizes of 1 inch to 8
inches (31.8 mm to 203.2 mm). It is required to be
identified by a yellow stripe giving the manufacturers
name or trademark, the nation of origin, and the
Figure 2-10 Typical Glass Pipe Joint Reference Chart
letters DWV. It also is required to be incised with
the manufacturers name or trademark and the let-
ters DWV at intervals no greater than 1 feet.

See Table 2-10 for dimensional data for Type DWV Society (MSS) SP-73: Brazing Joints for Copper and
copper tube. Copper Alloy Pressure Fittings.
Fittings for use with drainage pipe are usually The methods of joining are:
those conforming to either ASME B16.23 or ASME Brazing
B16.29. They are required to carry the incised mark
DWV. Specialized mechanical compression coupling
Joints for drainage applications can be soldered or Joints in medical gas systems are of the socket/lap
brazed. (See Figure 2-7.) type and are normally brazed with copper-phospho-
Medical Gas Tube rous or copper-phosphorous-silver (BCuP) brazing
alloys while being purged with oil-free nitrogen.
Medical gas tube is shipped cleaned and capped and
is furnished in Type K or L wall thickness in drawn Natural and Liquefied Petroleum
(hard) temper only. Natural and liquefied petroleum pipe is furnished in
Medical gas tube is identified with an incised mark Type G wall thickness. It is color-coded yellow per
containing the manufacturers name or trademark ASTM B837.
at intervals not in excess of 1 feet. It is color-coded The methods of joining are:
green for Type K and blue for Type L. Brazing
Fittings for medical gas tube may be those con-
forming to ASME B16.22, ASME B16.18 (where Compression fittings
wrought copper fittings are not available), or ASME Specialized mechanical compression coupling
B16.50: Wrought Copper and Copper Alloy Braze-joint
Pressure Fittings. They also may be fittings meeting
the requirements of Manufacturers Standardization
Figure 2-11 Standard Glass Fittings

Figure 2-11 (continued)

Table 2-11 Dimensional and Capacity DataSchedule 40 Steel Pipe

Wall of tube
1
8 0.269 0.405 0.068 0.129 0.057 0.072 0.25 0.028 0.278
0.364 0.540 0.088 0.229 0.104 0.125 0.43 0.045 0.475
3
8 0.493 0.675 0.091 0.358 0.191 0.167 0.57 0.083 0.653
0.622 0.840 0.109 0.554 0.304 0.250 0.86 0.132 0.992
0.824 1.050 0.113 0.866 0.533 0.333 1.14 0.232 1.372
1 1.049 1.315 0.133 1.358 0.864 0.494 1.68 0.375 2.055
1 1.380 1.660 0.140 2.164 1.495 0.669 2.28 0.649 2.929
1 1.610 1.900 0.145 2.835 2.036 0.799 2.72 0.882 3.602
2 2.067 2.375 0.154 4.431 3.356 1.075 3.66 1.454 5.114
2 2.469 2.875 0.203 6.492 4.788 1.704 5.80 2.073 7.873
3 3.068 3.500 0.216 9.621 7.393 2.228 7.58 3.201 0.781
3 3.548 4.000 0.226 12.568 9.888 2.680 9.11 4.287 3.397
4 4.026 4.500 0.237 15.903 12.730 3.173 10.80 5.516 6.316
5 5.047 5.563 0.258 24.308 20.004 4.304 14.70 8.674 3.374
6 6.065 6.625 0.280 34.474 28.890 5.584 19.00 12.52 31.52
8 7.981 8.625 0.322 58.426 50.030 8.396 28.60 21.68 50.28
10 10.020 10.750 0.365 90.79 78.85 11.90 40.50 34.16 74.66
12 11.938 12.750 0.406 127.67 113.09 15.77 53.60 48.50 02.10
14 13.126 14.000 0.437 153.94 135.33 18.61 63.30 58.64 21.94
16 15.000 16.000 0.500 201.06 176.71 24.35 82.80 76.58 59.38
18 16.876 18.000 0.562 254.47 223.68 30.79 105.00 96.93 201.93
20 18.814 20.000 0.593 314.16 278.01 36.15 123.00 120.46 243.46
Diam. 1Lb of
1
8 1.27 0.84 0.106 0.070 0.0004 0.003 2533.775 338.74 35.714
1.69 1.14 0.141 0.095 0.0007 0.005 1383.789 185.00 22.222
3
8 2.12 1.55 0.177 0.129 0.0013 0.010 754.360 100.85 12.048
2.65 1.95 0.221 0.167 0.0021 0.016 473.906 63.36 7.576
3.29 2.58 0.275 0.215 0.0037 0.028 270.034 36.10 4.310
1 4.13 3.29 0.344 0.274 0.0062 0.045 166.618 22.38 2.667
1 5.21 4.33 0.435 0.361 0.0104 0.077 96.275 12.87 1.541
1 5.96 5.06 0.497 0.422 0.0141 0.106 70.733 9.46 1.134
2 7.46 6.49 0.622 0.540 0.0233 0.174 42.913 5.74 0.688
2 9.03 7.75 0.753 0.654 0.0332 0.248 30.077 4.02 0.482
3 10.96 9.63 0.916 0.803 0.0514 0.383 19.479 2.60 0.312
3 12.56 11.14 1.047 0.928 0.0682 0. 513 14.565 1.95 0.233
4 14.13 12.64 1.178 1.052 0.0884 0.660 11.312 1.51 0.181
5 17.47 15.84 1.456 1.319 0.1390 1.040 7.198 0.96 0.115
6 20.81 19.05 1.734 1.585 0.2010 1.500 4.984 0.67 0.080
8 27.90 25.07 2.258 2.090 0.3480 2.600 2.878 0.38 0.046
10 33.77 31.47 2.814 2.622 0.5470 4.100 1.826 0.24 0.029
12 40.05 37.70 3.370 3.140 0.7850 5.870 1.273 0.17 0.021
14 47.12 44.76 3.930 3.722 1.0690 7.030 1.067 0.14 0.017
16 53.41 51.52 4.440 4.310 1.3920 9.180 0.814 0.11 0.013
18 56.55 53.00 4.712 4.420 1.5530 11.120 0.644 0.09 0.010
20 62.83 59.09 5.236 4.920 1.9250 14.400 0.517 0.07 0.008

Table 2-11(M) Dimensional and Capacity DataSchedule 40 Steel Pipe

1
8 6.8 10.3 1.7 0.083 0.037 0.047 0.37 0.04 0.41
9.3 13.7 2.2 0.148 0.067 0.081 0.64 0.07 0.71
3
8 12.5 17.2 2.3 0.231 0.123 0.108 0.85 0.12 0.97
15.8 21.3 2.8 0.357 0.196 0.161 1.28 0.20 1.48
20.9 26.7 2.9 0.559 0.344 0.215 1.7 0.35 2.05
1 26.7 33.4 3.4 0.876 0.557 0.319 2.5 0.56 3.06
1 35.1 42.2 3.6 1.396 0.965 0.432 3.4 0.97 4.37
1 40.9 48.3 3.7 1.829 1.314 0.516 4.05 1. 31 5.36
2 52.5 60.3 3.9 2.859 2.165 0.694 5.45 2.17 7.62
2 62.7 73.0 5.2 4.188 3.089 1.099 8.64 3.09 11.73
3 77.9 88.9 5.5 6.207 4.77 1.437 11.29 4.77 16.06
3 90.1 101.6 5.7 8.108 6.379 1.729 13.57 6.39 19.96
4 102.3 114.3 6.0 10.26 8.213 2.047 16.09 8.22 24.31
5 128.2 141.3 6.6 15.68 12.91 2.777 21.9 12.92 34.82
6 154.1 168.3 7.1 22.24 18.64 3.603 28.3 18.65 46.95
8 202.7 219.1 8.2 37.69 32.28 5.417 42.6 32.29 74.89
10 254.5 273.1 9.3 58.57 50.87 7.677 60.33 50.88 111.21
12 303.2 323.9 10.3 82.37 72.96 10.17 79.84 72.24 152.08
14 333.4 355.6 11.1 99.32 87.31 12.01 94.29 87.34 181.63
16 381.0 406.4 12.7 129.72 114.01 15.71 123.33 114.07 237.4
18 428.7 457.2 14.3 164.17 144.31 19.87 156.4 144.38 300.78
20 477.9 508.0 15.1 202.68 179.36 23.32 183.21 179.43 362.64
Nominal Circumference (mm) Meter Lineal Meter Lineal Feet to Contain
Diam. 1 kg of
1
8 32.26 21.34 0.032 0.021 0.037 0.037 27.27 27.28 23.98
42.93 28.96 0.043 0.029 0.065 0.062 14.9 14.9 14.92
3
8 53.85 39.37 0.054 0.039 0.121 0.124 8.12 8.12 8.09
67.31 49.53 0.067 0.051 0.195 1.199 5.1 5.1 5.09
83.57 65.53 0.084 0.066 0.344 0.348 2.91 2.91 2.89
1 104.9 83.57 0.105 0.084 0.576 0.559 1.79 1.79 1.79
1 132.33 109.98 0.133 0.11 0.966 0.956 1.04 1.04 1.03
1 151.38 128.52 0.152 0.129 1.31 1.316 0.76 0.76 0.76
2 189.48 164.85 0.19 0.165 2.165 2.161 0.46 0.46 0.46
2 229.36 196.85 0.23 0.199 3.084 3.08 0.32 0.32 0.32
3 278.38 244.6 0.279 0.245 4.775 4.756 0.21 0.21 0.21
3 319.02 282.96 0.319 0.283 6.336 6.37 0.16 0.16 0.16
4 358.9 321.06 0.359 0.321 8.213 8.196 0.12 0.12 0.12
5 443.74 402.34 0.444 0.402 12.91 12.92 0.08 0.08 0.08
6 528.57 483.87 0.529 0.483 18.67 18.63 0.05 0.05 0.05
8 688.09 636.78 0.688 0.637 32.33 32.29 0.03 0.03 0.03
10 857.76 799.34 0.858 0.799 50.82 50.91 0.02 0.02 0.02
12 1017.27 957.58 1.027 0.957 72.93 72.89 0.013 0.014 0.014
14 1196. 85 1136.9 1.198 1.135 99.31 87.3 0.011 0.011 0.011
16 1356.61 1308.61 1.353 1.314 129.32 114.0 0.009 0.009 0.009
18 1436.37 1346.2 1.436 1.347 144.28 138.09 0.007 0.007 0.007
20 1595.88 1500.89 1.596 1.5 178.84 178.82 0.006 0.006 0.006

Table 2-12 Dimensional and Capacity DataSchedule 80 Steel Pipe

Wall of tube
1
8 0.215 0.405 0.091 0.129 0.036 0.093 0.314 0.016 0.330
0.302 0.540 0.119 0.229 0.072 0.157 0.535 0.031 0.566
3
8 0.423 0.675 0.126 0.358 0.141 0.217 0.738 0.061 0.799
0.546 0.840 0.147 0.554 0.234 0.320 1.087 0.102 1.189
0.742 1.050 0.154 0.866 0.433 0.433 1.473 0.213 1.686
1 0.957 1.315 0.179 1.358 0.719 0.639 2.171 0.312 2.483
1 1.278 1.660 0.191 2.164 1.283 0.881 2.996 0.555 3.551
1 1.500 1.900 0.200 2.835 1.767 1.068 3.631 0.765 4.396
2 1.939 2.375 0.218 4.431 2.954 1.477 5.022 1.280 6.302
2 2.323 2.875 0.276 6.492 4.238 2.254 7.661 1.830 9.491
3 2.900 3.500 0.300 9.621 6.605 3.016 10.252 2.870 13.122
3 3.364 4.000 0.318 12.568 8.890 3.678 12.505 3.720 16.225
4 3.826 4.500 0.337 15.903 11.496 4.407 14.983 4.970 19.953
5 4.813 5.563 0.375 24.308 18.196 6.112 20.778 7.940 28.718
6 5.761 6.625 0.432 34.474 26.069 8.405 28.573 11.300 39.873
8 7.625 8.625 0.500 58.426 45.666 12.750 43.388 19.800 63.188
10 9.564 10.750 0.593 90.79 71.87 18.92 64.400 31.130 95.530
12 11.376 12.750 0.687 127.67 101.64 26.03 88.600 44.040 132.640
14 12.500 14.000 0.750 153.94 122.72 31.22 107.000 53.180 160.180
16 14.314 16.000 0.843 201.06 160.92 40.14 137.000 69.730 206.730
18 16.126 18.000 0.937 254.47 204.24 50.23 171.000 88.500 259.500
20 17.938 20.000 1.031 314.16 252.72 61.44 209.000 109.510 318.510
Diam. 1Lb of
1
8 1.27 0.675 0.106 0.056 0.00033 0.0019 3070 527 101.01
1.69 0.943 0.141 0.079 0.00052 0.0037 1920 271 32.26
3
8 2.12 1.328 0.177 0.111 0.00098 0.0073 1370 137 16.39
2.65 1.715 0.221 0.143 0.00162 0.0122 616 82 9.80
3.29 2.330 0.275 0.194 0.00300 0.0255 334 39.2 4.69
1 4.13 3.010 0.344 0.251 0.00500 0.0374 200 26.8 3.21
I 5.21 4.010 0.435 0.334 0.00880 0.0666 114 15.0 1.80
1 5.96 4.720 0.497 0.393 0.01230 0.0918 81.50 10.90 1.31
2 7.46 6.090 0.622 0.507 0.02060 0.1535 49.80 6.52 0.78
2 9.03 7.320 0.753 0.610 0.02940 0.220 34.00 4.55 0.55
3 10.96 9.120 0.916 0.760 0.0460 0.344 21.70 2.91 0.35
3 12.56 10.580 1.047 0.882 0.0617 0.458 16.25 2.18 0.27
4 14.13 12.020 1.178 1.002 0.0800 0.597 12.50 1.675 0.20
5 17.47 15.150 1.456 1.262 0.1260 0.947 7.95 1.055 0.13
6 20.81 18.100 1.734 1.510 0.1820 1.355 5.50 0.738 0.09
8 27.09 24.000 2.258 2.000 0.3180 2.380 3.14 0.420 0.05
10 33.77 30.050 2.814 2.503 0.5560 4.165 1.80 0.241 0.03
12 40.05 35.720 3.370 2.975 0.7060 5.280 1.42 0.189 0.02
14 47.12 39.270 3.930 3.271 0.8520 6.380 1.18 0.157 0.019
16 53.41 44.970 4.440 3.746 1.1170 8.360 0.895 0.119 0.014
18 56.55 50.660 4.712 4.220 1.4180 10.610 0.705 0.094 0.011
20 62.83 56.350 5.236 4.694 1.7550 13.130 0.570 0.076 0.009

Table 2-12(M) Dimensional and Capacity DataSchedule 80 Steel Pipe

1
8 5.46 10.29 2.41 0.083 0.023 0.06 0.468 0.024 0.492
7.67 13.72 3.02 0.148 0.047 0.101 0.797 0.046 0.843
3
8 10.74 17.15 3.2 0.231 0.091 0.14 1.099 0.091 1.19
13.87 21.34 3.73 0.357 0.151 0.207 1.619 0.152 1.771
18.85 26.67 3.91 0.559 0.279 0.279 2.194 0.317 2.511
1 24.31 33.4 4.55 0.876 0.464 0.412 3.234 0.465 3.698
1 32.46 42.16 4.85 1.396 0.828 0.569 4.463 0.827 5.289
1 38.1 48.26 5.08 1.829 1.14 0.689 5.408 1.14 6.548
2 49.25 60.33 5.54 2.859 1.906 0.953 7.48 1.907 9.386
2 59 73.03 7.01 4.188 2.734 1.454 11.411 2.726 14.137
3 73.66 88.9 7.62 6.207 4.261 1.946 15.27 4.275 19.545
3 85.45 101.6 8.08 8.108 5.736 2.373 18.626 5.541 24.167
4 97.18 114.3 8.56 10.26 7.417 2.843 22.317 7.403 29.72
5 122.25 141.3 9.53 15.683 11.739 3.943 30.949 11.827 42.776
6 146.33 168.28 10.97 22.241 16.819 5.423 42.56 16.831 59.391
8 193.68 219.08 12.7 37.694 29.462 8.232 64.627 29.492 94.119
10 242.93 273.05 15.06 58.574 46.368 12.206 95.924 46.368 142.292
12 288.95 323.85 17.45 82.368 65.574 16.794 131.97 65.598 197.568
14 317.5 355.6 19.05 99.316 79.174 20.142 159.377 79.212 238.588
16 363.58 406.4 21.41 129.716 103.819 25.897 204.062 103.863 307.925
18 409.6 457.2 23.8 164.174 131.768 32.406 254.705 131.821 386.526
20 455.63 508 26.19 202.684 163.045 39.639 311.306 163.115 474.421
Nominal Circumference (mm) Meter Lineal Meter Lineal Feet to Contain
Diam. 1 kg of
1
8 32.26 17.15 0.032 0.017 0.031 0.024 33.05 42.44 67.82
42.93 23.95 0.043 0.024 0.048 0.046 20.67 21.82 21.66
3
8 53.85 33.73 0.054 0.034 0.091 0.091 14.75 11.03 11
67.31 43.56 0.067 0.044 0.151 0.152 6.63 6.6 6.58
83.57 59.18 0.084 0.059 0.279 0.317 3.6 3.16 3.15
1 104.9 76.45 0.105 0.077 0.465 0.464 2.15 2.16 2.16
1 132.33 101.85 0.133 0.102 0.818 0.827 1.23 1.21 1.21
1 151.38 119.89 0.152 0.12 1.143 1.14 0.88 0.88 0.88
2 189.48 154.69 0.19 0.155 1.914 1.906 0.54 0.53 0.52
2 229.36 185.93 0.23 0.186 2.731 2.732 0.37 0.37 0.37
3 278.38 231.65 0.279 0.232 4.274 4.272 0.23 0.23 0.24
3 319.02 268.73 0.319 0.269 5.732 5.687 0.18 0.18 0.18
4 358.9 305.31 0.359 0.305 7.432 7.414 0.14 0.14 0.13
5 443.74 384.81 0.444 0.385 11.706 11.76 0.09 0.09 0.09
6 528.57 459.74 0.529 0.46 16.909 16.826 0.06 0.06 0.06
8 688.09 609.6 0.688 0.61 29.543 29.555 0.03 0.03 0.03
10 857.76 763.27 0.858 0.763 51.654 51.721 0.02 0.02 0.02
12 1017.27 907.29 1.027 0.907 65.59 65.567 0.015 0.015 0.014
14 1196.85 997.46 1.198 0.997 79.154 79.227 0.013 0.013 0.013
16 1356.61 1142.24 1.353 1.142 103.773 103.814 0.01 0.01 0.009
18 1436.37 1286.76 1.436 1.286 131.737 131.755 0.008 0.008 0.007
20 1595.88 1431.29 1.596 1.431 163.046 163.048 0.006 0.006 0.006

Glass Pipe A106: Standard Specification for Seamless Carbon

Glass pipe is used in the mechanical industry in two Steel Pipe for High-Temperature Service is used for
ways: as pressure -inch to 8-inch (13-mm to 203- high-temperature service and is suitable for coiling,
mm) pipe and as drainage 1-inch to 6-inch (38-mm bending, and forming.
to 153-mm) pipe. It is available in standard 5-foot and Other reference standards for steel pipe are:
10-foot (1.5-m and 3.1-m) lengths. ASTM A135: Standard Specification For
Glass is unique for several reasons. First, it is Electric-Resistance-Welded Steel Pipe
clear, allowing the contents to be visible. Second, it ASME B16.9: Factory-made Wrought Steel
is the piping system that is least susceptible to fire. Buttwelding Fittings
Glass does not burn. With enough heat, it can melt.
This is why in buildings with a return air plenum for ASME B16.11: Forged Fittings, Socket-Welding
heating, ventilation, and air-conditioning (HVAC), and Threaded
most plastics are not acceptable by fire codes, and ASME B16.28: Wrought Steel Buttwelding Short
glass is a solution for meeting this building code Radius Elbows and Returns
requirement. Steel pipe may be either seamless (extruded) or
Glass pipe (see Figure 2-8) is made of low-expan- welded. The welding of steel piping is accomplished
sion borosilicate glass with a low alkali content. It by two methods: continuous or electric-resistance
most commonly is used for chemical waste drainlines, welding (ERW). Continuous welded pipe is heated
vent piping, and purified water piping. Nonstan- and formed. Electric-resistance welding is cold rolled
dard lengths are available, or it can be field cut or and then welded. Steel pipe also may be black iron
fabricated to special lengths. Glass can be installed or galvanized (zinc coated). Galvanized steel pipe is
aboveground (padded or with coated hangers) or bur- dipped and zinc coated to produce a galvanized pro-
ied (with Styrofoam blocking around the pipe). Glass tective coating both inside and out.
is fragile, so care must be taken to prevent scratches Steel pipe is produced in three basic weight clas-
or impact by sharp objects. Glass is used for chemical sifications: standard, extra strong, and double extra
waste DWV systems in high schools, colleges, labora- strong. Steel pipe in standard weight and various
tories, industrial plants, and hospitals when hot fluids weights or schedulesranging from Schedule 10,
are put down the systems constantly. (Hot fluids are also known as light wall pipe, to Schedule 160is
those at 200F with no dilution.) normally supplied in random lengths of 6 feet to 22
Glass is installed by cutting the pipe to the exact feet (1.8 m to 6.7 m) and is available in 18-inch to
fixed length. It is held together with either of two 24-inch (3.2-mm to 660-mm) diameters. Exceptions
types of coupling, depending on whether it is a bead to this are butt-welded standard weight and extra
to bead or bead to cut glass end application. (See strong, which are not available in diameters larger
Figures 2-9 and 2-10.) than 4 inches, and butt-welded double extra-strong
Joints are made by using compression-type cou- steel pipe, which is not made in diameters larger than
plings consisting of 300 series stainless steel outer 2 inches.
bands, electrometric compression liners, and sealing Steel pipe conforming to ASTM A135 is made in
members of chemically inert tetrafluoroethylene sizes through 12 inches by the electric-resistance
(TFE). The coefficient of glass expansion is 0.2 welding method only. Grade A is suitable for flang-
inch/100 feet/100F (5 mm/30.4 m/37.8C), and glass is ing or binding. Pipe meeting ASTM A135 is used
very stable and can operate up to 300F (148.9C). extensively for light-wall pipe in fire sprinkler sys-
Fittings are made of borosilicate glass and include tems. See Tables 2-11 and 2-12 for dimensional and
a full range of sanitary and plumbing fittings (see capacity data for Schedule 40 and Schedule 80 steel
Figure 2-11). pipe respectively.
The referenced standard for glass pipe is ASTM The methods of joining are:
C599: Standard Specification for Conical Process
Glass Pipe and Fittings. Welding
Threading
Steel Pipe Grooved
Steel pipe specified for heating, air-conditioning,
plumbing, gas, and air lines conforms to ASTM A53:
Standard Specification for Pipe, Steel, Black and Plastic Pipe
Hot-Dipped, Zinc-Coated, Welded and Seamless. Plastic pipe is available in compositions designed for
Steel pipe conforming to ASTM A53 is intended for various applications, including DWV, water supply,
coiling, bending, forming, or other special purposes. gas service and transmission lines, and laboratory
Steel pipe that meets the requirements of ASTM and other chemical drainage and piping systems.

Fuel double-containment systems; high-purity

pharmaceutical or electronic grade water; and R-13,
R-13A, R-13D fire protection sprinkler systems are
additional uses.
There are two basic types of plastic pipe: thermo-
set and thermoplastic. A thermoset plastic has the
property of being permanently rigid. Epoxy and phe-
nolics are examples of thermosets. A thermoplastic
is a material having the property of softening when
heated and hardening when cooled. Acrylonitrile
butadiene styrene (ABS), polyvinyl chloride (PVC),
polybutylene (PB), polyethylene (PE), polypropylene
(PP), cross-linked polyethylene (PEX), and chlori-
nated polyvinyl chloride (CPVC) are thermoplastics.
With thermoplastics, consideration must be given to
the temperature/pressure relationship when selecting
the support spacing and method of installation. Some
common plastic pipe materials are discussed below.
(See Figure 2-12 and Tables 2-13 and 2-14.)
Polybutylene
Polybutylene is a flexible thermoplastic that was
manufactured to pipe and tubing specifications. PB
tubing is no longer manufactured but is listed here
in the event that repairs or modifications are made
to existing systems.
Polybutylene is an inert polyolefin material, mean- Figure 2-12 Plastic Pipe Fittings
ing that it is chemically resistant. That is why PB pipe materials acceptable for potable water. It is typically
cannot be solvent cemented like other plastic piping blue or gray in color.
systems. PB pipe was one of the most flexible piping
Table 2-13 Plastic Pipe Data

Schedule Temperature Limit
Material Numbers Pipe Sizes (in.) Fitting Sizes (in.) (F) Joining Methods
PVC I 40, 80, 120 20 8 150 Solvent weld, thread, flange, thermal weld
SDR
PVC II a 40, 80, 120 20 8 130 Solvent weld, thread, flange, thermal weld
SDR
Polypropylene 4080 8 8 150 Thermal fusion, flange, thread, compression
CPVC 4080 8 8 210 Solvent weld, thread, flange
Poyethylene 40, 80 SDR 6 6 120140 Thermal fusion, compression
ABS 40, 80 SDR 1
812 6 160 Solvent weld, thread, flange
Polybutylene SDR 6 6 210 Thermal fusion, flare, compression, insert
a
The usage of PVC II is limited to electrical conduit.
Table 2-13(M) Plastic Pipe Data

Schedule Temperature Limit
Material Numbers Pipe Sizes (in.) Fitting Sizes (mm) (C) Joining Methods
PVC I 40, 80, 120 20 6.4 to 203.2 65.6 Solvent weld, thread, flange,
SDR
PVC II a 40, 80, 120 20 6.4 to 203.2 54.4 Solvent weld, thread, flange,
SDR
Polypropylene 4080 8 12.7 to 203.2 65.6 Thermal fusion, flange, thread,
CPVC 4080 8 12.7 to 203.2 98.9 Solvent weld, thread, flange
Poyethylene 40, 80 SDR 6 12.7 to 152.4 48.9 to 60 Thermal fusion, compression
ABS 40, 80 SDR 1
812 3.2 to 152.4 71.1 Solvent weld, thread, flange
Polybutylene SDR 6 6.4 to 152.4 98.9 Thermal fusion, flare,
a

Table 2-14 Physical Properties of Plastic Piping Materials
50
Tensile Resistance Heat Water

Strength Modulus of Elastic- Strength to Heat Coefficient of Thermal Con- Distortion Absorption Izod Impact
Specific (psi at ity in Tension (psi Compressive Flexural (continuous) Expansion (in./ ductivity (Btuh Temp (F at at (%/24 (73F ft lb/
2008 PEDH Data Book Vol 4.indd 50

Material Gravity 73F) at 73F105) Strength (psi) (psi) (F) in./F10-6) ft2/F/in.) Burning Rate 264 psi) hr73F) in. notch)
Type I 1.38 7,940 4.15 9,600 14,500 140 3.0 1.2 Self Extinguishing 160 .05 .65
PVC
Type II a 1.35 6,000 3.5 8,800 11,500 140 5.55 1.35 Self Extinguishing 155 .07 2-15
CPVC Type IV 1.55 8,400 4.2 15,600 210 3.8 .95 Self Extinguishing 221 .05
Type I .92 1,750 1.9.35 1,700 120 10.0 2.3 Slow NA .01 16
Polyethylene
Type Ill .95 2,800 1.5 2,000 120 7.3 3.5 Slow NA 0.0 3.0
Polypropylene .91 4,900 1.5 8,500 160212 3.8 1.3 Slow 150 0.03 2.1
Type I 1.03 5,300 3.0 7,000 8,000 160 6.0 1.9 Slow 197 .20 5-9
ABS
Type II 1.08 8,000 10,000 12,000 170 3.8 2.5 Slow 225 .20 4
Floride (PDVF) 1.76 7,000 1.2 10,000 200250 8.5 1.05 Self Extinguishing 195 .04 3.0
Polyvinylidene
Polybutylene .93 4,800 .38 7.1 1.5 Slow NA < .01 no break
Notes: 1. Above data compiled in accordance with ASTM test requirements.
2. NA = Not Applicable.
a The usage of PVC II is limited to electrical conduit.
Table 2-14(M) Physical Properties of Plastic Piping Materials

Modulus of
Tensile Elasticity Resistance Heat Water
Strength in Tension Compressive Strength to Heat Coefficient of Thermal Distortion Absorption Izod Impact (J/
Specific (MPa at (105 kPa at Strength Flexural (continuous) Expansion (10- Conductivity Temp (C at at (%/24h at mm notch at
5
Material Gravity 22.8C) 22.8C105) (MPa) (MPa) (C) mm/mm/C) (W/m2K) Burning Rate 1.82 MPa) 22.8C) 22.8C)
PVC Type I 1.38 48.26 28.61 66.19 99.98 65.6 127.0 5.96 Self Extinguishing 73.9 0.07 0.04
Type II a 1.25 41.37 24.13 60.67 79.29 60.0 251.73 7.56 Self Extinguishing 68.3 0.07 0.530.80
CPVC NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA
Polyethylene Type I 0.92 12.07 131.02.41 11.72 48.9 453.57 13.06 Slow 0.01 0.85
Type Ill 0.95 13.79 10.34 13.79 48.9 331.11 19.87 Slow 0 0.16
Polypropylene 0.91 33.79 10.34 58.61 71.1100 172.36 7.38 Slow 65.6 0.03 0.11
ABS Type I 1.03 36.54 20.68 48.26 55.16 71.1 272.14 10.79 Slow 91.7 0.20 0.270.48
Type II 1.08 55.16 68.95 82.74 76.7 172.36 14.20 Slow 107.2 0.20 0.21
Polyvinylidene
1.76 48.26 8.27 68.95 93.3121.1 385.54 5.96 Self Extinguishing 90.6 0.04 0.16
Floride (PDVF)
Polybutylene 0.93 33.10 2.62 180.34 8.51 Slow NA < .01 no break
Notes: 1. Above data compiled in accordance with ASTM test requirements.
2. NA = Not applicable.
a
ASPE Plumbing Engineering Design HandbookVolume 4
10/16/2008 11:59:19 AM
Its applications included hydronic slab heating HDPE comes in a wide variety of fittings and pipe.
systems, fire sprinklers systems, hot and cold water Depending on the diameter, inch to 2 inches (12.7
distribution, and plumbing and water supply. mm to 50.8 mm) comes in rolled coils, which can be
Joints were made by mechanical, flared, and heat 100 feet to 5,000 feet (30.5 m to 1,542 m) on special
fusion methods. reels, and 2-inch to 63-inch (50.8-mm to 1,600.2-mm)
Applicable standards and specifications include diameter generally comes as 40-foot (12.2-m) pipe
ASTM D3309: Standard Specification for Polybutylene lengths.
(PB) Plastic Hot- and Cold-water Distribution Systems The designer should not consider HDPE a fixed,
and Canadian Standards Association (CSA) B137.8: rigid, perfectly straight pipeit bends. When de-
Polybutylene (PB) Piping for Pressure Applications. signing systems with HDPE, expansion must be
Polyethylene preplanned and best efforts should be made to de-
termine what direction it will take (i.e., bury the
Polyethylene is an inert polyolefin material, mean-
pipe in an S or snake pattern to let it try to expand
ing that it is chemically resistant. Polyethylene pipe
or contract.)
cannot be solvent cemented like other plastic piping
Both pipe and tubing (IPS and CTS) are manu-
systems. This type of piping typically is supplied in
factured using a standard dimension ratio (SDR)
blue or black for water applications. Orange-colored
series.
polyethylene piping is typically used for gas pipe in-
The upper operating maximum temperature
stallations. Joints are made with inserts and clamps
limit is 160F, but as always, the manufacturer of the
and by heat fusion. PE cannot be threaded or solvent
product should be consulted on temperature versus
welded. Sizes range from inch to 63 inches (12.7 mm
pressure.
to 1,600.2 mm) in diameter in both iron pipe size (IPS)
The color is typically black for HDPE, which ac-
and copper tube size (CTS). Pressures range from 50
cording to ASTM means that 2 percent carbon black
psi to 250 psi depending on wall thickness.
has been blended with the resin to give the minimum
PE is available in two basic resins: 2406 MDPE
50-year life span at full pressure in direct sunlight.
(medium density) or 3408 HDPE (high density). (An
Two unique properties of HDPE pipe are that it swells
ultra-high molecular weight product also is avail-
and does not break if it freezes and it floats in water
able.) The two basic types of resin have been used
since its specific gravity is 0.95. This is why HDPE
extensively for several decades in low-pressure street
pipe can be preassembled, and thousands of feet can
main distribution networks for natural and propane
be floated to a certain position and then sunk with
gas. MDPE presently is used only in the buried gas
concrete collars.
transmission industry, in sizes ranging from inch
The reference standards for polyethylene pipe
to 16 inches (12.7 mm to 406.4 mm) and is joined by
are:
butt and socket fusion.
HDPE comprises 90 percent of the polyethylene ASTM D2239: Standard Specification for
piping industry. It has a wide variety of belowground Polyethylene (PE) Plastic Pipe (SIDR-PR) Based
and aboveground applications, including domestic on Controlled Inside Diameter
water supply, well water systems, lawn sprinkler ASTM D2609: Standard Specification for Plastic
systems, irrigation systems, skating rinks, buried Insert Fittings for Polyethylene (PE) Plastic Pipe
chilled water pipe, underground Factory Mutual (FM) ASTM D2737: Standard Specification for
approved fire mains, chemical lines, snow-making Polyethylene (PE) Plastic Tubing
lines at ski slopes, pressurized chilled water piping
underground between buildings and a central heat- ASTM D3035: Standard Specification for
ing or cooling plant, methane gas collection piping, Polyethylene (PE) Plastic Pipe (DR-PR) Based on
leachate collection lines at landfills, relining water Controlled Outside Diameter
and sewer mains to save redigging streets, water ASTM F771: Standard Specification for
transmission mains over highway bridges (it absorbs Polyethylene (PE) Thermoplastic High-pressure
vibration), brine at skating rinks, and residential Irrigation Pipeline Systems
swimming pools. ASTM F810: Standard Specification for
Typically, HDPE is installed with mechanical Smoothwall Polyethylene (PE) Pipe for Use in
barbed joints or compression fittings through 2 inches Drainage and Waste Disposal Absorption Fields
(50.8 mm), and the pipe comes in coils. It is also
ASTM F894: Standard Specification for
available heat socket fused from inch to 40 inches Polyethylene (PE) Large Diameter Profile Wall
(12.7 mm to 1,016 mm), butt fused from 2 inches to Sewer and Drain Pipe
63 inches (50.8 mm to 1,600.2 mm), and electro-fused
from 1 inches to 30 inches (38.1 mm to 762 mm) CSA B137.1: Polyethylene Pipe, Tubing, and
in diameter. Fittings for Cold Water Pressure Services

The methods of joining are: other system usages, the pipe is suitable for hot and
Mechanical joints (barbed joints and cold water distribution. The pipe is rated for 125 psi
compression fittings) at 180F (862 kPa at 82C).
Mechanical joints are the only methods currently
Heat fusion available to join PEX-AL-PEX pipe. A number of
Crossed-linked Polyethylene mechanical compression-type connectors have been
developed for joining this type of pipe material to
Crossed-linked polyethylene tubing has been used
permit transition to other types of pipe and fittings.
extensively in Europe for many years for hot and cold
The installation of any fitting is to be in accordance
potable water distribution systems.
with the manufacturers installation instructions.
A specially controlled chemical reaction takes place
Although it is partially plastic, PEX-AL-PEX pipe
during the manufacturing of the polyethylene pipe to
resembles metal tubing in that it can be bent by hand
form PEX. Cross-linked molecular structuring gives
or with a suitable bending device while maintaining
the pipe greater resistance to rupture over a wider
its shape without fittings or supports. The minimum
range of temperatures and pressures than other
radius is five times the outside diameter.
polyolefin piping (PB, PE, and PP).
The reference standard for PEX-AL-PEX is
Because of the unique molecular structure and
ASTM F1281: Standard Specification for Crosslinked
heat resistance of PEX pipe, heat fusion is not per-
Polyethylene/Aluminum/Crosslinked Polyethylene
mitted as a joining method. Being a member of the
(PEX-AL-PEX) Pressure Pipe. It is available in nomi-
polyolefin plastic family, PEX is resistant to solvents
nal pipe size (NPS) inch through 1 inch (6.4 mm
and cannot be joined by solvent cementing. Mechani-
through 25 mm). The method of joining is mechanical
cal connectors and fittings for PEX piping systems are
joints (barbed joints and compression fittings).
proprietary in nature and must be used only with the
pipe for which they have been designed. A number of Polyethylene/Aluminum/Polyethylene
mechanical fastening techniques have been developed PE-AL-PE is identical to the PEX-AL-PEX composite
for joining PEX pipe. Manufacturers installation in- pipe except for the physical properties of the poly-
structions should be consulted for properly identifying ethylene.
the authorized fittings for the intended system use. Polyethylene does not display the same resistance
PEX pipe is flexible, allowing it to be bent. It is bent to temperature and pressure as the cross-linked
by two methods: hot and cold bending. See manufac- polyethylene. Therefore, this type of pipe is limited
turers instructions for the exact requirements for to cold water applications or applications with other
bending. The tubing can be bent to a minimum radius suitable fluids up to 110F at 150 psi (43C at 1,034
of six times the outside diameter for cold bending and kPa) of pressure.
a minimum of 2 times the outside diameter for hot The reference standards for PE-AL-PE are:
bending. ASTM F1282: Standard Specification for
The reference standards for PEX are: Polyethylene/Aluminum/Polyethylene (PE-AL-
ASTM F876: Standard Specification for PE) Composite Pressure Pipe
Crosslinked Polyethylene (PEX) Tubing CSA B137.1
ASTM F877: Standard Specification for It is available in nominal pipe size (NPS) inch
Crosslinked Polyethylene (PEX) Plastic Hot- and through 1 inch (6.4 mm through 25 mm). The method
Cold-water Distribution Systems
of joining is mechanical joints (barbed joints and
CSA B137.1 compression fittings).
PEX is available in nominal pipe size (NPS) inch Polyvinyl Chloride
through 2 inches (6.4 mm through 51 mm). Polyvinyl chloride is rigid, pressure- or drainage-type
The method of joining is mechanical joints (barbed pipe that resists chemicals and corrosion. Two types
joints and compression fittings). are available: Schedule 40 and Schedule 80. PVC
Crossed-linked Polyethylene, Aluminum, water service piping is a different material than PVC
Crossed-linked Polyethylene drainage pipe, although both pipe materials are white
PEX-AL-PEX is a composite pipe made of an alumi- in color. For pressure, SDR 21 (200 psi) or SDR 26
num tube laminated with interior and exterior layers (160 psi) is used. PVC is used for water distribution,
of cross-linked polyethylene. The layers are bonded irrigation, storm drainage, sewage, laboratory and
with an adhesive. hospital wastes, chemical lines, chilled water lines,
The cross-linked molecular structuring described heat pumps, underground FM-approved fire mains,
above and the addition of the aluminum core makes animal rearing facilities, hatcheries, graywater pip-
the pipe resistant to rupture. Therefore, along with ing, and ultra-pure water.

The working pressure varies with the tempera- SDR 26: 1 inches to 24 inches (32 mm to 609.6 mm)
ture. As the temperature increases, tensile strength The maximum temperature rating for PVC is
decreases. The maximum working pressure is to 140F (60C). The coefficient of linear expansion is
be continuously marked on the pipe along with the 2.910-5 inch/inch/F. The specific gravity of PVC is
manufacturers name, ASTM or CSA standard, and 1.400.02.
the grade of PVC material. Temperature should be The method of joining is solvent welding.
limited to 140F to 150F (60C to 65.6C). The joints
are solvent welded or threaded. Schedule 40 PVC can- Chlorinated Polyvinyl Chloride
not be threaded, and it can be used only with socket CPVC finds application in hot and cold water distribu-
fittings. Schedule 80 can be threaded through the tion and chemical process piping.
4-inch (101.6-mm) size and used with either socket The higher-temperature version of PVC is CPVC
or threaded fittings. However, it also can be installed pipe. This piping network comes in a variety of pres-
with mechanical-grooved couplings or bell and gasket sure applications of CTS or IPS of Schedule 40 or
(underground only and thrust blocked). Schedule 80. CPVC has an upper maximum tempera-
The reference standards for PVC are: ture limit of 220F. It is commonly used and is code
accepted where residential water would quickly dete-
ASTM D1785: Standard Specification for
riorate copper pipe. Because of its size rangesCTS:
Poly(Vinyl Chloride) (PVC) Plastic Pipe,
Schedules 40, 80, and 120 inch to 2 inches (12.7 mm to 50.8 mm), Schedule
80: inch 18 inches (6.3 mm to 406.4 mm)it can
ASTM D2241: Standard Specification for be used in a wide variety of hot or cold water sys-
Poly(Vinyl Chloride) (PVC) Pressure-rated Pipe tems. CPVC also has been used extensively in wet
(SDR Series) fire protection systems in hotels, motels, residences,
ASTM D2464: Standard Specification for office buildings, and dormitories (all applications that
Threaded Poly(Vinyl Chloride) (PVC) Plastic fall in the categories of 13, 13D, and 13R of NFPA).
Pipe Fittings, Schedule 80 Pipe sizes for fire protection systems are inch to 3
ASTM D2466: Standard Specification for inches (19 mm to 76.2 mm) and are ideally suited for
Poly(Vinyl Chloride) (PVC) Plastic Pipe Fittings, the retrofit market.
Schedule 40 Joining methods are solvent welding, threads,
flanges, compression fittings, O-rings, transition fit-
tings, bell rings, and rubber gaskets.
Poly(Vinyl Chloride) (PVC) Plastic Pipe Fittings,
Schedule 80 In the last several years, CPVC acid waste (AW)
systems have been manufactured and have gained
ASTM D2564: Standard Specification for acceptance as a viable replacement for the traditional
Solvent Cements for Poly(Vinyl Chloride) (PVC) PP systems. Some of these systems now meet the CSA
Plastic Piping Systems plenum rating and are working to pass ASTM E84:
ASTM D2665: Standard Specification for Standard Test Method for Surface Burning Charac-
Poly(Vinyl Chloride) (PVC) Plastic Drain, Waste, teristics of Building Materials as well.
and Vent Pipe and Fittings The reference standards for CPVC are:
ASTM D2672: Standard Specification for Joints ASTM D2846/D2846M: Standard Specification
for IPS PVC Pipe Using Solvent Cement for Chlorinated Poly(Vinyl Chloride) (CPVC)
ASTM D2729: Standard Specification for Plastic Hot- and Cold-water Distribution
Poly(Vinyl Chloride) (PVC) Sewer Pipe and Systems
Fittings ASTM F437: Standard Specification for
ASTM F477: Standard Specification for Threaded Chlorinated Poly(Vinyl Chloride)
Elastomeric Seals (Gaskets) for Joining Plastic (CPVC) Plastic Pipe Fittings, Schedule 80
Pipe ASTM F438: Standard Specification for Socket-
CSA B137.1 type Chlorinated Poly(Vinyl Chloride) (CPVC)
Plastic Pipe Fittings, Schedule 40
The pipe classifications and dimensional informa-
tion are as follows: ASTM F439: Standard Specification for
Chlorinated Poly(Vinyl Chloride) (CPVC) Plastic
DWV: 1 inches to 24 inches (31.75 mm to 609.6 mm) Pipe Fittings, Schedule 80
Schedule 40: 18 inch to 30 inches (3.2 mm to 762 mm) ASTM F441/F441M: Standard Specification for
Schedule 80: 8 inch 30 inches (3.2 mm to 762 mm)
1 Chlorinated Poly(Vinyl Chloride) (CPVC) Plastic
Pipe, Schedules 40 and 80
SDR 21: inch to 24 inches (22 mm to 609.6
mm), except -inch SDR (13.5 mm)

ASTM F442/F442M: Standard Specification for ASTM D2751: Standard Specification for
Chlorinated Poly(Vinyl Chloride) (CPVC) Plastic Acrylonitrile-Butadiene-Styrene (ABS) Sewer
Pipe (SDR-PR) Pipe and Fittings
CSA B137.1 ASTM F628: Standard Specification for
The pipe classifications and dimensional informa- Acrylonitrile-Butadiene-Styrene (ABS) Schedule
40 Plastic Drain, Waste, and Vent Pipe With a
tion are as follows:
Cellular Core
CTS: inch to 2 inches (12.7 mm to 50.8 mm)
CSA B137.1
Schedule 80: inch to 18 inches (6.3 mm to
406.4 mm) The pipe classifications and dimensional informa-
Fire protection systems: inch to 3 inches (19
mm to 76.2 mm) Schedule 40: 1, 2, 3, 4, and 6 inches (38.1, 50,
63, 90, 110, and 160 mm), with the appropriate
Note: PVC and CPVC piping systems are not fittings
recommended for compressed air or compressed gas
Schedule 80: 1, 2, 3, 4, and 6 inches (38.1, 50,
lines. Compensation for both thermal expansion and
63, 90, 110, and 160 mm), with the appropriate
contraction must be taken into account.
fittings
Acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene
ABS is manufactured in Schedules 40 and 80 and in Polypropylene
special dimensions for main sewers and utility con- PP is manufactured for a wide variety of systems.
duits and in SDR for compressed air. It is commonly The DWV systems are for chemical, special waste, or
used for DWV plumbing (in the color black), main acid waste systems, in both buried and aboveground
sanitary and storm sewers, underground electri- applications. Pipe is available in Schedule 40 or
cal conduits, and applications in the chemical and Schedule 80 black (underground) or flame retardant
petroleum industries. The joints are solvent welded (FR) for aboveground installation. Polypropylene acid
for Schedule 40 and welded or threaded for Schedule waste (AW) pipe systems come with either mechani-
80. cal jointssizes 1, 2, 3, 4, and 6 inches (50, 63, 90,
For industrial applications, ABS piping is gray for 110, and 160 mm)or with an internal wire heat
low temperatures (-40F to 176F [-72C to 80C]) and fusedsizes 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, 14, 16, and 18
pressure up to 230 psi in sizes inch to 8 inches (12.7 inches (50, 63, 90, 110, 160, 200, 250, 300, 315, and
mm to 203.2 mm). It is joined only by solvent cement- 350 mm)moldedsizes 1 inches to 6 inches (50
ing. The coefficient of linear expansion is 5.62
5
mm to 160 mm)and fabricatedsizes 8 inches to
inch/inch/F. Fittings are available for pressure only. 18 inches (200 mm to 450 mm).
The outside diameter of the pipe is nominal IPS, and Fittings are made in both pressure-type and DWV
a second product in the industrial area is airline, configurations. PP is used for a wide range of indus-
which is designed to be used in delivering compressed trial liquids, salt water disposal, and corrosive waste
air for machine tools from 0.63 inch to 4 inches (16 systems. It is available in sizes of inch to 24 inches
mm to 101 mm). (50 mm to 630 mm). Pipe is available in 10-foot and
The reference standards are: 20-foot (3.05-m and 6.1-m) lengths. The joints cannot
be solvent welded. Joints are made mechanically or
by heat fusion (electric coil socket fusion, butt fusion,
Acrylonitrile-Butadiene-Styrene (ABS) Plastic
IR welding). (See Figure 2-13.)
Pipe, Schedules 40 and 80
Polypropylene systems for acid waste installed
ASTM D2235: Standard Specification for aboveground must utilize FR pipe and fittings.
Solvent Cement for Acrylonitrile-Butadiene- Polypropylene comes in a variety of pressure
Styrene (ABS) Plastic Pipe and Fittings systems. It can be natural in color for high-purity
ASTM D2661: Standard Specification for systems, or it may be black or beige with the added
Acrylonitrile-Butadiene-Styrene (ABS) Schedule color pigment. Polypropylene pipe is available in both
40 Plastic Drain, Waste, and Vent Pipe and metric and IPS sizes.
Fittings Typically, polypropylene is joined by heat fusion,
ASTM D2680: Standard Specification for whether small diameter inch to 4 inches (12.7 mm
Acrylonitrile-Butadiene-Styrene (ABS) and to 101.6 mm)by socket fusion, or larger diameter2
Poly(Vinyl Chloride) (PVC) Composite Sewer inches to 24 inches (50.8 mm to 609.6 mm)by butt
Piping fusion.
Smaller diameter inch to 2 inches (12.7 mm to
50.8 mm)polypropylene may be joined by thread-

ing with a greatly reduced pressure rating, or certain (See the discussion in the Double Containment
manufacturers have molded fittings with stainless section below.)
steel rings to restrain or help strengthen the threads Polyvinylidene Fluoride
for full pressure ratings.
PVDF is manufactured in Schedules 40 and 80,
Note: Glue cannot be used to join any polypropyl-
as well as SDR for the deionized water market.
ene, polyethylene pipe, or polyvinylidene fluoride.
Polyvinylidene fluoride is a strong, tough, abrasion-
The reference standards are:
resistant fluorocarbon material. It is used widely
ASTM F2389: Standard Specification for in high-purity electronic or medical-grade water or
Pressure-rated Polypropylene (PP) Piping chemical piping systems that need to remain pure
Systems but function at high temperatures. Other uses in-
ASTM F1412: Standard Specification for clude a wide range of industrial liquids, saltwater
Polyolefin Pipe and Fittings for Corrosive Waste disposal, and corrosive waste systems, again where
Drainage Systems high-temperature performance is required. It also is
ASTM F1055: Standard Specification for often used for corrosive waste applications in return
Electrofusion Type Polyethylene Fittings for air plenum spaces. PVDF offers excellent flame- and
Outside Diameter Controlled Polyethylene Pipe smoke-resistant characteristics.
and Tubing The coefficient of thermal expansion is 7.925
inch/inch/F. It is available in metric and IPS sizes
ASTM F1056: Standard Specification for Socket
ranging from 0.37 inch to 12 inches (9.5 mm to 304.8
Fusion Tools for Use in Socket Fusion Joining
mm). Pipe is available in 10-foot (3.04-m) lengths.
Polyethylene Pipe or Tubing and Fittings
The color is normally natural, and the resin is not
ASTM F1290: Standard Practice for affected by ultraviolet (UV) light. However, if the
Electrofusion Joining Polyolefin Pipe and media it is transporting is affected, a red coloring is
Fittings added to the resin, resulting in a red-colored piping
The methods of joining are: system. Normally, PVDF is available in a pressure
system pattern of fittings. What makes PVDF a pip-
Mechanical joints
ing system of choice is its ability to withstand high
Heat fusion temperatures for elevated-temperature cleaning.
Threaded joints Fittings are made in both pressure and DWV con-
figurations. It must be noted that a special flame and
Double containment of polypropylene systems
smoke package is added to the straight PVDF resin
is a greatly expanded area of the DWV acid waste
when used to manufacture DWV pipe and fittings used
market. Double-containment polypropylene systems
in return and supply plenum acid waste applications.
are typically nonflame pipe (NFPP) for underground
(Only these special PVDF pipe and fittings meet the
and flame-retardant pipe (FRPP) for aboveground
necessary ASTM E84 and the CSA equivalent require-
applications. Double-containment polypropylene can
ment for plenum installations.) The joints cannot be
be installed with or without leak-detection systems.
solvent welded. Joints are made mechanically or by
heat fusion (electric coil or socket fusion).
The reference standards are:
ASTM F1673: Standard Specification for
Polyvinylidene Fluoride (PVDF) Corrosive Waste
Drainage Systems
ASTM D3222: Specification for Unmodified
Poly(Vinylidene Fluoride) (PVDF) Molding
Extrusion and Coating Materials
Teflon (PTFE)
Teflon, or polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE), has
outstanding resistance to chemical attack by most
chemicals and solvents. It has a temperature range
of -200F to 500F (-128.9C to 260C). Teflon typi-
cally is considered tubing; however, it can be joined
by threading in pipe sizes 0.13 inch to 4 inches (3.2
mm to 101.6 mm). Teflon piping is well suited for
low-pressurenot to exceed 15 psilaboratory or
Figure 2-13 Fusion Lock Process in Operation

process industry applications. If higher pressure or larger diameters. It is especially helpful in resisting
hotter temperatures are needed, Teflon-lined steel attacks from the various oils used in the petroleum
pipe generally is used. Lined steel pipe is 1 inch to 12 industry.
inches (25.4 mm to 304.8 mm) and can handle corro- Different products require different approvals.
sive chemicals as well as high-pressure applications. Some must meet American Petroleum Institute
Low-extractable PVC (API), Underwriters Laboratories (UL), or military
(MIL) specifications. For potable water, they must
Rather recent to the expensive high-purity piping
meet National Sanitation Foundation (NSF) 14:
market is the less expensive low-extractable PVC
Plastics Piping System Components and Related Ma-
material that is used in pressure piping loops for the
terials per ASTM D2996: Standard Specification for
conveyance of ultra-pure water. Pipe and fittings with
Filament-wound Fiberglass (Glass Fiber-reinforced
valves are joined by a special low-extractable solvent
Thermosetting Resin) Pipe or ANSI/NSF 61: Drinking
cement. Fluids being conveyed cannot exceed 140F
Water System Components for drinking water.
(60C). Pipe is in Schedule 80 wall thickness and sizes
The coefficient of linear thermal expansion is
of inch to 6 inches (20 mm to 160 mm).
1.5725 inch/inch/F.
This piping network provides a very economical
As with all plastics, certain considerations must
solution compared to stainless steel, PVDF, or PP
be reviewed before installation. These include code
for the engineering of ultra-pure water loops for
compliance, chemical compatibility, correct maximum
use in healthcare, laboratory, micro-electronics,
temperature, and allowance for proper expansion and
pharmaceutical, and various other industrial appli-
contraction movement. Certain plastics are installed
cations.Tests performedvalidatethat resistivitycan
with solvent cements; others require heating to join
be maintained atlevelsgreater than 18 megaohms
piping networks along with mechanical joints. The
and online total oxidizable carbon can average less
designer should consult the manufacturers recom-
than 5 parts per billion on properly designed and
mendations for the proper connection of all piping
maintained systems.
systems.
The reference standards are ASTM D1785 and
ASTM D2467. The method of joining is solvent weld- Vitrified Clay Pipe
ing.
Vitrified clay pipe is used in a building sewer starting
The pipe classifications and dimensional informa-
outside of the building and connecting to the main
sewer. It also is used for industrial waste because of
Schedule 40: 18 inch to 30 inches (3.2 mm to 762 its outstanding corrosion and abrasion resistance.
mm) The reference standards are:
Schedule 80: 18 inch to 30 inches (3.2 mm to 762 ASTM C12: Standard Practice for Installing
mm) Vitrified Clay Pipe Lines
Fiberglass and Reinforced ASTM C425: Standard Specification for
Thermosetting Resin Pipe Compression Joints for Vitrified Clay Pipe and
Fittings
Fiberglass piping systems are manufactured and
joined using epoxy, vinylester, or polyester resins. ASTM C700: Standard Specification for Vitrified
These three resins offer a very distinct price/perfor- Clay Pipe, Extra Strength, Standard Strength,
mance choice varying from strongest/most expensive and Perforated
to weakest/least expensive. It normally is used in ASTM C1208: Standard Specification for
a pressure pattern mode and has good chemical Vitrified Clay Pipe and Joints for Use in
resistance as well as excellent stability in its upper Microtunneling, Sliplining, Pipe Bursting, and
temperature limit of 275F (135C). However, it Tunnels
should be noted that the chemical resistance of such ASTM C301: Standard Test Methods for Vitrified
systems is provided exclusively by the resin-rich liner Clay Pipe
on the inside diameter of the system. If worn down,
cracked, or compromised in any way, putting the ASTM C828: Standard Test Method for Low-
process in direct contact with the glass fibers, leaks pressure Air Test of Vitrified Clay Pipe Lines
will result. Many systems are joined with epoxy res- ASTM C1091: Standard Test Method for
ins and heating blankets; however, depending on the Hydrostatic Infiltration and Exfiltration Testing
manufacturer, they also can be joined mechanically of Vitrified Clay Pipe Lines
with bell and spigot, plain, or butt and wrap methods. ASTM C896: Standard Terminology Relating to
It is manufactured in sizes of 1 inch to 48 inches (25.4 Clay Products
mm to 1,219 mm) and can be custom made in much

Vitrified clay pipe is extruded from a suitable grade Duriron Pipe

of shale or clay and fired in kilns at approximately Duriron is a 14.5 percent silicon iron that possesses
2,000F (1,100C). Vitrification takes place at this nearly universal corrosion resistance. For nearly a
temperature, producing an extremely hard and dense, century, duriron pipe and fittings have provided a
corrosion-resistant material. Clay pipe is suitable for durable and reliable means of transporting corrosive
most gravity-flow systems and is not intended for pres- waste safely. Over the last few decades, however,
sure service. Available sizes include 3-inch to 48-inch thermoplastics (such as PVC, PP, and PVDF) have
(75-mm to 1,220-mm) diameters and lengths up to 10 replaced duriron in most laboratory, school, and
feet (3.05 m) in standard or extra-strength grades as hospitals applications because of their even greater
well as perforated. See Tables 2-15 and 2-16. inertness to many chemicals, light weight, and ease
Pipe and fittings are joined with prefabricated of installation.
compression seals. Duriron hub-and-spigot pipe and fittings are
available in sizes from 2 inches to 15 inches and are
Table 2-15 Dimensions of Class 1 Standard Strength Perforated Clay Pipe

Inside Thickness of sock-
Outside diameter diameter Depth of socket Thickness of bar- et at in. from
Laying length Maximum of barrel (in.) of socket Perforations per row (in.) rel (in.) outer end (in.)
Limit of minus difference in at in.
variation length of two above Rows of
Size (in. per ft. of opposite sides base, (in.) perfora-
(in.) Min. length (in.) Min. Max. Min. tions 2 ft. 3 ft. 4 ft. 5 ft. Nominal Min. Nominal Min. Nominal Min.
4 2 5
16 478 518 5 4 7 9 11 13 1 1 7
16 7
16 3
8
6 2 3
8 7 16
1
7716 8316 4 7 9 11 13 2 2 5
8 9
16 7
16
8 2 7
16 9 9 10 4 7 9 11 13 2 2 11
16 9
16
10 2 7
16 11 12 12 6 7 9 11 13 258 238 7
8 13
16 5
8 9
16
12 2 7
16 13 14516 1518 6
2 2 1 15
16 11
16
15 3 17316 171316 1858 6 10 14 17 278 258 1 118 15
16 7
8
18 3 2058 21716 22 8 10 14 17 3 2 1 138 118 1116
21 3 9
16 2418 25 2578 8 10 14 17 3 3 1 158 1516 1316
24 3 3
8 9
16 27 28 2938 8 10 14 17 338 318 2 178 1 138
Source: Table from ASTM Specification C700.
Table 2-15(M) Dimensions of Class 1 Standard Strength Perforated Clay Pipe

Outside Diameter of Inside Diameter
Laying Length Maximum Difference Barrel (mm) of Socket at
Size Minimum Limit of Minus in Length of 2 12.7 mm Above
(in.) (m) Variation (mm/m) Opposite Sides (mm) Minimum Maximum Base (mm)
4 0.61 20.8 7.94 123.83 130.18 146.05
6 0.61 20.8 9.53 179.39 188.91 207.96
8 0.61 20.8 11.11 234.95 247.65 266.70
10 0.61 20.8 11.11 292.10 304.80 323.85
12 0.61 20.8 11.11 349.25 363.54 348.18
15 0.94 20.8 12.70 436.56 452.44 473.08
18 0.94 20.8 12.70 523.88 544.51 565.15
21 0.94 20.8 14.29 612.78 635.00 657.23
24 0.94 31.3 14.29 698.50 723.90 746.13
Thickness of Socket
Rows of Depth of Socket Thickness of Barrel at 12.7 mm from
Size Perfora- Perforations per Row (mm) (mm) Outer End (mm)
(in.) tions 0.61 m 0.91 m 1.22 m 1.52 m Nominal Minimum Nominal Minimum Nominal Minimum
4 4 7 9 11 13 44.45 38.10 12.70 11.11 11.11 9.53
6 4 7 9 11 13 57.15 50.80 15.88 14.29 12.70 11.11
8 4 7 9 11 13 63.50 57.15 19.05 17.46 14.29 12.70
10 6 7 9 11 13 66.68 60.33 22.23 20.64 15.88 14.29
12 6 69.85 63.50 25.40 23.81 19.05 17.46
15 6 10 14 17 73.03 66.68 31.75 28.58 23.81 22.23
18 8 10 14 17 76.20 69.85 38.10 34.93 28.58 26.99
21 8 10 14 17 82.55 76.20 44.45 41.28 33.34 30.16
24 8 10 14 17 85.73 79.38 50.80 48.63 38.10 34.93

Table 2-16 Dimensions of Class 1 Extra Strength Clay Pipe

Inside Thickness of
Outside diameter diameter Depth of socket Thickness of bar- socket at in.
Laying length Maximum of barrel (in.) of socket (in.) rel (in.) fromouter end (in.)
Limit of minus difference in at in.
variation length of two above
Size (in. per ft. of opposite sides base, (in.)
(in.) Min. length (in.) Min. Max. Min. Nominal Min. Nominal Min. Nominal Min.
4 2 5
16 478 518 5 1 1 5
8 9
16 7
16 3
8
6 2 3
8 7 16
1
7716 8316 2 2 11
16 9
16 7
16
8 2 7
16 9 9 10 2 2 7
8 9
16
10 2 7
16 11 12 12 258 238 1 7
8 5
8 9
16
12 2 7
16 13 14516 1518 2 2 1316 1116 11
16
15 3 17316 171316 1858 278 258 1 138 15
16 7
8
18 3 2058 21716 22 3 2 178 1 118 1116
21 3 9
16 2418 25 2578 3 3 2 2 1516 1316
24 3 3
8 9
16 27 28 2938 338 318 2 2 1 138
27 3 3
8 5
8 31 32 33 3 3 2 2 11116 1916
30 3 3
8 5
8 3438 3558 36 358 338 3 2 178 1
33 3 3
8 5
8 3758 381516 3978 3 3 3 3 2 1
36 3 3
8 11
16 40 42 43 4 3 3 3 2116 178
Table 2-16(M) Dimensions of Class 1 Extra Strength Clay Pipe
Outside Diameter of Inside Diameter
Laying Length Maximum Difference Barrel (mm) of Socket at
Size Minimum Limit of Minus in Length of 2 12.7 mm Above
(in.) (m) Variation (mm/m) Opposite Sides (mm) Minimum Maximum Base (mm)
4 0.61 20.8 7.94 123.83 130.18 146.05
6 0.61 20.8 9.53 179.39 188.91 207.96
8 0.61 20.8 11.11 234.95 247.65 266.70
10 0.61 20.8 11.11 292.10 304.80 323.85
12 0.61 20.8 11.11 349.25 363.54 384.18
15 0.91 20.8 12.70 436.56 452.44 473.08
18 0.91 20.8 12.70 523.88 544.51 565.15
21 0.91 20.8 14.29 612.78 635.00 657.23
24 0.91 31.3 14.29 698.50 723.90 746.13
27 0.91 31.3 15.88 787.40 815.98 838.20
30 0.91 31.3 15.88 873.13 904.88 927.10
33 0.91 31.3 15.88 955.68 989.01 1012.83
36 0.91 31.3 17.46 1035.05 1073.15 1098.55
Thickness of Socket at 12.7
Size Depth of Socket (mm) Thickness of Barrel (mm) mm from Outer End (mm)
(in.) Nominal Minimum Nominal Minimum Nominal Minimum
4 44.45 38.10 15.88 14.29 11.11 9.53
6 57.15 50.80 17.46 14.29 12.70 11.11
8 63.50 57.15 22.23 19.05 14.29 12.70
10 66.68 60.33 25.40 22.23 15.88 14.29
12 69.85 63.50 30.16 26.99 19.05 17.46
15 73.03 66.68 38.10 34.93 23.81 22.23
18 76.20 69.85 47.63 44.45 28.58 26.99
21 82.55 76.20 57.15 50.80 33.34 30.16
24 85.73 79.38 63.50 57.15 38.10 34.93
27 88.90 82.55 69.85 63.50 42.86 39.69
30 92.08 85.73 76.20 69.85 47.63 44.45
33 95.25 88.90 82.55 76.20 50.80 44.45
36 101.60 95.25 88.90 82.55 52.39 47.63
Note: There is no limit for plus variation.

Aluminum
Aluminum is extruded or drawn in a variety of alloys.
Its uses include cryogenic systems with temperatures
as low as -423F (-252.8C), process systems, heat
transfer, and pressure lines. The joints can be brazed
or welded. It should be noted that special techniques
often are required, depending on the type of alloy.
Aluminum is available in 8-inch through 48-inch
diameters, depending on the type.
Stainless Steel
The designation stainless steel applies to a number
(B) of alloys with different properties. Common to all
stainless steels is the fact that they contain at least
12 percent chromium. Stainless steel is manufactured
(A) in three basic types: martensitic (hardenable, straight
Figure 2-14 Duriron Pipe (A) Duriron Joint (B) chromium alloy), ferritic (straight chromium, for
Source: Courtesy of Duriron. corrosive service where nickel steel is undesirable),
and austenitic (18 percent chromium and 8 percent
installed using traditional plumbing techniques. nickel, for general corrosive service). The joints can
(See Figure 2-14.) Duriron mechanical joint pipe be butt welded, socket welded, screwed, or flanged.
and fittings are available from 1 inches to 4 inches Pipe and fittings are available in 18-inch through 48-
and offer ease of installation through the use of inch diameters.
couplings. Stainless steel is a clean, durable, corrosion-
The duriron bell-and-spigot joint is made using resistant, and long-lasting material. Products are
conventional plumbing tools, virgin lead, and a spe- chemically descaled (acid pickled) to enhance the
cial acid-resistant caulking yarn. The caulking yarn natural corrosion resistance and to provide a uniform,
is packed into the bell of the duriron joint, and a aesthetically pleasing matte-silver finish.
small amount of lead is poured over the yarn to fill Stainless steel is used where sanitation and prod-
the hub. It is the caulking yarn, not the lead, that uct contamination resistance are critical (dairies, food
seals the joint. processing, etc.). In processing systems, stainless steel
Duriron mechanical joints are designed for fast is used to resist corrosion. All stainless steels have in-
and easy assembly through the use of the two-bolt herent corrosion resistance, but the austenitic group
mechanical coupling. A calibrated ratchet is necessary of stainless steels has the greatest resistance to many
to complete the joint. The nuts are tightened to 10 different chemical products and most detergents.
feet per pound 24 hours prior to testing. Austenitic steels also have an excellent ability to resist
The reference standards for duriron pipe are: impacts and shocks at all temperatures. Hard blows
ASTM A861: Standard Specification for High- to the material may cause dents in certain cases, but
silicon Iron Pipe and Fittings it is very difficult to actually damage the steel.
Other uses include applications in the food indus-
ASTM A518/A518M: Standard Specification for
Corrosion-resistant High-silicon Iron Castings try, shipbuilding, pharmaceutical industry, breweries
and dairies, industrial kitchens, and institutions.
Duriron is similar to cast iron hub-and-spigot pipe When increased acid resistance is required and spot
and fittings. It has a hub into which the spigot (plain and crevice corrosion may occur, molybdenum-alloyed
end) of the pipe or fitting is inserted. Hub-and-spigot chromium-nickel steels may be used. These acid-resis-
pipe and fitting sizes include 2-inch to 15-inch diam- tant steels resist a number of organic and inorganic
eters and 5-foot or 10-foot (1.5-m or 3.1-m) lengths. acids. However, acid-proof steels are only partially
resistant to solutions containing chlorides.
Special-Purpose Piping Stainless steel cannot burn and consequently is
Materials classified as nonflammable. This means that pipes
Stainless steel and aluminum are the most common and drains made of stainless steel may penetrate floor
special-purpose piping materials used for a wide range partitions without the need for special fire insula-
of applications where performance requirements tion. Likewise, no harmful fumes or substances are
outweigh costs. Stainless steel and aluminum require released from the steel in the event of fire.
specialized skills in design and fabrication. Many al- Due to their very low heat expansion coefficient,
loys are available for specific applications. drain products in stainless steel are not in any way

influenced by temperatures occurring in drain instal- can be ordered with or without a leak detection, which
lations. Furthermore, drain products need not be can be a continuous cable (single use or re-usable),
stored or installed at specific temperatures. Neither point of collections, or non-wetted sensors.
heat nor cold affects stainless steel. DC currently is not governed by ASTM standards,
Stainless steel piping is manufactured in two but an attempt is being made to eliminate as many
different grades: 304, which is suitable for most en- fabricated inner fittings as possible, especially for
vironments, and 316, which is suitable for corrosive drainage.
environments. Piping is available in single hub. Pipes When planning for DC, the designer should leave
are available in eight lengths: 0.5, 0.8, 1.6, 3.3, 4.9, 6.6, plenty of space. Labor costs are five to seven times
9.8, and 16.4 feet (150, 250, 500, 1,000, 1,500, 2,000, those for installing single-wall pipe. When testing
3,000, and 5,000 mm) and 2 inches to 6 inches (50.8 DC, the designer should double-check manufacturers
mm to 152.4 mm). It is necessary to determine the requirements for procedures to test inner and outer
lengths required between fitting location points and pipe. A simple DC size variation is 6 inches inner
to select the pipe lengths that best minimize waste diameter and 10 inches outer diameter, so a great dif-
and eliminate field cuts when possible. A stainless ference in size exists. A typical 6-inch trap may take
steel piping system is lightweight and easy to install. up 15 inches to 18 inches, and a 6-inch by 10-inch trap
A pipe joint can be made in a few seconds. may take up 48 inches of space. Thus, maintaining
Corrugated Stainless Steel Tubing pitch requires a very different site plan and pitch
elevation plan.
Corrugated stainless steel tubing (CSST) is a flexible
gas piping system made from 300 series stainless steel. Joining Practices
The tubing is suitable for natural gas and propane. It
can be used for both aboveground and underground Mechanical Joints
installations. See specific manufacturers recommen- Mechanical joints include transition (flanged), com-
dations for underground use and installation. The pression, and threaded joints. Mechanical joints shall
tubing is protected with a fire-retardant polyethylene incorporate a positive mechanical system for axial
jacket. It is manufactured in 38-inch to 2-inch (9.52- restraint in addition to any restraint provided by
mm to 50.8-mm) sizes and in coils of up to 1,000 feet friction. All internal grab rings shall be manufactured
(304.8 m) based on pipe sizes. from corrosion-resistant steel. Polyethylene sealing
Mechanical joints are the only methods cur- rings shall be Type 1 (LDPE) compound.
rently available to join CSST tubing. A number of Compression Joints
mechanical compression-type connectors have been Compression-type gaskets have been used in pres-
developed for joining this type of pipe material to sure pipe joints for years. The compression joint uses
permit transition to other types of pipe and fittings. hub-and-spigot pipe and fittings (as does the lead and
The installation of any fitting is to be in accordance oakum joint). The major difference is the one-piece
with the manufacturers installation instructions. neoprene rubber gasket. When the spigot end of the
Manufacturers have specific protective devices and pipe or fitting is pulled or drawninto the gasketed
termination fittings for their products. The designer hub, the joint is sealed by displacement and compres-
should consult with the manufacturer for all required sion of the neoprene gasket. The resulting joint is leak
accessories. free, and it absorbs vibration and can be deflected up
to 5 degrees without leaking or failing.
Double Containment
Gaskets are precision molded of durable neoprene.
Double containment (DC) has proven to be needed
Service gaskets must be used with service weight pipe
both underground and aboveground for a multitude
and fittings. Extra-heavy gaskets must be used with
of purposes. Typically, to avoid a failed single-wall
extra-heavy pipe and fittings. The standard specifica-
chemical pipe, a second walled enclosure pipe is added.
tion for rubber gaskets for joining cast iron soil pipe
DC is marketed for preventing corrosive chemicals
and fittings is ASTM C564: Standard Specification
from getting into soils or spilling from a single-wall
for Rubber Gaskets for Cast Iron Soil Pipe and Fit-
overhead pipe to people or objects below. Now DC is
tings.
available in both drainage and pressure systems.
Neoprene does not support combustion, and gasket
Double containment is most commonly available
materials can be used safely up to 212F. Maximum
in PVC DWVPVC DWV, PVC Schedule 40/80PVC
deflection should not exceed inch per foot of pipe.
DWV; PVC 40/80PVC 40/80 CPVC 80PVC 80;
This allows 5 inches of deflection for a 10-foot piece of
DWV PPDWV PP; FRPFRP. However, DC system
pipe and 2 inches for 5 feet of pipe. For more than 5
are also available with materials such as PVDF as well
degrees of deflection, fittings should be used.
as any metals and a limitless combination of dissimilar
materials (both plastics and metals mixed together). It

Lead and Oakum Joints (Caulked Joints) shielded hubless coupling has a maximum limit of up
Hub-and-spigot cast iron soil pipe and fitting joints to 5 degrees. Maximum deflection should not exceed
can be made with oakum fiber and molten lead, which inch per foot of pipe. This allows 5 inches of deflection
provides a leak-free, strong, flexible, and root-proof for a 10-foot piece of pipe. For more than 5 degrees of
joint. The waterproofing characteristics of oakum fi- deflection, fittings should be used.
ber have long been recognized by the plumbing trades, Mechanically Formed Tee Fittings for
and when molten lead is poured over the oakum in a Copper Tube
cast iron soil pipe joint, it completely seals and locks Mechanically formed tee fittings shall be formed in
the joint. This is because the hot lead fills a groove a continuous operation consisting of drilling a pilot
in the bell end of the pipe or fitting, firmly anchoring hole and drawing out the tube surface to form a
the lead in place after cooling. tee having a height of not less than three times the
To make a caulked joint, the spigot end of a pipe thickness of the branch tube wall so as to comply
or fitting is placed inside the hub of another pipe or with the American Welding Societys lap joint weld.
fitting. Oakum is placed around the spigot in the hub The device shall be fully adjustable to ensure proper
using a yarning tool, and then the oakum is packed tolerance and complete uniformity of the joint. (See
to the proper depth using a packing tool. Molten lead Figure 2-15.)
is then poured into the joint, ensuring that the lead The branch tube shall be notched to conform to
is brought up near the top of the hub. the inner curve of the run tube and have two dimple/
After the lead has cooled sufficiently, it is caulked depth stops pressed into the branch tube, one inch
with a caulking tool to form a solid lead insert. The (6.4 mm) atop the other so as to serve as a visual point
result is a lock-tight soil pipe joint with excellent of inspection. The bottom dimple ensures that pen-
flexural characteristics. If horizontal joints are to etration of the branch tube into the tee is of sufficient
be made, a joint runner must be used to retain the depth for brazing and that the branch tube does not
molten lead. Customary safety precautions should be obstruct the flow in the main line tube. Dimple/depth
taken when handling molten lead. stops shall be in line with the run of the tube.
Shielded Hubless Coupling Mechanically formed tee fittings shall be brazed
The shielded coupling for hubless cast iron soil pipe in accordance with the Copper Development Asso-
and fittings is a plumbing concept that provides a ciations Copper Tube Handbook using BCuP series
more compact arrangement without sacrificing the filler metal.
quality and performance of cast iron. The hubless Note that soldered joints are not permitted. Me-
coupling system typically uses a one-piece neoprene chanically formed tee fittings shall conform to ASTM
gasket, a shield of stainless steel retaining clamps. F2014: Standard Specification for Non-Reinforced
The hubless coupling is manufactured in accordance Extruded Tee Connections for Piping Applications,
with CISPI 310 and ASTM C1277: Standard Specifi- ANSI B31.9: Building Services Piping, and ASME
cation for Shielded Couplings Joining Hubless Cast B31: Standards of Pressure Piping.
Iron Soil Pipe and Fittings.
The great advantage of the system is that it per-
mits joints to be made in limited-access areas. 300
series stainless steel is always used with hubless
couplings because of its superior corrosion resistance.
It is resistant to oxidation, warping and deforma-
tion, offers rigidity under tension with substantial
tension strength, and provides sufficient flexibility.
The shield is corrugated in order to grip the gasket
sleeve and to give maximum compression distribution
to the joint.
The stainless steel worm gear clamps compressthe
neoprene gasket to seal the joint. The neoprene gasket
absorbs shock and vibration and completely elimi-
nates galvanic actionbetween the cast ironandthe
stainless steel shield. Neoprene does not support
combustion and can be used safely up to 212F. The
neoprene sleeve is completely protected by a non-
flammable stainless steel shield, and as a result, a
fire rating is not required. Joint deflection using a Figure 2-15 Copper Pipe Mechanical T-joint
Source: Courtesy of T-Drill.

Mechanical Joining of Copper Tube Cleaners must be allowed to evaporate completely

before proceeding.
Press Connect and Push Connect
Primers are used to prepare (soften) the surfaces
Press-connect and push-connect copper joining sys-
of the pipe and fitting so that the fusion process can
tems provide fast and clean installations for both
occur. Unlike with the cleaner, the primer must be
aboveground and belowground applications. The
wet when proceeding to the cement. Specially for-
systems do not require heat, which offers faster and
mulated one-step cements (no primer required) are
safer installation. Joints made using these systems
available.
are capable of withstanding pressure and tempera-
Cements must be material specific and must be
ture ranges common to residential and commercial
selected based on the application (pressure, non-
plumbing systems.
pressure, chemicals, sizes, temperatures, etc.).
Roll Groove
Assembling Flanged Joints
Roll groove is another form of mechanical joining
The face of the flange should be cleaned with a
that does not require heat. Many manufacturers pro-
solvent-soaked rag to remove any rust-preventive
vide pipe and fittings already roll grooved for faster
grease. Any dirt should be cleaned from the gasket.
installation.
The pipe and the flanges should be aligned to elimi-
Brazing nate any strain on the coupling. The gasket should
Brazing is defined as a process where the filler met- be coated with graphite and oil or some other recom-
als (alloys) melt at a temperature greater than 840F, mended lubricant, inserted, and then bolted. Thread
and the base metals (tube and fittings) are not melted. lubricant should be applied to the bolts. The bolts
The most commonly used brazing filler metals melt should be evenly tightened with a wrench. The nuts
at temperatures from 1,150F to 1,550F. should be hand tightened. When tightening the bolts,
Soldering care should be exercised that they are diametrically
Soldering is defined as a process wherein the filler opposed; adjacent bolts never should be tightened.
metal (solder) melts at a temperature of less than Making Up Threaded Pipe
840F, and the base metals (tube and fittings) are not Male and female threads should be cleaned with a wire
melted. The most commonly used leak-free solders brush. Pipe dope should be applied only to the male
melt at temperatures from 350F to 600F. Lead-free thread. (If dope is applied to the female thread, it will
solders must contain less than 0.2 percent lead (Pb) enter the system). The pipe and coupling should be
to be classified as no lead. aligned and hand tightened and then finished by turn-
Soldered joints should be installed in accordance ing with a wrench. A few imperfect threads should be
with the requirements, steps, and procedures outlined left exposed. Sections of the assembled piping should
in ASTM B828: Standard Practice for Making Capil- be blown out with compressed air before being placed
lary Joints by Soldering of Copper and Copper Alloy in the system.
Tube and Fittings and the procedures found in the
Copper Tube Handbook. Thread Cutting
Fluxes used for the soldering of copper and copper The pipe should be cut with a pipe cutter. It should be
alloys should be those meeting the requirements of clamped in a vise and the pipe stock and die engaged
ASTM B813: Standard Specification for Liquid and with short jerks. When the cutter catches, it should
Paste Fluxes for Soldering Applications of Copper and be pulled slowly with a steady movement using both
Copper Alloy Tube. hands. Enough cutting oil should be used during the
cutting process to keep the die cool and the edges
Joining Plastic Pipe clean. The die should be backed off frequently to
PEX free the cutters, and the follower should be watched
PEX connections are made using PEX press stainless when reversing the dies against the jumping threads,
steel sleeves or PEX crimp rings. The connection must cross-threading, or the stripping of threads. Leaky
meet or exceed the requirement of ASTM F877 or the threaded joints are usually caused by faulty or im-
appropriate fitting standard. proper lubricants.
Vinyls and ABS Welding
Schedule 80 plastic piping systems can be solvent Basic welding processes include electric arc, oxyacety-
welded or threaded. Schedule 40 can only be solvent lene, and gas shielded. Commercial welding fittings
welded. are available with ends designed for butt welding or
The use of cleaners is not always a must. However for socket-joint welding. The type of joint used de-
if dirt, grease, oil, or surface impurities are present pends on the type of liquid, pressure in the system,
on the areas to be jointed, a cleaner must be used. pipe size and material, and applicable codes. The butt

be beveled for welding. This can be accomplished

with an oxyacetylene torch.
Gas-shielded Arcs
This process is good for nonferrous metals since
flux is not required, producing an extremely
clean joint. The two types of gas-shielded arc are
tungsten inert gas (TIG) and metallic inert gas
(MIG). Gas-shielded arcs are used for aluminum,
magnesium, low-alloy steel, carbon steel, stain-
less steel, copper nickel, titanium, and others.
Joining Glass Pipe
The joints are either bead to bead or bead to plain
end. The bead-to-bead coupling is used for join-
ing factory-beaded or field-beaded end pipe and
fittings. The bead-to-plain-end coupling is used
to join a pipe section or fitting that has a beaded
end to a pipe section that has been field cut to
length and is not beaded.
Bending Pipe and Tubing
Pipe bending (cold or hot method) typically is
Figure 2-16 Typical Welding Fittings done with a hydraulic pipe bender. The radius
of the bend should be large enough to free the
surface of cracks or buckles (see ANSI B31.1).
Some bends are designed specifically to be creased
or corrugated. Corrugated bends are more flexible
than conventional types and may have smaller radii.
Straight sections of pipe sometimes are corrugated to
provide flexibility. Copper tube typically is bent with
a spring tube bender, grooved wheel and bar, bending
press, or machine. Sharp bends are made by filling
the pipe with sand or other material to prevent flat-
tening or collapsing. Bending pipe or tubing is easier
and more economical than installing fittings. Bends
reduce the number of joints (which could leak) and
also minimize friction loss through the pipe.
Electrofusion Joining
Figure 2-17 Types of Welded Joints Electrofusion is a heat-fusion joining process wherein
a heat source is an integral part of the fitting. Where
joint frequently is used with a liner (backing ring). electric current is applied, heat is produced, melting
(See Figures 2-16 and 2-17.) and joining the components. Fusion occurs when the
Electric Arc Welding joint cools below the melting temperature of the mate-
Electric arc welding is used for standard, extra-heavy, rial. The applicable standard is ASTM F1290.
or double extra-heavy commercial steel pipe. ASTM
A53 grades of low-carbon steel butt-welded pipe are Accessories and Joints
the most weldable. Anchors
Oxyacetylene Welding Anchors are installed to secure piping systems against
In this welding process, the flame develops a tem- expansion or contraction and to eliminate pipe varia-
perature to 6,300F (3,482.2C), completely melting tion. During the installation of anchors, damage to
commercial metals to form a bond. The use of a rod building walls or steel must be prevented. Common
increases strength and adds extra metal to the seam. anchor materials are strap steel, cast iron, angles,
This process is used with many metals (iron, steel, steel plate, channels, and steel clamps. (See Figure
stainless steel, cast iron, copper, brass, aluminum, 2-18.)
bronze, and other alloys) and can be used to join dis-
similar metals. When cut on site, the pipe ends must

Figure 2-18 Anchors and Inserts
Dielectric Unions or Flanges Ball Joints

Dielectric unions or flanges are installed between Ball joints are used in hydronic systems, where pipe
ferrous and nonferrous piping to resist corrosion. flexibility is desired, for positioning pipe, and where
Dielectric fittings prevent electric current from flow- rotary or reciprocal movement is required. Ball joints
ing from one part of the pipe to another. The spacer are available with threaded, flanged, or welded ends
should be suitable for the system pressure and tem- of stainless steel, carbon steel, bronze, or malleable
perature. (See Figure 2-19.) iron.
Expansion Joints and Guides Flexible Couplings (Compression or Slip)
Expansion joints and guides are designed to permit Flexible couplings do not require the same degree of
free expansion and contraction and to prevent exces- piping alignment as flanges and threaded couplings.
sive bending at joints, hangers, and connections to They provide inch to 38 inch (6 mm to 9.5 mm)
the equipment caused by heat expansion or vibration. of axial movement because of the elasticity in the
Expansion guides should be used where the direction gaskets. These couplings should not be used as slip-
of the expansion is critical. (See Figure 2-20.)

Figure 2-19 Dielectric Fittings
type expansion joints or as replacements for flexible

expansion joints. (See Figure 2-21.)
Gaskets (Flanged Pipe)
Gaskets must withstand pressure, temperature, and
attack from the fluid in the pipe. Gaskets normally
should be as thin as possible. ANSI B16.21: Nonme-
tallic Flat Gaskets for Pipe Flanges designates the
dimensions for nonmetallic gaskets.
Mechanical Couplings
Mechanical couplings are self-centering, lock-in-place
grooves or shouldered pipe and pipe fitting ends. The
fittings provide some angular pipe deflection, contrac-
tion, and expansion. Mechanical couplings often are
used instead of unions, welded flanges, screwed pipe
connections, or soldered tubing connections. Me-
chanical couplings are available for a variety of piping
materials, including steel and galvanized steel, cast
iron, copper tubing, and plastics. Bolting methods are
standard and vandal resistant. The gasketing material
varies based on the fluid in the piping system. (See
Figure 2-22.)
Figure 2-18 Anchors and Inserts (continued)

Figure 2-20 Expansion Joints and Guides
Figure 2-21 Compression Fittings

6-inch and larger pipe: On 15-foot (4.6-m)

centers
Pipes installed in finished trenches or tunnels
should rest on a suitable sidewall or floor supports.
(See Figure 2-23.)
Hanger and Support Installation for Copper
Piping
The hanger spacing and rod size requirements given
are from MSS SP-69: Pipe Hangers and Supports
Selection and Application. Designers should consult
the local plumbing, mechanical, or building code for
required hanger spacing requirements.
First, install hangers for horizontal piping with the
maximum spacing and minimum rod sizes as shown
in Table 2-17. Then, support vertical copper tube,
copper pipe, or brass pipe at each floor. Finally, in
areas where excessive moisture is anticipated, either
Figure 2-22 Mechanical Joint the piping or the support shall be wrapped with an
approved tape or otherwise isolated to prevent contact
Hangers and Supports between dissimilar metals and inhibit galvanic corro-
Pipe should be securely supported with an ample sion of the supporting member.
safety factor. Horizontal suspended pipe should be
hung using adjustable pipe hangers with bolted, Table 2-17 Maximum and Minimum Rod
Sizes for Copper Piping
hinged loops or turnbuckles. Chains, perforated strap
irons, or flat steel strap hangers are not acceptable. Nominal Tube Copper Tube Minimum Rod
Pipes 2 inches in diameter and smaller (supported Size, in. Maximum Diameter, in.
Span, ft
from the side wall) should have an expansion hook
plate. Pipes 2 inches in diameter and larger (sup- Up to 5 3
8
ported from the side wall) should have brackets and 1 6 3
8
clevis hangers. Rollers should be provided wherever 1 7 3
8
necessary. Trapeze hangers, holding several pipes,
1 8 3
8
may be preferred over individual pipeline hangers. For
individual hangers of pipes 2 inches in diameter and 2 8 3
8
smaller, clevis hangers should be used. Where hang- 2 9
ers are attached to concrete slabs, the slabs should 3 10
have more concrete-reinforcing rods at the point of 3 11
support. The risers can be supported vertically using
approved methods such as resting on the floor slab 4 12
with an elbow support, resting on the floor sleeve with 5 13
a clamp, or anchoring to the wall. 6 14 5
8
Consideration also must be given to seismic condi- 8 16
tions in pipe hanging. The designer should consult
10 18
with local, state, and all other governing agencies for
specific requirements. 12 19
Pipe supports should be spaced according to the
following: Pipe Unions (Flanged Connections)
Less than -inch pipe: On 5-foot (1.5-m) centers Pipe unions are installed at several locations to fa-
cilitate dismantling. They typically are installed near
1-inch and 1-inch pipe: On 6-foot (1.8-m)
the control valves, regulators, water heaters, meters,
centers
check valves, pumps, compressors, and boilers so that
1-inch to 2-inch pipe: On 10-foot (3.1-m) equipment can be readily disconnected for repair or
centers replacement. (See Figure 2-24 and Table 2-18.)
3-inch and 4-inch pipe: On 12-foot (3.7-m) Pipe Sleeves
centers For pipes passing through walls, sleeves should extend
completely through the construction, flush with each

Figure 2-23 Hangers, Clamps, and Supports

Piping Expansion and

Contraction
Piping, subject to changes in temperature, expands
(increases in length) and contracts (decreases in
length), and each material has its own characteristics.
Piping expands as the temperature increases and
contracts as the temperature decreases. The coeffi-
cient of expansion (CE) of a material is the materials
characteristic unit increase in length per 1F (0.56C)
Figure 2-24 Pipe Union temperature increase. Values for CE of various ma-
terials are given in Marks Standard Handbook for
surface. The sleeves should be caulked with graphite Mechanical Engineers and manufacturer literature.
packing and a suitable plastic waterproof caulking Provisions must be made for the expansion and
compound. Pipe sleeves in rated walls are to be in- contraction of piping. If the piping is restrained, it
stalled to suit the specific manufacturers hourly fire will be subject to compressive (as the temperature
rating. Packing and sealing compounds are to be the increases) and tensile (as the temperature decreases)
required thickness to meet the specific hourly ratings stresses. The piping usually withstands the stresses;
assembly. however, failures may occur at the joints and fit-
Sleeves in bearing walls should be of steel, cast tings.
iron, or terra-cotta pipe. Sleeves in other masonry Common methods to absorb piping expansion and
structures may be of sheet metal, fiber, or other suit- contraction are the use of expansion joints, expansion
able material. Sleeves for 4-inch pipe and smaller loops, and offsets.
should be at least two pipe sizes larger than the pipe
passing through. For larger pipes, sleeves should be
at least one pipe size larger than the enclosed pipe.
The inside diameter of pipe sleeves should be at least
inch (12.7 mm) larger than the outside diameter of
the pipe or covering. (See Figure 2-25.)
Service Connections (Water Piping)
Hand-drilled, self-tapping saddle, or cut-in sleeves
should be used. Two types of cut-in sleeves are
available: for pressures to 50 psi (344.7 kPa) and for
pressures to 250 psi (1,727.7 kPa). Tapping valves
are for working pressures of 175 psi (1,206.6 kPa) for
2-inch to 12-inch (50.8-mm to 304.8-mm) pipe and 150
psi (1,034.2 kPa) for 16-inch pipe.
Table 2-18 Pipe Union Dimensions

Standard Normal
A B C L Engagement
Pipe Size (250 lb) (113.5 kg) (250 lb) (113.5 kg) (250 lb) (113.5 kg) (250 lb) (113.5 kg)
(in.) (in.) (mm) (in.) (mm) (in.) (mm) (in.) (mm) (in.) (mm)
1
8 0.505 12.8 0.935 23.8 1.080 27.4 1.484 37.7 6.4
0.638 16.2 1.113 28.3 1.285 32.6 1.641 41.7 3
8 9.5
3
8 0.787 20.0 1.264 32.1 1.460 37.1 1.766 44.9 3
8 9.5
0.950 24.1 1.456 37.0 1.681 42.7 2.000 50.8 12.7
1.173 29.8 1.718 43.6 1.985 50.4 2.141 54.4 9
16 14.3
1 1.440 36.6 2.078 52.8 2.400 61.0 2.500 63.5 11
16 17.5
1 1.811 46.0 2.578 65.5 2.978 75.6 2.703 68.7 11
16 17.5
1 2.049 52.1 2.890 73.4 3.338 84.8 2.875 73.0 11
16 17.5
2 2.563 65.1 3.484 88.5 4.025 102.2 3.234 82.1 19.1
2 3.109 79.0 4.156 105.6 4.810 122.2 3.578 90.9 15
16 23.8
3 3.781 96.0 4.969 126.2 5.740 145.8 3.938 100.0 1 25.4

Figure 2-25 Sleeves


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3 Valves
Valves serve the purpose of controlling the fluids in

building service piping. They come in many shapes,
sizes, design types, and materials to accommodate
different fluids, piping, pressure ranges, and types of
SP-81: Stainless Steel, Bonnetless, Flanged Knife
Gate Valves
SP-85: Cast Iron Globe and Angle Valves,
Flanged and Threaded Ends
service. Proper selection is important to ensure the
most efficient, cost-effective, and long-lasting systems. SP-110: Ball Valves Threaded, Socket-Welding,
Solder Joint, Grooved and Flared Ends
No single valve is best for all services. This chapter is
limited to manually operated valves that start, stop, A large number of former MSS standard prac-
and regulate flow and prevent its reversal. tices have been approved by the American National
Standards Institute (ANSI) as ANSI standards. To
APPROVAL ORGANIZATIONS AND maintain a single source of authoritative information,
STANDARD PRACTICES MSS withdraws its standard practices when they are
The following organizations publish standards and approved as ANSI Standards.
guidelines governing the use of valves:
GLOSSARy
LOSSAR
LOSSARy
Manufacturers Standardization Society (MSS)
Ball valve A valve consisting of a single drilled ball
Underwriters Laboratories (UL) that is operated by a handle attached to the vertical
Factory Mutual (FM) axis of the ball, which permits fluid flow in a straight-
through direction. The ball within the valve body may
American Petroleum Industries (API)
be rotated fully opened or fully closed by a one-quarter
MSS standard practices regarding valves are as turn of the handle.
follows:
Body That part of the valve that attaches to the
SP-25: Standard Marking System for Valves, pipeline or equipmentwith screwed ends, flanged
Fittings, Flanges, and Unions ends, or soldered/welded joint endsand encloses the
SP-42: Class 150 Corrosion-resistant Gate, Globe, working parts of the valve.
Angle, and Check Valves with Flanged and Butt- Bonnet The part of the valve housing through
weld Ends which the stem extends. It provides support and
SP-67: Butterfly Valves protection to the stem and houses the stem packing.
SP-70: Gray Iron Gate Valves, Flanged and It may be screwed or bolted to the body.
Threaded Ends Butterfly valve A type of valve consisting of a single
SP-71: Gray Iron Swing Check Valves, Flanged disc that is operated by a handle attached to the disc,
and Threaded Ends which permits fluid flow in a straight-through direc-
tion. The valve is bidirectional. The disc within the
SP-72: Ball Valves with Flanged or Butt-welding
valve body may be rotated fully open or fully closed
Ends for General Service
by a one-quarter turn of the handle.
SP-78: Cast Iron Plug Valves, Flanged and
Threaded Ends Cap The top part of the housing of a check valve
(equivalent to the bonnet of a gate or globe valve),
SP-80: Bronze Gate, Globe, Angle, and Check which may be either screwed or bolted onto the main
Valves body.
Check valve An automatic, self-closing valve that be lubricated easily and do not come into contact with
permits flow in only one direction. It automatically the fluid flowing through the valve.
closes by gravity when liquid ceases to flow in that Packing A general term describing any yielding
direction. material used to affect a tight joint. Valve packing is
Clapper A common term that is used to describe generally jam packing. It is pushed into a stuffing
the disc of a swing-type check valve. box and adjusted from time to time by tightening
Disc The disc-shaped device that is attached to the down a packing gland or packing nut.
bottom of the stem and is brought into contact with or Packing gland A device that holds and compresses
lifted off the seating surfaces to close or open a globe the packing and provides for additional compression
valve or butterfly valve. by manual adjustment of the gland as wear of the
Flanged bonnet A type of bonnet so constructed packing occurs. A packing gland may be screwed or
that it attaches to the body by means of a flanged, bolted in place.
bolted connection. The whole bonnet assembly, includ- Packing nut A nut that is screwed into place and
ing the hand wheel, stem, and disc, may be quickly presses down upon a gland bushing, which transmits
removed by unscrewing the nuts from the bonnet the force exerted by the packing nut to the packing. It
stud bolts. serves the same purpose as the packing gland.
Full port A term meaning that the area through Rising stem A threaded component that is un-
the valve is equal to or greater than the area of stan- screwed or screwed through the bonnet to open or
dard pipe. close the valve. The hand wheel may rise with the
Gate valve A valve that is used to open or close stem, or the stem may rise through the hand wheel.
off the flow of fluid through a pipe. It is so named Screwed bonnet A type of bonnet so constructed
because of the wedge (gate) that is either raised out that it attaches to the body by means of a screwed
of or lowered into a double-seated sluice to permit joint. A bonnet may be attached to the body by screw-
full flow or completely shut off flow. The passageway ing over the body or inside the body or by means of a
through a gate valve is straight through, uninter- union-type screwed connection.
rupted, and the full size of the pipeline into which Solid wedge A wedge consisting of one solid piece
the valve is installed. into which the valve stem is attached, so it seals
Gland bushing A metal bushing installed between against the valve seating surfaces to ensure a tight
the packing nut and the packing to transmit the force seal when the valve is closed.
exerted by the packing nut against the packing. Split wedge A wedge consisting of two pieces into
Globe valve A valve that is used for throttling or which the valve stem is screwed, so it expands the two
regulating the flow through a pipe. It is so named pieces against the valve seating surfaces to ensure a
because of the globular shape of the body. The disc is tight seal when the valve is closed.
raised off a horizontal seating surface to permit flow Standard port A term meaning that the area
or lowered against the horizontal seating surface to through the valve is less than the area of standard
shut off flow. The disc may be lifted completely to pipe.
permit full flow or lifted only slightly to throttle or
regulate flow. The flow through a globe valve has to Stem The usually threaded shaft to which the hand
make two 90-degree turns. wheel is attached at the top and the disc or wedge
at the lower end. The stem also may be called the
Hand wheel The wheel-shaped turning device by spindle.
which the stem is rotated, thus lifting or lowering
the disc or wedge. Stop plug An adjusting screw that extends through
the body of a check valve. It adjusts and controls the
Hinge pin The valve part that the disc or clapper extent of movement of the disc or clapper.
of a check valve swings.
Swing check valve A check valve that uses a
Lift check valve A check valve using a disc that hinged disc or clapper to limit the direction of flow.
lifts off the seat to allow flow. When flow decreases, The pressure exerted by the fluid flowing through the
the disc starts closing and seals before reverse flow valve forces the disc away from the seating surface.
occurs. When the flow ceases, the clapper falls to its original
Outside screw and yoke (OS&Y) A type of bon- position, preventing flow in the opposite direction.
net so constructed that the operating threads of the Union A coupling fitting consisting of three parts
stem are outside the valve housing, where they may (a shoulder piece, thread piece, and ring) that is used
for coupling the ends of pipe sections. Adjoining faces

Chapter 3Valves 75
of shoulder and thread pieces are lapped

HANDWHEEL NUTHANDWHEEL NUT
together to form a tight joint. Unions
permit easy disconnection for repair and
HANDWHEEL HANDWHEEL
replacement of piping and fittings.
STEM STEM
Union bonnet A type of bonnet that
PACKING NUT PACKING NUT
is so constructed that the whole bonnet
assembly, including the hand wheel,PACKING GLAND PACKING GLAND
stem, and disc assembly, may be removed

PACKING PACKING
quickly by unscrewing the bonnet union

BONNET BONNET
ring from the valve body. UNION NUT UNION NUT
Union ring A large nut-like compo-
BODY BODY
nent that secures the union thread and
WEDGE WEDGE
the union shoulder together. It slips
SPLIT WEDGE DESIGN
SPLIT WEDGE DESIGN
over and against the shoulder piece and TYPICAL GATE VALVE
TYPICAL GATE VALVE
screws onto the union thread piece.
Union shoulder piece A part of the
union fastened to the pipe that retains
the union ring.
Union threaded piece The part of the
union that is fastened to the pipe and has
external threads over which the union
ring is screwed to effect a coupling.
SOLID WEDGE DESIGN
SOLID WEDGE DESIGN DOUBLE WEDGEDOUBLE
DESIGNWEDGE DESIGN
Wedge The wedge-shaped device that
fits into the seating surfaces of a gate FigureFigure 3-1
3-1 Gate Gate3-1
Figure
Valve Valve
Gate Valve
valve and is drawn out of contact with
the seating surfaces to permit flow or is Gate discs can be classified as solid-wedge discs,
pushed down into contact with the seating surfaces double discs, or split-wedge discs. In the solid-wedge
to close off flow with the valve. (See also disc.) design, a single tapered disc, thin at the bottom and
thicker at the top, is forced into a similarly shaped
Types of Valves seat. In the double and split-wedge disc designs, two
discs are employed back to back, with a spreading
Gate Valve
device between them. As the valve wheel is turned, the
With starting and stopping flow as its prime function,
gate drops into its seat (as with any other gate valve),
the gate valve is intended to operate either fully open
but on the final turns of the wheel, the spreader
or fully closed. The components of a gate valve are
forces the discs outward against the seats, effecting
shown in Figure 3-1.
tight closure.
The gate valve uses a gate-like disc, actuated by a
Bypass valves should be provided where the dif-
stem screw and hand wheel that moves up and down
ferential pressure exceeds 200 pounds per square
at right angles to the path of flow and seats against
inch (psi) (1,378 kilopascals [kPa]) on valves sized 4
two faces to shut off flow. As the disc of the gate valve
inches to 6 inches (101.6 millimeters to 152.4 mm),
presents a flat surface to the oncoming flow, this valve
and 100 psi (689 kPa) on valves 8 inches (203.2 mm)
should never be used for regulating or throttling flow.
or larger. Bypass valves should be inches (12.7 mm)
Flow through a partially open gate valve creates vi-
for 4-inch (101.6-mm) valves and inch (19.1 mm)
bration and chattering and subjects the disc and seat
for 5-inch (127-mm) valves or larger.
to inordinate wear.
A wide variety of seats and discs suit the conditions Globe Valve
under which the valve is to operate. For relatively The globe valve (see Figure 3-2), which is named for
low pressures and temperatures and for ordinary the shape of its body, is much more resistant to flow
fluids, seating materials are not a particularly difficult than the gate valve, as can be seen by examining the
problem. Bronze and iron valves usually have bronze path of flow through it. Its main advantages over the
or bronze-faced seating surfaces; iron valves may be gate valve are its use as a throttling valve to regulate
all iron. Nonmetallic composition discs are available flow and its ease of repair.
for tight seating or hard-to-hold fluids, such as air Because all contact between the seat and disc ends
and gasoline. when flow begins, the effects of wire drawing (seat
erosion) are minimized. The valve can operate just

HANDWHEEL
HANDWHEEL
NUT NUT the effect of increasing their resistance
to the cutting effects of dirt, scale, and
HANDWHEEL
HANDWHEEL other foreign matter. The composition
STEM STEM disc differs from the others in that it does
PACKINGPACKING
NUT NUT not fit into the seat opening, but over it,
PACKINGPACKING much as a bottlecap fits over the bottle
BONNET BONNET opening. This seat adapts the valve to
BODY BODY many services, including use with hard-
SEAT DISC
SEAT DISC
to-hold substances such as compressed
air, and makes it easy to repair.
Angle Valve
TYPICALTYPICAL
GLOBE GLOBE
VALVE VALVE PLUG VALVE
PLUG DESIGN
VALVE DESIGN
Very much akin to the globe valve, the
angle valve (see Figure 3-3) can decrease
piping installation time, labor, and
materials by serving as both valve and
90-degree elbow. It is less resistant to
flow than the globe valve, as flow must
change direction twice instead of three
CONVENTIONAL DISC DESIGN
CONVENTIONAL DISC DESIGN COMPOSITION
COMPOSITION
DISC DESIGN
times. It is also available with conven-
DISC DESIGN
tional, plug type, or composition discs.
Figure Figure
Figure 3-2 Globe
3-2 Globe Valve Valve
3-2 Valve
Globe
Ball Valve
barely open or fully open with little change in wear. The ball valve derives its name from
Also, because the disc of the globe valve travels a the drilled ball that swivels on its vertical axis and is
relatively short distance between fully open and fully operated by a handle. Its advantages are its straight-
closed, with fewer turns of the wheel required, an through flow, minimum turbulence, low torque, tight
operator can gauge the rate of flow by the number of closure, and compactness. Also, a quarter turn of the
turns of the wheel. handle makes it a quick-closing or quick-opening
As with the gate valve, a number of disc and seat valve. Reliability, ease of maintenance, and durability
arrangements are available. These are classified as have made the ball valve popular in industrial, chemi-
conventional disc, plug type, and composition disc. cal, and gas transmission applications.
The conventional disc is relatively flat, with beveled Ball valves are available in one-, two-, and
edges. On closure, it is pushed down into a beveled, three-piece body types, as shown in Figure 3-4. The
circular seat. Plug-type discs differ only in that they one-piece body is machined from a solid bar of stock
are far more tapered, thereby increasing the contact material or is a one-piece casing. The ball is inserted
surface between disc and seat. This characteristic has in the end for assembly, and the body insert that acts
as the seat ring is threaded in against the ball. The
HANDWHEEL NUT two-piece body is the same as the one-piece valve,
except that the body insert is larger and acts as an
end bushing. The three-piece body consists of a center
HANDWHEEL body section containing the ball that fits between two
body end pieces. Two or more bolts hold the assembly
STEM together.
PACKING NUT Butterfly Valve
PACKING The butterfly valve (see Figure 3-5) is the valve most
BONNET commonly used in place of a gate valve in cases where
SEAT DISC absolute, bubble-free shutoff is required.
In addition to its tight closing, one of the valves
OUTLET advantages is that it can be placed into a very small
space between pipe flanges. It is available with several
types of motorized and manual operators and a variety
BODY
of component material combinations.
INLET The two most common body types are the wafer
body and lug body. The wafer body is placed between
TYPICAL ANGLE VALVE pipe flanges, and the flange bolts surround the valve
body. The lug body has protruding lugs that provide
Figure Figure
3-3 Angle
3-3Valve
Angle Valve

Chapter 3Valves 77
permits straight-through
flow when open and is, there-
fore, less resistant to flow
than the lift check.
To ensure immediate clo-
sure upon reversal of flow
and when installed in verti-
cal installations, the check
TYPICAL ONE-PIECE TYPE TYPICAL TWO-PIECE TYPE valve should be of the spring-
loaded (non-slamming) type.
If reverse flow is not stopped
immediately, the velocity of
backflow could rise to such a
point that when closure does
occur, the resulting shock
could cause serious damage
TYPICAL THREE-PIECE TYPE to the valve and system.
Figure 3-43-4Ball Valve The lift check is primar-
Figure Ball Valve ily for use with gases or
bolt holes matching those in the flanges. Screwed- compressed air or in fluid
lug valves can be provided so that equipment may be systems where pressure drop is not critical.
removed without draining down the system. Plug Valve
Check Valve The plug valve has a quarter-turn design similar to a
Swing checks and lift checks (see Figure 3-6) are the ball valve, with the ball replaced by a plug. The plug
most common forms of check valve. Both are designed valve typically requires a higher operating torque
to prevent reversal of flow in a pipe. The swing check for closure, meaning specialized wrenches or expen-
sive automation packages are required.
Plug valves are available in lubricated,
non-lubricated, or eccentric types. The
non-lubricating type eliminates periodic
lubrication and ensures that the valves lu-
brication does not contaminate the process
media or affect any downstream instru-
mentation. The eccentric type is basically a
valve with the plug cut in half. The eccentric
design allows a high achieved seating force
with minimal friction encountered from the
WAFER STYLE LUG STYLE open to closed positions.
Figure
Figure 3-53-5 ButterflyValve
Butterfly Valve
OUT
OUT IN
OUT IN
IN
SWING TYPE SPRING-LOADED LIFT TYPE

NON-SLAMMING TYPE
Figure 3-6 Check Valve

Figure 3-6 Check Valve

RISING STEM WITH RISING STEM WITH

OUTSIDE SCREW INSIDE SCREW
NON-RISING STEM RISING STEM WITH

WITH OUTSIDE SCREW
INSIDE SCREW AND YOKE
SLIDING STEM
Figure3-7
Figure 3-7 Valve
Valve Stems
Stems
Valve Materials in effect, the zinc is actually drawn out and removed
A valve may be constructed of several materials. For from the brass or bronze, leaving a porous, brittle, and
example, it may have a bronze body, monel seat, and weakened material. The higher the zinc content, the
an aluminum wheel. Metallic materials include brass, greater the susceptibility to dezincification. To slow
bronze, cast iron, malleable iron, ductile iron, steel, or prevent the process, tin, phosphorus antimony,
and stainless steel. Non-metallic materials are typi- and other inhibitors are added. Brass valves should
cally thermoplastics. Material specifications depend not be used for operating temperatures above 450F
on the operating conditions. (232.2C). The maximum operating temperature for
bronze is 550F (287.8C).
Brass and Bronze
Brass usually consists of 85 percent copper, 5 percent Iron
lead, 5 percent tin, and 5 percent zinc. Bronze has a Iron used in valves usually conforms to American
higher copper content, ranging from 86 percent to Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) A126:
90 percent, with the remaining percentage divided Standard Specification for Gray Iron Castings for
among lead, tin, and zinc. Valves, Flanges, and Pipe Fittings. Although iron-
Under certain circumstances, a phenomenon bodied valves are manufactured in sizes as small as
known as dezincification occurs in valves or pipes -inch (6.4-mm) nominal diameter, they most com-
containing zinc. The action is a result of electrolysis; monly are stocked in sizes of 2 inches (50.8 mm) and

Chapter 3Valves 79
above. In these larger sizes, they are considerably less or elements in the line fluid that might cause damage
expensive than bronze. because they are outside the valve body. Also, being
The higher weight of iron valves, as compared outside, they can be lubricated easily.
to bronze valves, should be considered when deter- As with any other rising stem valve, sufficient
mining hanger spacing and loads. A typical 2-inch clearance must be allowed to enable a full opening.
(50.8-mm) bronze screwed globe valve rated at 125 Rising Stem with Inside Screw
psi (861.3 kPa) weighs about 13 pounds (5.9 kilograms
This design is the simplest and most common stem
[kg]). The same valve in iron weighs 15 pounds (6.8
design for gate, globe, and angle valves. The position
kg) and, if specified with a yoke bonnet, about 22
of the hand wheel indicates the position of the disc,
pounds (10 kg).
opened or closed.
Malleable Iron
Nonrising Stem
Malleable iron valves are stronger, stiffer, and tougher
These are ideal where headroom is limited. They gen-
than iron-bodied valves and hold tighter pressures.
erally are limited to use with gate valves. In this type,
Toughness is most valuable for piping subjected to
the screw does not raise the stem, but rather raises
stresses and shocks.
and lowers the disc. As the stem only rotates and does
Stainless Steel not rise, wear on packings is lessened slightly.
For highly corrosive fluids, stainless steel valves Sliding Stem
provide the maximum corrosion resistance, high
These are applied where quick opening and closing
strength, and good wearing properties. Seating sur-
are required. A lever replaces the hand wheel, and
faces, stems, and discs of stainless steel are suitable
stem threads are eliminated.
where foreign materials in the fluids handled could
have adverse effects. Bonnets
In choosing valves, the service characteristics of the
Thermoplastic
bonnet joint should not be overlooked. Bonnets and
Many different types of thermoplastic materials are
bonnet joints must provide a leak-proof closure for
used for valve construction. Plastic valves gener-
the body. There are many modifications, but the three
ally are limited to a maximum temperature of 250F
most common types are screwed-in bonnet, screwed
(121.1C) and a maximum pressure of 150 psi (1,035
union-ring bonnet, and bolted bonnet.
kPa).
Screwed-in Bonnet
Valve Ratings This is the simplest and least expensive construction,
Most valve manufacturers rate their products in frequently used on bronze gate, globe, and angle
terms of saturated steam pressure; pressure of non- valves and recommended where frequent dismantling
shock cold water, oil, or gas (WOG); or both. These is not needed. When properly designed with running
ratings usually appear on the body of the valve. For threads and carefully assembled, the screwed-in bon-
instance, a valve with the markings 125 with 200 net makes a durable, pressure-tight seal that is suited
WOG will operate safely at 125 psi (861.3 kPa) of for many services.
saturated steam or 200 psi (1,378 kPa) cold water, Screwed Union-ring Bonnet
oil, or gas.
This construction is convenient where valves need
The engineer should be familiar with the markings
frequent inspection or cleaningalso for quick re-
on the valves specified and should keep them in mind
newal or changeover of the disc in composition disc
during construction inspection. A ruptured valve can
valves. A separate union ring applies a direct load on
do much damage.
the bonnet to hold the pressure-tight joint with the
Valve Components body. The turning motion used to tighten the ring is
split between the shoulders of the ring and bonnet.
Stems Hence, the point-of-seal contact between the bonnet
Stem designs fall into four basic categories: rising and the body is less subject to wear from frequent
stem with outside screw, rising stem with inside screw, opening of the joint.
nonrising stem with inside screw, and sliding stem. Contact faces are less likely to be damaged in
(See Figure 3-7.) handling. The union ring gives the body added
Rising Stem with Outside Screw strength and rigidity against internal pressure and
This design is ideal where the valve is used infre- distortion.
quently and the possibility of sticking constitutes a While ideal on small valves, the screwed union-ring
hazard, such as in a fire protection system. In this bonnet is impractical on large sizes.
arrangement, the screws are not subject to corrosion

Bolted Bonnet Joint for large-diameter lines due to ease of assembly and
A practical and commonly used joint for large valves dismantling. Flanged facings are available in vari-
or for high-pressure applications, the bolted bonnet ous designs depending on service requirements. One
joint has multiple boltings with small-diameter bolts important rule is to match facings. When bolting iron
that permit equalized sealing pressure without the valves to forged steel flanges, the facing should be of
excessive torque needed to make large threaded joints. the flat face design on both surfaces.
Only small wrenches are needed. Hub End
End Connections This generally is limited to valves for water-supply
Valves are available with screwed, welded, brazed, and sewage piping. The joint is assembled on the
soldered, flared, flanged, hub, and press-fitted ends. socket principle, with the pipe inserted in the hub
end of the valve or fitting.
Screwed End
This is by far the most widely used type of end connec- Press-fitted End
tion. It is found in brass, iron, steel, and alloy piping This method involves crimping the ends with a crimp-
materials. It is suited for all pressures but usually is ing tool around an ethylene propylene diene monomer
confined to small pipe sizes. The larger the pipe size, (EPDM) seal to form a water-tight connection.
the more difficult it is to make up the screwed joint.
Water-Pressure Regulators
Welded End
A pressure regulator is an automatic valve controlled
This type of end is available only in steel valves and by an inner valve connected to a diaphragm or piston
fittings and is mainly for high-pressure and high- or both. The diaphragm, held in the extreme travel,
temperature services. It is recommended for lines not or open, position by a preloaded spring, is positioned
requiring frequent dismantling. There are two types in the downstream portion of the valve and closes the
of welded-end materials: butt and socket welding. valve when the desired pressure has been reached.
Butt-welding valves and fittings come in all sizes; The effectiveness of the diaphragm and the
socket-welding ends are limited to small sizes. amount of preloading must be related to allow the
Brazed End diaphragm to move the inner valve to the extreme
This is available in brass materials. The ends of such opposite travel, or closed, position immediately after
materials are specially designed for the use of brazing the pressure on the diaphragm passes the desired
alloys to make the joint. When the equipment and operating pressure.
brazing material are heated with a welding torch to To change the operating pressure, tension on the
the temperature required by the alloy, a tight seal is diaphragm is increased or decreased by turning the
formed between the pipe and valve or fitting. While adjusting screw.
made in a manner similar to a solder joint, a brazed Normally, a regulator does not go from closed
joint can withstand higher temperatures due to the to fully open or from open to fully closed immedi-
brazing materials used. ately, but moves between these extreme positions
Soldered Joint in response to system requirements. The regulator
This is used with copper tubing for plumbing and adjusts to a fully open position instantaneously only
heating lines and for many low-pressure industrial if maximum system demand is imposed quickly, which
services. The joint is soldered by applying heat. Be- is not a common occurrence, unless the regulator is
cause of the close clearance between the tubing and undersized. The degree of valve opening, therefore,
the socket of the fitting or valve, the solder flows into depends entirely on the regulators ability to sense
the joint by capillary action. The use of soldered joints and respond to pressure changes.
under high temperatures is limited because of the low A reducing pressure change that causes a valve
melting point of the solder. Silver solder or Sil-Fos are to open is known as a reduced pressure fall-off, or
used for high pressures and temperatures. droop, and is an inherent characteristic of all self-
operated or pilot-operated regulators. Technically,
Flared End fall-off is expressed as the deviation in pressure from
This is commonly used on valves and fittings for metal the set value that occurs when a regulator strokes
and plastic tubing up to 2 inches (50.8 mm) in diam- from the minimum flow position to a desired flow
eter. The end of the tubing is skirted or flared, and a position. The amount of fall-off necessary to open a
ring nut is used to make a union-type joint. valve to its rated capacity varies with different types
Flanged End of valves.
This is generally used when screwed or soldered It is important to realize that the installation of
ends become impractical because of cost, size, or a regulator sets up a closed system; therefore, it is
strength of joint. Flanged ends generally are used necessary to install a relief valve and expansion tank

Chapter 3Valves 81
to eliminate excessive pressure caused by the thermal and capability, which could result in the selection of
expansion of water in the water heater or hot water a valve that, under no-demand conditions, permits a
storage tank. reduction in pressure great enough to damage equip-
Every manufacturer makes regulators with an in- ment in the system.
tegral bypass to eliminate relief valve dripping caused The maximum pressure permitted on a system
by thermal expansion. During normal operation, the under no-flow conditions is a most important factor,
bypass is held closed by high initial pressure. However, for both physical and economic reasons, and should
when thermal expansion pressure equals initial pres- be stipulated in the specification.
sure, the bypass opens, passing the expanded water The rule of thumb frequently employed is a size-
back into the supply line. The effectiveness of this to-size selectionthat is, using a valve having the
feature is limited to systems where initial pressure is same connection sizes as the pipeline in which it is to
less than the pressure setting of the relief valve. be installed. This is a gamble inasmuch as the actual
The integral bypass is not a replacement for the capacities of many valves are inadequate to satisfy
relief valve. It is used only to eliminate excessive drip the service load specified for a pipeline of correspond-
from the relief valve. ing size. Consequently, the system may be starved,
Regulator Selection and Sizing and the equipment may operate in an inconsistent
manner.
Selection of the correct type of regulator de-
The only sound valve selection procedure to fol-
pends entirely on the accuracy of regulation
low is to capacity size a valve on the basis of known
required. The valve plug in oversized valves tends
performance data related to system requirements.
to remain close to the seat, causing rapid wire
drawing and excessive wear. Unfortunately, no set Common Regulating Valves
standard for rating a pressure-regulating valve or Direct-acting, Diaphragm-actuated Valve
for capacity sizing it to the system exists. The many
This valve is simple in construction and operation,
methods proposed for selecting the proper valve are
requiring minimum attention after installation. This
often a cause of confusion to the engineer.
type of pressure regulator does not regulate the de-
The capacity rating of a pressure-regulating
livery pressure with extreme accuracy.
valve usually is expressed in terms of some single
value. This value, to be useful, must specify all the Pilot-operated Valve
conditions under which the rating was established. The pilot-controlled valve operates efficiently because
Otherwise, it is impossible to adapt it to different the pilot magnifies the control valve travel for a given
system conditions. change in control pressure.
Manufacturers attempt to recognize the inherent The pilot-type regulator consists of a small, direct-
characteristics of their own design and to stipulate acting, spring-loaded valve and a main valve. The pilot
those factors that, in their opinion, must be consid- valve opens just enough to supply the necessary pres-
ered in sizing the valve to the system. Some stress sure for operating the main valve. Extreme accuracy
the importance of the difference between initial and is effected as there is practically a constant load on
reduced pressure-differential pressure. Set pressure the adjusting spring, and variations in initial pressure
and allowable reduced pressure fall-off are very impor- have little effect.
tant factors in sizing a valve. A fall-off of 15 psi to 17 Direct-acting, Balanced-piston Valve
psi (103.4 kPa to 117.1 kPa) is considered reasonable This valve is a combination piston and diaphragm
for the average residential installation and, in well- and requires little attention after installation. With
designed valves, produces a good rating. the dependability of the diaphragm and the simplicity
Another procedure for establishing valve perfor- of direct action, this valve is only slightly affected by
mance is on the basis of flow rate, with a reduced variations in initial pressure.
pressure fall-off of 15 psi to 17 psi (103.4 kPa to 117.1
kPa) below reduced lockup or no-flow pressure. For Booster Pump Control Valve
general use, this approach provides an adequate This is a pilot-operated valve designed to eliminate
means of valve selection. However, it is not specific pipeline surges caused by the starting and stopping
enough to enable the selection of the valve best suited of the booster pump. The pump starts against a
to particular conditions. closed valve. After the pump starts, a solenoid valve
Other manufacturers rate their valves on the basis is energized, slowly opening the valve and allowing
of a stipulated flow rate at a specific pressure differen- the line pressure to gradually increase to full pump-
tial, with the valve open to the atmosphere, without ing head. When the pump shuts off, the solenoid is
regard to change in pressure drop when the system de-energized, and the valve slowly closes as the pump
demand is zero. This method does not provide ample continues to run. When the valve is fully closed, the
information for proper judgment of valve behavior pump stops.

Level Control Valve Valve Design Choices

This valve is a non-modulating valve used to accu-
Service Considerations
rately control the liquid level in a tank. The valve
opens fully when a preset liquid low point is reached 1. Pressure
and closes drip tight when the preset high point is 2. Temperature
reached. This is a hydraulically operated diaphragm
valve with the pilot control and float mechanism 3. Type of fluid
mounted on the cover of the valve. Liquid
Common Types of Regulator Installations Gas (i.e., steam or air)
Dirty or abrasive (erosive)
Single Regulator in Supply Line
This type of installation is most common in domestic Corrosive
service and is self-explanatory. 4. Flow
Two Regulators in Series in Supply Line On-off
This type of installation provides extra protection Throttling
when the main pressure is so excessive that it must
be reduced to two stages to prevent high-velocity Need to prevent flow reversal
noise in the system. Concern for pressure drop
Multiple Regulators Used as a Battery in Velocity
Supply Line
5. Operating conditions
In many instances, a battery installation is prefer-
Frequency of operation
able to the use of a single valve, as it provides closer
regulation over a wide demand variation. Accessibility
This type of installation consists of a group of Overall space/size available
parallel regulators, all receiving water from a com-
Manual or automated control
mon manifold. After flowing through the battery of
valves, water enters a common manifold of sufficient Need for bubble-tight shutoff
size to service the system at the reduced pressure. Concerns about body joint leaks
The battery installation is advantageous because it
Fire-safe design
allows maintenance work to be performed without
the necessity of turning off the entire system. It also Speed of closure
provides better performance where demands vary
Multi-turn Type
from one extreme to the other.
For example, at a school with a 3-inch (76.2-mm) 1. Gate
service, demand on drinking fountains during classes 2. Globe and angle globe
may be approximately 6 gallons per minute (gpm)
3. End connection
to 7 gpm (22.7 liters per minute [lpm] to 26.5 lpm).
However, between classes, when all services are in Quarter-turn Type
use, the demand may be at a maximum. With a single
3-inch (76.2-mm) regulator in the system, when the 1. Ball
faucet is turned on, the regulator must open to allow 2. Butterfly-resilient seated
a small draw. Each time this is done, it cuts down on 3. Plug
the service life of the large regulator.
In comparison, with a battery installation of two 4. End connection
or three regulators set at a graduated pressure, with
Check Type
the smallest valve set 2-psi to 3-psi (13.8-kPa to 20.7-
kPa) higher than the larger ones, the system is more 1. Swing
efficient. For a small demand, only the smallest valve 2. Lift
opens. As the demand increases, the larger valves
3. Silent or non-slam
also open, providing the system with the capacity of
all valves in the battery. 4. End connection
Design Detail: Gate Valve

Advantages and Recommendations
1. Good choice for on/off service

Chapter 3Valves 83
2. Full flow, low pressure drop Disc and Seat Designs

3. Bidirectional 1. Resilient (soft) seat discs are preferred over
metal to metal, except where temperature, very
Disadvantages close throttling, or abrasive flow makes all-metal
1. Not for throttling. Use fully open or fully closed. seating a better choice. Stainless steel trim is
Flow through a partially open gate valve causes available for medium- to high-pressure steam
vibration and chattering and subjects the disc and abrasive applications. Tetrafluoroethylene
and seat to inordinate wear. (TFE) is the most resilient disc material for most
services, although rubbers softness provides
2. Metal-to-metal seating is not the best choice for
good performance in cold water. TFE is good up
frequent operation. Bubble-tight seating should
to 400F. Nitrile rubber (Buna-N) is good up to
not be expected with metal-to-metal design.
200F.
Disc and Seat Designs 2. Automatic, steam, stop-check angle globe valves
are best on medium-pressure steam service.
1. Bronze or bronze-faced seating surfaces are used
with bronze and iron valves. Iron valves may use 3. The sliding action of the semi-plug disc assembly
all-iron seating surfaces. These are preferred for permits the valve to serve as a shutoff valve,
low pressures and temperatures and for ordinary throttling valve, or check valve.
fluids. Stainless steel is used for high-pressure
steam and erosive media. Design Detail: Check Valve
2. Nonmetallic composition discs are available 1. Swing-type check valves offer the least pressure
for tight seating or hard-to-hold fluids, such as drop and simple automatic closure. When fluid
air and gasoline. flow stops, gravity and flow reversal close the
3. Solid-wedge disc design is thinner at the bottom, valve. Many bronze valves offer a Y-pattern body
thicker at the top, and forced into the seat of a with an angle seat for improved performance.
similar shape. Resilient Teflon seating is preferred for tight
shutoff.
4. Double-disc or split-wedge disc designs are two
discs employed back to back with a spreading 2. Lift checks come in an inline or globe-style body
device between them. As the valve wheel is pattern. Both cause greater pressure drop than
turned, the gate drops into its seat (as with any the swing type, with the horizontal pattern
other gate valve), but on the final turns of the similar in restriction to globe valves.
wheel, the spreader forces the discs outward 3. Some styles are spring actuated and center
against the seats, effecting tighter closure. guided for immediate closure when flow stops.
5. Resilient wedge is a rubber-encapsulated The inline, spring-actuated lift check is also
metal wedge that seals against an epoxy-coated referred to as the silent check because the
body. Resilient wedge is limited to cold water spring closes the valve before gravity and fluid
applications. reversal can slam the valve closed. Resilient
seating is recommended.
Design Detail: Globe and 4. Double-disc check valves have twin discs on a
Angle Globe Valve spring-loaded center shaft. These valves have
better flow characteristics than lift checks
Advantages and Recommendations and most often use a wafer body for low cost
1. Recommended for throttling applications and easy installation. Resilient seating is
recommended.
2. Positive bubble-tight shutoff when equipped
with resilient seating
Design Detail: Quarter-Turn
3. Good for frequent operation
Ball Valve
Disadvantages Advantages and Recommendations
1. Flow path causes a significant pressure drop. 1. Bubble-tight shutoff from resilient (TFE) seats
2. Globe valves are more costly than alternative 2. Quick, 90-degree open/close; not torque
valves. dependent for seating
3. Straight-through, unobstructed flow,
bidirectional
4. Easier to automate than multi-turn valves

5. More compact than multi-turn valves 4. Broad selection of trim materials to match
6. Offer long cycle life different fluid conditions
5. More compact than multi-turn valves
Disadvantages
6. Offer long cycle life
1. Temperature and pressure range is limited by
seat material. 7. Dead-end service
2. Cavity around ball traps media and does not Disadvantages
drain entrapped media. Susceptible to freezing, 1. They are not to be used with steam.
expansion, and increased pressure due to
increased temperature. 2. Gear operators are needed for 8-inch and larger
valves to aid in operation and to protect against
Body Styles operating too quickly and causing destructive
1. One-piece valves have no potential body leak line shock.
path but have a double-reduced port; thus, Body Styles
significant pressure drop occurs. Not repairable,
they are used primarily by chemical and refining 1. Wafer-style valves are held in place between two
plants. pipe flanges. They are easy to install but cannot
be used as isolation valves.
2. Two-piece end entries are used most commonly
in building services. They are the best-value 2. Lug-style valves have wafer bodies but
valves and are available in full- or standard- tapped lugs matching up to bolt circles of
port balls. They are recommended for on/off or class 125/150-pound flanges. They are easily
throttling service and not recommended to be installed with cap screws from either side. Lug
repaired. style designs from some manufacturers permit
dropping the pipe from one side while the valve
3. Three-piece valves are costly but are easier to holds full pressure if needed.
disassemble and offer the possibility of inline
repair. They are available in full- or standard- 3. Groove butterfly valves directly connect to pipe
port balls. using iron-pipe-size, grooved couplings. While
more costly than wafer valves, grooved valves
Port Size are easier to install.
1. Full-port ball valves provide a pressure drop
equal to the equivalent length of the pipe, Design Detail: Quarter-Turn
slightly better than gate valves. Valve, Lubricated Plug Cock
2. Standard-port (conventional) balls are up to one Advantages and Recommendations
pipe size smaller than the nominal pipe size but
1. Bubble-tight shutoff from stem seal of reinforced
still have significantly better flow characteristics
Teflon. Leak-proof, spring-loaded ball and
than globe valves.
lubricated, sealed check valve and combination
3. Reduced-port ball valves have greater than lubricant screw and button head fitting prevent
one pipe size flow restriction and are not foreign matter from being forced into the
recommended in building services piping, but lubrication system.
rather are used for process piping for hazardous
2. Quick, 90-degree open/close; not dependent on
material transfer.
torque for seating
Handle Extensions
3. Straight-through, unobstructed flow,
1. Insulated handle extensions or extended handles bidirectional flow, three-way flow, or four-way
should be used to keep insulated piping systems flow
intact. 4. Offers long cycle life
Design Detail: Quarter-Turn 5. Adjustable stop for balancing or throttling
Butterfly Valve service
Advantages and Recommendations 6. Can be supplied with round, diamond, or

rectangular (standard) plug
1. Bubble-tight shutoff from resilient seats
7. Mechanism for power operation or remote
2. Quick, 90-degree open/close; easier to automate control of any size and type to operate with air,
than multi-turn valves oil, or water
3. Very cost-effective compared to alternative valve
choices

Chapter 3Valves 85
Disadvantages OS&Y. Body and bolted bonnet shall conform to

ASTM A126 class B cast iron, flanged ends, with
1. Temperature and pressure range is limited by
aramid fiber, nonasbestos packing and two-piece
type of lubricant sealant and ANSI standard
rating (i.e., 150-psi steam working pressure packing gland assembly. Valves shall comply with
[SWP], 200-psi nonshock cold working pressure MSS SP-70.
[CWP], and water, oil, gas). All domestic water valves 4 inches and larger that
are buried in the ground shall be iron body and bronze
VALVE SIZING AND PRESSURE fitted, with an O-ring stem seal. They shall have epoxy
LOSSES coating inside and outside and a resilient-seated gate
Valve size and valve pressure losses can be determined valve with nonrising stem and mechanical joint or
utilizing a flow coefficient called CV. CV is the number flanged ends as required. All valves furnished shall
of gallons per minute that will pass through a valve open left. All internal parts shall be accessible without
with a pressure drop of 1 psi. CV is determined by removing the valve body from the line. Valves shall
physically counting the number of gallons that pass conform to ANSI/American Water Works Associa-
through a valve with 1-psi applied pressure to the tion (AWWA) C509: Resilient-seated Gate Valves for
valve inlet and zero pressure at the outlet. The CV Water-supply Service. Epoxy coating shall conform to
coefficient for specific valves can be obtained from AWWA C550: Protective Epoxy Interior Coating for
the valve manufacturer. Since the CV factor varies in Valves and Hydrants.
relation to valve size, the CV can be used to determine Ball Valves
the proper size valve for the amount of flow at a given 2 inches and smaller Valves 2 inches and smaller
pressure drop or conversely the pressure drop at a shall be rated 150 psi SWP, 600 psi nonshock CWP
given flow. The formulas for this are as follows: and have two-piece, cast brass bodies, replaceable
Q=CVP/G reinforced Teflon seats, -inch to 1-inch full port
or 1-inch to 2-inch conventional port, blowout-
Q
CV= proof stems, chrome-plated brass ball, and threaded,
P/G
soldered, or press-fit ends. Valves shall comply with
P=[Q/CV]2 G
MSS SP-110. Provide extended stems for valves in
where
insulated piping.
G =Specific gravity of the fluid
P =Pressure drop across the valve Globe Valves
Q =Flow through the valve in gpm 2 inches and smaller Valves 2 inches and smaller
CV =Valve flow coefficient shall be of class 125, rated 125 psi SWP, 200 psi non-
shock CWP. Body and bonnet shall be of ASTM B62
General Valve Specification cast bronze composition with threaded or soldered
by Service ends. Stems shall be of dezincification-resistant sili-
con bronze (ASTM B371) or low-zinc alloy (ASTM
Hot and Cold Domestic Water Service
B99). Packing glands shall be bronze (ASTM B62),
Gate Valve with aramid fiber, nonasbestos packing, complete
2 inches and smaller Valves 2 inches and smaller with malleable hand wheel. Valves shall comply with
shall be class 125, rated 125 psi SWP, 200 psi non- MSS SP-80.
shock CWP, rising stem. Body, union bonnet, and solid 2 inches and larger Valves 2 inches and
wedge shall be of ASTM B62: Standard Specification larger shall be class 125, rated 125 psi SWP, 200 psi
for Composition Bronze or Ounce Metal Castings nonshock CWP. They shall have an iron body and
cast bronze with soldered ends. Stems shall be of bronze-mounted OS&Y, with body and bolted bonnet
dezincification-resistant silicon bronze (ASTM B371: conforming to ASTM A126 class B cast iron, flanged
Standard Specification for Copper-Zinc-Silicon Al- ends, with aramid fiber, nonasbestos packing, and
loy Rod) or low-zinc alloy (ASTM B99: Standard two-piece packing gland assembly. Valves shall comply
Specification for Copper-Silicon Alloy Wire for General with MSS SP-85.
Applications). Packing glands shall be bronze (ASTM Butterfly Valves
B62), with aramid fiber, nonasbestos packing, com-
plete with malleable hand wheel. Valves shall comply 2 inches and larger Valves 2 inches and larger
with MSS SP-80. shall be rated 200 psi nonshock CWP and have a lug
or IPS grooved-type body with a 2-inch extended
2 inches and larger Valves 2 inches and larger
neck for insulating. They shall be cast or ductile iron
shall be class 125, rated 100 psi SWP, 150 psi nonshock
(ASTM A536: Standard Specification for Ductile Iron
CWP and have an iron body and bronze-mounted
Castings or ASTM A126), with an aluminum bronze

disc, 416 stainless steel stem, EPDM O-ring stem two-piece, cast bronze (ASTM B584) bodies with
seals, and resilient, EPDM cartridge lined to seat. reinforced Teflon seats. Full-port -inch to 1-inch
Sizes 2 inches to 6 inches shall be lever operated valves and conventional-port 1-inch to 2-inch valves
with a 10-position throttling plate. Sizes 8 inches to require blowout-proof stems, chrome-plated brass ball
12 inches shall have gear operators. Sizes 14 inches with a safety vent hole on the downstream side with
and larger shall have worm gear operators only. They threaded or soldered ends and lockout/tagout handles.
are suitable for use as bidirectional isolation valves Lockout/tagout handles must meet the requirements
and, as recommended by the manufacturer, on dead- of Occupational Safety and Health Administration
end service at full pressure without the need for (OSHA) 29 CFR Section 1910.147: The Control of
downstream flanges. Hazardous Energy (Lockout/Tagout). Valves shall
Valves shall comply with MSS SP-67. comply with MSS SP-110.
Note: Butterfly valves in dead-end service require Butterfly Valves
both upstream and downstream flanges for proper
2 inches and larger Valves 2 inches and larger
shutoff and retention or must be certified by the
shall be rated 200 psi nonshock CWP. Valves shall be
manufacturer for dead-end service without down-
lug or IPS, grooved-type body and shall be cast or
stream flanges.
ductile iron (ASTM A536) with a Buna-N seat; ductile
Check Valves iron, aluminum bronze disc; ASTM A582: Standard
2 inches and smaller Valves 2 inches and smaller Specification for Free-Machining Stainless Steel Bars
shall be class 125, rated 125 psi SWP, 200 psi nonshock Type 416 stainless steel stem; and Buna-N O-ring
CWP. They shall have threaded or soldered ends, with stem seals. Sizes 2 inches to 6 inches shall be lever
body and cap conforming to ASTM B62 cast bronze operated with a 10-position throttling plate. Sizes 8
composition and a Y-pattern swing-type disc. Valves inches to 12 inches shall have gear operators. Lever-
shall comply with MSS SP-80 operated valves shall be designed to be locked in the
Note: Class 150 valves meeting the above specifica- open or closed position. Butterfly valves on dead-end
tions may be used where system pressure requires. service or valves needing additional body strength
For class 125 seat disc, specify Buna-N for WOG shall be lug type conforming to ASTM A536, ductile
service and TFE for steam service. For class 150 seat iron, drilled and tapped, with other materials and
disc, specify TFE for steam service. features as specified above. Valves shall comply with
2 inches and larger Valves 2 inches and larger MSS SP-67.
shall be class 125, rated 125 psi SWP, 200 psi nonshock Note: Dead-end service requires lug-pattern or
CWP. They shall have an iron body, bronze mounted, grooved-type bodies. For dead-end service, flanges
with body and bolted bonnet conforming to ASTM are required upstream and downstream for proper
A126 class B cast iron, flanged ends, swing-type disc, shutoff and retention, or valves must be certified
and nonasbestos gasket. Valves shall comply with by the manufacturer for dead-end service without
MSS SP-71. downstream flanges. Ductile iron bodies are preferred;
Alternative check valves (2 inches and larger) however, cast iron may be acceptable.
shall be class 125/250 iron body, bronze mounted, wa- Check Valves
fer check valves, with ends designed for flanged-type 2 inches and smaller Valves 2 inches and smaller
connection, aluminum bronze disc, EPDM seats, 316 shall be of class 125, rated 125 psi SWP, 200 psi
stainless steel torsion spring, and hinge pin. nonshock CWP. They shall have threaded ends, with
A spring-actuated check valve is to be used on body and cap conforming to ASTM B62, cast bronze
pump discharge. Swing check with outside lever and composition, Y-pattern, swing-type with TFE seat
spring (not center guided) is to be used on sewage disc, or spring-loaded lift type with resilient seating.
ejectors or storm water sump pumps. Valves shall comply with MSS SP-80.
Compressed Air Service 2 inches and larger Valves 2 inches and larger
Ball Valves shall be class 125, rated 200 psi nonshock CWP, and
have a maximum temperature of 200F. They shall
2 inches and smaller Main line valves 2 inches and
have ASTM A126 class B cast iron body; wafer-check
smaller shall be rated 150 psi SWP, 600 psi nonshock
valve, with ends designed for flanged-type connec-
CWP. They shall have two-piece, cast bronze bod-
tions; Buna-N resilient seats, molded to body; bronze
ies; reinforced Teflon seats; full port; blowout-proof
disc; 316 stainless steel torsion spring; and hinge
stems; chrome-plated brass ball; and threaded or sol-
pin. Valves shall conform to ANSI B16.10: Gray Iron
dered ends. Valves shall comply with MSS SP-110.
Pipe Flanges and Flanged Fittings: Classes 25, 125,
Branch line valves 2 inches and smaller shall be
and 250.
rated 150 psi SWP, 600 psi nonshock CWP and have

Chapter 3Valves 87
Note: If the compressor is the reciprocating type, bagged for oxygen service. Valves shall comply with
check valves shall be downstream of the receiver MSS SP-110.
tank. Note: Where piping is insulated, ball valves shall
Vacuum Service be equipped with 2-inch extended handles of nonther-
mal, conductive material. Also, a protective sleeve
Ball Valves that allows operation of the valve without breaking
2 inches and smaller Valves 2 inches and smaller the vapor seal or disturbing the insulation should be
shall be rated 150 psi SWP, 600 psi nonshock CWP. provided.
They shall have two-piece, cast brass bodies, rein-
Low-pressure Steam and General Service
forced Teflon seats, a full port, blowout-proof stems,
This includes service up to 125 psi saturated steam
a chrome-plated brass ball, and threaded or soldered
to 353F (178C).
ends. Valves shall comply with MSS SP-110.
Butterfly Valves
Butterfly Valves
Butterfly valves are not allowed in steam service un-
2 inches and larger Valves 2 inches and larger less stated as acceptable for the application by the
shall be rated 200 psi nonshock CWP. Valves shall be manufacturer.
lug or IPS grooved-type body with a 2-inch extended
Gate Valves
neck for insulating and shall be cast or ductile iron
(ASTM A536), with a Buna-N seat; ductile iron, alu- 2 inches and smaller Valves 2 inches and smaller
minum bronze disc (ASTM A582); type 416 stainless shall be class 125, rated 125 psi SWP, 200 psi nonshock
steel stem; and Buna-N O-ring stem seals. Sizes 2 CWP, and have a rising stem. Body, union bonnet,
inches to 6 inches shall be lever operated with a 10-po- and solid wedge shall be of ASTM B62 cast bronze
sition throttling plate. Sizes 8 inches to 12 inches shall with threaded ends. Stems shall be of dezincification-
have gear operators. Lever-operated valves shall be resistant silicon bronze (ASTM B371) or low-zinc
designed to be locked in the open or closed position. alloy (ASTM B99). Packing glands shall be bronze
For butterfly valves on dead-end service or requir- (ASTM B62), with aramid fiber, nonasbestos packing,
ing additional body strength, valves shall be lug type, complete with malleable hand wheel. Class 150 valves
conforming to ASTM A536, ductile iron, drilled and meeting the above specifications may be used where
tapped, with other materials and features as specified pressures approach 100 psi. Valves shall comply with
above. Valves shall comply with MSS SP-67. MSS SP-80.
Note: Dead-end service requires lug-pattern or 2 inches and larger Valves 2 inches and larger
grooved-type bodies. For dead-end service, flanges shall be class 125, rated 100 psi SWP, 150 psi nonshock
are required upstream and downstream for proper CWP. They shall have an iron body, bronze-mounted
shutoff and retention, or valves must be certified OS&Y, with body and bolted bonnet conforming to
by the manufacturer for dead-end service without ASTM A126 class B cast iron, flanged ends, with
downstream flanges. Ductile iron bodies are preferred; aramid fiber, nonasbestos packing, and two-piece
however, cast iron may be acceptable. packing gland assembly. Class 250 valves meeting
Medical Gas Service the above specifications may be used where pres-
sures approach 100 psi. Valves shall comply with
Ball Valves MSS SP-70.
2 inches and smaller Valves 2 inches and smaller
Ball Valves
shall be rated 600 psi nonshock CWP, 200 psi for
medical gas. They shall have three-piece, cast bronze
shall be 150 psi SWP and 600 psi nonshock CWP,
(ASTM B584) bodies, replaceable reinforced TFE
WOG. They shall have two-piece, cast bronze bodies;
seats, a full port, blowout-proof stems, a chrome-
reinforced Teflon seats; a full port; blowout-proof
plated brass/bronze ball, and brazed ends. Valves
stems; an adjustable packing gland; a stainless steel
shall be provided by the manufacturer cleaned and
ball and stem; and threaded ends. Valves shall comply
bagged for oxygen service. Valves shall comply with
with MSS SP-110.
MSS SP-110.
Note: A standard port may be used where pres-
2 inches and larger Valves 2 inches and larger sure drop is not a concern. For on/off service, use
shall be rated 600 psi nonshock CWP, 200 psi for ball valves with stainless steel balls. For throttling,
medical gas. They shall have three-piece, cast bronze use globe valves.
(ASTM B584) bodies, replaceable reinforced TFE
Globe Valves
seats, a full port, blowout-proof stems, a chrome-
plated brass/bronze ball, and brazed ends. Valves 2 inches and smaller Valves 2 inches and smaller
shall be provided by the manufacturer cleaned and shall be class 125, rated 125 psi SWP, 200 psi nonshock

CWP and have a body and bonnet of ASTM B62 cast malleable hand wheel. Valves shall comply with MSS
bronze composition, with threaded ends. Stems shall SP-80.
be of dezincification-resistant silicon bronze (ASTM 2 inches and larger Valves 2 inches and larger
B371) or low-zinc alloy (ASTM B99). Packing glands shall be class 250, rated 250 psi SWP, 500 psi nonshock
shall be of bronze (ASTM B62), with aramid fiber, CWP. They shall have an iron body; bronze-mounted
nonasbestos packing, complete with malleable hand OS&Y with body and bolted bonnet conforming to
wheel. Valves shall comply with MSS SP-80. ASTM A126; class B cast iron, flanged ends; with
2 inches and larger Valves 2 inches and larger aramid fiber nonasbestos packing; and two-piece
shall be class 125, rated 125 psi SWP, 200 psi nonshock packing gland assembly. Valves shall comply with
CWP. They shall have an iron body, bronze-mounted MSS SP-70.
OS&Y, with body and bolted bonnet conforming to Globe Valves
ASTM A126 class B cast iron and flanged ends, with
aramid fiber, nonasbestos packing and two-piece
shall be class 200, rated 200 psi SWP, 400 psi non-
packing gland assembly. Class 250 valves meeting
shock CWP. They shall have a rising stem, body and
the above specifications may be used where pres-
union bonnet of ASTM B61 cast bronze, threaded
sures approach 100 psi. Valves shall comply with
ends, ASTM A276: Standard Specification for Stain-
MSS SP-85.
less Steel Bars and Shapes type 420 stainless steel
Check Valves plug-type disc and seat ring, silicon bronze ASTM
2 inches and smaller Valves 2 inches and smaller B371 alloy stem, bronze ASTM B62 or ASTM B584
shall be class 125, rated 125 psi SWP, 200 psi nonshock packing gland, aramid fiber nonasbestos packing,
CWP. They shall have threaded ends with body and and malleable iron hand wheel. Valves shall comply
cap conforming to ASTM B62 cast bronze composi- with MSS SP-80.
tion, Y-pattern swing type with TFE seat disc or 2 inches and larger Valves 2 inches and larger
spring-loaded lift type with resilient seating. Valves shall be class 250, rated 250 psi SWP, 500 psi nonshock
shall comply with MSS SP-80. CWP. They shall have an iron body; bronze-mounted
Note: Class 150 valves meeting the above specifi- OS&Y with body and bolted bonnet conforming to
cations may be used where system pressure requires ASTM A126; class B cast iron, flanged ends; with ar-
them. For class 150 seat discs, TFE for steam service amid fiber nonasbestos packing and two-piece packing
should be specified. gland assembly. Where steam pressure approaches
2 inches and larger Valves 2 inches and larger 150 psi or 366F, gray iron or ductile iron shall be
shall be class 125, rated 125 psi SWP, 200 psi nonshock used. Valves shall comply with MSS SP-85.
CWP. They shall have an iron body, bronze mounted, Check Valves
with body and bolted bonnet conforming to ASTM
A126, class B cast iron, flanged ends, a swing-type
disc, and nonasbestos gasket. Valves shall comply
CWP. They shall have threaded ends with body and
with MSS SP-71.
cap conforming to ASTM B61 cast bronze composition
Medium-pressure Steam Service and a Y-pattern swing-type disc. Valves shall comply
This includes up to 200-psi saturated steam to 391F with MSS SP-80.
(201C). 2 inches and larger Valves 2 inches and larger
Butterfly Valves shall be class 250, rated 250 psi SWP, 500 psi nonshock
Butterfly valves are not allowed in steam service un- CWP. They shall have an iron body, bronze mounted,
less stated as acceptable for the application by the with body and bolted bonnet conforming to ASTM
manufacturer. A126, class B cast iron flanged ends, and a swing-type
disc assembly. Where steam pressure approaches 150
Gate Valves
psi or 366F, gray iron or ductile iron shall be used.
Valves shall comply with MSS SP-71.
CWP. They shall have a rising stem; body and union High-pressure Steam Service
bonnet of ASTM B61: Standard Specification for This includes up to 300-psi saturated steam to 421F
Steam or Valve Bronze Castings cast bronze; threaded (216C).
ends; ASTM B584 solid wedge; silicon bronze ASTM Gate Valves
B371 stem; bronze ASTM B62 or ASTM B584 pack- 2 inches and smaller Valves 2 inches and smaller
ing gland; aramid fiber nonasbestos packing; and shall be class 300, rated 300 psi SWP. They shall have
a rising stem, and body and union bonnet shall be of

Chapter 3Valves 89
ASTM B61 cast bronze composition, with threaded Nonlubricated Plug Valves
ends, bronze ASTM B61 disc, bronze ASTM B371 Valves shall be ANSI class 300, with 70 percent port
stem, stainless steel ASTM A276 type 410 seat rings, nonlubricated, wedge plug, and bolted bonnet. Body,
bronze packing gland, aramid fiber nonasbestos pack- bonnet, and packing gland flange shall be cast carbon
ing, and malleable hand wheel. Valves shall comply steel (ASTM A216) grade WCB.
with MSS SP-80. Plug shall be cast from high-tensile, heat-treated
2 inches and larger Valves 2 inches and larger alloy iron. The plug shall have two Teflon O-rings
shall be class 300, rated 300 psi SWP and have a cast inserted into dovetail-shaped grooves machined into
carbon steel, ASTM A216: Standard Specification for the plug faces. O-rings shall provide double seating
Steel Castings, Carbon, Suitable for Fusion Welding, and ensure vapor-tight shutoff on both the upstream
for High-Temperature Service wrought-carbon grade and downstream seats. Valves are to be seated in both
B (WCB) body and bolted bonnet. Disc and stem shall open and closed positions to protect body seats.
be ASTM A217: Standard Specification for Steel Stem shall be high-strength alloy steel conforming
Castings, Martensitic Stainless and Alloy, for Pres- to American Iron and Steel Institute (AISI) 4150 and
sure-containing Parts, Suitable for High-temperature sulphurized, with face-to-face dimensions to meet
Service grade CA 15, cast 1214 percent chromium ANSI B16.10: Face-to-Face and End-to-End Dimen-
stainless steel, with stellite-faced seat rings, flanged sions of Valves.
ends, and two-piece packing gland assembly. Valves Each valve shall be provided with a position indica-
shall comply with MSS SP-70. tor for visual indication of the 90-degree rotation of
the plug. Valves are to be equipped with a provision
Globe Valves for bypass connections.
shall be class 300, rated 300 psi SWP. They shall have Types of Operator
a body and union bonnet of ASTM B61 cast bronze 1. Valves 3 inches and smaller: Hand wheel or
composition, threaded ends, stainless steel ASTM wrench
A276 hardened plug-type disc and seat ring, silicon 2. Valves 4 inches and larger: Enclosed gear with
bronze ASTM B371 stem, bronze ASTM B62 or ASTM hand wheel
B584 packing gland, aramid fiber nonasbestos pack-
ing, and malleable hand wheel. Valves shall comply Each valve shall be certified to have passed the
with MSS SP-80. following minimum test requirements:
2 inches and larger Valves 2 inches and larger Shell test: 1,100-psi hydrostatic
shall be class 300, rated 300 psi SWP. They shall have Seat test: 750-psi hydrostatic (both sides to be
a cast carbon steel ASTM A216 grade WCB body and tested) and 100-psi air underwater (both sides to
bolted bonnet. Disc, stem, and seat rings shall be be tested)
ASTM A217 grade CA 15, cast 1214 percent chro- Gasoline and LPG Service
mium stainless steel, flanged or welded ends, with
two-piece packing gland assembly. Valves shall comply Plug valves
with MSS SP-85. Valves shall be ANSI class 150, 70 percent port, nonlu-
bricated tapered plug, bolted bonnet type. Valve body
Check Valves
shall be ASTM A216, grade WCB steel with drain plug,
2 inches and smaller Valves 2 inches and smaller suitable for double block and bleed service.
shall be class 300, rated 300 psi SWP. They shall have The plug seals shall be two Teflon O-rings inserted
threaded ends with body and cap conforming to ASTM into dovetail-shaped grooves machined into the plug
B61, cast bronze composition, and Y-pattern swing- faces. Operation is to be such that the plug is lifted
type disc. Valves shall comply with MSS SP-80. clear of the seats before rotating 90 degrees.
2 inches and larger Valves 2 inches and larger End connections shall be ANSI class 150 raised
shall be class 300, rated 300 psi SWP. They shall have face and flanged. Face-to-face dimensions are to meet
a cast carbon steel, ASTM A216 grade WCB body and ANSI B16.10.
bolted bonnet. Disc and seat ring shall be ASTM A217 Fire Protection Systems
grade CA 15, cast 1214 percent chromium stainless
steel, with flanged or welded ends. Valves shall comply Gate Valves
with MSS SP-71. 2 inches and smaller Valves 2 inches and smaller
shall be of class 175 psi water working pressure
High-temperature Hot Water Service
(WWP) or greater, with body and bonnet conforming
This includes service to 450F.
to ASTM B62 cast bronze composition, threaded ends,

OS&Y, and solid disc and listed by UL, FM approved, Ball Valves
and in compliance with MSS SP-80. 2 inches and smaller Valves 2 inches and smaller
2 inches and larger Valves 2 inches and larger shall be constructed of commercial bronze, ASTM
shall be rated 175 psi WWP or greater. They shall B584, rated 175 psi WWP or higher, with reinforced
have an iron body, bronze mounted or with resilient TFE seats. Valves shall have a gear operator with a
rubber-encapsulated wedge, with body and bonnet raised position indicator and two internal supervisory
conforming to ASTM A126, class B cast iron, OS&Y, switches. Valves shall have threaded or IPS grooved
class 125 flanged or grooved ends. If of resilient-wedge ends and shall have blowout-proof stems and chrome-
design, the interior of the valve is to be epoxy coated. plated balls. They shall be UL listed, FM approved,
Valves shall meet or exceed AWWA C509. Valves are and in compliance with MSS SP-110 for fire protec-
to be UL listed, FM approved, and in compliance with tion service.
MSS SP-70. Butterfly Valves
Valves 4 inches and larger for underground 4 inches to 12 inches Butterfly valves may be sub-
bury shall be rated 200 psi WWP or greater, with body stituted for gate valves, where appropriate. Valves
and bonnet conforming to ASTM A126, class B cast shall be rated for 250 psi WWP, 175 psig working
iron, bronze mounted, resilient-seated gate valve with pressure, UL listed, FM approved, and in compliance
nonrising stem, with O-ring stem seal, epoxy coating with MSS SP-67.
inside and outside, and flanged or mechanical joint Valves furnished shall have ductile iron ASTM
ends as required. All valves furnished shall open left. A536 body and may have ductile iron ASTM A395:
All internal parts shall be accessible without removing Standard Specification for Ferritic Ductile Iron
the valve body from the line. Valves shall conform to Pressure-retaining Castings for Use at Elevated Tem-
AWWA C509. Epoxy coating shall conform to AWWA peratures (nickel-plated) discs or aluminum bronze
C550. Valves shall come complete with a mounting discs, depending on local water conditions. In addi-
plate for an indicator post and be UL listed, FM ap- tion, wafer style for installation between class 125/150
proved, and in compliance with MSS SP-70. flanges or lug style or grooved body may be specified,
When required, a vertical indicator post may be depending on the systems needs.
used on underground valves. Posts must provide a Valves shall be equipped with weatherproof gear,
means of knowing if the valve is open or shut. Indica- operator rated for indoor and outdoor use, with hand
tor posts must be UL listed and FM approved. wheel and raised position indicator with two internal
High-rise Service supervisory switches.
Gate Valves Check Valves
2 inches to 12 inches Gate valves 2 inches to Valves 2 inches and larger shall be 500 psi WWP,
10 inches shall be rated 300 psi WWP or greater. 12 bolted bonnet, with body and bonnet conforming to
inches shall be rated 250 psi WWP. They shall have ASTM A126, class B cast iron, flanged end with com-
an iron body, bronze mounted, with body and bonnet position Y-pattern, horizontal, swing-type disc. They
conforming to ASTM A126, class B, cast iron, OS&Y, shall be UL listed, FM approved, and in compliance
with flanged ends for use with class 250/300 flanges. with MSS SP-71 type 1 for fire protection service.
They shall be UL listed, FM approved, and in compli-
ance with MSS SP-70.
Check Valves
2 inches to 12 inches Check valves 2 inches to
10 inches shall be rated 300 psi WWP or greater. 12
inches shall be rated 250 psi WWP. They shall have an
iron body, bronze mounted, with a horizontal swing
check design, with body and bonnet conforming to
ASTM A126, class B, cast iron, with flanged ends for
use with class 250/300 flanges. They shall be UL listed,
FM approved, and in compliance with MSS SP-71.
Note: In New York City, valves are to be approved
by the New York City Materials and Equipment Ac-
ceptance Division (MEA) in addition to the above
specifications.

Chapter 3Valves 91

4 Pumps
This chapter first explores the similarities among

pumps used in plumbing systems, especially regarding
energy efficiency. Then the differences are discussed,
liquid leaks around the moving part. Common rotary
elements include vanes, lobes, and gears.
When a pump with a rotating surface, or impeller,
such as performance characteristics, applications, has some clearance between itself and the stationary
service, environmental concerns, and installation passage, or pump casing, the pump does not have posi-
requirements. Centrifugal pumps stand out as the tive displacement. If the direction of discharge from
most common type of pump in plumbing because the impeller radiates at a right angle to the shaft, the
of their simple design, suitable head, and rotational pump is a centrifugal pump. If the direction is inline
speeds matching common motor designs. Drive belts with the shaft, the pump is axial. If the direction is
or gears rarely are required. Close coupling of the mo- partly radial and partly axial, the pump is mixed flow.
tor to the pump is growing in use among small sizes, Common examples of a centrifugal pump, an axial
while large pumps still require joining of the shafts pump, and a positive displacement pump include an
through a shaft coupler. automobile water pump, a boat propeller, and the
human heart respectively.
PUMP BASICS Compared to positive-displacement pumps, cen-
Machines that move liquids are called turbo-ma- trifugal and axial pumps are more compact, simple,
chines, or pumps. Through the work of the pump, and without flow pulsations. In addition, their shaft
mechanical energy is added to the liquid, resulting in speeds are suitable for direct drive on electric mo-
a higher energy downstream. As typically measured, tors. Centrifugal pumps provide greater total head
the discharge pressure is greater downstream than than similar-size axial pumps, but have less flow.
upstream. As typically expressed, the head measure- Operation of a centrifugal pump includes the outward,
ment of the liquid downstream is higher than the radial projection of the liquid from the impeller as it
head upstream. That is, the liquid level in a simple rotates. In addition, if a gradual expanding passage
standpipe installed at the outlet is greater than the is provided after the impeller, the high velocity is
liquid level in one installed at the inlet. converted to high static pressure as a principle of
A previously used term for total head is total the law of conservation of energy and as quantified
dynamic head. For pumps placed below the inlet in Bernoullis equation. If the expanding passage
water level, either term is defined as the outlet, or wraps around the impeller, it is called a volute. The
discharge, head minus the inlet, or suction, head. For quantity, angle on the impeller, and shape of blades
pumps placed above the inlet water level, the term is range from two straight blades positioned radially
defined as discharge head plus suction lift. to many curved blades angled forward or, more com-
The basic parts of all pumps consist of a passage monly, backward to the direction of rotation. While
and a moving surface. A primer mover, such as an elec- forward blades theoretically impart greater velocity,
tric motor but sometimes an engine, provides energy the conversion to pressure is unstable except within
to the moving surface. Other parts may include shaft a narrow speed range.
bearings and various seals, such as the shaft seal. Connecting pipes to pumps generally is done us-
Pumps may be categorized as positive displacement, ing standard flanges, but may be made by threaded
centrifugal, axial, or mixed flow. Positive displacement or soldered connections. The centerline of the inlet
pumps deliver energy in successive isolated quantities pipe may be aligned with the pump shaft. Figure 4-1
by the direct application of a moving plunger, piston, shows this type; it is referred to as an end-suction
diaphragm, or rotary element. Clearances are small design. The outlet generally falls within the plane of
between the moving and unmoving parts, and little the impeller. If the inlet and outlet connections align
pump itself has no bearings and all hydraulic forces

are applied on the motor bearings. The combination
of these materials, design features, and the array
of pump sizes makes pumps one of the most varied
manufactured items.
The greatest pressure in any pumped system is
within the pump casing, which includes the shaft
seal. Another concern with this seal occurs when the
pump is not operating, but a stored supply of pressure
applies continuous static head against it. This seal tra-
ditionally has been designed with a flexible, composite
material stuffed around a clearance between the shaft
and the hub portion of the pump casing, referred to
as a stuffing box. A mechanical arrangement applies
pressure to the flexible material through routine ad-
justments. Some leakage is deliberately required, so
provisions for the trickle flow must be accommodated
such as with the installation of a floor drain.
Another seal design consists of a simple O-ring.
More advanced seals include the mechanical seal
and the wet rotor design. In a mechanical seal, the
interface of two polished surfaces lies perpendicular
to the shaft. One is keyed and sealed to the shaft,
Figure 4-1 Portion of a Close-coupled Centrifugal Pump and the other is keyed and sealed to the pump casing.
With an End-suction Design
Both are held together by a spring and a flexible boot.
Some pumps include two sets of these seals with the
space between them monitored for leakage. Often, a
special flow diversion continuously flushes the seal
area. In the wet rotor design, the rotor winding of
the motor and the motor bearings are immersed in
the water flow and are separated from the dry stator
by a thin, stationary, stainless steel shield. The shield
imparts a compromise in the magnetic flux from the
stator to the motor; hence, these pumps are limited
to small sizes.
Efficiency
High efficiency is not the only characteristic to
examine in selecting a pump. It is explored here,
nonetheless, to demonstrate the impact of alterna-
tives when various compromises are considered.
An ideal pump transfers all of the energy from a
shaft to the liquid. Hence, the product of torque and
Figure 4-2 Inline Centrifugal Pump with a Vertical Shaft
Photo courtesy of Peerless Pump Co.
rotational speed equal the product of mass flow and
total head. However, hydraulic losses, such as fric-
as if in a continuation of the pipe run as shown in tion within the liquid through the pump, impeller
Figure 4-2, the pump is referred to as inline. exit losses, eddies from sudden changes in diameter,
Casing materials are generally cast iron and, for leaks, and turns in direction, or short-circuit paths,
domestic water supply, cast bronze. Other materials from high-pressure sections to low-pressure sections
include stainless steel and various polymers. Impel- result in performance degradation. In addition, me-
ler materials include cast iron, bronze, and various chanical losses include friction in bearings and seals.
polymers. Pump bearings and motor bearings vary The amount of both types of losses ranges from 15 to
between traditional sleeves and roller elements such 80 percent in centrifugal pumps and lesser amounts
as steel ball bearings. Bearings on each side of the for positive-displacement pumps.
impeller minimize shaft stresses compared to a pair Design features in centrifugal pumps that minimize
of bearings on one side. At the other extreme, the hydraulic losses include generous passage diameters

Chapter 4Pumps 95
Figure 4-3 Enclosed Impeller Figure 4-4 Centrifugal Pump with a

Double-suction Inlet Design
to reduce friction, optimal impeller design, gradual
diameter changes and direction changes, placement of forces on the pump shaft. The double-suction design
barriers against short-circuits, and optimal matches balances these forces. In addition, double-suction
of impeller diameters to pump casings. The design of pumps have slower inlet velocities, which aid in pre-
a barrier against short-circuits includes multiple im- venting cavitation.
peller vanes, seals at the impeller inlet, and minimal Since most pumps are driven by electric motors,
space between the impeller and the pump casing. The a complete review of pump efficiency should include
seals at the impeller inlet are commonly in the form consideration of motor efficiency, which varies with
of wear rings. Enclosed impellers, as shown in Figure torque, type of motor, speed, type of bearings, and
4-3, achieve higher heads because of the isolation of quality of electricity. Many fractional horsepower,
the inlet pressure from the liquid passing through the single-phase motors experience a dramatic loss
impeller; thus, the original efficiencies are maintained of efficiency at light loads. A three-phase motor
over the pumps useful life. Equation 4-1 illustrates achieves peak efficiency at slightly less than full load.
the relationship among flow, total head, efficiency, High-speed motors and large motors offer greater ef-
and input power for pumps with cold water. For other ficiencies than slower or smaller motors. Poly-phase,
liquids, the equation is appropriately adjusted. permanent split-capacitor, and capacitor-start/
Equation 4-1 capacitor-run motors are more efficient than split-
phase, capacitor-start/induction-run, and shaded
P= Qh
3,960e [ Qh9.81
e ] pole motors.
When the operating flow and head of a centrifugal
where
pump fall near its best efficiency point (BEP), the
P =Power through the pump shaft, horsepower,
in watts (W) pumps first cost is minimized. In addition, bearing
Q =Flow, gallons per minute (gpm [liters per stresses and shaft stresses are less than at part flow
second, L/s]) because total head is less. Thus, the expected life of
h =Total head, feet (meters) the pump is longer.
e =Efficiency, dimensionless An appreciation of the benefits of investing in
efficiency in various parts of a plumbing system can
Impellers with diameters significantly reduced
be realized by identifying the magnitude of power in
from an ideal design generally compromise efficiency.
various parts of a building. For example, a domestic
The efficiency of centrifugal pumps varies greatly
water heaters energy input may be 1,000,000 British
with head and flow. Hence, a pump with 85 percent
thermal units per hour (Btuh) (293 kilowatts [kW]),
efficiency at one flow may be 50 percent at one-third
while its circulation pump may be 700 Btuh (205
of that flow.
W). Hence, in this situation an inefficient pump is
Axial flow directed into the impeller of a centrifugal
of little consequence. Excessive circulation increases
pump may come from one side only (single-suction
standby losses, but a more efficient heat exchanger
pump, Figure 4-1) or both sides (double-suction pump,
in the water heater will provide the most tangible
Figure 4-4). The single-suction design creates axial
benefit. While the importance of a fire pump for fire

suppression is paramount, efficiency invested there flow generally is moving in an axial direction and not
is less important than a reliable pump design. in a tangential direction. Thus:
U v
Comparison of Similar h= 2 g t2
Centrifugal Pumps Figure 4-5 shows the velocity vectors of the flow
The various characteristics of centrifugal pumps can leaving the impeller. Vector vr2 represents the velocity
be reduced to two coefficients and one value referred of the water in a radial direction, Vector X represents
to as specific speed. the velocity of the water relative to the impeller blade,
The coefficients and a set of relationships, com- and Vector Y represents the sum of X and U. Thus,
monly called affinity laws, allow similarly shaped it is possible to resolve these vectors into tangential
centrifugal pumps to be compared. In general, the components and derive the following:
coefficients also apply to axial and mixed-flow pumps, vt2=U2 vr2 cot B=U2 (1 (vr2 /U2) cot B)
as well as turbines and fans.
Deriving the coefficients starts with the law of or
conservation of momentum. That is, the summation h=U2U2 (1 (v
g
r2 /U2) cot B)
of forces on the surface of any fixed volume equals the

or
aggregate of angular-momentum vectors multiplied
by the flows at each of those vectors. Since the ap- Equation 4-2
plied energy into the liquid for a pump application, 2
h=U2 (1 (C
g
Q) cot B)
on the fixed volume around the impeller, is only the
tangential movement of the impeller, only the tan-
gential velocity vectors are considered. Further, for
constant density, radius, and tangential velocity at
the inlet and outlet of an impeller, the momentum
equation becomes as follows:
T=d2r2vt2Q2 d1r1vt1Q1
where
T =Torque
d2 = Density at the outlet
r2 = Radius at the outlet
vt2 = Tangental velocity at the outlet
Q2 = Flow at the outlet
d1 =Densityat the inlet
r1 = Radius at the inlet
vt1 = Tangential velocity at the inlet
Q1 = Flow at the inlet
Figure 4-5 Net Fluid Movement From an Impeller
From Bernoullis equation of an ideal flow through Represented by Vector Y
any type of pump, total head is a measure of energy
per weight or rate of power per flow and specific
weight. Since power is the product of torque and ro- For a given flow, vr2 /U2 is constant, and this ratio
tational speed, relate the above equation with equal is defined as the capacity coefficient, or CQ. For a given
flows entering and leaving the impeller as follows: flow and impeller design, CQ and Angle B are constant,
which is referred to as a head coefficient, or CH, as
P
h=dgQ = (r2vt2 rg1vt1)n shown in Equation 4-3.
where Equation 4-3
h =Total head created by the pump hg
P =Power CH= 2
U2
n =Rotational speed As commonly expressed as the second pump affini-
g =Gravity constant ty law, total head is directly proportional to the square
With the velocity of the tip of a rotating surface at of the impellers tip velocity. Further, flow is directly
its outside radius designated as U, the equation is: proportional to this velocity (the first affinity law).
U vt2 U1vt1 Since the product of flow and head is power, power is
h= 2 g directly proportional to the cube of the velocity (the
For centrifugal pumps, flow is proportional to the third affinity law). Since tip velocity is a product of
outlet radial velocity. In addition, vt1=0 since inlet rotational speed and the impellers radius, these same
relationships regarding rotational speed and impel-

Chapter 4Pumps 97
ler radius (or diameter) can be summarized as found

in Table 4-1. Each function is directly proportional
to the corresponding value in the other columns. In
addition, it is customary to combine flow and head
with the rotational speed and set exponentials, so this
speed appears to the first power. The result, nQ0.5/h0.75,
is called the specific speed of the pump.
Table 4-1 Centrifugal Pump Affinity Laws

Tip Rotational Speed, Impeller Radius (or
Function Velocity rpm (radians/sec) Diameter), in. (mm)
Flow U n R
Head U2 n2 R2
Power U3 n3 R3
Figure 4-6 Typical Pump Curve Crossing a System Curve

When flow rate, head, and given pump speed are
known, the specific speed can be derived, and the de- In plumbing, a particular flow may be required
sign of an economic pump can be identified, whether for a sump pump or hot water circulation pump. In
centrifugal, axial, or mixed flow. Specific speed also domestic water or fire suppression supply systems,
allows a quick classification of a pumps efficient op- the head varies with the quantity of open faucets,
erating range with a mere observation of the shape of outlets, hose streams, or sprinkler heads. Further,
the impeller. The affinity laws allow easy identifica- that quantity varies with time. Thus, the duty point
tion of pump performance when the speed changes or rides left and right along the curve with time.
the impeller diameter changes. For example, doubling A curve that represents the buildings distribu-
the speed or impeller diameter doubles the flow, in- tion piping at peak demand can be drawn on the
creases the head by four, and increases the required pump curve. This second curve, called the system
power by eight. head curve, is shown in Figure 4-6. Equation 4-4
represents this familiar curve, where p1 represents a
Performance Curves pressure gauge reading at the pump inlet, p2 and h2
represent pressure and elevation head respectively
Since centrifugal pumps do not supply a nearly con-
at a particular system location such as at a remote
stant flow rate like positive-displacement pumps,
fixture, and the last term represents the entire fric-
curves are presented by manufacturers to aid in
tion head in the piping between the two points. The
selection. Under controlled conditions, such as with
curves shape is parabolic. This curve is applicable to
water at a certain temperature, these curves are
any liquid with a constant absolute viscosity over a
created from measurements of impeller speed, im-
wide flow range (a Newtonian fluid).
peller diameter, electric power, flow, and total head.
The standard conditions are created by such groups Equation 4-4
as the Hydraulic Institute. As can be observed, the hp=(p2 p1)/d+h2+f(L/D)(v2/2g)
shape of the curve in Figure 4-6 agrees with Equa-
At no flow, the friction term becomes zero since
tion 4-2. This characteristic pump curve represents a
velocity is zero, and the point where this curve crosses
particular impeller diameter measured at a constant
the vertical axis is the sum of the remaining terms.
speed, with its total head varied and its resulting flow
To select a pump, determine the peak flow and use
recorded. Efficiency is plotted on most curves and the
Equation 4-4 to determine the required pump head.
BEP is sometimes marked. Additional curves include
These two numbers identify the minimally required
shaft input power, measured in horsepower (watts),
duty point. Most manufacturers pump catalogues
efficiency, and net positive suction head.
present a family of pumps with many pump curves
While each curve is plotted for a given pump and
for two or more pump speeds. Pick a pump size that
various diameter impellers, a pump in operation
at least includes the required duty point. An optimal
under a constant head and speed has one particular
pump is one whose curve crosses the duty point, but
flow. The flow and the head on the curve that repre-
with most pump selections, the pump curve crosses
sents the selected impellers diameter commonly are
above the duty point. Mark the duty point on the de-
referred to as a duty point or system balance point.
tailed curves for the selected pump size. The pumps
This point is located on the curve where a vertical line
motor size, in horsepower or watts, can be identified
at a particular flow crosses the pump curve. The pump
by the input shaft power curve that is immediately
will provide that flow if that head applies.

to the right of the duty point. The pumps efficiency Head The energy of a fluid at any particular point of
can be estimated from the efficiency curves wrapping a flow stream per weight of the fluid. Units of mea-
around the duty point. Comparing the efficiencies of surement are generally in feet (meters).
several pumps can lead to the more ideal choice. Static head Elevation of water in a standpipe rela-
The shape of various pump curves varies with tive to the pipe centerline of a piping system. Any
pump designs. Steep curves are characterized with pressure gauge reading can be converted to static
a rapidly dropping head as the flow increases. Flat head if the density of the liquid is known.
curves have a slight variation from no flow to BEP,
often defined as 20 percent. The latter is preferred Velocity head The velocity portion of head with its
in most plumbing applications that employ one pump units converted to an equivalent static head.
because of the nearly uniform head. However, a pump Total discharge head The sum of static head and
with a steep curve has an advantage when a high velocity head at a pump discharge.
head is required in an economical pump design and
Suction head Static head near the inlet of a pump
the flow is of less consequence. For example, a sump
relative to the pump centerline.
pump, which has a sump to collect peak flows into its
basin, may have a high static head. With a generous Suction lift In contrast to suction head, this verti-
volume in the sump, the total time to evacuate is sec- cal dimension is between the pump centerline and a
ondary; therefore, the pumps flow is of less concern liquids surface that is below the pump.
than its head. Further, as the inlet flow increases and Total head Total head at the pump discharge minus
the water level rises, the head reduces and the pump suction head or plus suction lift.
flow increases.
A pump design with some Churn Maximum static head of a pump.
slope in its curve is desired for This is typically the head when all flow
parallel pump configurations. is blocked.
The sum of the flows at each Net positive suction head Static
head results in a more flat curve. head, velocity head, and equivalent at-
For control, the drop in head mospheric head at a pump inlet minus
as the demand increases may the absolute vapor pressure of the liquid
serve as an indicator to stage the being pumped.
next pump. A pump with nearly Head coefficient Ratio that expresses
vertical steepness is desired for pump head divided by the square of the
drainage pumps that are part of impeller tips velocity.
a system of pumps that discharge
into a force main. This perfor- Capacity coefficient Ratio of radial
mance characteristic allows a velocity of the liquid at the impeller to
nearly uniform flow at varying the velocity of the impellers tip.
heads. Some centrifugal and all Specific speed An index relating pump
positive-displacement pumps speed, flow, and head so that an optimal
exhibit this characteristic. pump impeller can be selected.
Terminology Staging
The following terms typically are To obtain greater total head, two pumps
used by engineers when discuss- can be connected in series; that is, the
ing pumps. discharge of one pump becomes the inlet
Standpipe A theoretical vertical of the other. As a convenience, pump
pipe placed at any point in a pip- manufacturers have created multistage
ing system so that the static head pumps where two or more centrifugal
can be identified by observing pumps are joined in a series by combining
the elevation of the free surface all of the impellers on a common shaft and
of the liquid. The connection arranging the casing to direct the flow of
of the standpipe to the piping a volute into the eye of the next impeller.
system for a static head reading (See Figure 4-7.) Another way to obtain
is perpendicular to the general a greater head is by using a regenerative
flow stream. turbine pump. Unlike other centrifugal
Figure 4-7 Multistage or Vertical pumps, the outer edge of the impeller
Lineshaft Turbine Pump and its volute intentionally employ higher
Photo courtesy of Peerless Pump Co.

Chapter 4Pumps 99
velocities through the recirculation of a portion of A recent variation, for small fire pumps, includes
the flow from the volute to just inside the tip of the a vertical shaft and a single-suction design with the
impeller. The close dimensions of these pumps limit impeller fastened directly to the motor shaft. Pump
their use to clean liquids. Applications of high-head bearings, shaft couplings, and motor mounts are
pumps include water supplies in high-rise buildings, eliminated in this compact design. In applications for
deep water wells, and fire pumps for certain automatic tank-mounted fire pumps, the impeller is suspended
standpipe systems. near the bottom of the tank, and the motor or other
prime mover is located above the cover of the tank.
Applications Between the two is a vertical shaft placed within a
Pump applications in plumbing include specialty discharge pipe. NFPA labels these pumps as verti-
pumps for liquid supplies, pressure boost for domes- cal lineshaft turbine pumps. Flexibility in its design
tic water supply, similar supply for fire suppression, includes multistaging, a wide range of tank depths,
water circulation for temperature maintenance, and and several types of prime movers.
elevation increases for drainage systems. Except Maintaining adequate water temperature in
for the circulation application, pump systems theo- plumbing is achieved through circulation pumps.
retically are open systems, meaning that the liquid Applicable generally for hot water, but equally effec-
is transferred from one reservoir to another of a tive for chilled water to drinking fountains served by
higher elevation. The applications vary in the nature a remote chiller, the circulation pump maintains a
of the liquid, the dutywhether for daily use or for limited temperature change. Heat transfer from hot
rare firefightingand the magnitude of elevation water distribution piping to the surrounding space is
changes. quantified for each part of the distribution network.
To select a specialty pump, the following must For a selected temperature drop from the hot water
be considered: pressure increase, range of flow, na- source to the remote ends of the distribution, an ad-
ture of the energy source (electricity, air, manual, equate flow in the circulation can be determined from
other), whether the liquid contains particulates, Equation 4-5. Since the nature of circulation is as if it
whether pulses are tolerable, accuracy in dispens- were a closed system, pump head is simply the friction
ing, self-priming requirement, whether the pump is losses associated with the circulation flow.
submerged, and if the pump requires an adaptation Equation 4-5
to its supply container.
A domestic booster pump system typically uses
multiple parallel centrifugal pumps to increase mu-
Q=
q
500T [ 4,187T
q
]
nicipal water pressure for the buildings domestic where
Q =Flow, gpm (L/s)
water distribution. Particular design issues such as
q =Heat transfer rate, Btuh (W)
sizing, pump redundancy, pressure-reducing valves,
T =Temperature difference, F (C)
other pump controls, adjustable-frequency drives,
high-rise buildings, and break tanks are described in For example, if it is determined that 1,000 Btuh
Plumbing Engineering Design Handbook, Volume 2, transfers from a length of hot water piping and no
Chapter 5: Cold Water Systems. The same issues more than 8F is acceptable for a loss in the hot
apply for private water systems that require a well water temperature, the flow is determined to be
pump. 1,000/(5008)=0.250 gpm. In SI, if it is determined
The water supply for fire suppression requires a that 293 W transfers from a length of hot water piping
pump that is simple and robust. In addition, the slope and no more than 4.4C is acceptable for a loss in the
of the performance curve is limited by fire pump stan- hot water temperature, the flow is determined to be
dards. National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) 293/(4,1874.4)=0.0159 L/s.
20: Standard for the Installation of Stationary Fire Where the elevation of the municipal sewer is in-
Pumps for Fire Protection limits the curve to not less sufficient or other elevation shortfalls occur, pumps
than 65 percent of rated total head for 150 percent of are added to a drainage system. The issue may apply
rated flow. A variety of listing agencies monitor pump only to one fixture, one floor, or the entire building.
manufacturing to certify compliance with one or more Sub-soil drainage generally is pumped. In addition,
standards. The design of a single-stage or multistage if backflow is intolerable from floor drains in a high-
centrifugal pump generally qualifies. A double-suction value occupancy, pumps are provided for the floor
centrifugal pump with enclosed impeller, horizontal drains. Terminology varies to describe these pumps,
shaft, wear rings, stuffing-box shaft seals, and bear- but typical names include sewage pump, sump pump,
ings at both ends historically has been used. The sewage ejector, lift station pump, effluent pump, bilge
pump inlet connection generally is in line with the pump, non-clog pump, drain water pump, solids-han-
outlet connection. dling sewage pump, grinder pump, dewatering pump,

or wastewater pump. This chapter uses the broader basin, others in a dry pit adjacent to the basin, and
term, drainage pump, to include sub-soil drainage. others mount the motor above with only the pump
The nature of solids and other contaminants in casing and impeller submerged. In any design, provi-
the water through these pumps necessitates several sion is required for air to enter or leave the basin as
types of pump designs. For minimal contaminants, the the water level varies. The installation of a pump in
design may be with an enclosed impeller, wear rings, a sanitary drain system includes a sealed basin and
and clearance dimensions that allow -inch (19-mm) vent piping to the exterior or vent stack. In some
diameter spheres to pass through. For drainage flows cases, the pump is above the water level but only if a
from water closets and similar fixtures, manufactur- reliable provision is included in the design to prime
ers provide pumps of two designs. One design uses the pump prior to each pumping event.
an open recessed impeller, no wear rings, and clear-
ance dimensions that allow 2-inch (50-mm) diameter Pump Service
spheres to pass through. The other, referred to as a The selection of a pump includes factors such as the
grinder pump (see Figure 4-8), places a set of rotating need to monitor, repair, or replace the pump. Pumps
cutting blades upstream of the impeller inlet, which in accessible locations can be readily monitored. Sen-
slices solid contaminants as they pass through a ring sors on remote pumps, such as seal-leak probes and
or disc that has acute edges. Efficiency is compromised bearing vibration sensors, assist in pump monitoring
in both for the sake of effective waste transport, in to avert a catastrophic pump failure.
the latter more so than the former, but with the Pump maintenance can be facilitated when disas-
benefit of a reduced pipe diameter in the discharge sembly requires minimal disturbance of piping or
piping. Grinder pumps are available in centrifugal wiring. Disassembly may be with the casing split
and positive-displacement types. horizontally along a horizontal shaft or with the
Drainage pumps generally have vertical shafts, casing split perpendicularly to the shaft. The latter
cylindrical basins, and indoor or outdoor locations. allows impeller replacement without disturbing the
Some pumps are designed to be submerged in the inlet pipe connection to the pump body.
Complete pump replacement can be facilitated
with adequate access, shutoff valves, nearby motor
disconnects, minimal mounting fasteners, direct
mounting of the motor on the pump housing (close-
coupled pump), and pipe joints with bolted fasteners.
A simpler arrangement, commonly used for submers-
ible drainage pumps, provides the pump removal
from a basin by merely lifting a chain to extract it.
The lift or return is facilitated by special guide rails,
a discharge connection joint held tight by the weight
of the pump, and a flexible power cable.
Environmental Concerns
In addition to concerns about how pumps may affect
the environment, the environment may affect the
design requirements for pumps. An example of the
former is a provision in an oil-filled submersible pump
to detect an oil leak. A probe in the space between a
pair of shaft seals signals a breach of the lower seal.
Another example is vibration isolation for pumps near
sensitive spaces.
Examples of the latter include provisions in the
pump design for potential explosions, loss of elec-
tric power, or corrosive environments. That is, the
pump, its motor, and its cabling may be subjected to
methane gas in a sewage ejector; a loss of power to a
drainage pump may be supplemented locally with a
parallel pump powered from a marine battery; or the
material of any pump must consider any corrosive
Figure 4-8 Cross-section of a Grinder Pump with Cutting environments surrounding it. Other examples of the
Blades at the Inlet environment affecting a pump include the tempera-
Photo courtesy of Ebara.

Chapter 4Pumps 101
ture of the water through the pump, temperature of In addition to shutoff valves, general pump instal-
the air around the pump, and nature of contaminants lations may include drain ports, pressure gauges,
in the water. automatic or manual air release vents, and vibration
isolation couplings. A pressure gauge upstream and
Pump Control downstream of the pump allows easy indication of
Pump controls vary with applications. A small simplex rated pump performance. Check valves are provided
sump pump may have a self-contained motor overload for each pump of duplex and similar multiple-pump
control, one external float switch, an electric plug, and arrangements, fire pumps, and circulation pumps.
no control panel. A larger pump of any application A fire pump includes provisions for periodic flow
may have a control panel with a motor controller, testing. Fire pumps may include a pressure relief
run indicator light, hand-off auto switch, run timer, valve if low flows create high heads that exceed pipe
audio/visual alarm for system faults, and building material ratings.
automation system interface. The manufacturing All pumps require a minimum pressure at their
of the control panel may be certified as comply- inlet to avoid harmful cavitation. Destructive effects
ing with one or more safety standards. The panel occur when low absolute pressures at the entry to
housing may be classified to match its installation the impeller cause the water to vaporize and then
environment. Motor control generally includes an collapse further into the impeller. The resulting
electric power disconnect and related control wiring shock wave erodes the impeller, housing, and seals
as well as power-interrupting controls against motor as well as overloads the bearings and shaft. Anther
overload, under-voltage, over-current, and various effect is reduced flow due to the blockage caused by
alarm conditions. The largest pumps often include the pockets of water vapor. Cavitation is avoided by
reduced-voltage starters. Duplex or triplex pump ar- verifying Equation 4-6.
rangements include these control features for each Equation 4-6
pump and an alternator device that alternates which
pump first operates on rising demand. A micropro- hr ha hv+hs hf
cessor may be economically chosen for applications where
involving at least a dozen sensor inputs. hr =Net positive suction head required, from
A booster pump has additional controls such as low pump manufacturer, feet (m)
flow, low suction pressure, high discharge pressure, ha =Local ambient atmospheric pressure
time clock for an occupancy schedule, and possibly a converted to feet (m) of water
speed control such as a variable-frequency drive. hv =Vapor pressure of water at applicable
temperature, feet (m)
A circulation pump may include a temperature
hs =Suction head (negative value for suction
sensor that shuts down the pump if it senses high lift), feet (m)
demand, which presumably indicates adequate hot hf =Friction head of piping between pump and
water in each distribution branch. A time clock for where hs is measured, feet (m)
an occupancy schedule shuts down the pump during
Increasing hs resolves most issues regarding cavi-
off-hours.
tation, generally by mounting the pump impeller as
The control of a fire pump may include automatic
low as possible. Note that hr varies with flow and
transfer between two power sources, engine control,
impeller diameter, ha=33.96 feet (10.3 m) for an
and pressure maintenance through a secondary pump
ambient of 14.7 pounds per square inch (psi) (101
(jockey pump).
kilopascals [kPa]) and hv=0.592 feet (0.180 m) for
The control of a drainage pump includes one
water at 60F (15.5C). Suction head, hs, may be the
or more float switches and possibly a high-water
inlet pressure converted to head, but it also may be the
alarm.
vertical distance from the impeller centerline to the
Pump Installation surface of the water at the inlet. The ambient head,
Pumping effectiveness and efficiency require a uni- ha, also may need adjusting for sewage pumps, with
form velocity distribution across the pipe diameter the basin connected to an excessively long vent pipe.
or basin dimensions at the pump inlet. An elbow, Reciprocating positive-displacement pumps have an
increaser with a sudden diameter change, check valve, additional acceleration head associated with keeping
and other flow disturbances create an irregular veloc- the liquid filled behind the receding piston.
ity profile that reduces flow and possibly discharge Submergence is a consideration for pumps joined
head. To avoid air entrapment, eccentric reducers, near or in a reservoir or basin. A shallow distance
with the straight side up, are used on inlet piping from the pump inlet to the surface of the water may
rather than concentric reducers. create a vortex formation that introduces air into the
pump unless the reservoir exit is protected by a wide
plate directly above. In addition to lost flow capacity,

a vortex may cause flow imbalance and other harm Refrigerating, and Air-conditioning Engineers,
to the pump. Extra depth can be added to a basin 2000.
to mount the pump lower, and the elevation of the
water surface can be unchanged to keep the same
total head.
Like all parts of engineering, redundancy can be
considered for any pump application. The aggregate
capacity of a set of pumps may exceed the peak de-
mand by any amount; however, the summation for
centrifugal pumps involves adding the flow at each
head to create a composite performance curve. Dis-
cretion is further made to the amount of redundancy,
whether for each duplex pump at 100 percent of de-
mand or each triplex pump at 40 percent, 50 percent,
or 67 percent. For efficiencys sake, a mix may be
considered for a triplex, such as 40 percent for two
pumps and 20 percent for the third pump.
Conclusion
Pumps in plumbing systems generally take advantage
of the inherent qualities of the centrifugal type, even
in a wide range of applications. While water is the
primary liquid considered in plumbing, its tempera-
ture varies by more than 100F (56C) with different
applications, and contaminants range from sand to
human waste to whatever a vandal imagines to add
into plumbing. Issues concerning reliability range
from continuous, but inconsequential, operation to
rare, but essential, operation. For example, minor
inconveniences may occur when a circulation pump
is lost, but great harm may occur when a fire pump
fails to respond. Consequentially, booster pumps and
drainage pumps fall in between these two extremes.
Efficiency of a pump installation can be improved
with careful selection and inlet piping. Safe and ef-
fective control varies with various applications. A
motorized centrifugal pump is used with nearly all
plumbing applications, but each pump varies greatly
with its selection of materials, mounting type, shaft
seals, bearings, shaft orientation, impeller type, pipe
connection configuration, and shaft coupling. Hence,
the centrifugal pump in plumbing is manufactured in
a wide range of designs.
Resources
Mironer, Alan. Engineering Fluid Mechanics, New
York: McGraw-Hill, 1979.
Westaway, C.R., Loomis, A.W., ed. Cameron
Hydraulic Data. 15th ed. Woodcliff Lake, NJ:
Ingersoll-Rand Co., 1977.
Tuve, G.L., Domholdt, L.C., Engineering
Experimentation, New York: McGraw-Hill, 1966.
2000 ASHRAE Handbook: Heating, Ventilating,
and Air-conditioning Systems and Equipment,
Atlanta, GA: American Society of Heating,

Chapter 4Pumps 103

5 Piping Insulation
Insulation and its ancillary components are major

considerations in the design and installation of the
plumbing and piping systems of modern buildings.
Heat A type of energy that is produced by the
movement of molecules. The more movement of
molecules, the more heat. All heat (and movement)
The insulation and methods discussed herein are stops at absolute zero. It flows from a warmer body
used on a regular basis primarily for plumbing and to a cooler body. It is calculated in such units such as
drainage work. Btu, calories, or watt-hours.
Insulation is used for the following purposes: Kilocalorie (kcal) The heat required to raise 1
The retardation of heat or cooling temperature kilogram of water 1C.
loss through pipe
Thermal conductivity The ability of a specific
The elimination of condensation on piping solid to conduct heat. This is measured in British
Personnel protection by keeping the surface thermal units per hour (Btuh) and is referred to as
temperature low enough to touch the k factor. The standard used in the measurement
is the heat that will flow in one hour through a mate-
The appearance of the pipe, where aesthetics are
rial 1 inch thick, with a temperature difference of 1F
important
over an area of 1 square foot. The metric equivalent is
The protection of pipe from abrasion or damage watts per square meter per degree Kelvin (W/m2/K).
from external forces As the k factor increases, so does the flow of heat.
The reduction of noise from a piping system Thermal resistance Abbreviated R, the recipro-
To ensure understanding of the mechanism of cal of the conductance value. (See conductance.)
heat, the following glossary of terms is provided. Thermal transmittance Known as the U factor,
this is the rate of flow, measured in thermal resistance,
GLOSSARy
LOSSAR
LOSSARy through several different layers of materials taken
British thermal unit (Btu) The heat required to together as a whole. It is measured in Btuh per square
raise the temperature of 1 pound of water 1F. foot per degree Fahrenheit (Btuh/ft2/F).
Conductance Also known as conductivity, the
measurement of the flow of heat through an arbitrary WATER VAPOR
WATER VAPOR
thickness of material, rather than the 1-inch thick- Water vapor is present in the air at all times. A water
ness used in thermal conductivity. (See also thermal vapor retarder does not stop the flow of water vapor.
conductivity.) Rather, it serves as a means of controlling and reduc-
ing the rate of flow and is the only practical solution to
Convection The large-scale movement of heat
the passage of water vapor. Its effectiveness depends
through a fluid (liquid or gas). It cannot occur through
on its location within the insulation system, which is
a solid. The difference in density between hot and cold
usually as close to the outer surface of the insulation
fluids produces a natural movement of heat.
as practical. Water vapor has a vapor pressure that is
Degree Celsius The measurement used in interna- a function of both temperature and relative humidity.
tional standard (SI) units found by dividing the ice The effectiveness of an insulation system is best when
point and steam point of water into 100 divisions. it is completely dry.
Degree Fahrenheit The measurement used in The water vapor transmission rate is a measure
inch-pound (IP) units found by dividing the ice point of water vapor diffusion into or through the total
and steam point of water into 180 divisions. insulation system and is measured in perms. A perm
is the weight of water, in grains, that is transmitted From this report, it seems likely that smoke developed
through 1 square foot of insulation 1 inch thick in index of up to 200 could provide good visibility.
one hour. A generally accepted value of 0.10 perms is
considered the maximum rate for an effective vapor Cleaning and Sterilization
retarder. A formula for the transmission of water Insulation used for the chemical, pharmaceutical, and
vapor diffusing through insulation systems is given food-processing industries (for example) must have
in Equation 5-1. the ability to withstand repeated cleaning by various
Equation 5-1 methods. This is provided by application of the proper
jacketing material. Important properties of this jacket
P shall be resistance to growth of any organism, smooth,
W=AT white finish, resistance to repeated cleaning by the
L
where method of choice by the owner, and nontoxicity.
W = Total weight of vapor transmitted, grains
(7,000 grains=1 pound of water) Types of Insulation
= Permeability of insulation, grains/ft /h/in.
2
All the various named types of insulation have dif-
Hg P/in. ferent trade names given by manufacturers. The
A = Area of cross-section of the flow path, discussions that follow use the generic names for
square feet the most often used materials in the plumbing and
T = Time during which the transmission drainage industry.
occurred, hours The various properties are based on the following
P = Difference of vapor pressure between ends
conditions:
of the flow path, inches of mercury (in. Hg)
L = Length of flow path, inches All materials have been tested to ASTM, NFPA,
and UL standards for a flame spread index of
Flame and Smoke 25 or less and a smoke developed index of 50 or
less.
Requirements
When a fire starts within a building, many of its The temperature at which the k and R ratings
contents contribute to the fire by either generating were calculated was 75F (24C).
smoke (if the product is incombustible) or supporting Fiberglass
combustion. Code limits for these factors have been Fiberglass insulation shall conform to ASTM C547:
established. These ratings are for complete insula- Standard Specification for Mineral Fiber Pipe Insula-
tion systems tested as a whole and not for individual tion. It is manufactured from glass fiber bonded with
components. The maximum code values for a flame a phenolic resin. It is the chemical composition of this
spread index of 25 or less and smoke developed index resin that determines the highest temperature rating
is 50 or less. These values have been established for of this insulation. (Consult the manufacturer for exact
noncombustible construction. Combustible construc- figures.) This insulation is tested to fall below the in-
tion may be different. dex of 25 for flame spread and 50 for smoke developed.
The tunnel test is used to find the requirements It has a low water absorption and no to very limited
for the different combinations of materials that are combustibility. It has poor abrasion resistance.
used. They are tested for flame spread and smoke This is the most commonly used insulation for
developed. The ratings are compared to red oak the retardation of heat loss from plumbing lines and
flooring (indexed at 100) and cement board (indexed equipment. The recommended temperature range
at zero). Each test is given a different name by the is from 35F to 800F (1.8C to 422C), with ratings
agency that conducts it. The American Society for depending on the binder. It is available as premolded
Testing and Materials calls it ASTM E84: Standard pipe insulation, boards, and blankets. Typical k values
Test Method for Surface Burning Characteristics of range from 0.22 to 0.26, and R values range from 3.8
Building Materials, the National Fire Protection to 4.5. Its density is about 35 pounds per cubic foot
Association calls it NFPA 255: Standard Method of (4880 kilograms per cubic meter).
Test of Surface Burning Characteristics of Building Fiberglass by itself is not strong enough to stay
Materials, and Underwriters Laboratories calls it on a pipe or piece of equipment, prevent the passage
UL 723: Test for Surface Burning Characteristics of of water vapor, or present a finished appearance. Be-
Building Materials. cause of this, a covering or jacket must be used.
A test conducted by UL determined, however, that
a smoke-developed index of 200 or less did not appre-
Elastomeric
ciably reduce visibility for periods of up to six minutes. Elastomeric insulation, commonly called rubber,
shall conform to ASTM C534: Standard Specification
for Preformed Flexible Elastomeric Cellular Thermal

Chapter 5Piping Insulation 107
Insulation in Sheet and Tubular Form. This is a for Extruded Preformed Flexible Cellular Polyolefin
flexible, expanded foam, of closed-cell material manu- Thermal Insulation in Sheet and Tubular Form. It
factured from nitrile rubber and polyvinyl chloride is made by the expansion of plastic beads or granules
resin. This insulation depends on its thickness to fall in a closed mold or using an extrusion process. The
below a specific smoke-developed rating. All thickness fire-spread index varies among manufacturers, but
has a flame-spread index of 25. It can absorb 5 percent its combustibility is high. Additives can be used to
of its weight in water and has a perm rating of 0.10. improve fire retardency. It is available molded into
Its density ranges between 3 pounds per cubic foot boards or premolded into pipe insulation.
and 6 pounds per cubic foot. This is most commonly used in 3-inch or 4-inch
The recommended temperature range is from thickness for insulation of cryogenic piping. The rec-
297F to 220F (183C to 103C). A typical k value ommended temperature range for installation is from
is 0.27, and a typical R value is 3.6. Recommended cryogenic to 220F (103C). The density varies from
use for this insulation includes preformed insulation 0.7 pounds per cubic foot and 3 pounds per cubic foot.
for pipe sizes up to 6 inches (DN 150) in -inch, The k value varies between 0.32 and 0.20, depending
-inch, and 1-inch thicknesses. It is also available in on the density and age of the material. The average
48-inch (1,200-mm) wide rolls and in sheet sizes of water absorption is 2 percent.
3648 inches (9001,200 mm). An adhesive must Calcium Silicate
be used to seal the seams and joints and adhere it to
Calcium silicate shall conform to ASTM C533: Stan-
the equipment.
dard Specification for Calcium Silicate Block and Pipe
Rubber insulation can be painted without treat-
Thermal Insulation. It is a rigid granular insulation
ment. It is widely used in mechanical equipment
composed of calcium silicate, asbestos-free reinforcing
rooms and pipe, and the ease of application makes it
fibers, and lime. This material has a k value of 0.38
less costly. The recommended temperature range is
and an R rating of 2.0.
from -297F to 220F (-183C to 103C)
A mineral fiber commonly referred to as calsil,
Cellular Glass it is used for high-temperature work and does not
Cellular glass shall conform to ASTM C552: Standard find much use in the plumbing industry except as a
Specification for Cellular Glass Thermal Insulation. rigid insert for installation at a hanger to protect the
This insulation is pure glass foam manufactured with regular insulation from being crushed by the weight
hydrogen sulfide and has closed-cell air spaces. The of the pipe.
smoke-developed rating is zero, and the flame spread Insulating Cement
is 5. The recommended application temperature is
This insulation is manufactured from fibrous and/or
between 450F and 450F (265C and 230C), with
granular material and cement mixed with water to
the adhesive used to secure the insulation to the pipe
form a plastic substance. Sometimes referred to as
or equipment the limiting factor. It has no water re-
mastic, it has typical k values ranging between 0.65
tention and poor surface abrasion resistance.
and 0.95, depending on the composition.
It is rigid and strong and commonly used for
This material is well suited for irregular sur-
high-temperature installations. It generally is manu-
faces.
factured in blocks and must be fabricated by the
contractor to make insulation for pipes or equipment. Types of Jacket
A saw is used for cutting. It has a typical k value of A jacket is any material, except cement or paint, that
0.37 and an R rating of 2.6. Its density is 8 pounds is used to protect or cover insulation installed on a
per cubic foot. pipe or over equipment. It allows the insulation to
It is resistant to common acids and corrosive function for a long period by protecting the underly-
environments. It shall be provided with a jacket of ing material and extending its service life. The jacket
some type. is used for the following purposes:
Foamed Plastic As a vapor retarder to limit the entry of water
Foamed plastic insulation is a rigid, closed-cell prod- into the insulation system
uct, which shall conform to the following standards,
As a weather barrier to protect the underlying
depending on the material. Polyurethane shall
insulation from the outside
conform to ASTM C591: Standard Specification for
Unfaced Preformed Rigid Cellular Polyisocyanurate To prevent mechanical abuse due to accidental
Thermal Insulation; polystyrene shall conform to conditions or personnel
ASTM C578: Standard Specification for Rigid, Cellu- Corrosion and additional fire resistance
lar Polystyrene Thermal Insulation; and polyethylene
Appearance
shall conform to ASTM C1427: Standard Specification

Cleanliness and disinfection environments except where chlorine or fluorides are

present.
All-service Jacket Stainless steel jackets are used for hygienic pur-
Known as ASJ, the all-service jacket is a lamination poses and are adhered in a manner similar to that
of brown (kraft) paper, fiberglass cloth (skrim), and a used for aluminum.
metallic film. A vapor retarder also is included. This
Plastic Jacket and Laminates
jacket also is called an FSK jacket because of the
fiberglass cloth, skrim, and kraft paper. It most often Plastic jackets are manufactured from polyvinyl
is used to cover fiberglass insulation. chloride (PVC), polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF), acry-
The fiberglass cloth is used as a reinforcement for lonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS), polyvinyl acetate
the kraft paper. The paper is generally a bleached, (PVA), and acrylics. Thicknesses range from 3 mils
30-pound (13.5-kg) material, which actually weighs to 35 mils. Local code authorities shall be consulted
30 pounds per 30,000 square feet (2,790 m2). The metallic prior to use.
foil is aluminum. It is this complete jacket that gives Laminates are manufactured as a composite that is
the fire rating for the insulation system. alternating layers of foil and polymer. Thicknesses
The jacket is adhered to the pipe with either self- range from 3 to 25 mils. The local code authorities
sealing adhesive or staples. The butt joint ends are shall be consulted prior to use.
first sealed with adhesive, placed together, and then They are adhered by the use of an appropriate
covered with lap strips during installation. Staples are adhesive.
used when the surrounding conditions are too dirty Wire Mesh
or corrosive to use self-sealing material. The staple Wire mesh is available in various wire diameters and
holes shall be sealed with adhesive. widths. Materials for manufacture are Monel, stain-
Aluminum Jacket less steel, and Inconel. Wire mesh is used where a
Aluminum jackets shall conform to ASTM B209: Stan- strong, flexible covering that can be removed easily
dard Specification for Aluminum and Aluminum-alloy is needed.
Sheet and Plate. They are manufactured in corrugated It is secured with lacing hooks or stainless steel
or smooth shape and available in various thicknesses wire that must be additionally wrapped with tie wire
ranging from 0.010 inch to 0.024 inch, with 0.016 inch or metal straps.
being the most common. The corrugated material is Lagging
used where expansion and contraction of the piping Lagging is the covering of a previously insulated
may be a problem. These jackets also are made in pipe or piece of equipment with a cloth or fiberglass
various tempers and alloys. Vapor retarder material jacket. It is used where appearance is the primary
also can be applied. This vapor retarder may be nec- consideration, since this type of jacket offers little
essary to protect the aluminum from any corrosive or no additional insulation protection. This material
ingredient in the insulation. Fittings are fabricated also is used as a combination system that serves as a
in the shop. protective coat and adhesive.
Aluminum jackets may be secured by one of three This jacket typically is secured to the insulation
methods: banded by straps on 9-inch (180-mm) cen- with the use of lagging adhesive and/or sizing. It is
ters, by a proprietary S or Z shape, or by sheet metal available in a variety of colors and may eliminate the
screws. need for painting.
Stainless Steel Jacket
Installing Insulation for
Stainless steel jackets shall conform to ASTM A240:
Standard Specification for Chromium and Chromi-
Valves and Fittings for Piping
um-nickel Stainless Steel Plate, Sheet, and Strip for The fittings and valves on a piping system require
Pressure Vessels and for General Applications. They specially formed or made-up sections of insulation to
are manufactured in corrugated or smooth shape and complete the installation.
available in various thicknesses ranging from 0.010 One type of insulation is the preformed type that
inch to 0.019 inch, with 0.016 inch being the most is manufactured by specific size and shape to fit over
common. They are also available in various alloy types any particular fitting or valve. Such insulation is
conforming to ASTM A304: Standard Specification for available in two sections that are secured with staples,
Carbon and Alloy Steel Bars Subject to End-quench adhesive, or pressure-sensitive tape depending on the
Hardenability Requirements. They can be obtained use of a vapor retarder. This is the quickest method
in different finishes. Vapor retarder material also can of installation, but the most costly.
be applied, although it is not required for corrosive Another system uses a preformed plastic jacket
the exact size and shape of the fitting or valve. A
fiberglass blanket or sheet is cut to size and wrapped

around the bare pipe, then the jacket is placed over tank. The edges are coated with adhesive to seal it.
the insulation. The exposed edges are tucked in, and Painting is not required.
the jacket is secured with special tacks with a barb
that prevents them from pulling apart. The ends are Pipe Support Methods
sealed with pressure-sensitive tape. As the installation on a project progresses, a contrac-
For large piping, it is common to use straight tor must contend with different situations regarding
lengths of fiberglass, mitering the ends and securing the vapor retarder. Since the insulation system
them with a fiberglass jacket (lagging). selected shall be protected against the migration of
water vapor into the insulation, the integrity of the
Installing Insulation for vapor retarder must be maintained. Where a hanger
Tanks is installed directly on the pipe, the insulation must be
Where fiberglass is specified, tanks are insulated us- placed over both the pipe and the hanger. Figure 5-1
ing 24-foot boards in the thickness required. The illustrates a split-ring hanger attached directly on the
boards are placed on the tank in an appearance similar pipe. This type of hanger is not recommended for use
to bricks. They are secured with metal bands. Wire in chilled drinking water or other low-temperature
is placed over the bands as a foundation for insulat- lines.
ing cement applied over the tank to give a finished Since low-density insulation is the type most often
appearance. used, a situation arises wherein the primary consid-
Where rubber is specified, the tank is coated with erations are keeping the vapor retarder intact and
adhesive, and the rubber sheets are placed on the preventing the weight of the pipe from crushing the
insulation. Figure 5-2 illustrates several high-density
1. Pipe
2. Insulation (shown
with factory-applied,
non-metal jacket).
3. Overlap at logitudinal
joints (cut to allow
for hanger rod).
4. Tape applied at butt
joints (Pipe cover-
ing section at hanger
should extend a few
inches beyond the
hanger to facilitate
proper butt joint seal-
ing.)
5. Insulation altered to
compensate for pro-
jections on split ring
hangers (If insulation
thickness is serverely
altered and left in-
sufficient for high
temperature applica-
tions or condensation
control, insulate with
a sleeve of oversized pipe
insulation.)
6. Insulation applied in like manner around rod on cold instal-
lations.
Source: MICA
Figure 5-1 Split Ring Hanger Detail
2008 PEDH Data Book Vol 4.indd 109 10/16/2008 12:00:00 PM

1. Pipe
2. Insulation (type specified for the
line).
3. High density insulation insert (Extend
beyond the shield to facilitate proper
butt joint sealing.)
4. Factory-applied vapor-retarder jacket
securing two insulation sections to-
gether (cold application).
5. Jacketing (field-applied metal shown)
6. Metal shield
7. Wood block or wood dowel insert.
Source: MICA
Figure 5-2 Clevis Hanger - High Density Inserts

Table 5-1 Heat Loss in Btuh/ft Length of Fiberglass Insulation, ASJ Cover 150F Temperature of Pipe
Horizontal
NPS 1 1 1 2 2 3 4 5 6 8
THK HL
BARE 36 44 54 67 75 92 110 131 165 200 235 299
" 10 92 10 90 13 93 20 98 18 94 20 93 23 94 30 95 36 95 43 95 53 97 68 97
1" 7 86 8 87 9 86 11 88 11 87 13 87 15 88 18 88 22 88 27 89 32 89 38 89
1" 5 84 6 84 7 84 8 84 9 85 10 85 10 84 14 85 17 86 20 86 23 86 28 8
2" 5 82 5 83 6 83 7 83 7 83 9 83 9 83 11 84 14 84 16 84 18 84 23 85
Vertical
1 1 1 2 2 3 4 5 6 8
THK HL
BARE 32 40 49 61 69 84 100 120 152 185 217 277
" 9 92 10 90 13 93 19 99 18 95 20 94 23 94 30 96 35 96 43 96 52 97 67 98
1" 7 86 8 87 9 86 11 88 11 87 13 88 15 88 18 89 22 89 26 89 31 90 38 89
1" 5 84 6 84 7 84 8 84 9 85 10 85 10 84 14 86 16 86 20 86 23 87 28 8
2" 5 83 5 83 6 83 7 83 7 83 9 83 9 83 11 84 14 84 16 85 18 85 23 85
Source: Courtesy of Owens/Corning. HL = heat loss (BTU/h/ft length)
Notes: 80ambient temperature, ST = surface temperature (F)
0 wind velocity, Bare = bare pipe, iron pipe size
0.85 bare surface emittance, THK = thickness
0.90 surface emittance

Table 5-2 Heat Loss from Piping

Heat Loss per Inch Thickness, Based
on K Factor @ 50F Mean Temp.
Insulation Type Insulation Factor (Btu/h F ft2)
Glass fiber (ASTM C547) 1.00 0.25
Calcium silicate (ASTM C533) 1.50 0.375
Cellular glass (ASTM C552) 1.60 0.40
Rigid cellular urethane (ASTM C591) 0.66 0.165
Foamed elastomer (ASTM C534) 1.16 0.29
Mineral fiber blanket (ASTM C553) 1.20 0.30
Expanded perlite (ASTM C610) 1.50 0.375
IPS
Insulation 1 1 1 2 2 3 4 6 8 10 12
Thickness T, Tubing Size (in.)
(in.) F 1 1 1
0.5 10 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.1 1.3 1.5 1.8 2.6 3.3 4.1 4.8
50 2.5 2.9 3.5 4.1 4.8 5.5 6.5 7.7 9.6 13.5 17.2 21.1 24.8
100 5.2 6.1 7.2 8.6 9.9 11.5 13.5 15.9 19.9 28.1 35.8 43.8 51.6
150 8.1 9.5 11.2 13.4 15.5 17.9 21.0 24.8 31.9 43.8 55.7 68.2 80.2
200 11.2 13.1 15.5 18.5 21.4 24.7 29.0 34.3 42.7 60.4 76.9 94.1 110.7
250 14.6 17.1 20.2 24.1 27.9 32.2 37.8 44.7 55.7 78.8 100.3 122.6 144.2
1.0 10 0.3 0.4 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.6 0.7 0.8 1.0 1.4 1.8 2.2 2.6
50 1.6 1.9 2.2 2.5 2.9 3.2 3.7 4.4 5.4 7.4 9.4 11.4 13.4
100 3.4 3.9 4.5 5.2 5.9 6.8 7.8 9.1 11.2 15.5 19.5 23.8 27.8
150 5.3 6.1 7.0 8.2 9.3 10.5 12.2 14.2 17.4 24.1 30.4 37.0 43.3
200 7.4 8.4 9.7 11.3 12.8 14.6 16.8 19.6 24.0 33.4 42.0 51.2 59.9
250 9.6 11.0 12.6 14.8 16.7 19.0 22.0 25.6 31.4 43.6 54.9 66.9 78.2
1.5 10 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.4 0.4 0.5 0.5 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.3 1.4 1.8
50 1.3 1.5 1.7 1.9 2.2 2.4 2.8 3.2 3.9 5.3 6.6 8.0 9.3
100 2.7 3.1 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.1 5.8 6.7 8.1 11.1 13.8 16.7 19.5
150 4.3 4.8 5.5 6.3 7.1 7.9 9.1 10.4 12.6 17.2 21.5 26.0 30.3
200 5.9 6.7 7.6 8.7 9.8 11.0 12.5 14.5 17.5 23.8 29.7 36.0 41.9
250 7.8 8.7 9.9 11.4 12.8 14.4 16.4 18.9 22.8 31.1 38.9 47.1 54.8
2.0 10 0.2 0.2 0.3 0.3 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4
50 1.1 1.3 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0 2.3 2.6 3.1 4.2 5.2 6.3 7.3
100 2.4 2.7 3.0 3.4 3.8 4.2 4.8 5.5 6.5 8.8 10.9 13.1 15.2
150 3.7 4.2 4.7 5.3 5.9 6.6 7.5 8.5 10.2 13.7 17.0 20.4 23.6
200 5.2 5.8 6.5 7.4 8.2 9.1 10.3 11.8 14.1 19.0 23.5 28.2 32.7
250 6.8 7.5 8.5 9.6 10.7 11.9 13.5 15.4 18.5 24.8 30.7 36.9 42.7
2.5 10 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.4 0.4 0.5 0.7 0.8 1.0 1.2
50 1.0 1.1 1.3 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0 2.3 2.7 3.6 4.4 5.2 6.0
100 2.2 2.4 2.7 3.0 3.3 3.7 4.1 4.7 5.6 4.7 9.1 10.9 12.6
150 3.4 3.7 4.2 4.7 5.2 5.8 6.5 7.3 8.7 11.5 14.2 17.0 19.6
200 4.7 5.2 5.8 6.5 7.2 8.0 9.0 10.2 12.1 16.0 19.6 23.5 27.1
250 6.1 6.8 7.5 8.5 9.4 10.4 11.7 13.3 15.8 20.9 25.7 30.7 35.4
3.0 10 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.9 1.0
50 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0 2.4 3.1 3.8 4.5 5.2
100 2.0 2.2 2.4 2.7 3.0 33 3.7 4.2 4.9 6.5 7.9 9.4 10.8
150 3.1 3.4 3.8 4.3 4.7 5.2 5.8 5.6 7.7 10.1 12.3 14.7 16.8
200 4.3 4.8 5.3 5.9 6.5 7.2 8.0 9.0 10.7 14.0 17.0 20.3 23.3
250 5.7 6.2 6.9 7.7 8.5 9.4 10.5 11.8 13.9 18.3 22.3 26.5 30.5

insert solutions for a clevis hanger Table 5-3 Insulation Thickness - Equivalent Thickness (in.)
supporting an insulated pipe. 1 1 2 2 3
The jacketing method shown in DN NPS L1 A L1 A L1 A L1 A L1 A L1 A
both figures can be used interchange- 15 0.76 0.49 1.77 0.75 3.12 1.05 4.46 1.31
ably with any type of insulation for 20 0.75 0.56 1.45 0.75 2.68 1.05 3.90 1.31
which it is suited. 25 1 0.71 0.62 1.72 0.92 2.78 1.18 4.02 1.46
32 1 0.63 0.70 1.31 0.92 2.76 1.31 3.36 1.46
Selection of 40 1 0.60 0.75 1.49 1.05 2.42 1.31 4.13 1.73
Insulation 50 2 0.67 0.92 1.43 1.18 2.36 1.46 3.39 1.73 4.43 1.99
65 2 0.66 1.05 1.38 1.31 2.75 1.73 3.71 1.99 4.73 2.26
Thickness
80 3 0.57 1.18 1.29 1.46 2.11 1.73 2.96 1.99 3.88 2.26 4.86 2.52
There are four basic reasons for us- 90 3 0.92 1.46 1.67 1.73 2.46 1.99 3.31 2.26 4.22 2.52 5.31 2.81
ing insulation: 100 4 0.59 1.46 1.28 1.73 2.01 1.99 2.80 2.26 3.65 2.52 4.68 2.81
1. Controlling heat loss from 115 4 0.94 1.74 1.61 1.99 2.35 2.26 3.15 2.52 4.11 2.81 5.02 3.08
piping or equipment 125 5 0.58 1.74 1.20 1.99 1.89 2.26 2.64 2.52 3.54 2.81 4.40 3.08
150 6 0.54 2.00 1.13 2.26 1.79 2.52 2.60 2.81 3.36 3.08 4.17 3.34
2. Condensation control 7 1.11 2.52 1.84 2.81 2.54 3.08 3.27 3.34 4.25 3.67
3. Personnel protection 200 8 1.18 2.81 1.81 3.08 2.49 3.34 3.39 3.67 4.15 3.93
9 1.17 3.08 1.79 3.34 2.62 3.67 3.32 3.93 4.06 4.19
4. Economics
250 10 1.09 3.34 1.85 3.67 2.50 3.93 3.18 4.19 3.90 4.45
Controlling Heat Loss 300 12 1.22 3.93 1.82 4.19 2.45 4.45 3.10 4.71 3.79 4.97
350 14 1.07 4.19 1.65 4.45 2.26 4.71 2.90 4.97 3.57 5.24
Increased concern about conserva-
400 16 1.06 4.71 1.63 4.97 2.23 5.24 2.86 5.50 3.50 5.76
tion and energy use has resulted in 450 18 1.05 5.24 1.62 5.50 2.21 5.76 2.82 6.02 3.45 6.28
the insulation of piping to control 500 20 1.05 5.76 1.61 6.02 2.19 6.28 2.79 6.54 3.41 6.81
heat loss becoming one of the prima- 600 24 1.04 6.81 1.59 7.07 2.16 7.33 2.74 7.59 3.35 7.85
ry considerations in design. Heat loss Source: Owens/Corning. where
is basically an economic consider- DN = nominal diameter r1 = inner radius of insulation (in.)
ation, since the lessening of heat loss NPS = nominal pipe size r2 = outer radius of insulation (in.)
L1 = equivalent thickness (in.) In = log to the base e (natural log)
produces a more cost-efficient piping
L1 = r2 In (r2/r1) A = square feet of pipe insulation surface per lineal foot of pipe
system. The proper use of insulation
can have dramatic results.
Table 5-4 Dew-point Temperature

Dry Bulb Percent Relative Humidity
Temp. (F) 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95 100
5 -35 -30 -25 -21 -17 -14 -12 -10 -8 -6 -5 -4 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 5
10 -31 -25 -20 -16 -13 -10 -7 -5 -3 -2 0 2 3 4 5 7 8 9 10
15 -28 -21 -16 -12 -8 -5 -3 -1 1 3 5 6 8 9 10 12 13 14 15
20 -24 -16 -11 -8 -4 -2 2 4 6 8 10 11 13 14 15 16 18 19 20
25 -20 -15 -8 -4 0 3 6 8 10 12 15 16 18 19 20 21 23 24 25
30 -15 -9 -3 2 5 8 11 13 15 17 20 22 23 24 25 27 28 29 30
35 -12 -5 1 5 9 12 15 18 20 22 24 26 27 28 30 32 33 34 35
40 -7 0 5 9 14 16 19 22 24 26 28 29 31 33 35 36 38 39 40
45 -4 3 9 13 17 20 23 25 28 30 32 34 36 38 39 41 43 44 45
50 -1 7 13 17 21 24 27 30 32 34 37 39 41 42 44 45 47 49 50
55 3 11 16 21 25 28 32 34 37 39 41 43 45 47 49 50 52 53 55
60 6 14 20 25 29 32 35 39 42 44 46 48 50 52 54 55 57 59 60
65 10 18 24 28 33 38 40 43 46 49 51 53 55 57 59 60 62 63 65
70 13 21 28 33 37 41 45 48 50 53 55 57 60 62 64 65 67 68 70
75 17 25 32 37 42 46 49 52 55 57 60 62 64 66 69 70 72 74 75
80 20 29 35 41 46 50 54 57 60 62 65 67 69 72 74 75 77 78 80
85 23 32 40 45 50 54 58 61 64 67 69 72 74 76 78 80 82 83 85
90 27 36 44 49 54 58 62 66 69 72 74 77 79 81 83 85 87 89 90
95 30 40 48 54 59 63 67 70 73 76 79 82 84 86 88 90 91 93 95
100 34 44 52 58 63 68 71 75 78 81 84 86 88 91 92 94 96 98 100
110 41 52 60 66 71 77 80 84 87 90 92 95 98 100 102 104 106 108 110
120 48 60 68 74 79 85 88 92 96 99 102 105 109 109 112 114 116 118 120
125 52 63 72 78 84 89 93 97 100 104 107 109 111 114 117 119 121 123 125

Table 5-5 Insulation Thickness to Prevent Condensation,

50F Service Temperature and 70F Ambient Temperature
Relative Humidity (%)
20 50 70 80 90
Nom.
Pipe Size
DN (in.) THK HG ST THK HG ST THK HG ST THK HG ST THK HG ST
15 0.50 0.5 2 66 0.5 2 66 0.5 2 66 1.0 2 68
20 0.75 0.5 2 67 0.5 2 67 0.5 2 67 0.5 2 67
25 1.00 0.5 3 66 0.5 3 66 0.5 3 66 1.0 2 68
32 1.25 0.5 3 66 0.5 3 66 0.5 3 66 1.0 3 67
40 1.50 0.5 4 65 0.5 4 65 0.5 4 65 1.0 3 67
50 2.00 0.5 5 66 0.5 5 66 0.5 5 66 1.0 3 67
65 2.50 Condensation 0.5 5 65 0.5 5 65 0.5 5 65 1.0 4 67
control not
75 3.00 0.5 7 65 0.5 7 65 0.5 7 65 1.0 4 67
required for this
90 3.50 condition 0.5 8 65 0.5 8 65 0.5 8 65 1.0 4 68
100 4.00 0.5 8 65 0.5 8 65 0.5 8 65 1.0 5 67
125 5.00 0.5 10 65 0.5 10 65 0.5 10 65 1.0 6 67
150 6.00 0.5 12 65 0.5 12 65 0.5 12 65 1.0 7 67
200 8.00 1.0 9 67 1.0 9 67 1.0 9 67 1.0 9 67
250 10.00 1.0 11 67 1.0 11 67 1.0 11 67 1.0 11 67
300 12.00 1.0 12 67 1.0 12 67 1.0 12 67 1.0 12 67
Source: Courtesy Certainteed.
Notes: 25 mm = 1 in.
THK = Insulation thickness (in.).
HG = Heat gain/lineal foot (pipe) 28 ft (flat) (Btu). ST = Surface temperature (F).
The insulation installed on domestic hot water, joints and overlaps must be sealed tightly. This is done
hot water return, and chilled drinking water systems through one of three methods:
is intended to keep heat loss from the water to a 1. Rigid jackets such as metallic or plastic
minimum. Since fiberglass insulation is the type most
often used, Table 5-1 is provided to give the heat loss 2. Membranes such as laminated foils
through vertical and horizontal piping as well as the 3. Mastics applied over the pipe, either emulsion or
heat loss through bare pipe. Table 5-2 is given for solvent type
piping intended to be installed outdoors. Table 5-4 shows the dry-bulb dew point tem-
When calculating the heat loss from round sur- perature at which condensation forms. Table 5-5 is
faces, such as a pipe, the plumbing engineer should provided to indicate the thickness of fiberglass insu-
remember that the inside surface of the insulation lation with water at 50F (10C) needed to prevent
has a different diameter than the outside. Therefore, condensation.
a means must be found to determine the equivalent
thickness that shall be used. This is done by the use Personnel Protection
of Table 5-3. To read this table, enter with the actual When hot water flows through an uninsulated piping
pipe size and insulation thickness, and then read the system, it is usually at a temperature that may scald
equivalent thickness of the insulation. any person touching the pipe. Insulation is used to
Software endorsed by the U.S. Department of lower the surface temperatures of hot water pipes to
Energy and distributed by the North American prevent such harm. A surface temperature of 120F
Insulation Manufacturers Association (NAIMA) (49C) has been shown to not cause harm to a person
is available from www.pipeinsulation.org that will coming in contact with the pipe. Table 5-6 gives the
calculate heat loss, condensation control, and envi- thickness of fiberglass insulation and the surface
ronmental emissions. temperature of the insulation. The thickness shown
in this table should be compared with that shown in
Condensation Control Table 5-1 or 5-2 to see which thickness is greater. The
As mentioned, water vapor in the air condenses on a larger thickness should be used.
cold surface if the temperature of the cold surface is
at or below the dew point. If the temperature is above Economics
the dew point, condensation does not form. The pur- The two economic factors involved are the cost of
pose of a vapor retarder is to minimize or eliminate insulation and the cost of energy. To calculate the
such condensation. For this to be accomplished, the energy savings in financial terms, the following are
needed:

Table 5-6 Insulation Thickness for Personnel Protection,

120F Maximum Surface Temperature, 80F Ambient Temperature
Service Temperature
250 350 450 550
Nom. Pipe HL HL HL HL
Size (in.) TH LF SF ST TH LF SF ST TH LF SF ST TH LF SF ST
0.50 0.5 25 51 109 1.0 30 40 104 1.0 48 64 118 1.5 55 52 113
0.75 0.5 25 41 104 0.5 42 68 120 1.5 45 43 107 1.5 64 61 118
1.00 0.5 34 55 112 1.0 37 40 105 1.0 60 66 120 1.5 69 58 117
1.25 0.5 37 49 109 1.0 47 51 112 1.5 55 42 107 1.5 77 59 118
1.50 0.5 46 61 117 1.0 48 46 109 1.5 62 47 110 2.0 70 40 106
2.00 0.5 50 55 114 1.0 56 47 110 1.5 70 48 111 2.0 84 48 112
2.50 0.5 59 56 115 1.5 45 26 97 1.5 72 41 107 1.5 102 59 119
3.00 0.5 75 64 120 1.0 76 52 114 1.5 93 53 115 2.0 110 55 117
3.50 1.0 43 25 96 1.0 71 41 107 1.5 93 46 111 2.0 112 49 113
4.00 0.5 89 61 119 1.0 90 52 114 1.5 112 56 117 2.0 131 58 119
5.00 1.0 67 33 102 1.0 110 55 117 1.5 134 59 120 2.5 131 46 112
6.00 1.0 79 35 103 1.0 130 57 119 2.0 124 44 110 2.5 150 48 114
8.00 1.0 95 33 103 1.0 157 55 118 2.0 153 45 112 2.5 177 48 114
10.00 1.0 121 36 105 1.5 136 37 106 2.0 179 45 112 2.5 215 51 117
12.00 1.0 129 32 103 1.0 212 54 118 2.0 207 46 113 2.5 248 52 118
Source: Certainteed.
Notes: TH = Thickness of insulation (in.)
HL = heat loss (Btu/h)
LF = Heat loss per lineal foot of pipe (Btu/h)
SF = Heat loss per square foot of outside insulation surface (Btu/h)
ST = Surface temperature of insulation (F)
Table 5-7 Time for Dormant Water to Freeze

Fiberglass Insulation
Time to 32F
(0C) Time to 32F
Pipe or Tubing Size Air Temp., Water Temp., Insulation Thickness, DORMANT (0C) Solid
(in.) F (C) F (C) in. (mm) water (h) Ice (h) a Flow b
5
8 OD CT -10 (-23.3) 50 (10) 0.66 (N) (19.1) 0.30 3.10 0.33
118 OD CT -10 (-23.3) 50 (10) 0.74 (N) (19.1) 0.75 8.25 0.44
158 OD CT -10 (-23.3) 50 (10) 0.79 (N) (19.1) 1.40 14.75 0.57
318 OD CT -10 (-23.3) 50 (10) 0.88 (N) (19.1) 3.5 37.70 0.83
1 IPS -10 (-23.3) 50 (10) 0.76 (N) (19.1) 0.75 8.25 0.48
2 IPS -10 (-23.3) 50 (10) 0.85 (N) (19.1) 2.10 22.70 0.67
3 IPS -10 (-23.3) 50 (10) 0.89 (N) (19.1) 3.60 38.40 0.90
5 IPS -10 (-23.3) 50 (10) 0.95 (N) (19.1) 6.95 73.60 1.25
Foamed Plastic Insulation

Time to 32F
(0C) Time to 32F
Pipe or Tubing Size Air Temp., Water Temp., Insulation Thickness, DORMANT (0C) Solid
(in.) F (C) F (C) in. (mm) water (h) Ice (h) a Flow b
5
8 OD CT -10 (-23.3) 50 (10) 1 (25.4) 0.60 6.20 0.16
118 OD CT -10 (-23.3) 50 (10) 1 (25.4) 1.30 13.70 0.26
158 OD CT -10 (-23.3) 50 (10) 1 (25.4) 2.35 24.75 0.32
318 OD CT -10 (-23.3) 50 (10) 1 (25.4) 5.55 58.65 0.52
1 IPS -10 (-23.3) 50 (10) 1 (25.4) 1.50 15.75 0.25
2 IPS -10 (-23.3) 50 (10) 1 (25.4) 3.80 40.15 0.39
3 IPS -10 (-23.3) 50 (10) 1 (25.4) 6.05 64.20 0.53
5 IPS -10 (-23.3) 50 (10) 1 (25.4) 11.15 118.25 0.78
a
No way to calculate slush. 32F (0C) ice value higher due to heat of fusion.
b
Flow is expressed as gal/h/ft of pipe (12.4 Uhr-m).
Example: For 100 ft. (30.5m) pipe run, multiply value shown by 100. This is the minimum continuous flow to keep water from freezing.
OD CT = outside diameter, copper tube
IPS = iron pipe size

Service temperature of
the surface
Pipe size or flat
Btu difference between
air and surface or flat
(linear feet or square
feet)
Efficiency of heating
equipment
Annual operating hours
Cost of fuel
If the plumbing designer
wishes to make an economic
comparison among various
insulation systems, many
formulas and computer pro-
grams are available for the
purpose. Discussion of these
methods is beyond the scope
of this chapter.
Freeze
Protection
No amount of insulation can
prevent the freezing of water
(or sewage) in a pipeline
that remains dormant over
a period of time. Studies by
the U.S. Army Cold Regions
Research and Engineering
Laboratory (CRREL) have
shown that the freezing
of water in pipes is much
more complicated and can
Figure 5-3 Temperature Drop of Flowing Water in a Pipeline
be blocked much earlier than
had been thought. A2 =Exposed pipe surface area, square feet
Table 5-7 is provided as a direct reading table for TW =Water temperature, F
estimating the time it takes for dormant water to TA =Lowest air temperature, F
freeze. For some installations, it is not possible for the D =Inside diameter of pipe, feet
water to remain dormant. If the water is flowing, as it
does in a drainage line, use Figure 5-3, a nomogram Insulation Design
that gives the temperature drop of flowing water. If Considerations
the contents cannot be prevented from freezing, the Following are some general items to consider when
plumbing engineer can add hot water to raise the designing the insulation for a plumbing system.
temperature, heat trace the line, or provide sufficient
velocity to keep the contents from freezing. 1. Insulation attenuates sound from the flow of
To calculate the flow of water in a line to prevent pipe contents. Where sound is a problem, such
freezing, use Equation 5-2. as in theaters, adding a mass-filled vinyl layer
over the insulation can lessen the sound.
Equation 5-2
2. The health and safety involved with the storage
A A2(0.5TW TA+16) and handling of the insulation and/or jacketing
gpm= 1 2
40.1 D (TW 32) materials can be alleviated by proper adherence
where to established safe storage and handling
gpm =Flow rate, gallons per minute procedures.
A1 =Pipe flow area, square feet

3. The rate of expansion affects the efficiency of

the insulation over a long period. The difference
between the expansion of insulation and the
expansion of the pipe eventually leads to gaps
after numerous flexings.
4. Protect the insulation against physical damage
by adding a strong jacket or delaying installation
on a piping system. It has been found that
workmen walking on the pipe pose the greatest
danger.
5. If the insulation is to be installed in a corrosive
atmosphere, the proper jacket shall be installed
to withstand the most severe conditions.
6. Union regulations should be reviewed to ensure
that the insulation contractor installs a jacket.
Some metal jackets above a certain thickness are
installed by the general contractor.
7. Space conditions may dictate the use of one
insulation system over another to fit in a
confined space.
Resources
American Society of Heating, Refrigerating, and
Air-conditioning Engineers (ASHRAE) 90.1:
Energy Standard for Buildings Except Low-Rise
Residential Buildings.
Frankel, M. Facility Piping Systems Handbook.
McGraw-Hill. 1996.
Kenny, T. M. Guard Against Freezing in Water
Lines. Chemical Engineering Progress, Sep-
tember 1991.
Commercial and Industrial Insulation Standards
Manual. Midwest Insulation Contractors Asso-
ciation. 1999.
OKeefe, W. Thermal Insulation. Power Magazine,
1974.
Depth of Freeze and Thaw in Soils. Technical Manual
TM-5-852-6. U.S. Army.

6 Hangers and
Supports
Properly holding piping systems in place requires

more than simply specifying hangers, supports, and
anchors. The plumbing engineer also must account
for the specific environmental considerations and
rest to the installers. However, choosing the correct
hanger is an integral part of the engineering and de-
sign of the plumbing system. The improper selection
of hangers and supports invites failure of an entire
the substances, including quantity and composition, piping system.
expected to flow through the system.
In the early 1900s, when simpler environments HANGER AND SUPPORT
prevailed, piping system supports and hangers were CONSIDERATIONS
specified to help support or firmly anchor piping sys- A major element of the plumbing engineers design
tems, prevent pipe runs from sagging, allow for some role is to properly study, evaluate, and analyze the
motion to help alleviate breakage, and provide for an piping layout in relation to the structure and equip-
adequate slope to accommodate drainage or flow. It ment. He or she also must consider the totality of the
was recognized that vibration within piping systems piping systems that will be utilized and the surround-
could have various effects, and early engineering texts ing environmental and physical characteristics that
suggested that some soft material, such as felt, be used will come to bear on the overall performance of the
to help stop motion and deaden sound. completed system.
However, what was once an easy design exercise Often overlooked is the need for a more technical
that specified a simple device for attaching a pipe specification or performance characteristic regarding
to a horizontal or vertical surface, holding a pipe in piping support. The most common hanger and support
place, or supporting a long run of pipe has evolved into detail specified on plans is a simple statement that
an elaborate evaluation of the total environment in indicates the piping shall be supported in a good and
which the piping system will function. The plumbing substantial manner in accordance with all local codes
engineer now must be aware of structural compo- and ordinances. The detail may go on to specify the
nents, chemical interactions, metal fatigue analysis, horizontal or vertical spacing of the supports.
acoustics, and even electric current transference. The standard codes on plumbing systems provide
The previously simple pipe support has become a little help to the plumbing engineer. Their admoni-
complex element in the overall design and specifications are simple:
tion of a piping and plumbing system. The plumbing All water piping shall be adequately supported to
engineer must be cognizant of a multitude of environ- the satisfaction of the administrative authority.
mental and physical characteristics that may interact
with and affect the overall system. The engineer often Piping shall be supported for the weight and the
needs to go beyond the simple specifications for sup- design of the material used.
port types and hanger distances prescribed in basic Supports, hangers, and anchors are devices for
plumbing codes. In fact, he or she may need to consult properly supporting and securing pipe, fixtures,
with other engineering disciplines and with the pipe and equipment.
and pipe support manufacturers for the correct ma- Suspended piping shall be supported at intervals
terials to specify for particular applications. not to exceed those shown in Table 6-1.
The engineer must not underestimate the im-
All piping shall be supported in such a manner
portance of the hangers and supports used for the
as to maintain its alignment and prevent
plumbing system. Supporting a pipe on a wall or sagging.
from a ceiling seems simple enoughjust find the
right hanger for the job in the catalog and leave the
Hangers and anchors shall be of sufficient specific piping system elements. In this initial deter-
strength to support the weight of the pipe and mination, the engineer considers not only the weight
its contents. of the piping itself, but also that of all associated ele-
Piping shall be isolated from incompatible ments, including valves; fittings; the bulk weight and
materials. flow characteristics of the substance to flow through
or be carried within the pipe; and thermal or acousti-
cal insulation or other pipe-covering material.
Hangers and Supports as Part
In addition, depending on the piping systems lo-
of the Piping System
cation, other natural and manmade forces that may
The plumbing engineer must consider a number of create an additional load on the piping system, such
factors to incorporate hangers, supports, and anchors as rain, ice, and snow for piping systems exposed
into the design of a proper piping system. Given the to natural weather conditions, must be considered.
wide variety of environmental and physical charac- When a portion of the piping system will be exposed
teristics around which projects are designed, it is not and relatively easy to reach, the engineer may want
possible to provide an exhaustive listing of potential to give some consideration to the potential for unin-
areas that need evaluation. However, some basic tended uses, such as people using exposed portions of
considerations include the following. the piping system to hang from or use as supports for
Loads various items or devices (e.g., plants, lights, etc.).
What will be the total load of the piping system? The chosen hanger, support, and anchor system
First and foremost, basic engineering requires a must, at a minimum, accommodate the piping system
performance and load calculation to be conducted to load. Moreover, the plumbing engineer needs to work
determine the physical amount and weight of all the closely with the structural engineer to ensure that the
Table 6-1 Maximum Horizontal Pipe Hanger and Support Spacing

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Nominal Std Wt Steel Pipe Copper Tube
Pipe or Water Vapor Water Vapor Fire Ductile Iron Cast Iron Fiberglass
Tube Size Service Service Service Service Protection Pipe Soil Glass Plastic Reinforced
in (mm) ft (m) ft (m) ft (m) ft (m)
(6) 5(1.5) 5(1.5)
Follow requirements of the National Fire Protection Association.
service steel pipe.

weight of pipe and contents, the span should be limited to the maximum spacing for water
mm) and under, installed on ASME B31 projects, that are subject to loading other than
the bell and at change of direction and branch connections. For pipe sizes six (6) in. (150
20 ft (6.1 m) max spacing; min of one (1) hanger per pipe section close to the joint behind
barrel, also at change of direction and branch connections.

10 ft (3.0 m) max spacing; min of one (1) hanger per pipe section close to joint on the
8 ft (2.4 m) max spacing, follow pipe manufacturers recommendations.
Follow pipe manufacturers recommendations for material and service condition.
Follow pipe manufacturers recommendations for material and service condition.

3
8 (10) 7(2.1) 8(2.4) 5(1.5) 6(1.8)
(15) 7(2.1) 8(2.4) 5(1.5) 6(1.8)
(20) 7(2.1) 9(2.7) 5(1.5) 7(2.1)
1 (25) 7(2.1) 9(2.7) 6(1.8) 8(2.4)
1 (32) 7(2.1) 9(2.7) 7(2.1) 9(2.7)
1 (40) 9(2.7) 12(3.7) 8(2.4) 10(3.0)
2 (50) 10(3.0) 13(4.0) 8(2.4) 11(3.4)
2 (65) 11(3.4) 14(4.3) 9(2.7) 13(4.0)
3 (80) 12(3.7) 15(4.6) 10(3.0) 14(4.3)
3 (90) 13(4.0) 16(4.9) 11(3.4) 15(4.6)
4 (100) 14(4.3) 17(5.2) 12(3.7) 16(4.9)
5 (125) 16(4.9) 19(5.8) 13(4.0) 18(5.5)
6 (150) 17(5.2) 21(6.4) 14(4.3) 20(6.1)
8 (200) 19(5.8) 24(7.3) 16(4.9) 23(7.0)
10 (250) 22(6.7) 26(7.9) 18(5.5) 25(7.6)
12 (300) 23(7.0) 30(9.1) 19(5.8) 28(8.5)
14 (350) 25(7.6) 32(9.8)
16 (400) 27(8.2) 35(10.7)
18 (450) 28(8.5) 37(11.3)
20 (500) 30(9.1) 39(11.9)
24 (600) 32(9.8) 42(12.8)
30 (750) 33(10.1) 44(13.4)
Source: From MSS SP-69-2002, Pipe Hangers and Supports: Selection and Application, reprinted with permission of Manufacturers Standardization Society.
Notes:
1.For spacing supports incorporating type 40 shields, see MSS SP69-2002, Table 5.
2. Does not apply where span calculations are made or where there are concentrated loads between supports, such as flanges, valves, and specialties, or changes in direction
requiring additional supports.
3.Unbalanced forces of hydrostatic or hydrodynamic origin (thrust forces) unless restrained externally can result in pipe movement and separation of joints if the joints of the
system are not of a restrained joint design. (For pressure piping with joints not having a restraining design, other positive restraining means such as clamps, rods, and/or thrust
blocking shall be used to maintain the integrity of the joints.)

Chapter 6Hangers and Supports 119
buildings structure will be able to support the load The plumbing engineer must design a piping
created by the attachment of the piping system. This hanger and support system to handle extreme pres-
load calculation also may incorporate other elements sure fluctuations and also ensure that the buildings
as indicated below. structure can handle the applied loads created by the
Thermal Stresses movement of the piping system.
What stresses and accompanying limitations will Structural Stresses
be imposed on the piping system? A wide variety of Perhaps the most obvious of all external influences
external, internal, and thermal stresses need to be on a piping system are the structural elements to
accommodated by the hangers, supports, and anchors which the piping system must be attached and pass
for the piping system. through, such as wood, steel, and glass. Every natural
A number of external and internal influences and manmade material is subject to contraction and
may need to be considered as they relate to thermal expansion due to internal and external effects. Many
effects and the accompanying movements that can of these structural stresses must be accommodated by
occur within a system. Hangers and supports must the plumbing engineer within the design of the hang-
provide for flexibility and axial (twisting), latitudinal, ers and supports for the piping system. Every building
and longitudinal motions. must itself be engineered to handle the stresses of the
Thermal events subject the piping system to both basic structural components.
internal and external influences resulting in con- For example, the diameter of the metal dome of
tractions and expansions, which can be gradual or the Capitol building in Washington, D.C., is known
sudden in their movements. Here again, natural and to expand by up to 6 inches when heated by the sun
manmade environments must be taken into account. during the summer. Anchors and supports of piping
Whenever the piping system and its surrounding systems that initially are attached to vertical metal
environment are subject to any heating or cooling structural components and transition to horizontal
events, the hangers and supports must be able to attachments to concrete structural components must
accommodate the contraction and expansion effects. contend with the contraction and expansion of the
In addition, the hangers also must be able to accom- piping system materials as well as the expansion and
modate the effects of heating and cooling events that contraction of the structural elements.
affect the substances being carried within the piping Natural Environmental Conditions
system (e.g., certain liquids flow at different velocities
The susceptibility of a piping system to natural
under different temperatures).
conditions must be accounted for within the piping
Even in a piping system with thermal consid-
system and the accompanying hangers, supports, and
erations accounted for by design elements such as
anchors. The major effect of these natural environ-
expansion loops, the accompanying lateral movement
mental conditions is on the basic building structure.
should be accommodated by buttressing with the
However, within structures designed to handle ex-
proper hangers and supports.
treme natural phenomena, the piping system itself
Pressure Fluctuations must be hardened, or conditioned.
Just as with thermal stresses, pressure fluctuations Typical natural phenomena consist of seismic forc-
that occur because of the substance being trans- es and sustainable periods of high winds, including
ported within the piping system are accompanied hurricanes and typhoons. These types of phenomena
by contraction and expansion effects that need to be create major stresses and loads on a buildings struc-
accommodated by the proper hangers and supports. ture. For instance, an extreme high-rise building,
These pressure fluctuations are often complex, as they such as the Empire State Building in New York City,
involve the conduct of fluids, gases, and semisolids is known to move 4 inches to 12 inches laterally in
being transported in an enclosed environment. high winds. In zones of known natural phenomena,
Changes in pressure can create unrealized stresses such as areas susceptible to earth movement, the
on the hangers and supports for the piping system. plumbing engineer must engineer the piping and
The condition referred to as water hammer can support systems to sustain the shocks, stresses, and
cause movement and vibration within a piping system loads inherent with and applied by these extreme
that, if too firmly or rigidly anchored, can fail, which forces. The engineer must refer to applicable building
exacerbates the condition. Water hammer can occur codes to determine the seismic design category for any
within any piping system carrying liquids when there mandated piping system support requirements.
is a significant fluctuation of flow volume or pressure While a plumbing system may not be expected to
or when a contaminant substance, such as air, enters survive the complete destruction of a buildings struc-
the piping system. ture, it is expected to survive intact and working in
the event that the building structure itself survives.

Reactivity and Conductivity Acoustics

Considerations For certain structures, the engineer may need to
The plumbing engineer often needs to be an environ- consider various acoustical aspects related to piping
mental and engineering detective to design a piping systems. In general, two significant types of acousti-
system for a building. The hangers and supports cal annoyances must be considered. The first is noise
vital to providing piping system integrity often also such as the sound of liquid rushing through a pipe or
must provide protection from unexpected natural and a harmonic resonance that starts a pipe ringing. In
manmade activities, events, and phenomena totally these instances, the engineer must ensure that the
unrelated to structure, stresses, loads, and similar piping system and the accompanying supports receive
engineering events. proper insulation.
Just as the engineer must consider the makeup The second type of acoustic effect that must be
of the interior surfaces of the piping material, he or considered is that created by vibration and movement
she also must consider the exterior components of the within the piping system. This acoustic anomaly
piping system that will be subject to environmental requires a hanger and support system that offers a
and manmade conditions. The hangers and supports combination of three-dimensional flexibility to ac-
must be factored into this reactive equation. count for lateral, longitudinal, and axial movements
Reactive conditions can consist of chemical reac- of the piping system and a sound- and vibration-
tions between unlike materials or the introduction insulating material or anchor integrated into the
of a reactive substance or electrical conductivity that hanger.
can occur between different materials due to electri- Manmade Environmental Conditions
cal leakage onto a piping system. These reactive
The plumbing engineer also should be cognizant of
and conductivity concerns can be unobtrusive and
any manmade environmental conditions that can af-
unexpected. Regardless, they can be the cause of
fect the piping system. These created conditions can
unexpected failure in the hangers or supports of the
cause uncalculated stresses and loads on the system
piping system.
and lead to premature failure. Created environmental
This type of failure can be especially acute in unex-
conditions that can result in resonance or vibration
pected areas. Chemical fumes, salt water, and cleaning
affecting interior structural systems include major
liquids can cause a chemical reaction between two
traffic arteries with significant automotive and truck
differing metals, one of the hanger or support and one
traffic; airport takeoff and landing patterns; nearby
of the pipe. Initial indicators of potential failure can
rivers and canals; potential for nearby future con-
be seen in corrosion or in the compounds produced
struction; underground digging; and underground
by chemical reaction that attach to the hangers and
traffic, such as subways and railroad tunnels.
supports in inhospitable environments such as boiler
rooms or specialty gas and liquid systems. General
It is vital that such reactive conditions be consid- The old adage the whole is only as strong as its
ered and that the engineer specify compatible pipe individual parts applies directly to piping hangers
and support materials or provide for protective coat- and supports. Countless environmental and physical
ings or materials. It is especially important to ensure conditions can be considered when choosing the cor-
that the interior portions of hangers, supports, and rect hanger, support, or anchor.
clamps that come in contact with piping also are Nothing, however, substitutes for experience and
subject to the protective coatings; otherwise, they knowledge. The engineer should work directly with
will be prone to failure as the material is destroyed a pipes manufacturer regarding the proper spacing
from the inside out. criteria and hanging methods for the pipe that is to
Similarly, the effects of electrical current seepage be specified.
or leakage can cause unexpected but known effects In the end, plumbing engineering is as much a
between two dissimilar materials. The plumbing science as an art. While the number of variables that
engineer may need to evaluate the potential for this can be examined in choosing hangers and supports
electrical leakage, especially in common raceways for a plumbing system has no limits, practicality and
where piping and conduit are placed side by side, resource limitations also must be taken into consid-
and provide suitable protection via the hangers and eration.
supports. A common example of this is the galvanic
corrosion that occurs in copper pipe when steel hang- Hanger and Support
ers are used. Selection and Installation
Hanger Types
Hangers, supports, and clamps come in a wide variety
of materials, shapes, and sizes (see Figure 6-1). While

Pipe Clamps
VARIATIONS
OFFSET PIPE
CLAMP
ADJ. STEEL YOKE TYPE SEISMIC PIPE CLAMP

CARBON OR ALLOY STEEL PIPE CLAMP
CLEVIS HANGER PIPE CLAMP STEEL THREE BOLT TYPE 4
TYPE 1 TYPE 2 PIPE CLAMP
TYPE 3
PIPE HANGER ADJ. SWIVEL PIPE ADJ. STEEL BAND HGR. EXTENSION PIPE OR ADJ. BAND HGR.
TYPE 5 RING SPLIT RING TYPE TYPE 7 RISER CLAMP TYPE 9
OR SOLID RING TYPE TYPE 8
TYPE 6
ADJ. SWIVEL RING SPLIT PIPE RING W/WO EXTENSION SPLIT PIPE CLAMP
BAND TYPE TURNBUCKLE ADJ HINGED OR TWO BOLT
TYPE 10 TYPE 11 TYPE 12
Threaded Products
STEEL TURNBUCKLE CLEVIS SWIVEL TURN- MALLEABLE IRON STEEL WELDLESS

TYPE 13 (STEEL, BRIDGE) BUCKLE SOCKET EYE NUT
TYPE 14 TYPE 15 TYPE 16 TYPE 17
Concrete Inserts
U-BOLT
STEEL OR MALLEABLE
TYPE 24
CONCRETE INSERT
TYPE 18
Figure 6-1 Types of Hangers and Supports

Sources: Details of hanger and support types are from MSS SP-69-2002, Pipe Hangers and Supports: Selection and Application, reprinted with permission of Manufacturers
Standardization Society; supplementary details are courtesy of TOLCO.

Beam Clamps
TOP BEAM C-CLAMP SIDE BEAM OR CHAN- CENTER BEAM - TYPE 21 WELDED BEAM ATTACHMENT
TYPE 19 NEL CLAMP TYPE 22
TYPE 20 AS SHOWN OR INVERTED
LESS BOLT
VARIATION
C-CLAMP STEEL REVERSIBLE C-CLAMP TOP BEAM CLAMP - TYPE 25

TYPE 23 W/ LOCK NUT
TYPE 23
VARIATIONS
TOP BEAM HOOK TOP BEAM CLAMP

PIPE CLIP SIDE BEAM CLAMP
TYPE 26 TYPE 27
STEEL BEAM CLAMP LINKED STEEL CLAMP MALLEABLE BEAM CLAMP

W/ EYE NUT W/ EYE NUT W/WO EXTENSION PIECE
Brackets
VARIATIONS
LIGHT WELDED STEEL

BRACKET
TYPE 31
MEDIUM WELDED STEEL

BRACKET
TYPE 32
WELDED KNEE O BRACKET SIDE BEAM BRACKET
HEAVY WELDED STEEL BRACKET TYPE 34
BRACKET
TYPE 33
Figure 6-1 Types of Hangers and Supports (continued)

Pipe Slides, Supports, Anchors, and Shields
PIPE SLIDE & SLIDE PLATE PIPE SADDLE SUPPORT PIPE STANCHION SADDLE
ADJ. PIPE SADDLE SUPPORT STEEL PIPE COVERING PROTECTION SHIELD

TYPE 38 PROTECTION SADDLE TYPE 40
TYPE 39
Pipe Rollers
SINGLE PIPE ROLL CARSON OR ALLOY STEEL

TYPE 41 RISER CLAMP
TYPE 42
ADJ. ROLLER HANGER PIPE ROLL COMPLETE PIPE ROLL & PLATE ADJ. PIPE ROLL & BASE
W/WO SWIVEL TYPE 44 TYPE 45 TYPE 46
TYPE 43
RESTRAINT CONTROL SPRING CUSHION SPRING CUSHION ROLL


Spring Hangers and Constant Supports
SPRING SWAY BRACE VARIABLE SPRING BASE

TYPE 50 SUPPORT
TYPE 52
VARIABLE SPRING TRA-

PEZE HANGER
TYPE 53
VARIABLE SPRING HANG-

ER
TYPE 51
CONSTANT SUPPORT HANG-

ER HORIZONTAL TYPE
TYPE 54 CONSTANT SUPPORT HANG-
ER VERTICAL TYPE
TYPE 55
HORIZONTAL
CONSTANT SUPPORT HANG- PLATE LUG
TRAVELER
ER TRAPEZE TYPE TYPE 57
TYPE 58
TYPE 56
the major purpose of the hangers shown is to support horizontal, vertical, and axial movements and fluc-
the loads and stresses imposed on a piping system, tuations.
specification of the correct hanger is a vital component The most typical selection criterion used is the one
for the overall structural integrity of the building most closely associated with the type of pipe material
itself. The structure must be able to handle the loads and the temperature fluctuations within the system.
and stresses of the piping system, and the hanger and This simple selection process requires the correct
support system must be engineered to provide flex- hanger choice to be made from Table 6-2. Then, based
ibility, durability, and structural strength. on that hanger choice and the temperature of the
Selection Criteria overall piping system, Table 6-3 can be used to select
the appropriate hanger.
To ensure proper hanger and support selection, the
However, this selection process relies on averages
plumbing engineer must determine or be cognizant of
and standards. It does not take into account all the
the degrees of freedom that will be necessary within
three-dimensional fluctuations and movements that,
the piping system due to its operating characteris-
depending on the structure and all the associated or
tics. These degrees of freedom need to be considered
potential stresses and loads, will affect the overall
in a three-dimensional space to account for lateral,
plumbing system.

Tables 6-2 and 6-3 should be used as guidelines plumbing system loadings, such as valves, flanges,
for selecting the most suitable type of hanger for filters, access ports, tanks, motors, drip, splash and
the support requirement at each incremental step of condensate drainage, pipe shielding and insulation;
the design process. These tables offer the basics of and other specialty design requirements.
hanger selectiona variety of hanger choices and the Anchoring
material composition most suited for the temperature
The strength, safety, and integrity of the plumbing
characteristics that will affect the piping system.
system depend on the hangers or supports that are
What these tables cannot do is substitute for the
specified. How much additional design work is re-
engineering and design processes that determine the
quired as part of the plumbing system depends on the
proper hanger selection based on the environmental
specification of the original proposal and the overall
and physical influences that will affect the different
responsibilities of the plumbing engineer. It is not
elements of the piping system under varying condi-
enough to simply specify a hanger or supportan
tions. The most instructive aspect of Table 6-3 is
important consideration is how it is anchored.
found in the notes at the end of the table (see Notes
The plumbing system must be viewed as a com-
b, c, and e).
plete entity. Thus, the engineer must be fully versed in
Hanger and Support Spacing the methodologies of anchoring hangers and supports
After the appropriate hanger components have been in various structural elements and materials. At a
selected for the type of piping system and the type of minimum, the engineer needs to ensure close coordi-
nation between the engineered design and that of the
Table 6-2 Pipe Classification by Temperature other design engineers, including iron and concrete
System Class Temperature Rating, F (C) structural engineers, to ensure properly spaced and
Hot A-1 120 to 450 (49 to 232) applied hangers and supports and their anchors.
Hot A-2 451 to 750 (233 to 399) The anchoring of hangers and supports requires
Hot A-3 Over 750 (over 400) different methodologies depending on the structural
Ambient B 60 to 119 (16 to 48) elements, transitions from vertical and horizontal
Cold C-1 33 to 59 (1 to 15) surfaces, and differing materials (e.g., from steel to
Cold C-2 20 to 32 (29 to O) concrete). A hanger or support will perform only up
Cold C-3 39 to 20 (39 to 29) to the capability of its attachment to a structural
Cold C-4 40 and below (40 and below) element.
Figure 6-2 shows some common materials and
devices often used for anchoring hangers and sup-
building or structural support available, the plumb- ports. Figure 6-3 shows additional supports that
ing engineer must identify the spacing appropriate might be preferred by the engineer in very particular
to the type of pipe used. Table 6-1 provides support circumstances. The extent of detail required within
criteria for some of the most common pipe materials. the plumbing system design depends on the projects
The plumbing engineer must ensure that the design parameters and the practicality and responsibility of
criteria are in compliance with local code require- the engineer to the overall building assembly.
ments. Perhaps the most difficult hanger and support
Again, just as with Table 6-3, it needs to be noted attachment requirement is that to concrete in an
that Table 6-1 provides guidelines only, and the existing structure. It might be necessary for the
piping systems are presumed to exist under ideal plumbing engineer to contact the original concrete
circumstances with little environmental or physical designer or supplier. Depending on experience, it is
influences. Therefore, these spacing guidelines are wise to involve an experienced hanger manufacturer
at the upper end of the specifications. That is, they or contractor for the proper anchoring of hangers
should be considered the maximum spacing for hang- and supports.
ers and supports. Anchor Types
For proper hanger spacing, the engineer needs, The types of anchors vary according to the structural
once again, to evaluate and take into account the elements and materials to be used for attachment.
three-dimensional fluctuations and movements as The basic attachment elements are shown in Figure
well as the environmental and physical influences 6-2. However, a wide variety of anchor bolts, screws,
that will affect the entirety of the plumbing system. washers, nuts, rods, plates, and strengtheners is avail-
Proper spacing is a function of stress, vibration, and able. It might be in the engineers scope to establish
the potential for misuse (e.g., exposed piping used as loading, shear, and stress specifications for the hanger
a ladder, scaffolding, or exercise equipment). Spacing and support anchoring structure.
criteria depend on pipe direction changes; structural
attachment material and anchor points; additional

Table 6-3 Hanger and Support Selections
To find recommended hanger or support components,
1. Locate the system temperature and insulation condition in the two columns at left.
2. Read across the column headings for the type of component to be used.
126
3. Numbers in boxes refer to those types shown in Table 6-1.

Hanger Rod Fixtures Building Structure Attachments

System Horizontal Pipe Attachments Vertical Pipe Attachments Steel or Malleable Iron Steel and/or Malleable Iron
Cast Steel Steel
Iron Protection Steel or Riser Riser Steel Welded
Temp. Steel Malleable Steel Steel Hanging Steel Saddles & Cast Iron Steel Welded Clamps Clamps 4 Attachments Turn Swing Beam Welded
Range, F Clips Iron Rings Bands Clamps Rolls Trapezes Shields Stanchions Attachments 2 bolt bolt Steel Buckles Eyes Clevises Inserts C-Clamps Clamps Attachments Brackets
(C) Insulation A B C D E Cast Iron G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U
1, 5, 7,
41, 43 44, 45, 46 59 36, 37, 38
a 24 9, 10
HOT A-1 COVERED NONE 2, 3 W/ 39 W/ 39 W/ 39 39, 40 W/ 39
W/ 39 W/ 39
OR 40 OR 40 OR 40 OR 40 c c 20, 21, c 31, 32,
OR 40 35 8 42c 13, 15 16, 17 14 18e 19, 23 22, 57, 58
25, 27 33, 34
120 (49)
1, 5, 7,
to BARE 24, 26 6, 11, 12 3, 4 41, 43 44, 45, 46 59 NONE 36.37, 38
9, 10
450 (232)
HOT 1 41 44, 45, 46 59 36, 37, 38
a 24
A-2 COVERED NONE W/ 39 3 W/ 39 W/ 39 W/ 39 39, 40 W/ 39
W/ 39 20, 21,
34 OR 40 OR 40 OR 40 OR 40 OR 40 c c
35 NONE 42 c 13, 15 16, 17 14 18 e NONE 25, 27, 22, 57, 58 c 31 , 32, 33
451 (233)
c 28, 29, 30
to BARE NONE NONE NONE 3,4 NONE NONE NONE NONE
750 (399)
HOT 41, 43 44, 45, 46 59 36, 37, 38
1 ALLOY 40
A-3 COVEREDa NONE NONE W/ 40 OR W/ 40 OR W/ 40 OR W/ 40 OR 20, 21,
W/ 40 2, 3 ALLOY 39 c c c c, e c
34 ALLOY 39 ALLOY 39 ALLOY 39 ALLOY 39 ALLOY 35 NONE ALLOY 42 ALLOY 39 13 17 14 NONE 25, 27, 22, 57, 58 31, 32, 33,
OVER ALLOY c 28, 29, 30
BARE NONE NONE NONE NONE NONE NONE NONE
750 (399) 2, 3, 4
1, 5, 7,
41, 43 44, 45, 46 59 36, 37, 38
9, 10
AMBIENT B COVEREDa 24, 26 NONE 3, 4 W/ 39 W/ 39 W/ 39 39, 40 W/ 39
W/ 39 20, 21,
OR 40 OR 40 OR 40 OR 40 c c 31, 32,
OR 40 35 8 42 c 13, 15 16, 17 14 18 e 19, 23 25, 27, 22, 57, 58 c
33, 34
60 (16) 28, 29, 30
1, 5.7.9,
to BARE 24, 26 6, 11, 12 3, 4 41, 43 44, 45, 46 59 NONE 36, 37.38
10
119 (48)
1, 5, 7,
COLD C-1 a 26 3, 4 41, 43 44, 45, 46 59 36, 37, 38
COVERED NONE 9, 10 d d 40
34 W/40 W/40 W/40 W/40 W/40 W/40 20, 21,
W/40 c c
8 42 c 13, 15 16, 17 14 18 e 19, 23 25, 27 28, 22, 57, 58 c 31, 32, 33
33(1)
1, 5, 7, c 29, 30
to BARE 24, 26 6, 11, 12 3, 4 41, 43 44, 45, 46 NONE 36, 37, 38
9, 10
59 (15)
1, 5, 7, c, d
41, 43 44, 45, 46 36, 37, 38
COLD C-2 COVEREDa NONE NONE 9, 10 NONE d d 40
W/ 40 W/ 40 W/ 40 W/ 40 20, 21,
W/ 40 c c 31,32,33,
8 42 13,15 16,17 14 18 e 19,23 25, 27, 22,57,58 c
19(28) 34
1, 5, 7, c 28, 29, 30
to BARE NONE NONE 3, 4 41, 43 44, 45, 46 NONE 36, 37.38
9.10
32 (0)
1, 5, 7, b, c, d
COLD a 41, 43 44, 45, 46 36, 37, 38
COVERED NONE NONE 9.10 NONE d d 40 20, 21,
C-3 & C4 W/ 40 W/ 40 W/ 40 W/ 40 b, c b, c b, c b, c e c 31.32, 33,
W/ 40 13, 15 16, 17 14 18 19, 23 25, 27, 22, 57, 58
34
BELOW b, c b, c b, c b, c 28, 29, 30
BARE NONE NONE NONE NONE NONE
19 (28)
Source: From MSS SP-69-2002, Pipe Hangers and Supports: Selection and Application, reprinted with permission of Manufacturers Standardization Society.
a
Hangers on insulated systems shall incorporate protection saddles, shields, pipe clamps, or welded lugs which project through the insulation to provide external attachment.
b
The selection of type and material shall be made by the piping design engineer.
c
The design shall be in accordance with MSS SP-58 or as specified by the piping design engineer.
d
For shields used with rollers or subject to point loading, see MSS SP-69, Table 5.
e
Continuous inserts, embedded plates, anchor bolts, and concrete fasteners may be used as specified by the piping design engineer.
10/16/2008 12:00:54 PM
Steel Spot Insert Nut

All Threaded Rod
Concrete Insert Nut
Coach Screw Hanger Rod
SelfDrilling Anchor
Hanger Rod Threaded

Both Ends Wedge Anchor
Anchor Bolt
Eye Rod
(also comes welded)
L-Rod Threaded Both Ends
Turnbuckle with Swivel
Turnbuckle
Linked Eye Rod (Welded and Nonwelded)
Concrete Insert
J Bolt
Tie Bolt
Rod Stiffener
Eye Socket
Steel Rod Couplings Wedge Anchor
Figure 6-2 Types of Hanger and Support Anchors

Source: Anchor details courtesy of TOLCO.

Multiuse Plate
Anchor Base Plate
Threaded Stand Pipe
Concrete Clevis Plate with Pin
Concrete Single Lug Plate

Concrete Rod Attachment Plate
Side Beam Bracket
Welding Lug Threaded Side Beam Bracket
Weld Beam Attachment with Pin
Concrete Inserts
Concrete Insert
Concrete Deck Inserts Steel Spot Concrete Insert
Figure 6-2 Types of Hanger and Support Anchors (continued)

Adjustable Beam Attachment
All Steel Ceiling Plate

Beam Clamps
Reversible C-Type Beam Clamp
Top Beam Clamp Top Beam C Clamp
Center Load Beam Clamp

Adjustable Side Beam Clamp
Adjustable Beam Clamp
Steel C Clamp
Bar Joist Hanger

Cable Sway Braces: Examples
Examples: Sway Brace Attachments
Sway Brace Attachments: Bar Joists

Horizontal/vertical piping
Hot Water Tank Laundry box/ice maker
Flush Valve Support
Suspended Water
Heater Platform/
Drain Pan
vertical/Horizontal piping Tub/Shower

Through Stud Isolation
Water Closet (or other single Urinal (Drinking Fountain/Electric

Lavatory or Sink Horizontal piping Water Cooler Similar)
point connection)
Figure 6-3 Hanger and Support Anchors for Particular Applications

Source: Support details courtesy of Holdrite
Depending on the elements and materials of the rigid rod hanger. Care should be taken to observe the
structure, the requirements and specifications for loading associated with special conditions that may
hanger and support anchors vary widely. Anchoring induce a load beyond the hanger rod strength. More-
to wood is significantly different from anchoring to over, lateral stress and axial tension affect the choice
steel. In the latter case, welding specifications may of rod size and material. See Table 6-5 for load ratings
need to be included and bonding material compat- of threaded hanger rods and Table 6-6 for minimum
ibility ensured. design load ratings for rigid pipe hanger assemblies.
Anchoring to concrete requires the use of im- These tables show acceptable standards for hanger
planted anchors during the pouring of the concrete or materials. However, it is important to check a particu-
subsequent attachment using anchor bolts and plates. lar manufacturers specifications as well. See Table
Table 6-4 shows the pipe hanger rod size for a single 6-7 for sample design load tables for a manufacturers

concrete inserts. In the overall engineered design, this reason, the engineer must provide for protection
load and stress calculations for multiple hanger and of the pipes. This protection is achieved by using pipe
support assemblies and the use of multiple anchor sleeves. Pipe sleeves can be constructed of any of a
assemblies (such as concrete rod inserts) require addi- variety of materials that should be selected based on
tional evaluation and analysis to properly incorporate the application as well as the materials of the struc-
the effects of a distributed load. ture and the pipe.
Sleeves Hangers, Supports, and Anchor Materials
Pipes often must pass through walls, floors, and other There is an almost unlimited variety of materials
penetrations. If unlike materials come into contact, that can be used for producing hangers, supports,
there is the possibility of chemical reactions between and anchors. With the increased use of plastic, fiber-
them that can damage the pipe, the structure, or both. glass, and other lightweight and corrosion-resistant
Likewise, when a pipe passes through a penetration, pipe materials has come an increased availability of
what happens if for some reason the structure being matching hangers and supports.
passed through collapses on or damages the pipe? For It is up to the plumbing engineer to match and
coordinate the various materials available. Because
Table 6-4 Recommended Minimum Rod Diameter for of possible chemically reactive and galvanic effects, it
Single, Rigid Rod Hangers is of special importance to match the hanger, support,
Types of Pipe and anchor materials composition to the composition
Steel Water Service Copper Water Service of the piping system material. The plumbing engineer
Steel Vapor Service Copper Vapor Service
Ductile Iron Pipe Glass, Plastic
must be extremely aware of the proper spacing and
Cast Iron Soil Fiberglass Reinforced
Nominal
Pipe or
Table 6-5 Load Ratings of Carbon Steel Threaded Hanger
Tubing Size Nominal Rod Diam. Nominal Rod Diam.
Rods
in. (mm) in. (mm) in. (mm) Nominal Rod Root Area of Max. Safe Load
Diameter Thread at Rod Temp. of
(6) 3
8 (M10) 3
8 (M10)
650F (343C)
3
8 (10) 3
8 (M10) 3
8 (M10)
in. (mm) in.2 (mm2) lb (kg)
(15) 3
8 (M10) 3
8 (M10)
8 (9.6)
3
0.068 (43.8) 730(3.23)
(20) 3
8 (M10) 3
8 (M10)
(12.7) 0.126 (81.3) 1,350(5.98)
1 (25) 3
8 (M10) 3
8 (M10) 5
8 (15.8) 0.202 (130.3) 2,160(9.61)
1 (32) 3
8 (M10) 3
8 (M10)
(19.0) 0.302 (194.8) 3,230(14.4)
1 (40) 3
8 (M10) 3
8 (M10) 7
8 (22.2) 0.419 (270.3) 4,480(19.9)
2 (50) 3
8 (M10) 3
8 (M10)
1 (25.4) 0.551 (356.1) 5,900(26.2)
2 (65) (M12) (M12)
1 (31.8) 0.890 (573.5) 9,500(42.4)
3 (80) (M12) (M12)
1 (38.1) 1.29 (834.2) 13,800(61.6)
3 (90) (M12) (M12)
1 (44.4) 1.74 (1125) 18,600(82.8)
4 (100) 5
8 (M16) (M12)
2 (50.8) 2.30 (1479) 24,600(109)
5 (125) 5
8 (M16) (M12)
2 (57.2) 3.02 (1949) 32,300(144)
6 (150) (M20) 5
8 (M16)
2 (63.5) 3.72 (2397) 39,800(177)
8 (200) (M20) (M20)
2 (69.8) 4.62 (2980) 49,400(220)
10 (250) 7
8 (M20) (M20)
3 (76.2) 5.62 (3626) 60,100(267)
12 (300) 7
8 (M20) (M20)
3 (82.6) 6.72 (4435) 71,900(320)
14 (350) 1 (M24)
3 (88.9) 7.92 (5108) 84,700(377)
16 (400) 1 (M24)
3 (95.2) 9.21 (5945) 98,500(438)
18 (450) 1 (M24)
4 (101.6) 10.6 (6844) 114,000(505)
20 (500) 1 (M30)
4 (108.0) 12.1 (7806) 129,000(576)
24 (600) 1 (M30)
4 (114.3) 13.7 (8832) 146,000(652)
30 (750) 1 (M30)
4 (120.6) 15.4 (9922) 165,000(733)
Source: From MSS SP-69-2002, Pipe Hangers and Supports: Selection and Application,
reprinted with permission of Manufacturers Standardization Society.
5 (127.0) 17.2 (11074) 184,000(819)
Notes: Source: From MSS SP-58-2002, Pipe Hangers and Supports: Materials, Design, and
1.For calculated loads, rod diameters may be sized in accordance with Table 6-5 (MSS Manufacture, reprinted with permission of Manufacturers Standardization Society.
SP-58-2002, Table 3) provided the requirements of Table 6-6 (MSS SP-58-2002, Table Notes:
1) are satisfied. In addition, hanger rods shall be a minimum of 38 in. (9.6 mm) diameter 1.For materials other than carbon steel, see requirements of MSS SP-58-2002, Section
and shall be limited to pipe or tubing NPS 4 (DN100) and less. For pipe and tubing NPS 4.7 and Table 2.
4 (DN100) and greater, the rod diameter shall be not less than in. (12.7 mm) and 2.Tabulated loads are based on a minimum actual tensile stress of 50 ksi (345 MPa)
sized for loads per Table 6-5. In addition, the minimum rod diameter for rigid hangers divided by a safety factor of 3.5, reduced by 25%, resulting in an allowable stress of
must be sized for the loads shown in Table 6-6. 10.7 ksi. (The 25% reduction is to allow for normal installation and service conditions.)
2.Rods may be reduced one size for double rod hangers. Minimum rod diameter shall be 3.Root areas of thread are based on the following thread series:
3
8 in. (M10). diam. 4 in. and below: coarse thread (UNC)
diam. above 4 in.: 4 thread (4-UN)

Table 6-6 Minimum Design Load Ratings for Pipe Hanger

Assemblies
Applicable to all components of complete assembly, including
pipe attachment, rod, fixtures, and building attachment.
Nominal Pipe or Tube Size Min. Design Load Ratings at
Normal Temp. Range a
in. (mm) lb (kg)
3
8 (10) 150(0.67)
(15) 150(0.67)
(20) 150(0.67)
1 (25) 150(0.67)
1 (32) 150(0.67)
1 (40) 150(0.67)
2 (50) 150(0.67) Source: From MSS SP-58-2002, Pipe Hangers and Supports: Materials, Design, and
2 (65) 150(0.67) Manufacture, reprinted with permission of Manufacturers Standardization Society.
3 (80) 200(0.89) Notes:
3 (90) 210(0.93) 1. See MSS SP-58-2002, Section 4, for allowable stresses and temperatures.
2.Minimum rod diameter restrictions: Hanger rods shall be a minimum of 3/8 in. (9.6
4 (100) 250(1.11) mm) diameter and shall be limited to pipe or tubing NPS 4 (DN100) and less. For pipe
5 (125) 360(1.60) and tubing NPS 4 (DN100) and greater, the rod diameter shall be not less than in.
6 (150) 480(2.14) (12.7 mm) and shall be sized for loads per Table 6-5. In addition, the minimum rod
diameter for rigid hangers must be sized for loads as shown above.
8 (200) 760(3.38)
3.For loads greater than those tabluated, hanger component load ratings shall be
10 (250) 1120(4.98) established by the manufacturer. Design shall be in accordance with all criteria as
12 (300) 1480(6.58) outlined in MSS SP-58-2002.
14 (350) 1710(7.61) 4.Pipe attachment ratings for temperature ranges between 650 and 750F (343 and
398C) shall be reduced by the ratio of allowable stress at service temperature to the
16 (400) 2130(9.47) allowable stresses at 650F (343C).
18 (450) 2580(11.48) 5. For services over 750F (398C), attachments in direct contact with the pipe shall be
20 (500) 3060(13.61) designed to allowable stresses listed in MSS SP-58-2002, Tables 2 and A2.
24 (600) 3060(13.61) aNormal temperature range is 20 to 650F (29 to 343C) for carbon steel, 20
to 450F (29 to 231C) for malleable iron, and 20 to 400F (29 to 204C) for
30 (750) 3500(15.57) gray iron.
Table 6-7(A) Sample Design Load Tables for Manufacturers Concrete Inserts
Design Load Chart for 3000 psi Hard Rock Concrete
Rod Size Design Load Vertical (psi) Design Load Shear (psi) Design Load 45 (psi)
(in.) A B C
a
De (in.) A B C Dea (in.) A B C
3
8 1207 457 457 1 675 675 675 2 612 364 385
2043 496 496 1.4 912 912 912 2 892 454 454
5
8 1690 532 532 1.7 1148 1148 1148 2 967 514 514
2321 567 567 2 1368 1368 1368 2.5 1217 567 567
7
8 2321 878 878 4 1596 1596 1596 3 1338 801 801
Design Load Chart for Lightweight Concrete
Rod Size Design Load Vertical (psi) Design Load Shear (psi) Design Load 45 (psi)
(in.) A B C
a
De (in.) A B C Dea (in.) A B C
3
8 905 343 343 7
8 590 590 590 2 547 307 321
1632 372 372 7
8 590 590 590 2 828 323 374
5
8 1268 399 399 7
8 590 590 590 2 852 337 419
1741 426 426 7
8 590 590 590 2 1084 350 459
7
8 1741 656 656 7
8 590 590 590 3 1178 439 654
Table 6-7(B) Sample Design Load Tables for Manufacturers Concrete Inserts
Design Load Vertical Design Load Shear
Rod Size (psi) (psi) Design Load 45 (psi) EEmbedment Dea min.
(in.) Hard Rock Lt. Wt. Hard Rock Lt. Wt. Hard Rock Lt. Wt. Depth (in.) (in.)
3
8 1255 753 978 733 777 525 3 2
2321 1392 978 733 980 679 3 2
5
8 780 468 1278 958 688 445 4 2
1346 806 1278 958 927 619 4 2
7
8 2321 1392 1278 958 1166 803 4 6
Source: Table 6-7(A) and (B) courtesy of Tolco
a
De = distance to the edge of the concrete that must be maintained for the rod to meet the design load.

anchoring of hangers and, where questionable, must Anchor bolt A fastener (e.g., bolt or threaded rod)
confirm with the pipe, hanger, support, and anchor that is used for attachment or connection of materials,
manufacturers the loads, stresses, and spacing criteria devices, or equipment. Often refers to the bolt that is
specifications. embedded in concrete or passed through an opening
in steel that is used to attach a hanger or support to
Glossary a concrete or steel structure.
The basic word set for this glossary has been excerpted
As built Refers to the actual installation and con-
and/or adapted from Manufacturers Standardization
figuration of construction or placement.
Society (MSS) SP-90: Guidelines on Terminology for
Pipe Hangers and Supports, with permission from Assembly A preformed arrangement or a gathered
MSS. collection of various appliances and components used
to carry, hold, and/or restrain devices, equipment, or
Acceleration limiter A device, hydraulic, me-
a piping system load in tension.
chanical, or spring, used to control acceleration and
control shock and sway in piping systems. Auxiliary stop A supplemental restraint that
temporarily locks or holds in place movable parts.
Access channel Conduit or channel that is cast in
Often used in conjunction with spring devices, such
place within concrete structural elements and that
as a spring hanger, to provide for a fixed position
provides for the passing through of pipe. It is placed
enabling a load to be transferred to a supporting
horizontally throughout a concrete structure to fa-
structure in a desired placement during construction
cilitate future access.
or installation.
Access opening An opening or conduit that is cast
Axial brace An assembly or bracket device used
in place within concrete structural elements and that
to resist twisting or to restrain a piping run in the
provides for the passing through of pipe. The most
axial direction.
typical usage is for short vertical conduit in concrete
slabs to eliminate the subsequent drilling of core Band or strap hanger An appliance or device
holes. used as a hanger or support for pipe that provides for
vertical adjustment. It also is used to connect pipe to
Accumulator A container, used in conjunction
a hanger assembly.
with a hydraulic cylinder or rotating vane device for
the control of shock or sway in piping systems, that Base support A device that carries a load from
is used to accommodate the difference in fluid volume beneath and is used to carry a loads weight in com-
displaced by the piston. It also serves as a continuous pression.
supply of reserve fluid. Beam clamp A mechanical device used to connect,
Adjustable Mechanical or automated movement as a hanger or support, or to hold part of a piping
providing for linear adjustment capability (regard- system to a structural beam element (typically a steel
less of the plane or dimension). Adjustment may be beam). A clamp firmly holds multiple materials or
mechanical, such as a threaded rod, or assisted with devices together and does not require welding.
vacuum or air pressure. Bearing plate See slide plate and roll plate.
Adjustment device Component(s) that provides Bent An assembly or frame consisting of two
for adjustability. (See adjustable.) vertical members joined by one or more horizontal
After cold pull elevation The mechanical drawing members used for the support of a piping system to
view incorporating additional piping elements during a structural element.
installation that will be necessary for thermal fluctua- Bolting Use of bolts, studs, and nuts as fasteners.
tions once piping system is hot or operational.
Brace, brace assembly A preformed appliance
Alloy A chrome-moly material (often less than 5 or assembly consisting of various components that,
percent chrome) used as a material to resist the ef- depending on its location, is used to hold and/or re-
fects of high temperatures (750F to 1,100F [399C strain a piping system from horizontal, vertical, and
to 593C]). Alloys are used as pipe, hanger, support, lateral forces.
and anchor materials.
Brace, hanger, or support drawing The mechan-
Anchor To fasten or hold a material or device to pre- ical drawing detailing the elements and components
vent movement, rotation, or displacement at the point of an assembly or frame structure that incorporates
of application. Also an appliance used in conjunction a bill of material, load and movement data, and both
with piping systems to fasten hangers and supports general and specific identification.
to prevent movement, rotation, or displacement.

Bracket A preformed support or fastener, usually state operating environment (as measured at ambient
constructed in a cantilevered manner, with or with- temperature). The cold load equals the operating load
out additional diagonal structural members for load plus or minus load variations.
stability and designed to withstand a gravity load and Cold setting The position at which a mechanical
horizontal and vertical forces. control device indicator, such as that on a spring
C clamp A preformed appliance in a C shape that hanger, is set to denote the proper nonoperating posi-
attaches to a flange or other part of a structural tion installation setting of the unit.
member and acts as an anchor for a hanger, support, Cold shoe A T section hanger or support with in-
or other device such as a threaded rod. tegrated insulation that has been designed for cold
Cable A component used to brace structural assem- temperature piping system application.
blies and piping systems (also called wire rope). Cold spring The act of prestressing a piping sys-
Cable sway brace Components added to a stan- tem during installation to condition it for minimal
dard pipe support or hanger system to limit sway fluctuations, expansions, and other reactions when
during movement such as during a seismic event. The the finished piping system and related equipment are
components include cable, pipe attachments, and at- used in the designed operating environment.
tachment to the structure. Cable bracing requires two Colored finish A generic term to describe various
attachment locations as it works under tension only color finishes that are used as an identifier for product
and not tension and compression like rigid bracing. compatibility. For example, a copper-colored finish on
Cantilever A projecting structural element or connectors or piping denotes that the product was
member supported at only one end. sized for copper tubing.
Center beam clamp A jaw-type mechanical device Commercial piping system A piping system
used to connect, as a hanger or support, or used to located in a commercial building structure that gener-
hold part of a piping system to a structural beam ele- ally includes fire protection, plumbing, heating, and
ment (typically a steel beam). It is used with I beams cooling piping systems.
and wide flange beams to provide a centered beam Component(s) Any individual item, appliance, or
connection. device that is combined with others to create an as-
Channel clamp A mechanical device with a chan- sembly or is part of a whole.
nel adapter and hook rod that provides an off-center Concrete fastener A device installed in or attached
attachment to the bottom flange of a channel beam for to concrete by various means (often precast, drilled,
a hanger, support, or other part of a piping system. or epoxied) to which a pipe hanger or support can be
Clamp A mechanical device used to connect, as a attached.
hanger or support, or used to hold part of a piping Concrete insert and concrete insert box An an-
system to a structural beam element. (A clamp firmly chor device that is cast in place in a concrete structure
holds multiple materials or devices together and and provides for a hanger, support, rod, or similar
does not require welding.) See beam clamp, C clamp, attachment. The insert provides load assistance to a
channel clamp, double bolt pipe, three-bolt clamp, piping system and has nominal lateral adjustment.
double-bolt riser, riser clamp, and pipe clamp.
Continuous insert An anchoring device in the
Clevis A connector device or metal shackle with form of a channel (which can be of varying lengths)
drilled ends to receive a pin or bolt and that is used that is cast in place in a concrete structure and pro-
for attaching or suspending parts. vides for multiple hangers, supports, rods, or similar
Clevis hanger A support device providing vertical attachments. The insert provides load assistance to
adjustment consisting of a clevis-type top bolted to a a piping system and has the capability for lateral
formed steel bottom strap. adjustments.
Cold elevation See design elevation and after cold Constant support hanger A mechanical, spring-
pull elevation. coil device that provides constant support for a
Cold hanger location The location of the pipe piping system, while permitting some dimensional
hangers, supports, and assemblies of the installed movement.
piping system in reference to the buildings structure Constant support hanger indicator A device
and structural elements prior to the invoking of an attached to the movable arm of a constant support
operating environment. hanger that measures vertical pipe movement.
Cold load The stress or loading put on a piping Copper plating See plating.
system prior to the occurrence of a normal or steady-

Corrosion The process that describes the oxida- Electroplated Plating by using an electro-deposi-
tion of a metal that is weakened or worn down by tion process. (See also plating.)
chemical action. Electrolysis The producing of chemical changes
Cut short The shortening or lengthening of a due to the differences in electrical potential between
section of pipe to provide for reduced fluctuations, dissimilar materials in the presence of moisture. (See
expansions, and other reactions when the finished also corrosion.)
piping system and related equipment are used in the Elevation A mechanical drawing view that is a geo-
designed operating environment. metrical projection as seen on a vertical plane.
DWV Drain, waste, and venting. Embedded A device or fastener that is cast in place
Deadweight load The combination of all stress in a concrete structure
or loading put on a piping system that takes into Engineered drawing A mechanical drawing that
consideration only the weight of the piping system, details the elements and components of a piping
including the pipe, hangers, supports, insulation, and system and incorporates a bill of material, load and
pipe contents. movement data, location information, and both gen-
Design elevation The overall mechanical drawing eral and specific identification.
view of the piping system as designed. Engineered hanger assembly A mechanical
Design load The combination of all stress or drawing that details the elements and components
loading put on a piping system as defined in the en- of a hanger assembly and incorporates a bill of mate-
gineered drawing or as part of the engineered design rial, load and movement data, location information,
specification. and both general and specific identification. (See also
Deviation A measurement of difference often ex- semi-engineered hanger assembly.)
pressed as a percentage. It often is used to describe Erected elevation See design elevation.
the accuracy difference between actual and specified Extension riser clamp An attachment device for
performance criteria. the support of vertical piping that provides for the
Double acting A descriptor for a mechanical device transfer of the piping load to the bearing surface to
that provides resistance in both tension and compres- which the clamp is attached.
sion cycles. Eye rod A bolt or rod with a circular or pear-shaped
Double-bolt pipe clamp See three-bolt pipe end that permits other components or devices to be
clamp. attached by means of a bolt or pin. The eye may be
Drag The retarding force that acts on a portion of forged, welded, or nonwelded.
a hydraulic or mechanical device as it moves through Eye socket An appliance that provides for the at-
fluid, gas, or other friction-generating substances. It tachment of a threaded bolt or rod to the bolt or rod
also refers to the force required to extend and retract of another component or device.
a hydraulic or mechanical element of a hanger or sup- Fabrication A term used to refer to a part con-
port device during activation at low velocity. structed or manufactured out of standard parts or
Dual-use brace A single brace that can be used raw materials.
as both a longitudinal and lateral brace in a single Fabricated steel part A component that is con-
location. structed from standard shapes of steel plate.
Dynamic force or dynamic loading The ad- Fabricator A business engaged in the fabrication
ditional loading and stress conditions that must be of parts.
taken into consideration over and above a steady-state
condition. Forged clevis A connector device, a clevis, that has
been formed as one piece (i.e., forged).
Dynamic load The temporary stress or loading
put on a piping system as the result of internal or Four-way brace An assembly consisting of lateral
external forces that create movement or motion in and longitudinal bracing that is designed to control
the system. back-and-forth movement in four directions.
Elbow lug An elbow-shaped device with a pipe con- Framing steel A structural steel member, normally
nector welded to it for use as an attachment. less than 10 feet in length, used between existing
members as a means of providing for the attachment
Electrogalvanized A protective coating of electro- of a hanger or support for a piping system.
plated zinc. (See also galvanized.)

Friction load The stress or loading put on a pip- Hot setting The position at which a mechanical
ing system as the result of frictional forces that exist control device indicator, such as that on a spring
between different surfaces that are in contact with hanger, is set to denote the proper operating position
each other, such as moving or sliding surfaces. setting of the unit.
Galvanized A zinc coating applied to steel for pro- Hot shoe A T section hanger or support with in-
tection from oxidation and other chemical actions. tegrated insulation that has been designed for hot
Gang hanger A hanger assembly utilizing a com- temperature piping system application.
mon cross member to provide support for parallel HVAC Heating, ventilation, and air-conditioning.
runs or banks of piping. Hydraulic snubber See hydraulic sway brace.
Guide A device used to permit pipe movement in a Hydraulic sway brace A hydraulic cylinder or
predetermined direction while restraining movement rotating vane device used for the control of shock or
in other directions. sway in piping systems, while allowing for normal
Hanger A device that is suspended from a structure thermal expansion.
and used to carry or support a load. Hydrostatic load The stress or loading put on a
Hanger assembly A general term used to describe piping system as the result of hydrostatic testing. (See
a series of assembled components that make up a hydrostatic test load.)
device that is connected to or suspended from a struc- Hydrostatic lock The condition wherein a supple-
ture and is used to carry or support a load in tension mental restraint temporarily locks or holds in place
or carry a load under compression. The device may moveable parts during a hydrostatic test. It often is
be designed to prevent, resist, or limit movement, used in conjunction with spring devices, such as a
or it may be used to permit movement in a prede- spring hanger, to provide for a fixed position enabling
termined direction while restraining movement in a load to be transferred to a supporting structure in
other directions. a desired placement during construction or instal-
Hanger drawing See brace, hanger, or support lation.
drawing. Hydrostatic test A preoperational test whereby
Hanger loads See pipe hanger loads. the piping system is subjected to a pressurized fluid
Hanger rod Round steel bar, normally threaded, test in excess of the specified operational pressure to
used to connect components for hangers and sup- ensure the integrity of the system.
ports. Hydrostatic test load The temporary loading
Heavy bracket A bracket used for the support of condition consisting of the total load weight of the
heavy loads. (See bracket.) piping (gravitational load), insulation, and test fluid
for piping systems subjected to hydrostatic tests.
Hinged pipe clamp Also known as a split ring, it is
a hinged attachment device that permits installation Industrial piping system A piping system located
before or after piping is in place and is used primarily in an industrial complex that generally includes fire
on noninsulated piping. protection, plumbing, heating, and cooling piping
systems and also incorporates process, vacuum, air,
Horizontal traveler A hanger or support device steam, or chemical piping systems.
that accommodates horizontal piping movement.
Insert An anchor device that is cast in place in a
Hot-dip galvanized A corrosion protection coating concrete structure and provides for a hanger, support,
of zinc applied to steel or other metals. rod, or similar attachment. Inserts provide load as-
Hot elevation The mechanical drawing view of the sistance to a piping system and have nominal lateral
piping system as it will appear in its full operating adjustment.
environment. Insert box See concrete insert.
Hot hanger location The location of the pipe Insert nut A female threaded anchor device that
hangers, supports, and assemblies of the installed is locked into position as part of an insert and that
piping system in reference to the buildings struc- receives a threaded rod or bolt.
ture and structural elements within the operating
environment. Institutional piping system A piping system
located in an institutional environment or building
Hot load The stress or loading put on a piping sys- structure that generally includes fire protection,
tem as the result of a normal or steady-state operating plumbing, heating, and cooling piping systems, as
environment. (See operating load.)

well as process, vacuum, air, or chemical gas piping Load variation The difference in the elevations at
systems. a support point between the time of installation (cold)
Insulated pipe support A hanger or support with and actual operating (hot) environment.
an integrated insulation insert designed for use with Load See pipe hanger load.
insulated pipe. Location See pipe hanger location.
Insulation protection saddle A device used to Lock up The operational period when a hydraulic,
prevent damage to the insulation on a pipe at the mechanical, or spring device used for the control of
support point. shock and sway in piping systems is actuated.
Integral attachment When connector pieces and Longitudinal brace A brace designed to restrain
devices have been welded together as hangers and a piping system against axial loads.
supports or an assembly.
Lug A welded appliance to provide an attachment
Intermediate anchor An attachment point used point to a structural member or piping.
to control the distribution, loading, and movement
on a flexible piping system. Mechanical snubber See mechanical sway
brace.
Invert Drawing elevation view from the bottom or
underneath. Mechanical sway brace A mechanical device used
for the control of shock or sway in piping systems,
Jacket A metal covering placed around the insula- while allowing for normal thermal expansion.
tion on a pipe to protect it against damage.
Medium bracket A bracket used for the support
Knee brace A diagonal structural member used to of moderate loads (See bracket.)
transfer load or provide stability.
Metric hanger A hanger or support that conforms
Lateral brace A brace designed to restrain a piping to metric measurements and, where appropriate,
system against transverse loads. contains a metric threaded connection.
Lateral stability The state or degree of control of Mill galvanized A corrosion-protection coating of
a piping system transverse to the run of the pipe. zinc applied at the point of fabrication.
Light bracket A bracket used for the support of Multiple support See gang hanger.
light loads. (See bracket.)
Negligible movement The calculated minimum
Limit stop An internal device built into a mechani- movement at a support point for a portion of a piping
cal device to prevent the overstressing of a spring coil, system where there is an inherent flexibility of the
overtravel, or release of a load. piping system.
Liner Material placed between hangers, supports, Nominal size The identified size, which may vary
or an assembly to protect a piping system from dam- from the actual size.
age or other undesirable effects.
Nonintegral attachment When connector pieces
Load adjustment scale A scale used on a mechani- and devices do not require being welded together as
cal device to indicate the load adjustment. hangers and supports or an assembly.
Load bolt or pin A bolt or pin used to support the Nut, insert See insert nut.
weight or load carried by a hanger or assembly.
Offset A relative displacement between a structural
Load coupling An adjustment device used to con- attachment point and a piping system that is incorpo-
nect hanger and support components. rated into the design to accommodate movement.
Load indicator A pointer, dial, or gauge for read- Operating load The stress or loading put on a pip-
ing or determining the settings and changes of a ing system as the result of a normal or steady-state
device. operating environment.
Load rated The rating of a particular size of com- OSHPD California Office of Statewide Health
ponent or assembly to withstand a specified force with Planning and Development. OSHPD is essentially a
a safety factor applied. service organization providing services that include
Load scale A measurement pointer, dial, or gauge the efficient processing of approvals for health facility
attached to a device to provide a means of determining construction. OSHPD is a national leader in seismic
the static or dynamic aspects of a supported load. restraint guidelines and requirements.
Pipe attachment Any component or device used to
connect a pipe to a hanger, support, or assembly.

Pipe brace See brace. and that provides for the passing through of pipe.
Pipe channel Conduit or channel that is cast in The most typical usage is for short vertical conduit
place within concrete structural elements and that in concrete slabs to eliminate the subsequent drilling
provides for the passing through of pipe. It is placed of core holes.
horizontally throughout a concrete structure to fa- Pipe rack A structural frame that is used to sup-
cilitate future access. port piping systems. (See assembly.)
Pipe clamp A bolted clamp attachment that Pipe roll A pipe hanger or support that utilizes
connects a pipe to a hanger, support, assembly, or a roller or bearing device to provide the ability for
structural element. lateral axial movement in a piping system.
Pipe clip An attachment appliance used to connect Pipe saddle support A pipe support that utilizes
a pipe directly to a structural element, also referred a curved section for cradling the pipe.
to as a strap or pipe clamp. Pipe shoe A hanger or support (typically T shaped)
Pipe covering protection saddle A protective attached to the pipe to transmit the load or forces to
covering used to prevent damage to insulation sur- adjacent structural elements.
rounding a pipe at hanger and support points. Pipe size Reference to nominal pipe size, unless
Pipe elevations See design elevation, erected eleva- otherwise specified.
tion, after cold pull elevation, and cold elevation. Pipe sleeve An opening, conduit, or channel that
Pipe hanger An appliance or device that is attached is cast in place within concrete structural elements
to or suspended from a structural element and that is and that provides for the passing through of pipe.
used to support a piping system load in tension. The most typical usage is for short vertical conduit
Pipe hanger assembly An assembly used for a in concrete slabs to eliminate the subsequent drilling
piping system. of core holes. However, conduit or channel may be
placed horizontally throughout a concrete structure
Pipe hanger drawing A mechanical drawing to facilitate future access.
that details the elements and components of a piping
system and incorporates a bill of material, load and Pipe sleeve, pipe sleeve hanger or support An
movement data, location information, and both gen- appliance or device that surrounds a pipe and connects
eral and specific identification. (See also engineered to a hanger or support to provide for alignment and
drawing and semi-engineered drawing.) limited movement.
Pipe hanger load See specific load types: cold load, Pipe slide A hanger or support that incorporates
deadweight load, design load, dynamic load, friction a slide plate to accommodate horizontal pipe move-
load, hot load, hydrostatic load, operating load, thrust ment.
load, seismic load, thermal load, trip-out load, wind Pipe strap An attachment appliance used to con-
load, and water hammer load. nect a pipe directly to a structural element. (See pipe
Pipe hanger location See location types: cold clip and pipe clamp.)
hanger location and hot hanger location. Pipe support A device or stanchion by which a pipe
Pipe hanger plan and pipe hanger plan loca- is carried or supported from beneath. In this position,
tion The engineered design and elevations that the pipe load is in compression.
fully detail the hangers, supports, and anchors of a Pipe system load See specific load types: cold load,
piping system. Mechanical drawings include appropri- deadweight load, design load, dynamic load, friction
ate offsets as a result of movement and displacement load, hot load, hydrostatic load, operating load, thrust
expectations. load, seismic load, thermal load, trip-out load, wind
Pipe insulation shield A rigid insert appliance load, and water hammer load.
designed to protect pipe insulation passing through Plate lug See lug.
hangers, supports, and assemblies. Plating An electroplating process whereby a metal-
Pipe load See specific load types: cold load, dead- lic coating (e.g., copper, chrome, or zinc) is deposited
weight load, design load, dynamic load, friction load, on a substrate.
hot load, hydrostatic load, operating load, thrust load, Point loading The point of application of a load
seismic load, thermal load, trip-out load, wind load, between two surfaces. It typically describes the load
and water hammer load. point between a curved and a flat surface.
Pipe opening An opening, conduit, or channel that
is cast in place within concrete structural elements

Preset Prior installation adjustment of hangers, Riser clamp An appliance or device used to provide
supports assemblies, equipment, and devices. connections to and support for upright or vertical
Protection saddle A saddle that provides a protec- members, structural or otherwise.
tive covering or coating to prevent damage to pipe or Riser hanger A hanger or support used in conjunc-
to the insulation surrounding a pipe at hanger and tion with a riser.
support points. Rod A slender bar typically considered to have a
Protection shield An appliance, which may be circular cross section, available in a variety of materi-
rigid or flexible, designed to protect pipe or insulation als. (See threaded rod.)
at contact points with hangers and supports. Rod coupling An appliance or device used to join
Random hanger A hanger or support that requires two rods. (See threaded rod coupling.)
field fabrication and the exact location, shape, and Rod hanger A hanger or support that has an inte-
type of which are left to the discretion of, and are to grated rod as part of its construction.
be determined by, the installer.
Rod stiffener An appliance or device used to pro-
Reservoir An attachment or separate container vide additional rigidity to a rod.
used in conjunction with a fluid- (or gas-) using device
(e.g., hydraulic) that provides a means to store or hold Roll stand A pipe roll mounted on a stand and
a supply of liquid (or gas) to provide for a reserve or used for support.
otherwise ensure for an adequate or continuous sup- Roll and plate A combination of a pipe roll and a
ply of fluid (or gas). slide plate used for minimal lateral and axial move-
Restraint Any appliance, device, or equipment ment where minimal or no vertical adjustment is
that prevents, resists, or limits unplanned or random required.
movement. Roll hanger An appliance or device that utilizes a
Restraining control device Any hydraulic, me- pipe roll for lateral and axial movement when used
chanical, spring, or other rigid or flexible hanger, to carry a load in suspension or tension.
support, or device used to control movement. Roll plate A flat appliance, typically a steel or al-
Resilient support A hanger, support, or device loy plate, that permits movement and/or facilitates a
that provides for vertical, horizontal, lateral, or axial sliding motion. (See slide plate.)
movement. Roll trapeze A combination device utilizing a pipe
Retaining strap An appliance or device used in roll and a trapeze hanger.
conjunction with clamps and other components to se- Saddle A curved appliance or device designed to
cure hangers and supports to structural elements. cradle a pipe and used in conjunction with a hanger
Rigid sway brace Components added to a standard or support.
pipe support or hanger system to limit sway during Safety factor The ultimate strength of a material
movement such as a seismic event. The components divided by the allowable stress. It also refers to the
include solid strut or pipe, pipe attachments, and at- ultimate strength of a device divided by the rated
tachment to the structure. Rigid bracing only requires capacity.
one attachment per location because it works under
Scale plate A device attached to hangers, sup-
tension and compression.
ports, and assemblies to detect changes in load or
Rigid hanger A hanger or support that controls or movement.
limits vertical and horizontal movement.
Seismic control device An appliance or device
Rigid support See rigid hanger. used to provide structural stability in the event of
Rigging Appliances and devices, including chain, a change in the steady-state environment affecting
rope, and cable, used to erect, support, and manipu- a buildings structure, such as would occur with a
late. natural event such as an earthquake or other violent
action.
Ring band An appliance or device consisting of a
strap (steel, plastic, or other material) formed in a Seismic load The temporary stress or loading
circular shape with an attached knurled swivel nut put on a piping system as the result of a change in
used for vertical adjustment. the steady-state environment affecting a buildings
structure, such as would occur with a natural event
Riser An upright or vertical member, structural such as an earthquake or other violent action.
or otherwise.

Semi-engineered drawing A mechanical draw- Spring cushion hanger A simple, noncalibrated,

ing that details the elements and components of a single-rod spring support used for providing a cush-
piping system and incorporates a bill of material, ioning effect.
load and movement data, and other general identi- Spring cushion roll A pair of spring coils with
fication. retainers for use with a pipe roll.
Semi-engineered hanger assembly A mechanical Spring hanger An appliance or device using a
drawing that details the elements and components spring or springs to permit vertical movement.
of a hanger assembly and incorporates a bill of ma-
terial, load and movement data, and other general Spring snubber See spring sway brace.
identification. Spring sway brace A spring device used for the
Service conditions Description of the operating control of vibration or shock or bracing against
environment and operating conditions, including sway.
operating pressures and temperatures. Stanchion A straight length of structural material
Shear lug An appliance or device primarily to used as a support in a vertical or upright position.
transfer axial stress (shear stress) and load to a sup- Stop An appliance or device used to limit movement
port element. in a specific direction.
Shield See protection shield. Strap An attachment appliance used to connect a
Side beam bracket A bracket designed to be pipe directly to a structural element. (See pipe clip
mounted in a vertical position by attachment to a and pipe clamp.)
structural element. This bracket provides mounting Stress analysis An analytical report that evaluates
capability for a hanger or support. material, structural, or component stress levels.
Side beam clamp A beam clamp that provides for Strip insert See continuous insert.
an off-center attachment to the structural element.
Structural attachment An appliance or device
Significant movement The calculated movement used to connect a hanger, support, or assembly to a
at a proposed support point for a hanger or support. structural element.
Single acting A descriptor for a mechanical device Strut A rigid tension/compression member.
that provides resistance in either tension or compres-
Strut clamp An appliance or device used to secure
sion cycles, but not both. (See double acting.)
a pipe to a strut.
Single pipe roll A pipe roll used in a trapeze
Support A device that attaches to or rests on a
hanger.
structural element and is used to carry a load in
Sleeper A horizontal support, usually located at compression.
grade.
Support drawing See brace, hanger, or support
Slide plate A flat appliance, typically a steel or al- drawing.
loy plate, which permits movement and/or facilitates
Suspension hanger See pipe hanger.
a sliding motion.
Sway brace See lateral brace or restraining control
Sliding support An appliance or device that
device.
provides for only frictional resistance to horizontal
movement. Swivel pipe ring See ring band.
Slip fitting An appliance or device used to help Swivel turnbuckle An appliance or device that
align and provide for limited movement of a pipe. This provides flexibility and linear adjustment capability
device is used as an assembly component. used in conjunction with hangers and supports. (See
turnbuckle.)
Snubber A hydraulic, mechanical, or spring de-
vice used for the control of shock and sway; a shock Thermal load The stress or loading put on or in-
absorber. troduced to a piping system as the result of regular or
abrupt changes in the steady-state temperature of the
Special component Any appliance or device that is
pipe contents or the surrounding environment.
designed and fabricated on an as-required basis.
Threaded rod A steel, alloy, plastic, or other mate-
Spider guide An appliance or device used with
rial rod threaded along its full length. Threads may
insulated piping for maintaining alignment during
be rolled or cut.
axial expansion and contraction cycles.
Split ring See hinged pipe clamp.

Threaded rod coupling An appliance or device Two-way brace A brace designed to control
used to join two threaded rods. movement in two directions. (See lateral brace and
Three-bolt pipe clamp A pipe clamp normally longitudinal brace.)
used for horizontal insulated piping that utilizes bolts U-bolt A U-shaped rod with threaded ends that fits
to attach the clamp to the pipe and a separate load around a pipe and is attached to a structural element
bolt to transfer the piping weight to the remainder or a supporting member.
of the pipe hanger assembly from a point outside the Vapor barrier An uninterrupted, nonpermeable
insulation (previously known as a double-bolt pipe material used as a cover for insulated pipe to exclude
clamp). moisture from the insulation.
Top beam clamp A mechanical device used to Variability The load variation of a variable-spring
connect, as a hanger or support, or used to hold part hanger divided by the hot load expressed as a per-
of a piping system to the top of a structural beam ele- centage.
ment (typically a steel beam). A clamp firmly holds
multiple materials or devices together and does not Variable-spring hanger A spring coil device that
require welding. produces varying support while permitting vertical
movement.
Thrust load The temporary stress or loading
put on a piping system as the result of a change in Variable-spring hanger indicator A device
the steady-state operating environment of the pipe attached to a variable-spring hanger that measures
contents as a result of regular or abrupt changes as- vertical pipe movement.
sociated with equipment or mechanical devices such Velocity limited A term relating to snubbers in
as the discharge from a safety valve, relief valve, which velocity is the means of control.
pump failure, or failure of some other mechanical
Vibration control device An appliance used to
device or element.
reduce and/or control the transmission of vibration
Transverse brace See lateral brace. to structural elements.
Trapeze hanger A pipe hanger consisting of par- Vibration isolation device See vibration control
allel vertical rods connected at their lower ends by a device.
horizontal member that is suspended from a struc-
Water hammer load The temporary stress or load-
tural element. This type of hanger often is used when
ing put on a piping system as the result of a change,
there is an overhead obstruction or where insufficient
abrupt or otherwise, in the steady-state flow of the
vertical space is available to accommodate a more
pipe contents.
traditional hanger or support.
Welded beam attachment A U-shaped, flat-bar
Travel device A hanger or support device that ac-
appliance, normally welded to a steel beam, used to
commodates piping movement.
connect a hanger, support, or assembly.
Travel indicator See constant support hanger
Welded pipe attachment The use of a weld to at-
indicator and variable spring hanger indicator.
tach a pipe to a hanger, support, or assembly.
Travel scale A device attached to a spring unit to
Weldless eye nut A forged steel appliance that
measure vertical movement.
provides an attachment point for a threaded hanger
Travel stop An appliance or device that temporar- rod to a bolt or pin connection.
ily locks moveable parts in a fixed position, enabling
Wire hook A type of hanger or support that is
a load to be transferred to a supporting structural
simply a bent piece of heavy wire.
element during installation and testing phases.
Wind load The temporary or steady-state stress
Trip-out load The temporary stress or loading put
or loading put on or added to a piping system as the
on a piping system as the result of a change in the
result of a change of environmental conditions such
steady-state flow of the pipe contents as a result of
as increased steady state or alternating air movement.
the change associated with equipment or mechanical
Usually refers to piping systems in environmentally
devices such as a turbine or pump.
exposed conditions.
Turnbuckle A device with one left-hand female
threaded end and one right-hand female threaded
end, used to join two threaded rods and provide linear
adjustment.


7 Vibration Isolation
In recent years, vibration and noise due to mechani-

cal equipment have become critical issues, not only
due to the life expectancy of the machinery itself, but
also due to the educated demands of todays building
for different types of use. These noise criteria (NC)
curves take into consideration an individuals sen-
sitivity to both the loudness and frequency of noise.
This studied criteria is very prevalent in more sensi-
tenants. In modern construction, one of the biggest tive environments such as schools, hospitals, and
battles during design is the allocation of adequate performance venues where the disturbance hinders
mechanical space. Pumps, compressors, and other the acceptable environment. A similar criterion in
associated equipment are sized larger to increase vibration analysis shows that in certain facilities a
capacity and reduce cost, which means that greatly dramatic effect on the neurological path-fire of ten-
increased power input is being applied. While this is ants occurs due to such disturbance.
the ideal in practice, it presents a number of issues. In summary, more larger and higher-speed ma-
In many buildings today, due to space requirements, chines are installed higher in lighter structures,
equipment is placed near occupied space where such disturbing more sophisticated tenants than ever
vibration disruption is unacceptable. before. The only acceptable solution is to analyze
In the past, a very critical installation on an up- the structure and equipment, not just as individual
per floor could be achieved by allowing not more than pieces, but as a total system. Every element must be
10 percent vibration transmission. Thick concrete carefully considered to ensure a completely satisfac-
floors and walls in older buildings were stiff and could tory job. It is impossible to separate vibration and
withstand and absorb such significant machinery vi- noise problems, but a more conscientious approach
bration and noise. However, for the same amount of must be taken to eliminate the greater issues that
unbalance (keeping in mind new structures utilizing have always existed.
steel, pan-type floors, and curtain walls), doubling the
equipments revolutions per minute (rpm) quadruples DEFINITIONS
the unbalanced force. Despite the efforts of equipment Following are a few definitions for the factors found
manufacturers to compensate for this through im- in vibration isolation theory formulas.
proved balance of rotating equipment, the net result
is more vibration and noise generation. Vibration isolator Placed between the equipment
Light structures having resonant frequencies that or machinery and the building structure, a pliant, or
are readily excited by equipment vibration require a resilient, material (i.e., cork, elastomers, neoprene
greater precision to the quality, engineered and in- rubber, steel spring isolators) used to create a low,
stalled, of design, reaping not more than a 1 percent natural frequency support system for the equip-
or 2 percent transmissibility. For many buildings ment.
constructed today, people are not willing to tolerate Static deflection (d) How much the isolator deflects
vibration and noise. Installations that were satisfac- under the weight of the equipment.
tory in the past are no longer acceptable by modern
Transmissibility Also known as frequency or effi-
standards. Noise levels now must be controlled to the
ciency quotient (Eq) the ratio (fd/fn) of the maximum
extent that equipment noise does not add to the noise
force to the supporting structure, due to the vibration
level of any building area.
of a machine, to the maximum machine force.
These more sophisticated tenants are much more
inclined to understand the problematic issues behind Percent transmissibility (T) The percentage of
noted building deficiencies. Furthermore, tests have the maximum force given to the buildings structure
been conducted to establish acceptable noise criteria through the isolators.
Natural frequency (fn) When compressed and re- Equation 7-3

leased rapidly, the frequency at which the vibration
isolator naturally oscillates. d= W
k
Disturbing frequency (fd) Generated by the equip- where
ment, the lowest frequency of vibration.) W =Weight on the mounting, pounds (kilograms)
k =Stiffness factor of the mounting of
Resonant amplification The occurrence of the deflection, pounds per inch (kg/mm)
natural frequency of the isolators (fn) and the disturb-
The natural frequency (fn) of a resiliently mounted
ing frequency (fd) equaling one another.
system is the frequency at which it will oscillate by
Damping Essentially acts as the brakes for equip- itself if a force is exerted on the system and then re-
ment mounted on isolators by reducing or stopping leased. This can be illustrated by suspending a weight
motion through friction or viscous resistance. from a very long rubber band. The longer the rubber
band, the more deflection the weight produces in it. If
Theory of Vibration Control the weight is then pulled down slightly by hand and
A very simple equation applies to determining the released, it will oscillate up and down at the natural
transmission of steady-state vibration, the constantly frequency of the system. The more deflection in the
repeating sinusoidal wave form of vibration gener- system, the lower its natural frequency. The impor-
ated by such equipment as compressors, engines, tance of this can be seen by examining Equation 7-1
and pumps: rewritten in the following form:
Equation 7-1 Equation 7-4
[ ]
Ft =
T= F 1 1
(fd/fn)2 1 Ft=Fd
d
(fd/fn)2 1
where
A system may have up to six natural frequencies.
T= Transmissibility
Ft =Force transmitted through the resilient In the practical selection of machine mountings, if
mountings the vertical natural frequency of the system is made
Fd =Unbalanced force acting on the resiliently low enough for a low transmissibility, the horizontal
supported system and rotational natural frequencies generally will be
fd =Frequency of disturbing vibration, cycles per lower than the vertical and can be disregarded, except
minute (cpm [hertz, Hz]) on machines with very large horizontal, unbalanced
fn =Natural frequency of the resiliently forces or with large unbalanced moments, such as
mounted system, cpm (Hz) horizontal compressors and large two-, three-, and five-
This equation is exact for steel springs because cylinder engines.
they have straight-line load deflection characteristics Obviously, the transmitted force (Ft) should be
and negligible damping. When the equation is used for minimized. Since the disturbing force (Fd) is a function
organic materials, the following corrections normally of the machine characteristics and cannot be reduced,
give conservative results: For rubber and neoprene, except by dynamic balancing of the machineor
use 50 percent of the static deflection when calculating
fn. For cork, use fn equal to one and one-half times the
natural frequency determined by actual test.
The natural frequency of the resiliently mounted
system (fn) can be calculated using the following
equation:
Equation 7-2
fn= 188

(1/d)
where
d =Static deflection of the resilient mounting,
inches (millimeters)
When using Equation 7-2 in international stan-
dard (SI) units, the 188 multiplying factor should be
changed to 947.5. The static deflection can be obtained
from the expression:
Figure 7-1 Transmissibility vs. Frequency Ratio
Note: This curve applies to steel spring isolators and other materials with very little
damping.

Chapter 7Vibration Isolation 147
Figure 7-2 Calculator for Vibration Isolation

Figure 7-2(M) Calculator for Vibration Isolation

by reducing the operating speed, which is seldom

practicalthe transmitted force can be reduced only
by minimizing the function 1/[(fd/fn)2 1].
This can be accomplished only by increasing the
frequency ratio (fd/fn). However, since the disturbing
frequency (fd) is fixed for any given machine and is a
function of the rpm, it seldom can be changed. The
only remaining variable is the mounting natural
frequency (fn). Reducing fn by increasing the static
deflection of the resilient mountings reduces the vi-
bration transmission. This explains why the efficiency
of machinery mountings increases as their resiliency
and deflection increase.
Figure 7-1 shows the effect of varying frequency ra-
tios on the transmissibility. Note that for fd/fn less than
Figure 7-3 Typical Cork
2, the use of mountings actually increases the trans-
missibility above what would result if no isolation
were used and the machine were bolted down solidly. teristics. Because of the large amount of damping
In fact, if careless selection results in a mounting with in cork, the natural frequency cannot be computed
the natural frequency equal to or nearly equal to the from the static deflection and must be determined
disturbing frequency, a very serious condition called in tests by vibrating the cork under different loads
resonance occurs. In Equation 7-4, the denominator to find the resonance frequency, which establishes
of the transmissibility function becomes zero, and the the natural frequency of the material. The limiting
transmitted force (ft) theoretically becomes infinite. values for cork given in Figure 7-2 were determined
As the ratio fd/fn increases beyond 2, the resilient in this manner.
mountings reduce the transmitted force. Elastomers and Neoprene Rubber
Figure 7-2 shows a chart that can be used to select Elastomers having very good sound insulation char-
the proper resilient mountings when the following acteristics are acceptable for low-frequency shock
job characteristics are known: weight per mounting, absorption and are useful as vibration isolators for
disturbing frequency, and design transmissibility. The frequencies above 1,200 cpm. Static deflection typical
chart shows the limitations of the various types of to elastomers is from 0.05 inch to 0.15 inch (1 mm to
isolation materials, data that is particularly helpful 4 mm). Typical elastomer mountings are illustrated in
in selecting the proper media. Figure 7-4. The temperature range of natural rubber
is 50F to 150F (10C to 65.6C), and that of neoprene
Types of Vibration and Shock is 0F to 200F (-17.8C to 93.3C).
Mountings Neoprene rubber is recommended for applications
Cork with continuous exposure to oil. Special elastomer
compounds are available to meet conditions beyond
Cork is the original vibration and noise isolation ma-
those cited. Elastomers tend to lose resiliency as they
terial and has been used for this purpose for at least
age. The useful life of elastomer mountings is about
100 years. The most widely used form of cork today
seven years under nonimpact applications and about
is compressed cork, which is made of pure granules
five years under impact applications, though they
of cork without any foreign binder and compressed
retain their sound insulation value for much longer.
and baked under pressure with accurately controlled
Individual molded elastomer mountings generally are
density. Cork can be used directly under machines,
economical only with light- and medium-weight ma-
but its widest applications are under concrete founda-
chines, since heavier capacity mountings approach the
tions (see Figure 7-3). It is not affected by oils, acids
cost of the more efficient steel spring isolators. Pad-
normally encountered, or temperatures between 0F
type elastomer isolation has no such limitations.
and 200F (-17.8C and 93.3C) and does not rot under
continuous cycles of moistening and dryness. How- Steel Spring Isolators
ever, it is attacked by strong alkaline solutions. Steel spring isolators provide the most efficient
Cork under concrete foundations still giving good method of isolating vibration and shock, approaching
service after 20 years indicates that the material has 100 percent effectiveness. The higher efficiency is due
a long, useful life when properly applied. Cork is fairly to the greater deflections they provide. Standard steel
good as a low-frequency shock absorber, but its use spring isolators, such as those shown in Figure 7-5,
as a vibration isolator is limited to frequencies above provide deflections up to 5 inches (127 mm) compared
1,800 cpm. Cork has good sound insulation charac- to about inch (12.7 mm) maximum for rubber

(A)
(B)
(D)
(C)
Figure 7-4 Typical Elastomer and Elastomer-cork Mountings: (A) Compression and Shear Elastomer Floor Mountings
Provide Up to in. (12.7 mm) Deflection; (B) Elastomer Hangers for Suspended Equipment and Piping; (C) Elastomer/Cork
Mountings Combine Characteristics of These Two Materials, Provide Nonskid Surface, which Eliminates Bolting Machine
Down; (D) Elastomer/Cork Mounting with Built-in Leveling Screw.
and other materials. Special steel spring isolators to stop such transmission into the floor on critical
can provide deflections up to 10 inches (254 mm). installations.
Since the performance of steel springs follows the Table 7-1 tabulates the useful ranges of cork, rub-
vibration control equations very ber, and steel springs for different
closely, their performance can be equipment speeds.
predetermined very accurately,
eliminating costly trial and error, Applications
which is sometimes necessary in Properly designed mountings
other materials. now permit installation of the
Steel spring isolators are avail- heaviest mechanical equipment
able in static deflections from in penthouses and on roofs di-
0.75 inch to 6.0 in (19 to 152 mm), rectly over offices and sleeping
yielding natural frequencies from areas. Such upper-floor instal-
4 Hz to 1.3 Hz with open steel lations permit certain operating
spring isolators. (Restrained economies and release valuable
spring isolators have different basement space for garaging au-
capacity levels than open steel tomobiles. However, when heavy
spring.) Most steel spring isola- machinery is installed on upper
tors are equipped with built-in floors, great care must be used
leveling bolts, which eliminate to prevent vibration transmis-
the need for shims when in- sion, which often shows up many
stalling machinery. The more floors below when a wall, ceiling,
rugged construction possible in or even a lighting fixture has the
steel spring isolators provides same natural frequency as the
for a long life, usually equal to disturbing vibration. The result
that of the machine itself. Since of such resonance vibration is a
high-frequency noises sometimes very annoying noise.
tend to bypass steel springs, rub- Efficient mountings permit
ber sound isolation pads usually lighter, more economical con-
are used under spring isolators Figure 7-5 Typical Steel Spring Mounting struction of new buildings and

Table 7-1 The Relative Effectiveness of Steel Springs, Rubber, and Cork in the
Various Speed Ranges
Range RPM Springs Rubber Cork
Low Up to 1200 Required Not recommended Unsuitable except for shocka
Medium 12001800 Excellent Fair Not recommended
High Over 1800 Excellent Good Fair to good for critical jobs
a
For noncritical installations only; otherwise, springs are recommended.
prevent difficulties when machinery is installed on

concrete-filled, ribbed, metal deck floors. They also
permit installation of heavy machinery in old build-
ings that were not originally designed to accommodate
such equipment.
Vibration and noise transmission through piping
is a serious problem. When compressors are installed
on resilient mountings, provision should be made
for flexibility in the discharge and intake piping to
reduce vibration transmission. This can be accom-
plished either through the use of flexible metallic hose
(which must be of adequate length and very carefully
installed in strict accordance with the manufacturers
specifications) or by providing for flexibility in the
piping itself. This often is accomplished by running
the piping for a distance equal to 15 pipe diameters,
both vertically and horizontally, before attaching
the piping to the structure. Additional protection is
provided by suspending the piping from the building
on resilient mountings.
Effective vibration control for machines is usually
quite inexpensive, seldom exceeding 3 percent of the
equipment cost. In many cases, resilient mountings
pay for themselves immediately by eliminating special
machinery foundations or the need to bolt equipment
to the floor. It is much cheaper to prevent vibra-
tion and structural noise transmission by installing
mountings when the equipment is installed than it
is to go back later and try to correct a faulty instal-
lation. Resilient machinery mountings should not be
considered a panacea for noise transmission problems.
They have a definite use in the overall solution of
noise problems, and their intelligent use can produce
gratifying results at low cost.

8 Grease
Interceptors
The purpose of a grease interceptor is to intercept

and collect grease from a commercial or institutional
kitchens wastewater passing through the device,
age system. These units now are classified as gravity
grease interceptors, or GGIs.
Presently, all FOG retention and removal equip-
thereby preventing deposition of pipe-clogging grease ment is categorized as hydromechanical grease
in the sanitary drainage system and ensuring a free interceptors (HGIs), gravity grease interceptors
flow at all times. Grease interceptors are installed in (GGIs), grease removal devices (GRDs), and FOG
locations where liquid wastes contain grease. These disposal systems (FDSs). HGIs, GRDs, and FDSs are
devices are required to receive the drainage from designed and tested in conformance with nationally
fixtures and equipment with grease-laden wastes recognized standards. The standard for the design and
located in food preparation facilities such as restau- construction of gravity grease interceptors is IAPMO/
rants, hotel kitchens, hospitals, school kitchens, bars, ANSI Z1001: Prefabricated Gravity Grease Intercep-
factory cafeterias, and clubs. Fixtures and equipment tors, published by the International Association of
shall include pot sinks, soup kettles or similar devices, Plumbing and Mechanical Officials (IAPMO) and the
wok stations, floor drains or sinks into which kettles American National Standards Institute (ANSI).
are drained, automatic hood wash units, pre-rinse
sinks, and dishwashers without grinders. Residential PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION
dwellings seldom discharge grease in such quantities Most currently available grease interceptors operate
as to warrant a grease interceptor. on the principle of separation by flotation alone (grav-
Historically, grease interceptors came in two types. ity grease interceptor) or fluid mechanical forces in
The first type (covered by Plumbing and Drainage conjunction with flotation (hydromechanical grease
Institute [PDI] G101: Testing and Rating Procedure interceptor).
for Grease Interceptors) generally was referred to as The relationship in Equation 8-3, which identifies
a grease trap. These are prefabricated steel manu- the principal of separation in a gravity grease inter-
factured units, predominately located indoors at a ceptor, has been verified by a number of investigators
centralized location in proximity to the fixtures served for spheres and fluids of various types.
or at the discharging fixture point of use. They are An examination of this equation shows that the
relatively compact in size and utilize hydraulic flow vertical velocity of a grease globule in water depends
action, internal baffling, air entrainment, and a dif- on the density and diameter of the globule, the density
ference in specific gravity between water and FOG and viscosity of the water, and the temperature of
(fats, oils, and grease) for the separation and reten- the water and FOG material. Specifically, the grease
tion of FOG from the fixture waste stream. These globules vertical velocity is highly dependent on the
units now are classified as hydromechanical grease globules diameter, with small globules rising much
interceptors, or HGIs. more slowly than larger ones. Thus, the larger the
The second type generally was referred to as a globule, the faster the rate of separation.
grease interceptor. These are engineered, prefabri- The performance of the system depends on the
cated, or field-formed concrete-constructed units that difference between the specific gravity of the water
typically are located outside due to their large size and that of the grease. The closer the specific gravity
and receive FOG discharge waste from all required of the grease is to that of the water, the slower the
fixtures within a given facility. These units essen- globules will rise. The greater the density difference
tially utilize gravity flow and retention time as the between the grease and water, the faster the rate of
primary means of separating FOG from the facility separation.
waste stream prior to entering the municipal drain-
Since the grease globules rise rate

is inversely proportional to the viscos- SG - 0.85
ity of the wastewater, the less viscous
the carrier fluid, the faster the rate
of separation and vice versa. Grease
globules rise more slowly at lower tem- SG - 0.90
peratures and more rapidly at higher
temperatures. Grease, especially when
hot or warm, has less drag, is lighter
than water, and does not mix well with SG - 0.95
water. The final velocity for a spherical
particle, known as its floating veloc-
ity, may be calculated using Newtons
equation for the frictional drag with the
driving force, shown in Equation 8-1.
Equation 8-1
Cd A p v2 Figure 8-1 Rising and Settling Rates in Still Water
2 =(p1 p) g V
ticles that need to be removed in sanitary drainage
This yields the following mathematical relation-
systems have slow floating velocities, particle irregu-
ship:
larity is of small importance.
Equation 8-2 Figure 8-1 shows the settling velocities of discrete
spherical particles in still water. The heavy lines are
g p1 p

v= 4
3 Cd p
D for settling values computed using Equation 8-3 and
for drag coefficients depending on the Reynolds num-
where
ber. Below a Reynolds number of 1, the settlement is
Cd =Drag coefficient number
2
A =Projected area of the particle, pD /4 for a according to Stokes law. As noted above, as particle
sphere sizes and Reynolds numbers increase, there is first
v =Relative velocity between the particle and a transition stage, and then Newtons law applies.
the fluid At water temperatures other than 50F (10C), the
p =Mass density of the fluid ratio of the settling velocities to those at 50F (10C)
p1 =Mass density of the particle is approximately (T+10)/60, where T is the water
g =Gravitational constant, 32.2 ft/s/s temperature in degrees Fahrenheit (degrees Celsius).
D =Diameter of the particle Sand grains and heavy floc particles settle in the
V =Volume of the particle, 13pr3 for a sphere transition region; however, most of the particles sig-
(r=radius of the particle) nificant in the investigation of water treatment settle
Experimental values of the drag coefficient num- well within the Stokes law region. Particles with
ber have been correlated with the Reynolds number, irregular shapes settle somewhat more slowly than
a dimensionless term expressing the ratio of inertia spheres of equivalent volume. If the volumetric con-
and viscous forces. The expression for the Reynolds centration of the suspended particles exceeds about
number, R=r v D/m, contains, in addition to the pa- 1 percent, the settling is hindered to the extent that
rameters defined above, the absolute viscosity. The the velocities are reduced by 10 percent or more.
drag coefficient has been demonstrated to equal 24/R Flotation is the opposite of settling insofar as the
(Stokes law). When this value is substituted for Cd densities and particle sizes are known.
in Equation 8-2, the result is the following (Reynolds
number < 1): Retention Period
The retention period (P) is the theoretical time that
Equation 8-3
2
the water is held in the grease interceptor. The volume
g (p1 p) D of the tank for the required retention period can be
v=
18m
computed as follows:
Note: Equation 8-2 applies to particles with di-
ameters 0.4 inch (10 millimeters) or smaller and Equation 8-4
involving Reynolds numbers less than 1. For larger V= QP
diameters, there is a transition region; thereafter, 7.48
Newtons law applies. As an example of the use of Equation 8-4, for a
The effect of shape irregularity is most pronounced retention period (P) equal to two minutes and a flow
as the floating velocity increases. Since grease par-

Chapter 8Grease Interceptors 155
rate (Q) of 35 gallons per minute (gpm), the tank Vt is the vertical rise rate of the design grease/oil
volume is: globule.
As noted, the separation of grease/oil from water by
V= 352 =9.36 ft3
7.48 gravity differential can be expressed mathematically
by the use of Stokes law. Stokes law can be used to
Retention periods should be based on peak flows.
In International Standard (SI) units, the denominator calculate the rise rate of any grease/oil globule on the
in Equation 8-4 becomes approximately unity (1). basis of its size and density and the density and viscos-
ity of water. (See Figure 8-1 for the rise rate versus
Flow-through Period globule size at a fixed design temperature.)
The actual time required for the water to flow through The primary function of a grease interceptor is to
an existing tank is called the flow-through period. separate free-floating FOG from the wastewater. Such
How closely this flow-through period approximates a unit does not separate soluble substances, and it
the retention period depends on the tank. A well- does not break emulsions. Therefore, it never should
designed tank should provide a flow-through period be specified for these purposes. However, like any set-
of at least equal to the required retention period. tling facility, the interceptor presents an environment
in which suspended solids are settled coincident with
Factors Affecting Flotation in the Ideal
the separation of the FOG in the influent.
Basin
The ability of an interceptor to perform its primary
When designing the ideal separation basin, four
function depends on a number of factors. These in-
parameters dictate effective FOG removal from the
clude the type and state of FOG in the waste flow, the
water: grease/oil droplet size distribution, droplet
characteristics of the carrier stream, and the design
velocity, grease/oil concentration, and the condition of
and size of the unit. Due to the reliance on gravity
the grease/oil as it enters the basin. Grease/oil can be
differential phenomena, there is a practical limita-
present in five basic forms: oil-coated solids, free oil,
tion to interceptor effectiveness. In terms of grease/
mechanically emulsified, chemically emulsified, and
oil globule size, an interceptor will be effective over a
dissolved. When designing the ideal basin, consider
globule diameter range having a lower limit of 0.015
only free grease/oil.
centimeter (150 microns).
The ideal separation basin is one that has no
Gravity separation permits the removal of particles
turbulence, short-circuiting, or eddies. The flow
that exhibit densities different from their carrier
through the basin is laminar and distributed uni-
fluid. Separation is accomplished by detaining the
formly throughout the basins cross-sectional area.
flow stream for a sufficient time to permit particles to
The surface-loading rate is equal to the overflow rate.
separate out. Separation, or retention, time (T) is the
Free oil is separated due to the difference in specific
theoretical time that the water is held in the basin. A
gravity between the grease/oil globule and the water.
basin must be designed such that even if the grease/oil
Other factors affecting the design of an ideal basin
globule enters the chamber at the worst possible loca-
are influent concentration and temperature.
tion (at the bottom), there will be enough time for the
It is important to evaluate and quantify a basin
globule to rise the distance needed for capture. (See
design both analytically and hydraulically. Figure 8-2
Figure 8-3.) If the grease/oil globule rate of rise (Vt)
shows a cross-section of
a basin chamber. The
basin chamber is di-
vided into two zones:
liquid treatment zone
and surface-loading area
(grease/oil mat). The
mat zone is that portion
of the basin where the
separated grease/oil is
stored. L is the length
of the chamber or basin,
and D is the liquid depth
or the maximum dis-
tance the design grease/
oil globule must rise to
reach the grease mat.
Vh is the horizontal ve-
locity of the water, and Figure 8-2 Cross-section of a Grease Interceptor Chamber

Figure 8-3 Trajectory Diagram
exceeds the retention time required for separation, The greater the density differences between the
the basin will experience pass-through or short- particle and carrier fluid, the faster the rate of
circuiting. Retention time can be expressed as: separation.
Equation 8-5 The less viscous the carrier fluid, the faster the
V=QT rate of separation and vice versa.
where
V =Volume of basin
Grease Interceptor Design
Q =Design flow Example
T =Retention time The following example illustrates the application of
the above equations for the design of a grease inter-
As previously noted, particles that rise to the sur-
ceptor.
face of a liquid are said to possess rise rates, while
particles that settle to the bottom exhibit settling Data
rates. Both types obey Stokes Law, which establishes Without additional data describing the distribution
the theoretical terminal velocities of the rising and/or of oil droplets and their diameters within a repre-
settling particles. This basic principle governing the sentative wastewater sample, it is not possible to
separation of oil from water by gravity differential quantitatively predict the effect that increased inter-
may be expressed mathematically. With a value of ceptor size or reduced flow and subsequent increased
0.015 centimeter for the diameter (D) of the globule, retention time within the grease interceptor will have
the rate of rise of oil globules in wastewater may be on the effluent concentration of the interceptor. How-
expressed in feet per minute as: ever, experimental research on oil droplet rise time
Equation 8-6 (see Table 8-1) illustrates the effect that increased
interceptor size or reduced flow and subsequent in-
Vt= 0.0241 (Sw
u
So) creased retention time within the grease interceptor
will have on oil droplet removal.
where
Vt =Rate of rise of oil globule (0.015 centimeter An examination of Table 8-1 enables the designer
in diameter) in wastewater, feet per minute to at least be able to predict the effect of increased
Sw =Specific gravity of wastewater at design interceptor size or reduced flow and subsequent in-
temperature of flow creased retention time within the grease interceptor
So =Specific gravity of oil in wastewater at on oil droplet removal.
design temperature of flow If you follow this logic, you can improve the grease
u =Absolute viscosity of wastewater at design interceptor by increasing the interceptor volume or
temperature, poises reducing flow and subsequently lowering horizontal
This is an expression of Stokes law for terminal velocity and increasing retention time within the
velocity of spheres in a liquid medium that is appli- grease interceptor.
cable to the rate of rise of oil globules or the rate of Other data is as follows:
settling of suspended solids. Specific gravity of grease/oil in wastewater: 0.90
An examination of this law discloses: (average)
The larger the particles, the faster the rate of Temperature of wastewater and oil mixture:
separation. 68F (average)
Rate of rise of oil globules in wastewater:

Table 8-1 Droplet Rise Time Solution

Travel Time for 3-inch Distance at 1. Determine the rate of rise of oil globules: 150
688F (hr:min:sec)
micron=0:01:03
Droplet Diameter Oil (rise time)
(microns) SG 0.85 2. Determine the wastewater flow rate through a
300 0:00:12 20-gpm capacity grease interceptor:
150 0:00:42 2
Vh=L/T=1.83 ft /1.03 min=1.776 ft/min
125 0:01:00
90 0:01:54 Wetted cross-sectional area of the separation
60 0:04:12 basin: WH=14 in.16 in.=224
50 0:06:18 in.26.94410-3=1.55 ft2
40 0:09:36 Wastewater flow rate:1.55 ft21.776 ft/
30 0:17:24 min=2.76 ft3/min7.48=20.66 gal/min
20 0:38:46
The example proves the critical elements in de-
15 1:08:54
10 2:35:02
signing the ideal basin. Grease/oil droplet size and
5 10:02:09 velocity determine the minimum outlet elevation
1 258:23:53 needed to capture the targeted grease/oil globule.
Droplet Diameter Oil (rise time) This also establishes retention time as a key element
(microns) SG 0.90 in the design of a basin.
300 0:00:15 The hydraulic environment of the separation
150 0:01:03 chamber of the grease interceptor induces the separa-
125 0:01:27 tion of grease/oil and the deposition of solids. Stokes
90 0:02:54 law governs the rise and fall rates of an oil droplet or
60 0:06:36 solid particle in the fluid stream.
50 0:09:18 The principles of flotation discussed above are
40 0:14:24
applicable strictly to particles that are separate and
30 0:25:48
distinct. If the wastewater mixture contains variously
20 0:58:08
15 1:43:22
sized grease/oil droplets and solid particles distrib-
10 3:52:33 uted throughout the mixture, each droplet will (in
5 15:30:14 accordance with Stokes law) rise toward the surface
1 387:35:49 or fall to the bottom at a rate depending on its own
diameter.
In strong concentrations of very small particles,
Vt= 0.0241 (Sw So) as in turbid waters, hindered flotation takes place.
u
This condition means that the faster-rising particles
Dimensions of typical 20-gpm capacity grease collide with the slower-rising particles with more or
interceptor: less agglomeration due to adhesion. The resulting
Capacity: 21.33 gallons larger particles float still faster. These coalesce into
Dimensions: 22 inches long, 14 inches wide, 20 even larger droplets with an even higher rate of rise.
inches high The odds of such a collision depend on the droplet
size distribution and the quantity of droplets in the
Fluid level: 16 inches
mixture. This condition is particularly noticeable
Flow rate: 20 gpm where the suspended particles are highly flocculent
Inlet/outlet: 2 inches (i.e., composed of masses of very finely divided mate-
rial). Therefore, a tank that is deep enough to permit
Grease interceptors are to operate when agglomeration will have a blanket (or mass) of floc-
completely full and when the interceptor is in a culent material receiving the suspended solids from
horizontal position. the material rising from below or from the currents
Inlet and outlet pipes are running full, and the passing through it. Thus, the tank will lose masses of
interceptor is fully charged. the agglomerated solids to the storage space above.
Grease/oil globules must rise a minimum While varying flotation rates among the particles
distance of 3 inches from a point at the bottom are probably the most important factor in agglomera-
of the inlet head of the interceptor to a point tion, the varying liquid velocities throughout the tank
directly below the interceptor effluent outlet. have a similar effect, causing fast-moving particles to
collide with slower-moving particles. Since floccula-
tion can be assumed to continue throughout the entire

flotation period, the amount of flocculation depends effect. A flotation test might determine the point of
on the detention period. Accordingly, with a given agglomeration for a known water sample.
overflow rate, a tank of considerable depth should be
more efficient than a shallow unit. On the other hand, Practical Design
a decrease in the overflow rate might have the same While acquaintance with the theory of flotation is
important to the engineer, several factors have pre-
vented the direct application of this theory to the
design of grease interceptors. Some turbulence
is unavoidable at the inlet end of the tank. This
effect is greatly reduced by good inlet design (in-
cluding baffling) that distributes the influent as
uniformly as practicable over the cross-section of
the tank. There is also some interference with the
streamline flow at the outlet, but this condition is
less pronounced than the inlet turbulence and is
reduced only by using overflow weirs or baffles.
Density currents are caused by differences in the
temperature, the density of the incoming wastewa-
ter, and the interceptors contents. Incoming water
(A) has more suspended matter than the partially
clarified contents of the tank. Therefore, there
is a tendency for the influent to form a relatively
rapid current along the bottom of the tank, which
even may extend to the outlet. This condition is
known as short-circuiting and occurs even with a
uniform collection at the outlet end.
Flocculation of suspended solids has been
mentioned. Its effects, however, are difficult to
predict.
In general, the engineer depends on experience
as well as the code requirements of the various
local health departments for the preferred reten-
tion and overflow rates. Length, width, depth, and
inlet and outlet details enter into the design of a
(B) grease interceptor. Of these items, depth already
has been discussed as having some effect on the
tanks efficiency. A smaller depth gives a shorter
path for the rising particle to settle, which gives
the basin a greater efficiency as the surface-loading
rates match the overflow rates based on a given
retention time. The tanks inlets and outlets re-
quire careful consideration by the designer. The
ideal inlet reduces the inlet velocity to prevent
the pronounced currents toward the outlet, dis-
tributes the inlet water as uniformly as practical
over the cross-section of the tank, and mixes the
inlet water with the water already in the tank to
prevent the entering water from short-circuiting
toward the outlet.
Hydromechanical Grease
Interceptors
For over a hundred years, grease interceptors have
been used in plumbing drainage systems to prevent
(C)
grease accumulations from clogging interconnect-
Figure 8-4 (A) Hydromechanical Grease Interceptor (B) Timer- ing sanitary piping and sewer lines. However, it
controlled Grease Removal Device (C) FOG Disposal System

wasnt until 1949 that a comprehensive standard for Grease Removal Devices
the basic testing and rating requirements for hydro- Grease removal devices are typically hydromechanical
mechanical grease interceptors was developed. This interceptors that incorporate automatic, electrically
standard is known as PDI G101. It has been widely powered skimming devices within their design. The
recognized and is referenced in most plumbing codes, two basic variations of this type of interceptor are
replicated in American Society of Mechanical Engi- timer-controlled units and sensor-controlled units.
neer (ASME) A112.14.3: Grease Interceptors, referred
to in manufacturers literature information, and Timer-controlled Units
included in the basic testing and rating requirement In such units, FOG is separated by gravity flotation in
of Military Specification MIL-T-18361. A specifying the conventional manner, at which point the accumu-
engineer or purchaser of a hydromechanical grease lated FOG is skimmed from the surface of the water
interceptor can be assured that the interceptor will in the interceptor by a powered skimming device and
perform as intended when it has been tested, rated, activated by a timer on a time- or event-controlled
and certified in conformance with PDI G101, ASME basis. (See Figure 8-4(B).)
A112.14.3, and ASME A112.14.4: Grease Removal The skimmed FOG essentially is scraped or wiped
Devices. from the skimmer surface and directed into a trough,
Conventional manually operated hydromechani- from which it drains through a small pipe from the
cal interceptors are extremely popular and generally interceptor into a disposal container located adjacent
available up to 100-gpm (6.31-liters-per-second [L/s]) to the interceptor. Most GRDs are fitted with an elec-
rated flow capacity for most applications. (See Figure tric immersion heater to elevate the temperature in
8-4(A).) For flow rates above 100 gpm (6.31 L/s), large the interceptor to maintain the contained FOG in a
capacity units up to 500 gpm (31.5 L/s) commonly are liquid state for skimming purposes.
used. The internal designs of these devices are similar. A variation of this type of interceptor utilizes a
The inlet baffles, usually available in various styles FOG removal pump that is positioned in a tray inside
and arrangements, act to ensure at least a 90 percent the interceptor and controlled from a wall unit that
efficiency of grease removal through the HGI, per contains a timer device. The pump is attached to a
PDI G101 standard testing requirements for units of small translucent tank with a drain outlet that is
100 gpm and less. Care should be taken to avoid long located adjacent to the interceptor.
runs of pipe between the source and the interceptor to To operate these units, a timer is set to turn on
avoid FOG accumulation and mechanical emulsifica- the skimmer or FOG removal pump within a selected
tion prior to entering the interceptor. time period. In a short time, the accumulated FOG
Grease removal from manually operated hydrome- is drained into the adjacent container, to be disposed
chanical grease interceptors typically is performed by of in a proper manner.
opening the access cover and manually skimming the Sensor-controlled Units
accumulated grease from the interior water surface These interceptors employ computer-controlled sen-
(along with the removal of a perforated filter screen sors or probes, which sense the presence of FOG and
for cleaning if so equipped). automatically initiate the draw-off cycle at a prede-
Semiautomatic Units termined percentage level of the interceptors rated
These units are typically a hydromechanical intercep- capacity. FOG then is drawn from the top of the FOG
tor design, with FOG accumulation on the surface of layer in the interceptor. The draw-off cycle continues
the water inside the interceptor. However, these types until the presence of water is detected by the sensor,
of HGIs are not used as widely as they once were due which stops the cycle to ensure that only water-free
in part to advances in grease retention equipment FOG is recovered. If required, an immersion heater
technology. In addition, the FOG removal process is activated automatically at the onset of the draw-off
involves the running of hot water through the inter- cycle to liquefy FOG in the interceptor. In addition,
ceptor to raise the water level and force the FOG into if either the units grease collection reservoir (where
the draw-off recovery cone or pyramid and then out the recovered grease is stored pending removal) or
through the attached draw-off hose to a FOG disposal the interceptor itself is near capacity with potential
container until the running water becomes clear. As overloading sensed, warning measures and unit shut-
compared to the operational qualities of the intercep- down are activated automatically.
tor types and technologies currently available, this When GRDs are considered for installation,
process is wasteful of potable water at a time when the manufacturer should be consulted regarding
water conservation should be of legitimate concern electrical, service, and maintenance requirements.
to the plumbing engineer, especially in certain areas The plumbing engineer must coordinate these re-
of the country where the cost of water may be at a quirements with the appropriate trades to ensure
premium for a facility owner. a proper installation. Furthermore, owing to these

requirements, it is essential that those responsible maintenance to remove undigested materials, and
for operating GRDs be trained thoroughly in their inspections to ensure all components are clean and
operation. functioning properly are required and should be per-
formed on a regular basis.
FOG Disposal Systems Furthermore, it is essential that the plumbing en-
A FOG disposal system is very similar to a hydro- gineer coordinate all electrical and equipment space
mechanical interceptor in its operation. However, in allocation requirements with the appropriate trades
addition to reducing FOG in effluent by separation, to allow for proper installation and functioning of a
it automatically reduces FOG in effluent by mass and FOG disposal system.
volume reduction, without the use of internal me-
chanical devices or manual FOG removal. This system Gravity Grease Interceptors
is specifically engineered, and one type is configured Gravity grease interceptors commonly are made of
to contain microorganisms that are used to oxidize 4-inch (101.6-mm) minimum thickness concrete walls,
FOG within the interceptor to permanently convert with interior concrete barriers that act to sectionalize
the FOG material into the by-products of digestion, the interior into multiple chambers that dampen flow
a process otherwise referred to as bioremediation. It and retain FOG by flotation. Figure 8-5(A) shows a
should be noted that this is also the same process used typical installation. However, standards allow other
by municipal wastewater treatment plants. Other materials such as fiberglass, plastic, and protected
FOG disposal systems utilize thermal or chemical steel. Generally, these units are used outside buildings
methods of oxidation. as inground installations rather than as inside sys-
Figure 8-4(A) is an example of a bioremediation tems adjacent to or within kitchen areas. These units
type of interceptor. The interceptor is divided into
two main chambers, separated by baffles
at the inlet and outlet sides. The baffle
located at the inlet side of the intercep-
tor acts to distribute the inflow evenly
across the horizontal dimension of the
interceptor. However, unlike conven-
tional HGIs, a media chamber is its main
compartment, which contains a coalesc-
ing media that is engineered to cause
FOG to rise along the vertical surfaces of
the media structure where it comes into
contact with microorganisms inhabit-
ing a biofilm attached to the media. A
wall-mounted shelf located above the
interceptor supports a metering pump,
timer, controls, and a bottle filled with a (A)
bacteria culture provided by the system
manufacturer.
As the FOG material collects in the
biofilm, bacteria from the culture bottle
(injected by the metering pump) break
the bonds between fatty acids and glyc-
erol and then the bonds between the
hydrogen, carbon, and oxygen atoms
of both, thereby reducing FOG volume.
Drainage continues through the media
chamber around the outlet baffle, where
it then is discharged to the sanitary
system.
Though FOG disposal systems signifi-
cantly reduce the need for manual FOG
removal or the handling of mechani- (B)
cally removed FOG materials, the need
Figure 8-5 (A) Gravity Grease Interceptor (B) Passive, Tank-type
for monitoring effluent quality, routine Grease Interceptor

generally do not include the draw-off or flow-control The effluent should be drawn from near the
arrangements common to hydromechanical units. bottom of the unit, via a dip pipe, to remove as
The unit should be installed as close to the source of much floatable grease and solids as possible.
FOG as possible. If this cannot be achieved due to A large manhole, or removable slab, should be
field conditions or other site constraints, a heat trace provided for access to all chambers of the grease
system can be installed along the drain piping that interceptor for complete cleaning of both the
is routed to the inlet side of the GGI to help keep the floatable and the settleable solids.
temperature of the FOG-laden waste from solidifying
The top, or cover, should be gas-tight and
before it enters the interceptor. Increasing the slope
capable of withstanding traffic weight.
of the drain piping to the interceptor also can be
considered in lieu of heat tracing where allowable by A difference in elevation between the inlet and
local codes and authorities having jurisdiction. the outlet of 3 inches to 6 inches (76.2 mm to
If a unit is located in a traffic area, care must be 152.4 mm) should be provided to ensure a flow
taken to ensure that the access covers are capable through the grease interceptor during surge
of withstanding any possible traffic load. It is also conditions without the waste backing up in the
inlet sewer. As the grease begins to accumulate,
important that the interceptor be located in such a
the top of the grease layer will begin to rise
way as to allow an easy cleanout procedure.
above the normal water level at a distance of
Prefabricated GGIs also tend to be internally
approximately 1 inch (25.4 mm) for each 9
and externally configured with unique, pre-installed inches (228.6 mm) of grease thickness.
features designed to meet the local jurisdictional
requirements of any given project location. The After installation, testing of the GGI for leakage
plumbing engineer must verify the local jurisdictional should be a specification requirement prior to
requirements to which these units must conform to final acceptance.
ensure proper unit selection. In addition to concrete GGIs, gravity grease inter-
Field-formed Concrete Units ceptors in the form of prefabricated round, cylindrical
protected steel tanks are also available. (See Figure
Field-formed concrete gravity grease interceptors
8-5(B).) These units often are referred to as pas-
are basically identical to the prefabricated units as
sive grease interceptors, but they fall into the same
described above, with the exception that they usu-
category as gravity grease interceptors because they
ally are constructed at the project site. Though likely
operate in virtually the same manner. Interceptors of
more expensive to install than a prefabricated unit,
this type are available with single and multiple cham-
one reason for its installation could be unique project
bers (depending on local jurisdictional requirements),
site constraints. For example, a GGI may need to be
with internal baffles, vent connections, and manhole
installed in a very tight area, too close to existing
extensions as required to allow for proper operation.
property lines or adjacent structures to allow hoist-
They also are manufactured in single- and double-wall
ing equipment the necessary access to an excavated
construction and can be incorporated with steam or
area that otherwise would be sufficient for a standard
electric heating systems to help facilitate FOG separa-
prefabricated GGI installation.
tion and extraction from the unit.
Following is a list of recommended installation
Protected steel tank GGIs are built to Underwrit-
provisions for prefabricated and field-formed GGIs
ers Laboratories (UL) specifications for structural
located outside a building.
and corrosion protection for both the interior and
The unit should be installed as close to the the exterior of the interceptor.The exterior corrosion
source of FOG as possible. If this cannot be protection is a two-part, polyurethane, high-build
achieved due to field conditions or other site coating with interior coating options of polyurethane,
constraints, a heat trace system can be installed epoxy, or proprietary coatings (depending on influent
along the drain piping that is routed to the inlet wastewater temperature, wastewater characteristics,
side of the GGI. etc.). When protected steel tank GGIs are considered
The influent should enter the unit at a location for installation, the manufacturer should be consulted
below the normal water level or near the regarding venting and hold-down requirements for
bottom of the GGI to keep the surface as still as buoyancy considerations.
possible.
The inlet and the outlet of the unit should be Equipment Summary
provided with cleanouts for unplugging both the It is important for the plumbing engineer to under-
sewers and the dip pipes. stand that the topic of FOG retention and removal
is a continuing and ever-changing evolution of both
technology and the latest equipment available at the

time. Types of interceptors currently on the market this particular arrangement is allowed by governing
(such as the FOG disposal system and protected codes and local jurisdictions, special attention should
steel tank GGIs mentioned) may be proprietary in be paid to air inlet sources for the air-injected flow
nature and may include features specifically inherent control if no p-trap is attached to the fixture outlet to
to one particular manufacturer. The purpose of the avoid circuiting the building vent to the fixture.
equipment descriptions contained in this chapter is The location of a grease interceptor far from the
to expose the reader to the basic types of FOG treat- fixtures it serves allows the grease to cool and solidify
ment equipment presently available as they currently in the waste lines upstream of the grease interceptor,
are defined and listed within model codes. The text is causing clogging conditions or requiring more fre-
not intended to imply that any one particular type of quent rodding-out of the waste lines. However, a heat
device is superior to another for a given application. trace system can be installed along the main waste
That being the case, the plumbing engineer must ex- line that is routed to the inlet side of the interceptor
ercise care when proposing to specify FOG treatment to help keep the temperature of the FOG-laden waste
equipment that could be considered proprietary, in from solidifying before it enters the interceptor. Long
conjunction with a government-controlled or publicly horizontal and vertical runs also can cause mechanical
funded project that may prohibit the specifying of emulsification of entrained FOG such that it is not
such equipment due to a lack of competition by other easily separated.
manufacturers. Some practical considerations are also important
if an interceptor is to be located near the fixtures it
Applications serves. If the interceptor is an under-the-counter,
Most local administrative authorities require in their above-the-slab device, the engineer should leave
jurisdictions codes that spent water from food service enough space above the cover to allow the complete
fixtures and equipment producing large amounts of cleaning and FOG removal from the unit.
FOG discharge into an approved interceptor before Some ordinances also require that interceptors
entering the municipalitys sanitary drainage system. not be installed where the surrounding temperatures
These requirements (generally code and pretreatment under normal operating conditions are less than 40F
regulations, with pretreatment coordinators having (4.4C).
the final word) can include multi-compartment pot Some administrative authorities prohibit the
sinks, pre-rinse sinks, kettles, and wok stations, as discharge of food waste disposers through HGIs and
well as area floor drains, grease-extracting hoods GRDs because of the clogging effect of ground-up
installed over frying or other grease-producing equip- particles. Other jurisdictions allow this setup, pro-
ment, and dishwashing equipment. vided that a solids interceptor or strainer basket is
If floor drains are connected to the interceptor, installed upstream of these devices to remove any food
the engineer must give special consideration to other particulates prior to entering the interceptor. It is rec-
adjacent fixtures that may be connected to a common ommended that food waste disposers be connected to
line with a floor drain upstream of the interceptor. HGIs and GRDs (in conjunction with a solids strainer)
Unless flow control devices are used on high-volume when allowed by the authority having jurisdiction due
fixtures or multiple fixtures flowing upstream of the to the fact that disposer waste discharge is a prime
floor drain connection, flooding of the floor drain can carrier of FOG-laden material.
occur. A common misapplication is the installation The same situation is similar with respect to
of a flow control device at the inlet to the intercep- dishwashers. Some administrative authorities pro-
tor that may restrict high-volume fixture discharge hibit the discharge of dishwasher waste to HGIs and
into the interceptor, but floods the floor drain(s) on GRDs, while other jurisdictions allow it, provided
the common branch. Floor drains connected to an that the dishwashers are without pre-rinse sinks. It
interceptor require a recessed (beneath the floor) is recommended that dishwashers not be connected
interceptor design. to HGIs or GRDs. Although the high discharge waste
An acceptable design concept is to locate the in- temperature from a dishwasher may be beneficial to
terceptor as close to the grease-producing fixtures as the FOG separation process by helping to maintain
possible. Under-the-counter or above-slab intercep- the FOG in a liquid state, the detergents used in dish-
tor installations are often possible adjacent to the washing equipment can enter these types of devices
grease-producing fixtures. This type of arrangement and inhibit their ability to separate FOG altogether.
often avoids the individual venting of the fixtures, This allows FOG to pass through the device where it
with a common vent and trap downstream of the eventually can revert to its original state and cause
grease interceptor serving to vent the fixtures and problems within the municipal sanitary system.
the grease interceptor together. Therefore, a p-trap is
not required on the fixture outlet. However, provided

Flow Control 1. Determine the sink volume.

Flow control devices are best located at the outlet of Cubic contents of one sink
3
the fixtures they serve. However, a few precautions compartment=182412=5,184 in.
are necessary for the proper application of flow control Cubic contents of the three sink
devices. The engineer should be sure that enough compartments=35,184=15,552 in.3
vertical space is available if the flow control device is
Contents expressed in gallons=15,552
an angle pattern with a horizontal inlet and a vertical
in.3/231=67.3 gallons
outlet. A common difficulty encountered is the lack
of available height for an above-slab grease intercep- [Contents expressed in
tor adjacent to the fixture served when the vertical liters=457.2609.6304.8=84.95106
height needed for the drain outlet elbow, pipe slope mm3=8.49 104 mL
on the waste arm from the fixture, vertical outlet flow 38.49104=25.44104 mL = 254.4 L]
control fitting, and height from the grease interceptor
inlet to the floor are all compensated. 2. Add the total potable water supply that could be
The air intake (vent) for the flow control fitting discharged independent of a fixture calculated
may terminate under the sink as high as possible to above, including manufacturer-rated appliances
such as water wash exhaust hoods and disposers
prevent overflow or terminate in a return bend at the
(if allowed to discharge to the interceptor).
same height on the outside of the building. When the
fixture is individually trapped and back-vented, air 3. Determine the fixture load. A sink (or fixture)
intake may intersect the vent stack. All installation seldom is filled to the brim, and dishes, pots, or
recommendations are subject to the approval of the pans displace approximately 25 percent of the
code authority. The air intake allows air to be drawn water. Therefore, 75 percent of the actual fixture
into the flow control downstream of the orifice baffle, capacity should be used to establish the drainage
thereby promoting air-entrained flow at the intercep- load.
tors rated capacity. The air entrained through the 0.7567.3 gal=50.8 gal
flow control also may aid the flotation process by [0.75254.4=190.8 L]
providing a lifting effect for the rising grease. Flow
control fittings are not common for floor drains or for 4. Calculate the flow rate based on drain time,
fixtures that would flood if their waste discharge was typically one minute or two minutes. The
restricted (such as a grease-extracting hood during its flow rates are calculated using the following
flushing cycle). It is particularly important to install equation:
the grease interceptor near the grease-discharging Drainage load, in gallons (L)
Drainage load, in minutes (s)
fixture when flow control devices are used because of
the lower flow in the waste line downstream of the Therefore, the flow rate for this example would
flow control device. Such flow may not be enough to be as follows: 50 gpm (3.15 L/s) for one-minute
ensure self-cleaning velocities of 3 feet per second drainage or 25 gpm (1.58 L/s) for two-minute
(fps) (0.9 meters per second [m/s]). drainage.
5. Select the interceptor. Choose between a
Guidelines for Sizing hydromechanical interceptor with a rated
The following recommended sizing procedure for capacity of 50 gpm (3.15 L/s) for one-minute
grease interceptors may be used by the engineer as a flow or 25 gpm (1.58 L/s) for two-minute flow,
general guideline for the selection of these units. The or a gravity interceptor with a capacity of 1,500
engineer should always consult the local administra- gallons (50-gpm flow rate30-minute detention
tive authorities regarding variations in the allowable time).
drain-down times acceptable under the approved
Local administrative authorities having juris-
codes. Calculation details and explanations of the
diction should be consulted as they may dictate a
decision-making processes have been included in full
specific formula or sizing criteria that would ulti-
in the examples as an aid to the engineer using these
mately determine the specific flow parameters for
guidelines in specific situations.
which the interceptor could be selected. It is extremely
Example 8-1 important that the plumbing engineer determine
Assume an HGI or a GRD for a single-fixture installa- not only the governing model code requirements
tion with no flow control. Size the grease interceptor regarding specific interceptor criteria, but also local
for a three-compartment pot (scullery) sink, with each jurisdictional requirements promulgated by the pre-
compartment 182412 inches (457.2 mm609.6 treatment authority since they sometimes contradict
mm304.8 mm) each other, especially where local jurisdictions adopt

certain amendments and regulations that may super- having jurisdiction have likely established their own
sede any model code requirements. set of guidelines and requirements for an intercep-
Grease extraction water-washed hood equipment tor on a specific project and, therefore, also should
may be used. It should be noted that while these be consulted at the start of the design. It is up to the
systems are used in some cases, grease hoods that plumbing engineer to pull together the various agency
incorporate troughs that entrap grease, which are requirements in an effort to design a code-compliant
sloped to drip cups at the ends of the hood, are used system, while incorporating any additional governing
quite prevalently. These cup drains are removed by requirements and regulations.
hand, and the FOG material contained is disposed The following model plumbing codes should be
of in a proper manner and never discharges to the viewed for provisions regarding interceptors:
interceptor. It is important that the plumbing engi- Uniform Plumbing Code
neer verify which types of systems will be used with
respect to grease hood equipment prior to the selec- International Plumbing Code
tion of the interceptor so that the proper capacity can National Standard Plumbing Code
be determined. Following are itemized lists incorporating the ma-
It also should be noted that the phrase sizing an jor provisions of the model plumbing codes reviewed
interceptor is used throughout the industry quite and are included herein as an abbreviated design
loosely. However, grease interceptors are not sized. guide for the engineer when specifying sizing. It is
They are selected based on specific flow parameters important to review the applicable code in effect in
and requirements as determined by the plumbing the area for any variation from this generalized list.
engineer during the design process for each individual
facility. Furthermore, the design flow rates and pipe Summary of Uniform Plumbing Code
sizing criteria for food preparation facilities should Requirements for Interceptors
not be determined by using the fixture unit method 1. Grease interceptors are not required in
typically used for other types of facilities due to the individual dwelling units or residential
fact that the probability of simultaneous use factors dwellings.
associated with fixture unit values do not apply in
2. Water closets, urinals, and other plumbing
food preparation facilities where increased and con- fixtures conveying human waste shall not drain
tinuous flow rates are encountered. Also, the facility into or through any interceptor.
determines the peak flows used to select the proper
interceptor for the intended application, not the other 3. Each fixture discharging into an interceptor
way around (i.e., a single facility does not discharge shall be individually trapped and vented in an
at a multitude of different flow rates dependant on approved manner.
which particular type of interceptor is being consid- 4. Grease waste lines leading from floor drains,
ered for installation.) floor sinks, and other fixtures or equipment in
Lastly, in certain projects the plumbing engineer serving establishments such as restaurants,
may be called on to select an interceptor in which the cafes, lunch counters, cafeterias, bars, clubs,
flow rates for a facility are not readily quantifiable hotels, hospitals, sanitariums, factory or school
at the time of design, such as for a future expansion, kitchens, or other establishments where grease
restaurant, or food court area within a new develop- may be introduced into the drainage or sewage
ment. In this case, tables or formulas can be used in system shall be connected through an approved
an effort to help quantify the maximum flow rate that interceptor.
will be encountered for a specific pipe size at a given 5. Unless specifically required or permitted by the
slope and velocity that ultimately discharges to the authority having jurisdiction, no food waste
interceptor. This information can be used to select disposal unit or dishwasher shall be connected
the proper interceptor capacity for the intended flow to or discharge into any grease interceptor.
rates anticipated. Commercial food waste disposers shall be
permitted to discharge directly into the building
Code Requirements drainage system.
The necessity for the plumbing engineer to verify all 6. The waste discharge from a dishwasher may be
state and local jurisdictional requirements prior to drained into the sanitary waste system through
the start of any food service facility design cannot a gravity grease interceptor when approved by
be emphasized enough. Although state and model the authority having jurisdiction.
plumbing codes provide information with respect 7. Flow control devices are required at the
to interceptor requirements and regulations, local drain outlet of each grease-producing fixture
health departments and administrative authorities connected to a hydromechanical grease

interceptor. Flow control devices having interceptors shall be sized and rated for the
adjustable (or removable) parts are prohibited. discharge of the food waste grinder.
The flow control device shall be located such 4. Grease interceptors shall be equipped with
that no system vent shall be between the flow devices to control the rate of water flow so that
control and the interceptor inlet. (Exception: the water flow does not exceed the rated flow.
Listed grease interceptors with integral flow The flow control device shall be vented and
controls or restricting devices shall be installed terminate not less than 6 inches above the flood
in an accessible location in accordance with the rim level or be installed in accordance with
manufacturers instructions). manufacturers instructions.
8. A vent shall be installed downstream of 5. Hydromechanical grease interceptors shall have
hydromechanical grease interceptors. the minimum grease retention capacity for the
9. The grease collected from a grease interceptor flow-through rates indicated in Table 8-2.
must not be introduced into any drainage piping
or public or private sewer. Table 8-2 Minimum Grease Retention Capacity
10. Each gravity grease interceptor shall be so Total Flow- Grease Retention
through Rating Capacity
installed and connected that it shall be at all (gpm) (pounds)
times easily accessible for inspection, cleaning,
and removal of intercepted grease. No gravity 4 8
grease interceptor shall be installed in any part 6 12
of a building where food is handled. 7 14
11. Gravity grease interceptors shall be placed as 9 18
practical to the fixtures they serve.
10 20
12. Each business establishment for which a 12 24
gravity grease interceptor is required shall
have an interceptor that shall serve only that 14 28
establishment unless otherwise approved by the 15 30
authority having jurisdiction. 18 36
13. Gravity grease interceptors shall be located 20 40
so as to be readily accessible to the equipment 25 50
required for maintenance and designed to retain
grease until accumulations can be removed by 35 70
pumping the interceptor. 50 100
Summary of International Plumbing 75 150
Code Requirements for Hydromechanical 100 200
Grease Interceptors
1. Grease interceptors are not required in
Operation and Maintenance
individual dwelling units or private living Operational methods can create problems for the
quarters. engineer even if all the design techniques for grease
interceptors presented have been observed. Failing
2. A grease interceptor or automatic grease to scrape dinner plates and other food waste-bearing
removal device shall be required to receive the
utensils into the food waste disposer prior to loading
drainage from fixtures and equipment with
them into dishwasher racks means that the liquid
grease-laden waste located in food preparation
waste discharged from the dishwasher to the grease
areas such as restaurants, hotel kitchens,
hospitals, school kitchens, bars, factory interceptor also carries solid food particles into the
cafeterias, and clubs. The fixtures include pre- grease interceptor unit. The grease interceptor is not
rinse sinks, soup kettles or similar devices, wok a food waste disposer.
stations, floor drains or sinks to which kettles Another common problem is insufficient grease
are drained, automatic hood wash units, and removals. The period between removals differs for
dishwashers without pre-rinse sinks. each interceptor type and is best left to the experience
of licensed professional cleaning services. However,
3. Where food waste disposal units are connected
if the flow rate of the unit is constantly exceeded (no
to grease interceptors, a solids interceptor shall
flow control) with high-temperature water, such as
separate the discharge before connecting to
the interceptor. Solids interceptors and grease a heavy discharge from a dishwasher, the grease in
the unit may periodically be liquefied and washed
into the drainage system downstream of the grease

interceptor. In this case, the operator or cleaning

service may never realize that the unit needs cleaning
because it never reaches its grease storage capacity.
The difficulty is that when the temperature of the
grease/water mixture finally cools in the drainage
system downstream of the grease interceptor, clogging
ultimately occurs.
Adequate maintenance is critical to an efficient
grease interceptor installation. One of the most
common problems is the disposal of the accumulated
grease. The grease removed must be disposed of in
various ways depending on local requirements. Grease
should not be poured down any other drain or in any
sewer line or buried in the ground. It should be dis-
posed of via garbage pickup or some similar approved
operation.
Economics
Broadly speaking, a single grease interceptor is more
economical than a multiple interceptor installation
for any given grease waste system. The length and
cost of the grease waste piping to transport waste to a
single large interceptor must be compared to the cost
of short lengths and more than one unit.
Resources
Camp, Thomas R. Sedimentation and the Design
of Settling Tanks. Transactions of the American
Society of Civil Engineers, Vol. III, p. 895.
ASME A112.14.4: Grease Removal Devices.
American Society of Testing and Materials.
Davis, Calvin V. Handbook of Applied Hydraulics.
New York: McGraw-Hill.
Hardenberg, W. A., and E. R. Rodie. 1961. Water
supply and waste disposal. Scranton, PA:
International Textbook Company.
Guide to Grease Interceptors. Plumbing and
Drainage Institute.
PDI G101: Testing and Rating Procedure for Grease
Interceptors. Plumbing and Drainage Institute.
Steel, Ernest W. Water Supply and Sewage, 3rd ed.
New York: McGraw-Hill.


9 Cross-connection
Control
Keeping a fluid isolated in a complex piping network

in a modern building may seem like a straightforward
proposition. However, such efforts fall short unless all
nections. That is, the pressure at any point in a static
condition of a water supply system is a function only
of the waters depth. This relationship is understood
details are addressed thoroughly. Plumbing conveys by considering that at any point, the weight of water
one of societys most cherished commodity, safe water, above it is the product of its volume and its specific
to be used for personal hygiene and consumption, weight. Specific weight is similar to density; however,
for industry, for medical care, and for landscape ir- it is defined as weight per unit volume rather than
rigation. Thus, a clear and distinct barrier between mass per unit volume. Like density, it varies slightly
potable water and pollution, toxic substances, or with temperature.
disease-causing microbes is required. Good plumb- To derive the pressure relationship in a hydrostatic
ing practices also call for similar controls related to fluid, consider the volume of the fluid at a given depth
graywater. and a horizontal area at that depth. The pressure is
the weight divided by the area. Hence,
HyDROSTATIC FUNDAMENTALS p = W / A = h A w / A, or
A cross-connection in plumbing is the point in the
water supply where the water purity level is no Equation 9-1
longer known because of the transition from an p=hw
enclosed streamline of water to another surface,
basin, drain system, pipe system, or other piping or
p = h 62.4/144 = 0.433h
beyond the control of the water purveyor. The point
is not necessarily a hard-piped connection. Rather, [p = h 1 9.81 = 9.81h]
because of the nature of fluid mechanics, it includes where
situations where the end of a water supply pipe is p = Static gauge pressure, pounds per square
suspended below the rim of a fixture or floor drain. A inch (psi [kilopascals, or kPa])
cross-connection control (CCC) is a piping design or W = Weight, pounds (N)
device together with frequent monitoring to prevent A = Area, square inch (square meter)
a reverse flow of water at the cross-connection. A w = Specific weight of water, pounds per cubic
3
cross-connection hazard is relative to the nature of feet (N/m )
the contaminants likely to be present in the environ- h = Static head, feet (meters)
ment of the cross-connection. Examples of potential For absolute pressure in a water supply, the
cross-connections include plumbing fixtures, hose local atmospheric pressure is added to the gauge
bibbs, appliance connections, hydronic water supply pressure. For example, in Figure 9-1, the pressure
connections, fire sprinkler and standpipe water supply at the top of the column is found from p = (0.433)
connections, water supply connection to industrial (-23) + 14.7 = 4.73 [(9.81)(-7.0) + 100 = 31.2]. Note
processes, laundries, medical equipment, food service that atmospheric pressure is not constant. Rather, it
equipment, HVAC equipment, swimming pool water varies with the weather, geographic location, and the
makeup, water treatment backwash, trap primers, effects of HVAC systems.
irrigation taps, dispensers that dilute their product Hydrodynamics, or additional forces related to
with water, pressure-relief valve discharge piping, and momentum from moving water, affects the magnitude
drain-flushing water supply. of a reverse flow and the transient nature of a flow de-
The fundamentals of hydrostatics are essential to mand. Pressure reversals at booster pump inlets and
understanding the hazards and control of cross-con- circulator pump inlets may cause other hydrodynamic
Figure 9-2 Pipe Network With Four Endpoints
Figure 9-1 Hydrostatics Showing Reduced Absolute

Pressure in a Siphon
issues. These pressure effects are superimposed on hy-

drostatic pressures. Nonetheless, impending reversals Figure 9-3 Five Typical Plumbing Details Without Cross-
generally are affected by hydrostatics only. connection Control
As an example, consider a 100-foot (30.5-m) tall
water supply riser pipe with 20 pounds per square network of pipes may represent a small network,
inch gauge (psig) (138 kPa) at its top. From Equation such as a residence or a vehicle, or it may represent a
9-1, the pressure at the base of the riser will be 63.3 large network, such as a building complex or a major
psig (436 kPa). If an event causes a 30-psig (207-kPa) city. At each endpoint in a plumbing water supply,
pressure loss, the pressure at the top fixture will be any of five general details, such as shown in Figure
-10 psig (-69 kPa gauge) or 4.7 pounds per square inch 9-3, may be connected. Elevation is represented in
absolute (psia) (32 kPa absolute). This vacuum will the vertical direction in each of these recognizable
remain in the piping until any faucet, flush valve, or details. However, for illustration purposes, no CCC
other valve is opened on the riser. is included. An example of the first detail is a water
storage tank with an open or vented top, such as a
Causes of Reverse Flow city water tower; of the second is a pressure vessel
Preventing pollution or a contaminant from inadver- such as a boiler; of the third is a plumbing basin; of
tently entering the water supply applies to a potable the fourth is a hose immersed in a plumbing basin
water supply, to other water supplies, and between or a supply to a water closet with a flushometer; and
varying water supplies. An example of a varying of the fifth is a fire suppression system or a hydronic
water supply is a municipality and the water supply system. Other examples of Figure 9-3(e) are a con-
of a vehicle. nection point for process piping, for a vehicle, or for a
A general water supply is represented in Figure buildings water distribution in contrast to the street
9-2. Although it shows four endpoints and various distribution.
pipes between them, expanding it to any number Lastly, to include a pump anywhere in a network,
of endpoints with any arrangement of pipes can an elevated reservoir can illustrate the effect of a
illustrate a general water supply of any type. The pump. The pumps discharge head is equivalent to
elevation and length of any pipe can vary. Hence, the

Chapter 9Cross-connection Control 171
the surface elevation level of the reservoir relative to elevation potentially may flow in a reverse direction.
the piping system discharge level. Submerged irrigation systems or yard hydrants with
All discussions of CCC include identification of a submerged drain point potentially may flow soil
back-pressure and back-siphonage. The maximum contaminants into the water supply system. Hence,
back-pressure at the base of the riser in Figure 9-3(a), the safety of a water supply distribution depends on
for a reservoir other than the normal water supply, effective control at each connection point. The safety
occurs if the tank shown is filled to its rim or overflow is not ensured if the effectiveness of one point is un-
outlet. Back-pressure can be defined as the pressure known despite the investment of controls at all other
at a point in a water supply system that exists if the points. One example of a cross-connection catastrophe
normal water supply is cut off or eliminated. In Figure occurred in Chicago in 1933 from defective fixtures
9-3(d), flow from the basin may occur if the water sup- and piping. As a result, 1,409 individuals contracted
ply is cut off or eliminated and if the water elevation amoebic dysentery, which caused 98 deaths.
is near or above the pipe outlet. This reverse flow, Further, control methods today do not detect or
or siphon action, is caused by atmospheric pressure remove the presence of contaminants. A control de-
against the free surface of the water in the basin. vice added to hot water piping supplying a laboratory
Recall that a siphon can be defined as a bent tube full will not be effective if the circulation return brings
of water between two reservoirs under atmospheric contaminated hot water out of the laboratory.
pressure so that flow takes place despite the barrier A manually closed water supply valve is not con-
between them. Back-siphonage is defined as an un- sidered a cross-connection control, even if the valve
intended siphon situation in a water supply with the is bubble-tight and well supervised. Ordinary check
source reservoir being a fixture or other source with valves also are not considered a cross-connection
an unknown level of contamination. control. The history of such good intentions for
In a network, when the law of hydrostatics is equipment connections or water fill into processing
generally applied to the reservoir with the highest operations has not been sufficiently effective as com-
elevation, the networks pressure distribution is pared to cross-connection control.
identifiable, and the direction of flow can be known In addition, as a measure of containment, a control
through general fluid mechanics. In an ideal case, device in the water service is a primary candidate to
the presence of that reservoir generally keeps the isolate a hazard within a building. However, its func-
direction of flow in a favorable direction. However, tion is to preserve the safety of adjacent buildings and
the connection of a supply reservoir is vulnerable to not the building itself. That is, reverse flows may occur
any cause for a pressure interruption, and the normal within a building having only containment cross-
network pressure distribution may be disturbed. For connection control. Its occupants remain at risk even
example, when a valve anywhere in a general system though the neighborhood is otherwise protected.
isolates a part of the system away from the supply res-
ervoir, another part of the isolated section may become Hazards in Water
the water source, such as any fixture, equipment, or Distribution
connected system. As an example in Figure 9-2 with A hazard exists in a water supply system if a risk may
endpoint 2 being the city water supply, consider that occur and if the probability of occurrence is beyond
endpoint 4 is a closed-loop ethylene glycol system on a the impossible. The various pressure interruptions
roof. If the city supply is cut off, the glycol may freely previously described do not occur frequently, but they
feed into endpoints 1 and 3. happen and often without warning. Hence, the prob-
Other pressure interruptions include broken pipes, ability cannot be discounted even if an occurrence is
broken outlets, air lock, pressure caused by thermal uncommon, especially in large networks. Risks are
energy sources, malfunctioning pumps, malfunction- more common since they are associated with every
ing pressure-reducing valves, and uncommon water plumbing fixture, many types of equipment, and
discharges such as a major firefighting event. Several various connections with non-plumbing systems. The
specific instances of mishaps are described in Ap- nature of the risk ranges from mere objections such
pendix 9-G. as water color or odor to varying exposure levels of
Because it cannot be predicted where a valve may nuclear, chemical, or biological material. The varying
close or where another type of pressure interruption level further ranges from imperceptible to mildly toxic
may occur, each water connection point becomes a to generally lethal in healthy adults. A risky material
potential point for reverse flow. Thus, every fixture, generally is referred to as a contaminant. Appendix
every connected piece of equipment, and every con- 9-E presents a list of contaminants and maximum
nected non-plumbing system becomes a point of concentration levels as mandated by the U.S. Safe
reverse flow. Containers of any liquid that receive Drinking Water Act of 1974.
water from a hose or even a spout of inadequate

Control Paradox Table 9-1 Air Gap Standards

A paradox exists in a water sup-
Applications Standard
ply. That is, reverse flows rarely
happen, yet they are dangerous. Air gap ANSI/ASME A112.1.2: Air Gaps in Plumbing Systems
While fire prevention is gener- Air gap fitting ANSI/ASME A112.1.3: Air Gap Fittings for Use with Plumbing
ally respected, cross-connection Fixtures, Appliances, and Appurtenances
control is poorly understood. It Water closet flush tank ball ASSE 1002: Performance Requirements for Anti-siphon Fill
often is regarded as superfluous. cock Valves for Water Closet Tanks
Further, well-intentioned users Commercial dishwasher ASSE 1004: Backflow Prevention Requirements for Commercial
often tamper with these con- Dishwashing Machines
trols. The hazard escapes notice Residential dishwasher ASSE 1006: Performance Requirements for Residential Use
because the pressure rarely is Dishwashers
interrupted and the potential Residential clothes washer ASSE 1007: Performance Requirements for Home Laundry
source of a contaminant may Equipment
not always be present at a per-
ceptively dangerous level. For contaminated water may be only mild for occupants
example, a disconnected vacuum breaker at a mop on floors below the offending mop basin. However,
basin fitted with a detergent dispenser generally will another example may include hospital patients and
not flow into the building supply until a pressure in- more toxic chemicals.
terruption occurs, and then the effect of consuming
Classification of Hazards
Since risks can be ranked from those that are likely to
be unsafe to those rarely unsafe, the CCC industry has
developed two broad classifications. Examples of each
are presented in Appendix 9-D. Less capital generally
is invested in CCC where the hazard is low.
Control Techniques
Control to prevent reverse flow is achieved by tech-
niques such as certain piping designs and installation
of control devices. If no mechanical moving parts ex-
ist, the control can be regarded as passive. Effective
operation is more inherent, but limitations warrant
other controls. If there are moving parts, the control
can be regarded as active.
Passive Techniques
Examples of a passive control include air gaps and
barometric loops. An air gap is regarded as effec-
tive if the outlet of the flow discharge is adequately
Figure 9-4 Siphon Sufficiently High to Create a Figure 9-5 Five Typical Plumbing Details With Cross-
Barometric Loop connection Control

Table 9-2 Types of Back-pressure Backflow Preventer

Description Alternate Description Application ASSE Reference
Dual-check valve with atmospheric vent Intermediate atmospheric Low hazard 1012
Reduced-pressure principle Reduced-pressure zone High hazard 1013
Dual-check valve with atmospheric vent Intermediate atmospheric Carbonated beverage 1022
Reduced-pressure principle detector assembly Reduced-pressure zone Fire protection 1047
above the rim of the receiving basin, generally twice

Table 9-3 Types of Vacuum Breakers
the diameter of the outlet. Requirements vary with
Description Application ASSE Reference
plumbing codes. Some codes expand the distance to Pipe applied Mop basin, indoor hose 1001
three times the diameter if the outlet is close to the Hose connection Indoor hose 1011
basin wall. Other standards regard the valve seat as Hose connection Handheld shower 1014
being the relevant diameter. Still other standards Frost resistant Wall hydrant 1019
explore the adequacy of overflow pipework as estab- Pressure-type Turf irrigation 1020
lishing the flood level elevation. In modern plumbing, Pressure flush Flushometer 1037
faucet spout outlets invariably discharge through Spill resistant High hazard 1056
an air gap positioned above the flood level rim of all
plumbing fixtures. water from the surface of a full basin. The vacuum
The theory of operation of an air gap is that, with can be imagined by visualizing water in a riser pipe
an excessively short vertical distance, a vacuum in rapidly dropping. The void above this falling water
the water supply draws room air, which also captures produces vacuum until the fall becomes complete.
Another situation is when a valve in the
water supply is opened after the vacuum has
occurred because of lost pressure in the water
supply moments earlier.
Other provisions of acceptable industry
standards include recognition of overflow
pipes in water closet tanks and diverter hoses
such as in food sprayers on kitchen sinks.
Table 9-1 lists several air gap standards for
various applications.
The design of a barometric loop requires
part of the upstream supply pipe to be
adequately above the receiving basin. The
minimum height is derived from Equation
9-1. For an atmospheric pressure of 31 inches
(788 millimeters) of mercury, h=35.1 feet
(10.8 m). The technique, shown in Figure 9-4,
is effective because the rooms atmospheric
pressure is not sufficient to push a column
of water up that much elevation.
Active Techniques
Mechanisms in a device of an active control
prevent reverse flows either by allowing flow
in one direction only or by opening the pipe to
atmospheric pressure. The former generally
is categorized as a back-pressure backflow
preventer, and it generally uses discs that
lift from seats for normal flow. The latter
is generally a vacuum breaker, and it has
greater application restrictions. Examples of
locating back-pressure backflow preventers
that are required for effective cross-connec-
tion control in Figure 9-3(a), (b), and (e) are
shown with a small square in corresponding
Figure 9-6 Example of Cross-connection Controls in a Building

applications in Figure 9-5(a), (b), and

(e). The hydrostatic pressure of the
water downstream from the backflow
preventer must be resisted by the ac-
tive control in the event of water supply
pressure failure.
A device of either broad category
uses a specially designed, fabricated,
tested, and certified assembly. For high
hazard applications, the assembly of-
ten includes the supply and discharge
valves and some testing ports. For
various applications, Tables 9-2 and
9-3 list several back-pressure back-
flow preventer standards and vacuum
breaker standards respectively. Figure
9-6 shows several backflow preventers
as isolation at fixtures and equipment
as well as hazard containment at the
water service.
A hybrid of passive and active con- Figure 9-8 Reduced-pressure Principle Backflow Preventer
trol is the break tank. Consisting of
a vented tank, an inlet pipe with an associated with quarterly testing of the fire sprinkler
air gap, and a pump at the discharge, a break tank system.
provides effective control for any application ranging A small version of a double-check for contain-
from an equipment connection to the water service of ment CCC has been developed for residential water
an entire building. Its initial cost and operating cost services.
are obviously greater than with other controls. Reduced-pressure Principle Backflow
Types of back-pressure backflow preventers Preventer
include double-check valve assemblies, reduced-pres-
This control is similar to the double-check valve but
sure principle backflow preventers, and dual checks
employs added features for isolating a water supply
with atmospheric vents. Types of vacuum breakers
from a high hazard. An alternate name is reduced-
include atmospheric, pressure, spill-resistant, hose
pressure zone backflow preventer. (See Figure 9-8.) A
connection, and flush valve.
heavier spring is used on the upstream check valve,
Double-check Valve Assembly which causes a pronounced pressure drop for all por-
This control with its two check valves, supply valves, tions of the piping system downstream. A relief port
and testing ports can effectively isolate a water supply between the check valves opens to atmosphere and is
from a low hazard system such as fire standpipe and controlled by a diaphragm. Each side of the diaphragm
sprinkler systems. The design includes springs and is ported to each side of the upstream check valve. A
resilient seats. (See Figure 9-7.) Some large models, rated spring is placed on one side of the diaphragm. If
called detector assemblies, include small bypass sys- the expected pressure drop across the upstream check
tems of equivalent components with a meter added. valve does not occur, the spring favors opening the re-
The meter provides monitoring of small water usages lief port. This circumstance occurs if the downstream
equipment or piping has excessive pressure. It also
occurs if the upstream check valve fails or if the water
supply is lost. Effective protection requires periodic
testing and an air gap at the relief port. Like the
double-check valve detector assembly, this backflow
preventer is available as a detector assembly.
Dual Check with Atmospheric Vent
This control is similar to the reduced-pressure prin-
ciple type, but the diaphragm design is replaced with
a piston combined with the downstream check valve.
(See Figure 9-9.) It effectively isolates a water supply
from a low hazard such as beverage machines and
Figure 9-7 Double-check Valve

Figure 9-9 Dual-check with Atmospheric Vent Figure 9-10 Atmospheric Vacuum Breaker
equipment with nontoxic additives. The function of

its design is not sufficiently precise for high hazards.
The relief port is generally hard-piped with its air gap
located remotely at a similar or lower elevation.
A vacuum breaker is of a simpler design, but it is
elevation sensitive for effective isolation of a hazard.
Permitted maximum back-pressure ranges from 4.3
psig (29.7 kPa) down to zero depending on the type.
Atmospheric Vacuum Breaker
This control, with a single moving disc, can effectively
isolate a water supply from a low hazard system.
Without this control in Figure 9-3(d), a reverse flow
will occur from the basin if the fluid level in the basin
is near or above the pipe discharge, the water supply
pressure is lost, and the highest elevation of the pip- Figure 9-11 Hose Connection Vacuum Breaker
ing above the fluid level is less than for a barometric
loop. The reverse flow, referred to as back-siphonage, Hose Connection Vacuum Breaker
is caused by atmospheric pressure against the surface This control is similar to the atmospheric vacuum
of the fluid, which pushes the fluid up the normal breaker in function but varies in design and applica-
discharge pipe and down into the water supply. Static tion. The disc is more elastic, has a pair of sliced cuts
pressure for any point in the basin and in the pipe, in the center, and deforms with the presence of water
after discounting pipe friction, is a function only of supply pressure to allow the water to pass through the
elevation. Above the fluid surface elevation, this pres- cuts. (See Figure 9-11.) The deformation also blocks
sure is less than atmospheric; that is, it is a vacuum. the vent port. A more advanced form employs two
The reverse flow therefore is stopped if the vacuum discs, and the design allows performance testing.
is relieved by opening the pipe to atmosphere. Figure
Flush Valve Vacuum Breaker
9-10 illustrates the vent port and the disc that closes
under normal pressure. This control is similar to the hose connection vacuum
breaker in function but varies somewhat in the design
Pressure-type Vacuum Breaker of the elastic part.
This control is similar to the atmospheric vacuum
breaker but employs one or two independent spring- Installations
loaded check valves, supply valves, and testing ports. All cross-connection controls require space, and the
It is used for isolating a water supply from a high active controls require service access. In addition, an
hazard system. air gap cannot be confined to a sealed space or to a
Spill-resistant Vacuum Breaker sub-grade location, and it requires periodic access for
This control is similar to the pressure-type vacuum inspection. A vacuum breaker may fail to open if it is
breaker, but it employs a diaphragm joined to the placed in a ventilation hood or sealed space. A back-
vacuum breaker disc. It is used for isolating a water flow preventer is limited to certain orientations.
supply from a high hazard system and eliminates If a water supply cannot be interrupted for the
splashing from the vent port. routine testing of a control device, a pair of such
devices is recommended. Some manufacturers have
reduced the laying length of backflow preventers in

their design. Backflow preventers with relief ports Back-pressure backflow preventers have several
cannot be placed in a sub-grade structure that is shortfalls. A floor drain or indirect waste receptor is
subject to flooding because the air gap will potentially required, which complicates its installation, especially
be submerged. Thus, backflow preventers for water in renovation work and for water services. An air gap
services are located in buildings and above grade is required for the relief port, which has its own set of
outdoors. Where required for climatic reasons, heated shortfalls. For the reduced-pressure principle back-
enclosures commonly are provided. Features include flow preventer, its shortfall includes high first cost
an adequate opening for the relief port flow and large and added cost for annual testing. Its testing disrupts
access provisions. a water service. In addition, it requires space for its
Manufacturers of reduced-pressure principle large size and its accessibility requirement. Another
backflow preventers recommend an inline strainer hazard exists with this backflow preventer in fire
upstream of the backflow preventer and a drain valve protection supply because of the additional pressure
permanently mounted at the strainers upstream drop in the water supply in contrast with a single
side. Periodic flushing of the screen and upstream check valve. Lastly, the publics perception of backflow
piping should include brisk opening and closing to preventers is mired by confusing regulations, misun-
jar potential debris and flush it away before it could derstandings when they fail, and modifications of the
enter the backflow preventer. Manufacturers also air gap when nuisance splashing occurs.
have incorporated flow sensors and alarm devices that Existing water distribution systems and connec-
can provide warnings of malfunctions. tion points commonly have installation faults. These
If special tools are required to service and maintain range from submerged inlets in fixtures or tanks,
an active control device, the specification should re- direct connections to equipment or the sanitary
quire the tools to be furnished with and permanently drain system, tape wrapped around air gaps to limit
secured to the device. splashing, and the discharge of relief pipes below
Installation Shortfalls floor drain rims.
Though relatively simple, air gaps have some short- Flood Hazard
falls. Namely, the structure of the outlet must be Reduced-pressure principle backflow preventers
sufficiently robust to withstand abuse while maintain- represent a significant flood hazard during low flow
ing the gap. The general openings around the air gap conditions if the upstream check has a slight leak
must not be covered. The rim of the basin must be because the pressure will equalize, which opens the
wide enough to capture attendant splashing that oc- relief not to the mere back-pressure but to the sup-
curs from fast discharges. The nature of the rim must ply pressure.
be adequately recognized so that the gap is measured Break Tank
from a valid elevation. That is, if the top edge of the
In addition to noise, energy consumption, and
basin is not practical, the invert of a side outlet may
maintenance, break tanks allow the opportunity for
be regarded as the valid elevation. Similarly, the rim
microbial growths. Chlorine eventually dissipates in
of a standpipe inside the basin may be regarded as
the open air above the water level if consumption
the valid elevation. In either design, the overflow and
is modest. Lastly, an obstructed overflow pipe may
downstream piping must be evaluated to consider if
render the air gap ineffective.
it will handle the greatest inlet flow likely to occur. A
common design of potable water filling a tank through Splashing
an air gap that is below the tank rim but where the The vent openings of active devices and air gaps are
tank has an overflow standpipe is the design found prone to splashing and nuisance wet floors. Each drain
in water closet tanks. The generous standpipe emp- with its rim above the floor should be accompanied
ties into the closet bowl so that the air gap is never with a nearby floor drain or indirect waste drain.
compromised.
Vacuum breakers have several shortfalls. A valve Quality Control
downstream of the vacuum breaker will send shock Product Standards and Listings
waves through the vacuum breaker every time the For quality assurance in cross-connection control,
valve closes. This causes the disc to drop during the standard design and device testing have been part of
percussion of the shock wave, which momentarily the manufacturing and sale of active control devices.
opens the vent port, allowing a minute amount of In addition, the product is furnished with an identify-
water to escape. The design of vacuum breakers is ing label of the standard, and the model number is
sensitive to the elevation of the breaker relative to the furnished in a list that is published by a recognized
elevation of the water in the basin. A vacuum breaker agency.
mounted too low may allow back-siphonage because
the vacuum is too low for the disc to respond.

Field Testing Glossary

Frequent testing provides additional quality assur- Absolute pressure The sum of the indicated gauge
ance, such as upon installation, upon repairs, and pressure and the atmospheric local pressure. Hence,
annually. gauge pressure plus atmospheric pressure equals
Tests for a pressure-type vacuum breaker and absolute pressure.
a spill-resistant vacuum breaker include observing
Air gap A separation between the free-flowing dis-
the opening of the air-inlet disc and verification of
charge end of a water pipe or faucet and the flood level
the check valve(s). That is, the disc shall open at a
rim of a plumbing fixture, tank, or any other reservoir
gauge reading of not less than 1 psig (6.90 kPa), for
open to the atmosphere. Generally, to be acceptable,
a pressure gauge mounted on the vacuum breaker
the vertical separation between the discharge end of
body. With downstream piping open and a sight glass,
the pipe and the upper rim of the receptacle should be
open to atmosphere at its top and mounted upstream
at least twice the diameter of the pipe, and the separa-
of the check valve and purged of air, open and then
tion must be a minimum of 1 inch (25.4 mm).
close the supply valve when 42 inches (1,070 mm) of
water are in the sight glass. The water level in the Air gap, critical The air gap for impending reverse
sight glass of a properly functioning device will drop flow under laboratory conditions with still water, with
as water escapes past the check valve, but it will not the water valve fully open and one-half atmospheric
drop lower than 28 inches (710 mm) above its con- pressure within the supply pipe.
nection point. Air gap, minimum required The critical air gap
Tests for a reduced-pressure principle backflow with an additional amount. It is selected based on the
preventer include verification of each check valve, effective opening and the distance of the outlet from
the downstream shutoff valve, and operation of the a nearby wall.
relief valve. That is, on a properly functioning device
Atmospheric pressure Equal to 14.7 psig (101
with all air purged, upstream pressure is deliberately
kPa) at sea level.
applied downstream of the second check valve, and
the pressure differential across it is held when the Atmospheric vacuum breaker A device that
downstream shutoff is both open and closed. In the contains a moving float check and an internal air
next test, a pressure differential is observed across passage. Air is allowed to enter the passage when
the upstream check valve. A defect in the check valve gauge pressure is zero or less. The device should not
seat will prevent a differential from being held. In the be installed with shutoff valves downstream. The de-
last test, a bypass on the test instrument is opened vice typically is applied to protect against low-hazard
slowly to begin equalizing pressure across this check back-siphonage.
valve, and the pressure differential, for a properly Backflow An unwanted flow reversal.
functioning device, is noted as not being less than 3
psi (20.7 kPa) when flow is first observed from the Backflow preventer A device that prevents back-
relief port. flow. The device should comply with one or more
recognized national standards, such as those of the
Regulatory Requirements American Society of Sanitary Engineering, American
Authorities having jurisdiction create and enforce Water Works Association, or University of Southern
legally binding regulations regarding the applica- California Foundation for Cross-connection Control
tions of cross-connection control, the standards and and Hydraulic Research, and with the requirements
listings for passive and active controls, and the types of the local regulatory agency.
and frequencies of field testing. The authority may
require evidence of field testing by keeping an instal- Back-pressure backflow A backflow caused by
lation record of each testable device and all tests of pressure that exceeds the incoming water supply
the device. pressure.
Authorities having jurisdiction typically are wa- Back-siphonage backflow A backflow that occurs
ter purveyors, plumbing regulation officials, health when the pressure in the water piping falls to less
department officials, or various qualified agents in than the local atmospheric pressure.
contract with government regulators. Regulations Containment A means of cross-connection con-
of cross-connection control are generally part of a trol that requires the installation of a back-pressure
plumbing code, but they may be published by a local backflow preventer in the water service.
health department or as the requirements of a mu-
nicipal water service connection. Contaminant A substance that impairs the quality
of the water to a degree that it creates a serious health
hazard to the public, leading to poisoning or to the
spread of disease.

Cross-connection A connection or potential con- The owner is responsible for ensuring that the build-
nection that unintentionally joins two separate piping ings system complies with the plumbing code or, if no
systems, one containing potable water and the other code exists or is enforced, within reasonable industry
containing pollution or a contaminant. standards. The owner is also responsible for the ongo-
Cross-connection control Active or passive ing testing and maintenance of backflow devices that
controls that automatically prevent backflow. Such are required to protect the potable water supply.
controls include active and passive devices, or other Negligent act An act that results from a failure
design techniques; standardized designs, testing, and to exercise reasonable care to prevent foreseeable
labeling; and frequent site surveys and field testing backflow incidents from occurring or when another
of mechanical devices. problem is created when correcting a potential
Cross-connection control program A program problem. For example, if a closed system is created
consisting of both containment and point-of-use by requiring a containment device without consider-
fixture or equipment isolation. The containment pro- ing how such a device will alter the hydrodynamics
gram requires a control installed at the point where within the system, and this causes the rupture of a
water leaves the water purveyors system and enters vessel such as a water heater, this could be considered
the consumer side of the water meter. The isolation negligent.
program requires an ongoing survey to ensure that Plumbing code A legal minimum requirement for
there have been no alterations, changes, or additions the safe installation, maintenance, and repair of a
to the system that may have created or recreated a plumbing system, including the water supply system.
hazardous condition. Isolation protects occupants as When there is no applicable code, good plumbing
well as the public. practice should be applied by following reasonable
Double-check valve assembly A device that con- industry standards.
sists of two independently acting spring-loaded check Pollutant A foreign substance that, if permitted to
valves. They typically are supplied with test cocks get into the public water system, will degrade the
and shutoff valves on the inlet and outlet to facilitate waters quality so as to constitute a moderate hazard
testing and maintenance. The device protects against or to impair the usefulness or quality of the water to
both back-pressure and back-siphonage backflow; a degree that is not an actual hazard to public health
however, it should be installed only for low-hazard but adversely and unreasonably affects the water for
applications. domestic use.
Effective opening The diameter or equivalent Potable water Water that is furnished by the water
diameter of the least cross-sectional area of a faucet purveyor with an implied warranty that it is safe to
or similar point at a water discharge through an air drink. The public is allowed to make the assumption
gap. For faucets, it is usually the diameter of the seat that it is safe to drink by the water purveyor or regu-
of the faucet valve. latory agency having jurisdiction.
Fixture isolation The cross-connection control at Pressure-type vacuum breaker A device that
a fixture or piece of equipment. contains two independently operating valves, a
spring-loaded check valve, and a spring-loaded air
Flood level rim The elevation at which water inlet valve. The device has test cocks for inline test-
overflows from its receptacle or basin. ing and two tightly sealing shutoff valves to facilitate
Flushometer valve A mechanism energized by maintenance and testing. It is used only to protect
water pressure that allows a measured volume of against back-siphonage.
water for the purpose of flushing a fixture. Professional An individual who, because of his or
Free water surface A free water surface whose her training and experience is held to a higher stan-
pressure against it is equal to the local atmospheric dard than an untrained person. The professional is
pressure. exposed to a liability for their actions or inaction.
Indirect waste pipe A drainpipe that flows into a Reasonable care Working to standards that are
drain system via an air gap above a receptacle, inter- known and accepted by the industry and apply-
ceptor, vented trap, or vented and trapped fixture. ing those standards in a practical way to prevent
injury or harm via predictable and foreseeable cir-
Joint responsibility The responsibility shared
cumstances.
by the purveyor of water and the building owner for
ensuring and maintaining the safety of potable water. Reduced-pressure principle backflow pre-
The purveyor is responsible for protecting their water venter A device consisting of two separate and
supply from hazards that originate from a building. independently acting spring-loaded check valves, with

a differential pressure-relief valve situated between American Society of Sanitary Engineering (ASSE):
the check valves. Since water always flows from a www.asse-plumbing.org
zone of high pressure to a zone of low pressure, this American Water Works Association (AWWA): www.
device is designed to maintain a higher pressure on awwa.org
the supply side of the backflow preventer than is found
downstream of the first check valve. This ensures the National Sanitation Foundation (NSF)
International: www.nsf.org
prevention of backflow. An artificial zone of reduced
pressure across the check valve is created by torsion University of Southern California (USC)
on the check valve spring. Pressure on the inlet side Foundation for Cross-connection Control and
of the device is intended to remain a minimum of 2 psi Hydraulic Research: www.usc.edu/dept/fccchr/
(13.8 kPa) higher than the pressure in the reduced- education.html
pressure zone. If the pressure in the zone increases Washington Suburban Sanitary Commission
to within 2 psi (13.8 kPa) of the supply pressure, the (WSSC): www.wssc.dst.md.us
relief valve will open to atmosphere to ensure that the
differential is maintained. These devices are designed
to be inline, testable, and maintainable. They are
equipped with test cocks and inlet and outlet shutoff
valves to facilitate testing and maintenance. The
device should be installed in an accessible location
and orientation that allows testing and maintenance.
This device provides effective high-hazard protec-
tion against both back-pressure and back-siphonage
backflow.
Special tool A tool peculiar to a specific device
and necessary for the service and maintenance of
that device.
Spill-resistant vacuum breaker A device
containing one or two independently operated spring-
loaded check valves and the independently operated
spring-loaded air inlet valve mounted on a diaphragm
that is located on the discharge side of the check or
checks. The device includes tightly closing shutoff
valves on each side of the check valves and properly
located test cocks for device testing.
Survey A field inspection within and around a build-
ing, by a qualified professional, to identify and report
cross-connections. Qualification of a professional,
whether an engineer or licensed plumber, includes
evidence of completion of an instructional course in
cross-connection surveying.
Vacuum A pressure less than the local atmospheric
pressure.
Vacuum breaker A device that prevents back-
siphonage by allowing sufficient air to enter the water
system so that backflow is prevented.
Water supply system A system of service and dis-
tribution piping, valves, and appurtenances to supply
water in a building and its vicinity.
Resources
Cross-connection Control Manual. U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency. February
2003.

Appendix 9-A Sample in writing to said customer to install an approved

cross-connection control device at each service con-
Water Department Cross- nection to his premises. The customer shall, within
Connection Control 90 days, install such approved device, or devices, at
Program/Ordinance his own expense, and failure or refusal or inability
on the part of the customer to install said device or
[WATER DEPARTMENT NAME] devices within 90 days shall constitute a ground for
CROSS-CONNECTION CONTROL discontinuing water service to the premises until such
PROGRAM/ORDINANCE device or devices have been properly installed.
I. Purpose IV. Definitions
a. The purpose of this program/ordinance is to pro- a. Approved
tect the public potable water supply served by Accepted by the Director of Municipal Services as
the [ ] Water Department from the possibility of meeting an applicable specification stated or cited in
contamination or pollution by isolating, within this regulation or as suitable for the proposed use.
its customers internal distribution system, such
contaminants or pollutants which could backflow b. Auxiliary Water Supply
or back-siphon into the public water system. Any water supply on or available to the premises
other than the purveyors approved public potable
b. The purpose is to promote the elimination or
water supply.
control of existing cross-connections, actual or
potential, between its customers in-plant potable c. Backflow
water system and nonpotable systems. The flow of water or other liquids, mixtures or sub-
c. The purpose is to provide for the maintenance of stances, under positive or reduced-pressure, in the
a continuing program of cross-connection control, distribution pipes of a potable water supply from any
which will effectively prevent the contamination source other than its intended source.
or pollution of all potable water systems by cross- d. Backflow Preventer
connection. A device or means designed to prevent backflow or
d. The purpose does not include, nor prevent, back-siphonage.
cross-connection controls at fixtures, controls at d.1. Air Gap
equipment connections, and controls connected
A physical separation sufficient to prevent
at other hazards. The program may be expanded
backflow between the free-flowing discharge
to include a jurisdictional authority of the cross-
end of the potable water system and any other
connection controls at equipment connections
system. Physically defined as a distance equal
and other hazardous connections of the buildings
to twice the diameter of the supply side pipe
water distribution so as to isolate such hazards
diameter but never less than 1 inch (25.4
from building occupants.
mm).
II. Authority d.2. Atmospheric Vacuum Breaker
a. The Federal Safe Drinking Water Act of 1974, and A device that prevents back-siphonage by al-
the statutes of the State of [ ] Chapters [ ], the lowing sufficient air to enter the water system
water purveyor has the primary responsibility so that backflow is prevented.
for preventing water from unapproved sources,
or any other substances, from entering the public d.3. Barometric Loop
potable water system. A fabricated piping arrangement rising at
least 35 feet at its topmost point above the
b. [ ] Water Department, Rules and Regulations,
highest fixture it supplies. It is utilized in
adopted.
water supply systems to protect against back-
III. Responsibility siphonage.
The Director of Municipal Services shall be responsible d.4. Dual-check Valve Assembly
for the protection of the public potable water distribu-
An assembly of two independently operating
tion system from contamination or pollution due to spring-loaded check valves with tightly clos-
the backflow or back-siphonage of contaminants or ing shutoff valves on each side of the check
pollutants through the water service connection. If, valves, plus properly located test cocks for the
in the judgment of the Director of Municipal Services, testing of each check valve.
an approved backflow device is required at the citys
d.5. Double-check Valve with Intermediate
water service connection to any customers premises,
Atmospheric Vent
the Director, or his delegated agent, shall give notice

A device having two spring-loaded check h. Containment

valves separated by an atmospheric vent A method of cross-connection control in the water
chamber. service.
d.6. Hose Bibb Vacuum Breaker i. Contaminant
A device that is permanently attached to a A substance that impairs the quality of the water to
hose bibb and that acts as an atmospheric a degree that it creates a serious health hazard to the
vacuum breaker. public, leading to poisoning or the spread of disease.
d.7. Pressure-type Vacuum Breaker j. Cross-connection
A device containing one or two independently Any actual or potential connection between the
operated spring-loaded check valves and an public water supply and a source of contamination
independently operated spring-loaded air or pollution.
inlet valve located on the discharge side of k. Department
the check or checks. The device includes City of [ ] Water Department.
tightly closing shutoff valves on each side of
the device and properly located test cocks for l. Director of Municipal Services
device testing. The Director, or his delegated representative, in
d.8. Spill-resistant Vacuum Breaker charge of the Department of Municipal Services is
invested with the authority and responsibility for
A device containing one or two independently the implementation of a cross-connection control
operated spring-loaded check valves and the program and for the enforcement of the provisions
independently operated spring-loaded air
of the Ordinance.
inlet valve mounted on a diaphragm that is
located on the discharge side of the check or m. Fixture Isolation
checks. The device includes tightly closing A method of cross-connection control in which a back-
shutoff valves on each side of the device and flow preventer is located to correct a cross-connection
properly located test cocks for device test- at a fixture location or equipment location. Such isola-
ing. tion may be in addition to containment.
d.9. Reduced-pressure Principle Backflow n. Owner
Preventer Any person who has legal title to, or license to operate
An assembly consisting of two independently or habituate in, a property where a cross-connection
operating check valves with an automatically inspection is to be made or in which a cross-connection
operating differential relief valve located is present.
between the two check valves, tightly closing o. Permit
shutoff valves on each side of the device, and
A document issued by the Department that allows
properly located test cocks for device test-
the use of a backflow preventer.
ing.
p. Person
d.10. Residential Dual Check
Any individual, partnership, company, public or pri-
An assembly of two spring-loaded, indepen- vate corporation, political subdivision or agency of the
dently operating check valves without tightly State Department, agency or instrumentality of the
closing shutoff valves and test cocks. Gener-
United States, or any other legal entity.
ally, it is employed immediately downstream
of a residential water meter to act as a con- q. Pollutant
tainment device. A foreign substance that, if permitted to get into
e. Back-pressure the public water system, will degrade its quality
A condition in which the owners system pressure is so as to constitute a moderate hazard or to impair
the usefulness or quality of the water to a degree
greater than the suppliers system pressure.
that is not an actual hazard to public health but
f. Back-siphonage adversely and unreasonably affects the water for
A backflow that occurs when the pressure in the domestic use.
water piping falls to less than the local atmospheric r. Water Service Entrance
pressure. That point in the owners water system beyond the
g. Commission sanitary control of the District; generally considered
The State of [ ] Water Supply and Pollution Control to be the outlet end of the water meter and always
Commission. before any unprotected branch.

V. Administration the Department of extenuating circumstances as

a. The Department will operate a cross-connection to why the correction has not been made, a time
control program to include the keeping of neces- extension may be granted by the Department but
sary records that fulfill the requirements of the in no case will exceed an additional 30 days.
Commissions Cross-Connection Regulations and 5. If the Department determines at any time that
is approved by the Commission. a serious threat to the public health exists, the
b. The Owner shall allow his property to be inspected water service will be terminated immediately.
for possible cross-connections and shall follow the 6. The Department shall have, on file, a list of pri-
provisions of the Departments program and the vate contractors who are certified backflow device
Commissions Regulations if a cross-connection testers. All charges for these tests will be paid by
is permitted. the Owner of the building or property.
c. If the Department requires that the public supply 7. The Department will begin inspections to deter-
be protected by containment, the Owner shall be mine the nature of existing hazards, following
responsible for water quality beyond the outlet the approval of this program by the Commission,
end of the containment device and should utilize during the calendar year [ ]. Initial focus will be
fixture outlet protection for that purpose. on high-hazard industries and commercial prem-
d. The Department may utilize public health offi- ises.
cials, or personnel from the Department, or their b. Non-residential Owner
delegated representatives, to assist in the survey
1. The Owner shall be responsible for the elimina-
of facilities and to assist in the selection of proper
tion or protection of all cross-connections on his
fixture outlet devices, and the proper installation
premises.
of these devices.
2. The Owner, after having been informed by a let-
VI. Requirements ter from the Department, shall, at his expense,
a. Department install, maintain, and test, or have tested, any
and all backflow preventers on his premises.
1. On new installations, the Department will provide
on-site evaluation and/or inspection of plans in 3. The Owner shall correct any malfunction of the
order to review the type of backflow preventer, backflow preventer that is revealed by periodic
if any, that will be required and will issue a per- testing.
mit. 4. The Owner shall inform the Department of any
2. For premises existing prior to the start of this proposed or modified cross-connections and
program, the Department will perform evalua- also any existing cross-connections of which the
tions and inspections of plans and/or premises Owner is aware but have not been found by the
and inform the owner by letter of any corrective Department.
action deemed necessary, the method of achiev- 5. The Owner shall not install a bypass around any
ing the correction, and the time allowed for the backflow preventer unless there is a backflow
correction to be made. Ordinarily, 90 days will preventer of the same type on the bypass. Own-
be allowed, depending upon the degree of hazard ers who cannot shut down operation for testing
involved and the history of the device(s) in ques- of the device(s) must supply additional devices
tion. necessary to allow testing to take place.
3. The Department will not allow any cross-con- 6. The Owner shall install backflow preventers in a
nection to remain unless it is protected by an manner approved by the Department.
approved backflow preventer for which a permit
has been issued and which will be regularly tested 7. The Owner shall install only backflow preventers
to ensure satisfactory operation. approved by the Department or the Commis-
sion.
4. The Department shall inform the Owner, by letter,
of any failure to comply by the time of the first 8. Any Owner having a private well or other private
re-inspection. The Department will allow an ad- water source, must have a permit if the well or
ditional 15 days for the correction. In the event source is cross-connected to the Departments sys-
the Owner fails to comply with the necessary cor- tem. Permission to cross-connect may be denied
rection by the time of the second re-inspection, by the Department. The Owner may be required
the Department will inform the Owner, by letter, to install a backflow preventer at the service
that the water service to the Owners premises entrance if a private water source is maintained,
will be terminated within a period not to exceed even if it is not cross-connected to the Depart-
five days. In the event that the Owner informs ments system.

9. In the event the Owner installs plumbing to pro- a. Cross-connection permits that are required for
vide potable water for domestic purposes that are each cross-connection control device are obtained
on the Departments side of the backflow preven- from the Department. A fee of $[XX.XX] will be
ter, such plumbing must have its own backflow charged for the initial permit and $[XX.XX] for
preventer installed. the renewal of each permit.
10. The Owner shall be responsible for the payment b. Permits shall be renewed every [ ] year(s) and are
of all fees for permits and annual or semiannual nontransferable. Permits are subject to revocation
device testing. For devices that failed to operate and become immediately revoked if the Owner
correctly, the Owner shall be responsible for the should so change the type of cross-connection or
payment of retesting and subsequent inspec- degree of hazard associated with the service.
tions. c. A permit is not required when fixture isolation
11. The Department strongly recommends that all is achieved with the utilization of a nontestable
new retrofit installations of reduced-pressure backflow preventer.
principle devices and double-check valve backflow
preventers include the installation of strainers IX. Existing In-Use Cross-
located immediately upstream of the backflow connection control Devices
device. However, the use of strainers may not be Any existing backflow preventer shall be allowed by
acceptable by the fire protection authority having the Department to continue in service unless the
jurisdiction. The installation of strainers will pre-
degree of hazard is such as to supersede the effec-
clude the fouling of backflow devices due to both
tiveness of the present backflow preventer, or result
foreseen and unforeseen circumstances occurring
in an unreasonable risk to the public health. Where
to the water supply system such as water main
repairs, water main breaks, fires, periodic clean- the degree of hazard has increased, as in the case of
ing, and flushing of mains. These occurrences a residential installation converting to a business
may stir up debris within the water main that establishment, any existing backflow preventer must
will cause fouling of backflow preventers. be upgraded to a reduced-pressure principle device, or
a reduced-pressure principle device must be installed
c. Residential Owner in the event that no backflow device was present.
Effective the date of the acceptance of this Cross-
Connection Control Program for the Town of [ ], X. Periodic Testing
all new residential buildings will be required to a. Reduced-pressure principle backflow devices,
install a residential dual-check device immediately double-check valve devices, pressure-type vacuum
downstream of the water meter. Installation of this breakers, and spill-resistant vacuum breakers
residential dual-check device on a retrofit basis on shall be tested and inspected at least semiannually
existing service lines will be instituted at a time and or as required by the administrative authority.
at a potential cost to the homeowner as deemed neces-
b. Periodic testing shall be performed by the
sary by the Department.
Departments certified tester or his delegated
The Owner must be aware that installation of a
representative. This testing shall be done at the
residential dual-check valve results in a potential Owners expense.
closed plumbing system within his residence. As
such, provisions may have to be made by the Owner c. The testing shall be conducted during the Depart-
to provide for thermal expansion within his closed ments regular business hours. Exceptions to this,
loop system, i.e., the installation of thermal expansion when at the request of the Owner, may require
devices and/or pressure-relief valves. additional charges to cover the increased costs to
the Department.
VII. Degree of Hazard d. Any backflow preventer that fails during a period-
The Department recognizes the threat to the public ic test shall be repaired or replaced. When repairs
water system arising from cross-connections. All are necessary, upon completion of the repair, the
threats shall be classified by degree of hazard and device shall be retested at the Owners expense to
shall require the installation of approved cross- ensure correct operation. High-hazard situations
connection control devices. shall not be allowed to continue unprotected if
the backflow preventer fails the test and cannot
VIII. Permits be repaired immediately. In other situations, a
The Department shall not permit a cross-connection compliance date of not more than 30 days after
within the public water supply system unless it is con- the test date will be established. The Owner is
sidered necessary and that it cannot be eliminated. responsible for spare parts, repair tools, or a
replacement device. Parallel installation of two

devices is an effective means of the Owner ensur- Appendix 9-B Plumbing

ing uninterrupted water service during testing or System Hazards
the repair of devices and is strongly recommended
when the owner desires such continuity. Direct Connections
e. Cross-connection control devices shall be tested Description
more frequently than specified in item a above in
Air-conditioning, air washer
cases where there is a history of test failures and
Air-conditioning, chilled water
the Department feels that, due to the degree of
Air-conditioning, condenser water
hazard involved, additional testing is warranted.
Air line
Cost of the additional tests shall be borne by the
Aspirator, laboratory
Owner.
Aspirator, medical
Aspirator, herbicide and fertilizer sprayer
XI. Records and Reports Autoclave and sterilizer
a. Records Auxiliary system, industrial
The Department will initiate and maintain the fol- Auxiliary system, surface water
lowing: Auxiliary system, unapproved well supply
Boiler system
1. Master files on customer cross-connection tests
Chemical feeder, pot type
and/or inspections
Chlorinator
2. Master files on cross-connection permits Coffee urn
3. Copies of permits and permit applications Cooling system
Dishwasher
4. Copies of lists and summaries supplied to the Fire standpipe
Commission Fire sprinkler system
b. Reports Fountain, ornamental
Hydraulic equipment
The Department shall submit the following to the
Laboratory equipment
Commission:
Lubrication, pump bearings
1. Initial listing of low-hazard cross-connections to Photostat equipment
the State Plumbers friend, pneumatic
2. Initial listing of high-hazard cross-connections to Pump, pneumatic ejector
the State Pump, prime line
Pump, water-operated ejector
3. Annual update lists of items 1 and 2 above Sewer, sanitary
4. Annual summary of cross-connection inspections Sewer, storm
to the State Swimming pool or spa equipment
XII. Fees and Charges Potential Submerged Inlets

The Department will publish a list of fees or charges Description
for the following services or permits: Baptismal font
a. Testing fees Bathtub
Bedpan washer, flushing rim
b. Retesting fees
Bidet
c. Fee for reinspection Brine tank
d. Charges for after-hours inspections or tests Cooling tower
Cuspidor
Drinking fountain
Floor drain, flushing rim
Garbage can washer
Ice maker
Laboratory sink, serrated nozzle
Laundry machine
Lavatory
Lawn sprinkler system
Photo laboratory sink
Sewer flushing manhole
Slop sink, flushing rim

Slop sink, threaded supply

Steam table
Urinal, siphon jet blowout
Vegetable peeler
Water closet, flush tank, ball cock
Water closet, flush valve, siphon jet
Appendix 9-C American Water

Works Association Statement
of Policy
The American Water Works Association recognizes
that the water purveyor has a responsibility to provide
its customers at the service connection with water
that is safe under all foreseeable circumstances.
Thus, in the exercise of this responsibility, the water
purveyor must take reasonable precaution to protect
the community distribution system from the hazards
originating on the premises of its customers that
may degrade the water in the community distribu-
tion system.
Cross-connection control and plumbing inspections
on the premises of water customers are regulatory in
nature and should be handled through the rules, regu-
lations, and recommendations of the health authority
or the plumbing code enforcement agencies having
jurisdiction. The water purveyor, however, should be
aware of any situation requiring inspection and/or
reinspection necessary to detect hazardous conditions
resulting from cross-connections. If, in the opinion of
the utility, effective measures consistent with the de-
gree of hazard have not been taken by the regulatory
agency, the water purveyor should take such measures
as he deems necessary to ensure that the community
distribution system is protected from contamination.
Such action would include the installation of a cross-
connection control device, consistent with the degree
of hazard at the service connection or discontinuance
of the service.
In addition, customer use of the water from the
community distribution system for cooling or other
purposes within the customers system and later
return of the water to the community distribution
system is not acceptable and is opposed by AWWA.

Appendix 9-D Application of Cross-
186
connection control Devices

Type of Installation Dimensions Pressure
Standard Device or Method Protectiona Hazard and Position Conditionb Comments Use
ANSI A 112.2.1 Air Gap BS and BP High Twice effective opening; C Lavatory, sink or bathtub spouts, Residential dishwasher
not less than 1 inch above (ASSE 1006) and clothes washers (ASSE 1007)
flood rim level
ASSE 1001 Pipe-applied vacuum BS Low 6 inches above highest I Goosenecks and appliances not subject to back pressure
breaker outlet; vertical position only or continuous pressure
ASSE 1011 Hose bibb vacuum BS Low Locked on hose bibb I Freeze-resistant Hose bibbs, hydrants, and sillcocks
breaker threads; at least 6 inches type required
above grade
ASSE 1012c Dual-check valve with BS and BP Low to Any position; drain piped C Air gap required Residential boilers, spas, hot tubs, and swimming
atmospheric vent moderate to floor on vent outlet; pool feedlines, sterilizers; food processing equipment;
vent piped to photo lab equipment; hospital equipment; commercial
suitable drain dishwashers; water-cooled HVAC; landscape hose bibb;
washdown racks; makeup water to heat pumps
ASSE 1013 Reduced-pressure BS and BP High Inside building: 1848 C Testing annually Chemical tanks; submerged coils; treatment plants;
zone backflow inches (centerline to floor); (minimum); solar systems; chilled water; heat exchangers; cooling
preventer outside building: 1824 Overhaul towers; lawn irrigation (Type II); hospital equipment;
inches (centerline to floor); five years commercial boilers, swimming pools, and spas; fire
horizontal only (minimum); drain sprinkler (high hazard as determined by commission)
ASSE 1015 Dual-check valve BS and BP Low Inside and outside building: C Testing annually Fire sprinkler systems (Type II low hazard); washdown
assembly 1824 inches (centerline (minimum); racks; large pressure cookers and steamers
to floor); horizontal only; overhaul five
60 inches required above years (minimum)
device for testing
ASSE 1020 Pressure-type vacuum BS High 1260 inches above C Testing annually Degreasers; laboratories; photo tanks; Type I lawn
breaker highest outlet; vertical only (minimum); sprinkler systems and swimming pools (must be located
overhaul five outdoors)
years (minimum)
ASSE 1024c Dual-check valve BS and BP Low Any position C Fire sprinkler systems (Type I building); outside drinking
fountains; automatic grease recovery device
ASSE 1035 Atmospheric BS Low 6 inches above flood level I/C Chemical faucets; ice makers; dental chairs;
per manufacturer miscellaneous faucet applications; soft drink, coffee, and
other beverage dispensers; hose sprays on faucets not
meeting standards
ASSE 1056 Spill-resistant indoor BS High 1260 inches above C Testing annually Degreasers; laboratories; photo tanks; Type I lawn
vacuum breaker highest outlet; vertical only (minimum); sprinkler systems and swimming pools (must be located
overhaul five outdoors)
years (minimum)
a
BS=Back-siphonage; BP=Back-pressure
b
I=Intermittent; C=Continuous
c
A tab shall be affixed to all ASSE 1012 and 1024 devices indicating installation date and the following statement: FOR OPTIMUM PERFORMANCE AND SAFETY, IT IS RECOMMENDED THAT THIS DEVICE BE REPLACED EVERY FIVE (5) YEARS.
10/16/2008 12:02:23 PM
Appendix 9-E Safe Drinking Water Act

Maximum Contaminant Levels
Primary Contaminants Maximum Primary Contaminants Maximum
Containment Containment
Level (MCL) Level (MCL)
Metals Toxaphene 0.003 mg/L
Arsenic 0.05 mg/L PCBs 0.0005 mg/L
Baruim 2.0 mg/L 2,4-D 0.07 mg/L
Cadmium 0.005 mg/L 2,4,5-TP Silvex 0.05 mg/L
Chromium 0.1 mg/L Alachlor 0.002 mg/L
Copper 1.3 mg/L Atrazine 0.003 mg/L
a
Lead 0.015 mg/L Carbofuran 0.04 mg/L
Mercury 0.002 mg/L 1,2-dibromo-3-chloropropane (DBCP) 0.0002 mg/L
Selenium 0.05 mg/L Ethylene dibromide (EDB) 0.00005 mg/L
Nonmetals Heptachlor epoxide 0.0002 mg/L
Fluoride 4.0 mg/L Phenols
Nitrate 10.0 mg/L Pentachlorophenol 0.001 mg/L
Volatile Organic Chemicals Physical Parameters
Total trihalomethanes 0.10 mg/L Turbidity (in turbidity units) 5 TU
Benzene 0.005 mg/L Radioactivity 15 picocuries
Vinyl chloride 0.002 mg/L Microbiology
Carbon tetrachloride 0.005 mg/L Coliform bacteria 0 per 100 mL
1,2-dichloroethane 0.005 mg/L Secondary Contaminants
Trichloroethylene (TCE) 0.005 mg/L Iron 0.3 mg/L
1,4-dichlorobenzene 0.075 mg/L Manganese 0.05 mg/L
1,1-dichloroethylene 0.007 mg/L Zinc 5.0 mg/L
1,1,1-trichloroethane 0.2 mg/L Chloride 250 mg/L
o-dichlorobenzene 0.6 mg/L Sulfate 250 mg/L
cis- 1,2-dichloroethylene 0.07 mg/L Total dissolved solids 500 mg/L
trans- 1,2-dichloroethylene 0.1 mg/L Color 15 units
1,2-dichloropropane 0.005 mg/L Corrosivity none
Ethylbenzene 0.7 mg/L Foaming agents 0.5 mg/L
Monochlorobenzene 0.1 mg/L Odor 3 T.O.N.
Styrene 0.1 mg/L pH 6.58.5
Toluene 1.0 mg/L Note: For these purposes, mg/L=milligrams per liter; ppm=parts per
million; 1 ppm=1,000 ppb; ppb=parts per billion; g/L=micrograms
Xylenes 10.0 mg/L per liter
a
Level that requires action
Tetrachloroethylene 0.005 mg/L
Herbicides, Pesticides, PCBs
Chlordane 0.002 mg/L
Endrin 0.0002 mg/L
Heptachlor 0.0004 mg/L
Hexachlorobenzene 0.001 mg/L
Lindane 0.0002 mg/L
Methoxychlor 0.04 mg/L

Appendix 9-F Index of Water Treatment

Equipment/Water Problems
Problem and/or Pollutant
Total Trihalomethanes (TTHMs)

Pesticides, Herbicides, PCBs
Total Dissolved Solids
2,4,5TP Silvex
Methoxychlor
Giardia Cysts
Tannic Acids
Taste & Odor
Particulates
Manganese
Toxaphene
Chromium
Aluminum
Iron (Fe2)
Iron (Fe3)
Chlorine b
Hardness
Cadmium
Asbestos
Selenium
Turbidity
Mercury
Chloride
Fluroide
Lindane
Arsenic
Radium
Barium
Sulfate
Copper
Nitrate
Endrin
Radon
c
2,4D
Silver
VOCs
Color
Lead
Zinc
Equipment Options a
Carbon
Filtration
Reverse osmosis
Distillation
Cation exchange
Mineral bed
Activated alumina
Anion exchange
a
Some equipment may reduce additional contaminants because of its unique design and/or combinations of technology. Ask for proof of performance.
b
Not all reverse osmosis units are effective for chlorine reduction. Ask for proof of performance.
c
Not all carbon units are effective for lead reduction. Ask for proof of performance.
Appendix 9-G Case Studies of human remains as part of the embalming process.
Cross-Contamination The aspirator directly connected to the water sup-
The following documentation outlines cases of cross- ply system at a faucet outlet located on a sink in the
connection incidents registered with the EPA that preparation (embalming) room. Water flow through
illustrate and emphasize how actual cross-connections the aspirator created suction that was utilized to draw
have compromised and continue to compromise drink- body fluids through a hose and needle attached to the
ing water quality and public health. suction side of the aspirator.
The contamination of the funeral homes potable
Human Blood in Water Supply water supply was caused by a combination of low
Health department officials cut off the water supply water pressure in conjunction with the simultaneous
to a funeral home located in a large city after it was use of the aspirator. Instead of the body fluids flowing
determined that human blood had contaminated the into the sanitary system drain, they were drawn in
freshwater supply. City water and plumbing officials the opposite direction into the potable water supply
said they did not think that the blood contamination of the funeral home.
had spread beyond the building; however, inspectors
were sent into the neighborhood to check for pos- Chemical Burn in the Shower
sible contamination. The chief plumbing inspector A resident of a small town in Alabama jumped into
had received a telephone call advising that blood was the shower at 5 a.m., and when he got out his body
coming from drinking fountains within the building. was covered with tiny blisters. The more I rubbed
Plumbing and county health department officials and it, the worse it got, the 60-year-old resident said.
inspectors went to the scene and found evidence that It looked like someone took a blow torch and singed
the blood had been circulating in the water system me. He and several other residents received medical
within the building. They immediately ordered the treatment at the emergency room of the local hos-
building cut off from the water system at the meter. pital after it was discovered that the water system
Investigation revealed that the funeral home had was contaminated with sodium hydroxide, a strong
been using a hydraulic aspirator to drain fluids from caustic solution. One resident claimed that the water

bubbled up and looked like Alka-Seltzer. I stuck my Boiler Water Enters High
hand under the faucet and some blisters came up. School Drinking Water
One neighbors head was covered with blisters after A high school was closed for several days when a
she washed her hair, and others complained of burned home economics teacher noticed that the water in
throats or mouths after drinking the water. the potable water system was yellow. City chemists
The incident began after an 8-inch water main that determined that the samples taken contained levels
fed the town broke and was repaired. While repairing of chromium as high as 700 parts per million, as-
the water main, one workman suffered leg burns from tronomically higher than the accepted levels of 0.05
a chemical in the water and required medical treat- parts per million. The head chemist said that it
ment. Measurements of the pH of the water were as was miraculous that no one was seriously injured or
high as 13 in some sections of the pipe. killed by the high levels of chromium. The chemical
Investigation into the cause of the problem led to a was identified as sodium dichromate, which is used
nearby chemical company that distributes chemicals in heating system boilers to inhibit corrosion of the
such as sodium hydroxide as a possible source of the metal parts.
contamination. The sodium hydroxide was brought No students or faculty were known to have con-
to the plant in liquid form in bulk tanker trucks, sumed any water; however, area physicians and
transferred to a holding tank, and then dumped into hospitals advised that if anyone had consumed those
55-gallon drums. When the water main broke, a truck high levels of chromium, the symptoms would be nau-
driver was adding water from the bottom of the tank sea and burning of the mouth and throat. Fortunately,
truck instead of the top, and sodium hydroxide back- the home economics teacher, who saw the discolored
siphoned into the water main. water before school started, immediately covered all
water fountains with towels so that no one would
Propane Gas in Water Supply drink the water.
Hundreds of people were evacuated from their homes Investigation disclosed that chromium used in
and businesses on an August afternoon as a result of the heating system boilers to inhibit the corrosion of
propane entering a citys water supply system. Fires metal parts entered the potable water supply system
were reported in two homes, and the town water as a result of backflow through leaking check valves
supply was contaminated. One five-room residence on the boiler feed lines.
was gutted by a blaze resulting from propane gas
bubbling and hissing from a bathroom toilet. In Carwash Water in City Main
another home, a washing machine explosion blew a This carwash cross-connection and back-pressure
woman against a wall. Residents throughout the area incident resulted in backflow chemical contamina-
reported hissing, bubbling noises coming from wash- tion of approximately 100 square blocks of water
ing machines, sinks, and toilets. Faucets sputtered out mains. Because of the prompt response by the water
small streams of water mixed with gas, and residents department, a potentially hazardous water quality
in the area were asked to evacuate their homes. degradation problem was resolved without a recorded
This near disaster occurred when the gas com- case of illness.
pany initiated immediate repair procedures in one Numerous complaints of gray-green and slippery
30,000-gallon capacity liquid propane tank. To start water were received by the water department from
the repair, the tank was purged of residual propane the same general area of town. A sample brought to
using water from one of two private fire hydrants the water department by a customer confirmed the
located on the property. Water purging is the method reported problem, and preliminary analysis indicated
of purging preferred over carbon dioxide, since it is contamination with what appeared to be a detergent
more positive and floats out any sludge as well as any solution. While emergency crews initiated flushing
gas vapors. The purging consisted of hooking up a operations, further investigation within the contami-
hose to one of the private fire hydrants located on the nated area signaled that the problem probably was
property and initiating flushing procedures. caused by a carwash or laundry because of the soapy
Since the vapor pressure of the propane residual in nature of the contaminant.
the tank was 85 psi to 90 psi and the water pressure The source was quickly narrowed down to a
was only 65 psi to 70 psi, propane gas back-pressure carwash, and the proprietor was very cooperative,
backflowed into the water main. It was estimated admitting to the problem and explaining how it had
that the gas flowed into the water mains for about occurred. On Saturday, a high-pressure pump had
20 minutes and about 2,000 cubic feet of gas was broken down at the carwash. This pump recycled
involved. This was enough gas to fill approximately reclaimed wash and rinse water and pumped it to
1 mile of an 8-inch water main. the initial scrubbers of the carwash. A potable water
connection is not normally made to the carwashs

scrubber system. After the pump broke down, the people. Quantities of 50 parts per million hexavalent
carwash owner was able to continue operation by chromium were found in the drinking water, which
temporarily connecting a 2-inch hose section between is sufficient to cause severe vomiting, diarrhea, and
the potable water supply within the carwash and the intestinal sickness.
scrubber cycle piping. Maintenance crews working during the plant shut-
On Monday, the owner repaired the high-pressure down were able to eliminate the cross-connection and
pump and resumed normal carwash operations. The thoroughly flush the potable water system, thereby
2-inch hose connection (cross-connection) was not preventing a serious health hazard from occurring.
removed. Because of the cross-connection, the newly The incident occurred as follows. Laser machine
repaired high-pressure pump promptly pumped a lenses were kept cool by circulating chilled water that
large quantity of the reclaimed wash/rinse water out came from a large refrigeration chiller. The water used
of the carwash and into a 12-inch water main in the in the chiller was treated with hexavalent chromium,
street. This in turn was delivered to the many resi- a chemical additive used as an anticorrosive agent and
dences and commercial establishments connected to an algicide. As a result, the chilled water presented
the water main. a toxic, nonpotable substance unfit for human con-
Within 24 hours of the incident, the owner of the sumption but very acceptable for industrial process
carwash had installed a 2-inch reduced-pressure water. No health hazard was present as long as the
principle backflow preventer on his water service, and piping was identified, kept separate from potable
all carwash establishments in his town that used a drinking water lines, and not cross-connected to the
wash water reclaim system were notified of the state potable water supply.
requirement for cross-connection control. A maintenance mechanic correctly reasoned that
by adding a tempering valve to the chilled water line,
Shipyard Backflow he could heat up the water and eliminate fogging of
Contamination the laser lenses resulting from the chilled water be-
Water fountains at an East Coast shipyard were ing too cold. The problem with the installation of the
marked No Drinking as workers flushed the water tempering valve was that a direct cross-connection
lines to eliminate raw river water that had entered was inadvertently made between the toxic chilled
the shipyard following contamination from incorrectly water and the potable drinking water system.
connected water lines between ships at the pier and Periodic maintenance to the chiller was performed
the shipyard. Some third shift employees drank the in the summer, requiring that an alternate chiller
water before the pollution was discovered and later feed pump be temporarily installed. This replacement
complained of stomach cramps and diarrhea. pump had an outlet pressure of 150 psi and promptly
The cause of the problem was a direct cross- established an imbalance of pressure at the tempering
connection between the on-board salt water fire valve, thereby over-pressurizing the 60-psi potable
protection water system and the freshwater connected water supply. Back-pressure backflow resulted and
to one of the ships at the dock. While the shipyard had pushed the toxic chilled water from the water heater
been aware of the need for backflow protection at the and then into the plants potable drinking water sup-
dockside tie-up area, the device had not been delivered ply system. Yellowish-green water started pouring out
and installed prior to the time of the incident. As a of drinking fountains, the washroom, and all potable
result, the salt water on-board fire protection system, water outlets.
being at a greater pressure than the potable water
supply, forced the salt water, through back-pressure, Dialysis Machine
into the shipyards potable water supply system. Contamination
Fortunately, a small demand for potable water at Ethylene glycol, an antifreeze additive to air-condi-
the time of the incident prevented widespread pollu- tioning cooling tower water, inadvertently entered the
tion in the shipyard and the surrounding areas. potable water supply system in a medical center, and
two of six dialysis patients succumbed as a direct or
Hexavalent Chromium in indirect result of the contamination. The glycol was
Water Supply added to the air-conditioning water, and the glycol
A well-meaning maintenance mechanic, attempting to water mix was stored in a holding tank that was an
correct a fogging lens in an overcooled laser machine, integral part of the medical centers air-conditioning
installed a tempering valve in the laser cooling line cooling system. Pressurized makeup water for the
and inadvertently set the stage for a back-pressure holding tank was supplied by a medical center potable
backflow incident that resulted in hexavalent chro- water supply line and fed through a manually oper-
mium contaminating the potable water of a large ated control valve. With this valve open, or partially
electronic manufacturing company employing 9,000 open, potable makeup water flowed slowly into the


10
Many types of possible pathogenic organ-
isms can be found in source water. These
include dissolved gases, suspended mat-
Water
Treatment
Table 10-1 Chemical Names, Common Names and Formulas

Chemical Name
Bicarbonate (ion)
Common Name

Formula
HCO3
ter, undesirable minerals, pollutants, and Calcium (metal) Ca2+
organic matter. These substances can be Calcium bicarbonate Ca(HCO3)2
separated into two general categories: Calcium carbonate Chalk, limestone, marble CaCO3
chemical and biological. They generally Calcium hypochlorite Bleaching powder, chloride of lime Ca(ClO)2
require different methods of remediation. Chlorine (gas) Cl2
Calcium sulfate CaSO4
No single filtration or treatment process
Calcium sulfate Plaster of paris CaSO4.H2O
satisfies all water-conditioning require-
Calcium sulfate Gypsum CaSO4.2H2O
ments. Carbon Graphite C
Surface water may contain more of Carbonate (ion) CO32
these contaminants than groundwater, Carbon dioxide CO2
but groundwater, while likely to contain Ferric oxide Burat ochre Fe2O3
less pathogens than surface water, may Ferruous carbonate FeCO3
contain dissolved minerals and have un- Ferrous oxide FeO
desirable tastes and odors. Water provided Hydrochloric acid Muriatic acid HCl
by public and private utilities is regarded Hydrogen (ion) H+
to be potable, or adequately pure for Hydrogen (gas) H2
human consumption so long as it meets Hydrogen sulfide H2S
the standards of the U.S. Environmental Iron (ferric ion) Fe3+
Protection Agencys Safe Drinking Water Iron (ferrous ion) Fe2+
Magnesium bicarbonate Mg(HCO3)2
Act and the local health official. However,
Magnesium carbonate Magnesite MgCO3
such water still might contain some levels
Magnesium oxide Magnesia MgO
of pathogens and other undesirable com- Magnesium sulfate MgSO4
ponents. Even if the water quality is not Magnesium sulfate Epsom salt MgSO4.7H2O
such that it would cause a specific health Manganese (metal) Mn
threat to the general public, it may not Methane Marsh gas CH4
be suitable for buildings such as hospitals Nitrogen (gas) N2
and nursing homes that house populations Oxygen (gas) O2
that may be more vulnerable. Moreover, it Potassium (metal) K
may not be pure enough for certain indus- Potassium permanganate Permanganate of potash KMnO4
trial, medical, or scientific purposes. Sodium (metal) Na
This chapter reviews the principles of Sodium bicarbonate Baking soda, bicarbonate of soda NaHCO3
basic water treatment, provides informa- Sodium carbonate Soda ash Na2CO3
tion on additional treatment (including a Sodium carbonate Sal soda Na2CO3.10H2O
Sodium chloride Salt NaCl
section on the selection and sizing of water
Sodium hydroxide Caustic soda, lye NaOH
softeners), and finally gives an overview of
Sodium sulfate Glaubers salt Na2SO4.10H2O
specialized treatment techniques. For the Sulfate (ion) SO42
readers reference, the common chemical Sulfuric acid Oil of vitrol H2SO4
compounds used in connection with water Water H2O
softeners are tabulated in Table 10-1.
Need and Purpose for Water demineralizers, deionizers, and reverse osmosis) is
Treatment called external treatment because such treatment is
outside the equipment into which the water flows.
Damage by Untreated Water Neutralizing the objectionable constituents by adding
Impure water damages piping and equipment by scor- chemicals to the water as it enters the equipment is
ing, scaling, and corroding. Under certain conditions, referred to as internal treatment. Economic consid-
water containing particles in suspension erodes the erations usually govern the choice between the two
piping and scores moving parts. Water containing methods.
dissolved acidic chemicals in sufficient quantities Sometimes it is necessary to apply more than one
dissolves the metal surfaces with which it comes in technology. For instance, a water softener may be
contact. Pitted pipe and tank walls are common mani- required to treat domestic water, but a reverse osmo-
festations of the phenomenon called corrosion. sis system may be needed before the water is sent to
Scaling occurs when calcium or magnesium com- HVAC or medical equipment. Another example is the
pounds in the water (in a condition commonly known need for an iron prefilter to remove large iron particles
as water hardness) become separated from the water to protect a reverse osmosis membrane, which would
and adhere to the piping and equipment surfaces. be damaged by the iron particles.
This separation is usually induced by a rise in tem-
perature (as these minerals become less soluble as Basic Water Types
the temperature increases). In addition to restricting Following are the basic types of water.
flow, scaling causes damage to heat-transfer surfaces
Raw water is received from a well, surface water,
by decreasing heat-exchange capabilities. The result
etc.
of this condition is the overheating of tubes, followed
by failures and equipment damage. Tower water is monitored and controlled for pH,
Table 10-2 can be used to identify solutions to algae, and total dissolved solids.
listed impurities and constituents found in water. Potable water is filtered, chlorinated, and/
External and Internal Treatment or otherwise treated to meet the local health
departments standards for drinking water as
Changing the chemical composition of the water
well as the Safe Drinking Water Act.
by means of mechanical devices (filters, softeners,
Table 10-2 Water TreatmentImpurities and Constituents, Possible Effects and Suggested Treatments
Possible Effectsa Treatment
filtration, evaporation, ion
Neutralizing, followed by
chemicals, ion exchange
softening or evaporation
ion exchange materials,
Softening by chemicals,
demineralization by ion-
materials, evaporatiors
Coagulation, filtration,
filtration, evaporation
Softening by heaters,
Setting, coagulation,
Setting, coagulation,
exchange material
Evaporation and
Embritlement
None (Inert)
evaporators
evaporation
De-aeration
exchange
Corrosion
Priming
Foamin
Sludge
Scale
Suspended solids X X X X X
Silica SiO2 X X
Calcium carbonate CaCO3 X X
Calcium bicarbonate Ca(HCO3)2 X X
Calcium Sulfate CaSO4 X X X
Calcium chloride CaCl2 X X
Magnesium carbonate MgCO3 X X
Constituents
Magnesium bicarbonate Mg(HCO3)2 X X

Magnesium chloride MgCl2 X X X
Free acids HCI, H2SO4 X X
Sodium chloride NaCl X X
Sodium carbonate Na2CO3 X X X X
Sodium bicarbonate NaHCO3 X X X X
Carbonic acid H2CO3 X X
Oxygen O2 X X
Grease and oil X X X X X
Organic matter and sewage X X X X X
a
The possibility of the effects will increase proportionately to an increase in the water temperature.

Chapter 10Water Treatment 195
Soft water meets additional requirements to The typical water distillation system consists
reduce hardness. of an evaporator section, internal baffle system,
Deionized water is specified in ranges of water-cooled condenser, and storage tank. The best
conductivity. material of construction is a pure block-tin coating for
both the still and the tank. The heat sources, in order
Purified water meets the requirements of the of preference based on economy and maintenance, are
local health department as well as the Safe
steam, electricity, and gas. Gas is a very poor choice.
Drinking Water Act.
The still may be operated manually or automatically.
Distilled water meets the requirements of the The distilled water may be distributed from the tank
local health department as well as the Safe by gravity or by a pump. A drain is required. On stills
Drinking Water Act. larger than 50 gallons per hour (gph), a cooling tower
should be considered for the condenser water.
Pure water is a relative term used to describe
water mostly free from particulate matter and Demineralization
dissolved gases that may exist in the potable Sometimes called deionization, demineralization pro-
water supply. Pure water is generally required in duces high-purity water that is free from minerals,
pharmacies, central supply rooms, laboratories, most particulate matter, and dissolved gases. Depend-
and laboratory glassware-washing facilities. The ing on the equipment, it can have a specific resistance
two basic types of pure water are high-purity of 50,000 to nearly 18 M. However, it can be con-
water, which is free from minerals, dissolved taminated with bacteria, pyrogens, and organics, as
gases, and most particulate matter, and biopure these can be produced inside the demineralizer itself.
water, which is free from particulate matter, Demineralized water can be used in most laboratories,
minerals, bacteria, pyrogens, organic matter, and in laboratory glassware-washing facilities as a final
most dissolved gases. rinse, and as pretreatment for still feed water.
Water purity is most easily measured as specific The typical demineralizer apparatus consists of
resistance in ohm-centimeters (-cm) or expressed either a two-bed unit with a resistivity range of 50,000
as parts per million (ppm) of ionized salt (NaCl). to 1 M or a mixed-bed unit with a resistivity range
The theoretical maximum specific resistance of pure of 1 M to nearly 18 M. The columns are of an inert
water is 18.3 megaohm-centimeters (M-cm) at 25C, material filled with a synthetic resin that removes the
a purity that is nearly impossible to produce, store, minerals by an ionization process. Since the unit runs
and distribute. It is important to note that the specific on pressure, a storage tank is not required, nor is it
resistance of water is indicative only of the mineral recommended as bacteria may grow in it. A demin-
content and in no way indicates the level of bacterial, eralizer must be chemically regenerated periodically,
pyrogenic, or organic contamination. during which time no pure water is being produced.
Methods of Producing High-grade Water If a continuous supply of water is needed, a backup
unit should be considered, as the process takes sev-
The four basic methods of producing high-grade or
eral hours. The regeneration can be done manually
pure water are distillation, demineralization, reverse
or automatically. An atmospheric, chemical-resistant
osmosis, and filtration. Depending on the type of pure
drain is needed. Note that higher-pressure water is
water required, one or more of the methods described
required for backwash during regeneration.
below will be needed. Under certain conditions, a com-
If deionized water is required in a small amount
bination of methods may be required. These processes
and the facility does not want to handle the regener-
are explained in detail later in the chapter.
ant chemicals and/or the regenerant wastewater, it
Distillation may contract with a deionized water service provider
Distillation produces biopure water that is free from to supply the facility with the quality and quantity of
particulate matter, minerals, organics, bacteria, deionized water required. The service deionized wa-
pyrogens, and most of the dissolved gases and has ter (SDI) provider furnishes the facility with service
a minimum specific resistance of 300,000 -cm. deionized water exchange tanks to supply the quality,
The important consideration here is that it is free flow rate, and quantity of water required. When the
from bacteria and pyrogen contaminants that are tanks are exhausted, the SDI provider furnishes a new
dangerous to a medical patient, particularly where set of tanks. The SDI provider takes the exhausted
intravenous solutions are concerned. Biopure water tanks back to its facility for regeneration.
is needed in the pharmacy, central supply room, and
Reverse Osmosis (RO)
any other area where there may be patient contact.
Reverse osmosis produces a high-purity water that
Biopure water also may be desired in specific labora-
does not have the high resistivity of demineralized
tories at the owners request and as a final rinse in a
water and is not biopure. Under certain conditions,
laboratory glassware washer.

it can offer economic advantages over demineralized For applications where water demand is high and
water. In areas that have high mineral content, it can space is limited, a mechanical device such as a clarifier
be used as a pretreatment for a demineralizer or still utilizing a chemical coagulant may be more practical.
when large quantities of water are needed. Reverse This device mixes the water with a coagulant (such
osmosis is used primarily in industrial applications as ferric sulfate) and slowly stirs the mixture in a
and in some hospitals and laboratories for specific large circular container. The coarse particles drop
tasks. It also is used by some municipalities and end to the bottom of the container and are collected in
users for removal of dissolved components or salts. a sludge pit, while the finer particles coagulate and
Several types of reverse osmosis units are available. also drop to the bottom of the container. The clarified
Basically, they consist of a semipermeable membrane water then leaves the device ready for use or further
in either a roll form or a tube containing numerous treatment, which may include various levels filtration
hollow fibers. Water is forced through the semiper- and disinfection.
meable membrane under high pressure. A drain and Hardness
storage tank are required with this system.
The hardness of water is due mainly to the presence
Filtration of calcium and magnesium cations. These salts, in
Various types of filters are available to remove the order of their relative average abundance in water,
particulate matter from water as a pretreatment. are bicarbonates, sulfates, chlorides, and nitrates.
Filters can range from a back-washable filter to filter They all produce scale.
cartridge housing. Depending on the type of filter, a Calcium salts are about twice as soluble as mag-
drain may be required. nesium salts in natural water supplies. The presence
Nanofiltration is a membrane system similar to re- of bicarbonates of calcium and magnesium produces
verse osmosis but with a looser membrane that rejects a condition in the water called temporary hardness
most polyvalent ions while allowing the monovalent because these salts can be easily transformed into a
ions of sodium and chloride to pass through. It also calcium or magnesium precipitate plus carbon dioxide
is called a softening membrane. gas. The noncarbonic salts (sulfates, chlorides, and ni-
Ultrafiltration is a membrane system that is trates) constitute permanent hardness conditions.
even looser and generally is used to separate oil and Hardness is most commonly treated by the
water. sodium-cycle ion exchange process, which exchanges
the calcium and magnesium salts responsible for the
Water Conditions and hardness of the water for the very soluble sodium
Recommended Treatments salts. Only calcium and magnesium (hardness ions) in
Turbidity the water are affected by the softening process. This
process produces water that is non-scale forming. If
Turbidity is caused by suspended insoluble matter,
the oxygen or carbon dioxide contents of the water
including coarse particles that settle rapidly in stand-
are relatively high, the water may be considered ag-
ing water. Amounts range from almost zero in most
gressive.
groundwater and some surface supplies to 60,000
The carbonic acid may be removed by aeration or
nephelometric turbidity units (NTU) in muddy,
degasification, and the remaining acids may be re-
turbulent river water. Turbidity is objectionable for
moved by neutralization. Neutralization by blending
practically all water uses. The standard maximum
hydrogen and sodium cation exchanger water is one
for drinking water is 1 NTU (accepted by industry),
of the methods for obtaining water with the desired
which indicates quite good quality. Turbidity exceed-
alkalinity level.
ing 1 NTU can cause health concerns.
Another method of neutralizing the acid in wa-
Generally, if turbidity can be seen easily, it will
ter is by adding alkali. The advantage of the alkali
clog pipes, damage valve seats, and cloud the drinking
neutralization method is that the cost of the sodium
water. For non-process water, if turbidity cannot be
cation exchange softener is eliminated. However, the
seen, it should present few or no problems.
engineer may want to weigh the cost of chemicals
Turbidity that is caused by suspended solids in the
against the cost of the sodium ion exchange unit.
water may be removed from such water by coagula-
tion, sedimentation, and/or filtration. In extreme Aeration and Deaeration
cases, where a filter requires frequent cleaning due As hardness in water is objectionable because it forms
to excessive turbidity, it is recommended that engi- scale, high oxygen and carbon dioxide contents are
neers use coagulation and sedimentation upstream of also objectionable because they corrode iron, zinc,
the filter. Such a device can take the form of a basin brass, and several other metals.
through which the water can flow at low velocities to Free carbon dioxide (CO2) can be found in most
let the turbidity-causing particles settle naturally. natural water supplies. Surface waters have the low-

est concentration, although some rivers may contain ization has a practical advantage over distillation.
as much as 50 ppm. In groundwater, the CO2 content The distillation process involves removing the natural
varies from almost zero to concentrations so high that water from the mineral salts (or the larger mass from
the carbon dioxide bubbles out when the pressure is the smaller mass). Demineralization processes are the
released. reverse of the distillation process as they remove the
Carbon dioxide also forms when bicarbonates are mineral salts from the natural water. This renders
destroyed by acids, coagulants, or high temperatures. demineralization the more economical method of pu-
The presence of CO2 accelerates oxygen corrosion. rifying natural water in most cases. Many industries
Carbon dioxide can be removed from water by an today are turning to demineralization as the answer
aeration process. Aeration is simply a mechanical to their water problems.
process for mixing the air and the water intimately. The stringent quality standards for makeup water
It can be done with spray nozzles, cascade aerators, for modern boilers are making demineralizers and
pressure aerators, or forced draft units. When this reverse osmosis a must for these users. Modern plat-
aeration process is complete, the water is relatively ing practices also require the high-quality water that
free of CO2 gas. demineralization produces.
Water with a high oxygen content can be extremely
corrosive at elevated temperatures. Oxygen (O2) can Ion ExchangeTheory and
be removed from the water by a deaeration process. Practice
Oxygen becomes less and less soluble as the water According to chemical theory, compounds such as min-
temperature increases; thus, it is removed easily from eral salts, acid, and bases break up into ions when they
the water by bringing the water to its boiling point. are dissolved in water. Ions are simply atoms, singly
Pressure and vacuum deaerators are available. or in groups, that carry an electric charge. They are
When it is necessary to heat the water, as in boilers, of two types: cation, which is positively charged, and
steam deaerators are used. Where the water is used anion, which is negatively charged. For example, when
for cooling or other purposes where heating is not dissolved in water, sodium chloride (NaCl) splits into
desired, vacuum units may be employed. the cation Na+ and the anion Cl. Similarly, calcium
With aerators and deaerators in tandem, water sulfate (CaSO4) in solution is present as the cation
free of CO2 and O2 is produced. Ca2+ and the anion SO42. All the mineral salts in water
Minerals are in their ionic form.
Synthetic thermal-setting plastic materials, known
Pure water is never found in nature. Natural water
as ion exchange resins, have been developed to re-
contains a series of dissolved inorganic solids, which
move these objectionable ions from the solution and
are largely mineral salts. These mineral salts are
to produce water of very high purity. These resins
introduced into the natural water by a solvent action
are small beads (or granules) usually of phenolic, or
as the water passes through (or across) the various
polystyrene, plastics. They are insoluble in water,
layers of the earth. The types of mineral salt absorbed
and their basic nature is not changed by the process
by the natural water depends on the chemical content
of ion exchange. These beads (or granules) are very
of the soil through which the natural water passes
porous, and they have readily available ion exchange
before it reaches the consumer. This may vary from
groups on all their internal and external surfaces. The
area to area. Well water differs from river water, and
electrochemical action of these ion exchange groups
river water differs from lake water. Two consumers
draws one type of ion out of the solution and puts a
separated by a few miles may have water supplies of
different one in its place. These resins are of three
very dissimilar characteristics. Even the concentra-
types: cation exchanger, which exchanges one positive
tion and types of minerals may vary with the changing
ion for another, anion exchanger, which exchanges
seasons in the same water supply.
one negative ion for another, and acid absorber, which
Many industries can benefit greatly by being sup-
absorbs complete acid groups on its surface.
plied with high-grade pure water. These industries
A demineralizer consists of the required number
are finding that they must treat their natural water
of cation tanks and anion tanks (or, in the case of
supplies in various ways to achieve this condition.
monobeds, combined tanks) with all the necessary
The recommended type of water treatment depends
valves, pipes, and fittings required to perform the
on the chemical content of the water supply and the
steps of the demineralization process for the cation
requirements of the particular industry. High-grade
resin, as well as an acid dilution tank material for the
pure water typically results in greater economy of
cation resin and an acid dilution tank, as the sulfuric
production and better products.
acid is too concentrated to be used directly. If hydro-
Before the advent of the demineralization process,
chloric acid is to be used as a cation regenerant, this
the only method used to remove mineral salts from
mix tank is unnecessary since the acid is drawn in
natural water was a distillation process. Demineral-

directly from the storage vessel. A mixing tank for Type B: Manually operated individual valves.
soda ash or caustic soda, used in anion regeneration, This system combines maximum flexibility and
is always provided. minimum maintenance with an economical first
Since calcium and magnesium in the raw regener- cost. It is used on larger installations.
ant water precipitate the hydroxide (or carbonate)
salts in the anion bed, the anion resin must be re- Internal Arrangements
generated with hardness-free water. This condition The internal arrangements of the vessels are similar
may be accomplished either with a water softener for all types of controls. The internal arrangement
(which may be provided for this purpose) or by use of used on medium to large units is shown in Figure 10-
the effluent water from the cation unit to regenerate 1. Smaller units have simpler arrangements since the
the anion resin. The use of a softener decreases the distribution problems are less complex. The positive
regeneration time considerably, as both units may be and thorough distribution of regenerants, rinse, and
regenerated simultaneously rather than separately. wash waters to achieve maximum efficiency provides
Provided with each unit is a straight reading vol- economy and reliability.
ume meter, which indicates gallons per run as well as Ion Exchange Water Softeners
the total volume put through the unit. Also provided A typical hydrogen-sodium ion exchange plant is
with each unit is a conductivity and resistivity indi- shown in Figure 10-2. This process combines sodium-
cator used to check the purity of the effluent water cycle ion exchange softening with hydrogen-cycle
at all times. This instrument is essentially a meter cation exchange.
for measuring the electrical resistance of the treated The sodium ion exchange process is exactly the
water leaving the unit. It consists of two principal same as a standard ion exchange water softener. The
parts: the conductivity cell, which is situated in the hardness (calcium and magnesium) is replaced with
effluent line, and the instrument box to which the sodium (nonscal-
conductivity cell is connected. ing). The alkalinity
The conductivity cell contains two electrodes (bicarbonates) and
across which an electric potential is applied. When other anions re-
these poles are immersed in the treated water, the main as high as in
resistance to the flow of the electricity between the the raw water.
two poles (which depends on the dissolved solids The cation ex-
content of the water) is measured by a circuit in the changer is exactly
instrument. The purity of the water may be checked the same as the
by reading the meter. When the purity of the water one used with
is within the specific limits, the green light glows. demineralizers;
When the water becomes too impure to use, the red therefore, its ef-
light glows. In addition, a bell may be added that rings fluent contains
when the red light glows to provide an audible as well carbonic acid,
as a visible report that the unit needs regeneration. sulfuric acid, and
This contact also can close an effluent valve, shift hydrochloric acid.
operation to another unit if desired, or put the unit Sodium ion ex-
into regeneration. change units are
Controls operated in par-
Several types of control are currently available to allel, and their
carry out the various steps of regeneration and return effluents are com-
to service. Common arrangements are as follows: bined. Mineral
acids in the hydro-
Type A: Completely automatic, conductivity gen ion exchange
meter initiation of regeneration, individual
effluent neutralize
air- or hydraulic-operated diaphragm valves Figure 10-1 Ion Exchange
the bicarbonates VesselInternal Arrangements
controlled by a sequence timer. Any degree of
in the sodium ion
automation can be provided, if desired. This
arrangement provides maximum flexibility exchange effluent.
in varying amounts and concentrations The proportions of the two processes are varied to
of regenerants, length of rinsing, and all produce a blended effluent having the desired alka-
other steps of the operating procedure. The linity. The carbon dioxide is removed by a degasifier.
diaphragm valves used are tight seating, offering The effluent of this plant is soft and reduced in solids
maximum protection against leakage and thus and has an alkalinity as low as is desired.
contamination with a minimum of maintenance.

reduce leakage of alkalinity and

carbon dioxide.
Basic Water
Treatment
The water provided by munici-
palities is usually low enough in
turbidity and organic constituents
to preclude the use of filters, clari-
fiers, or chlorinators. As always,
however, there are exceptions to
the rule. When dealing with health
and safety or with the operating
Figure 10-2 Hydrogen-Sodium Ion Exchange Plant efficiency of machinery, engineers
In a sodium ion exchange softener plus acid ad- always must consider the occa-
dition process (see Figure 10-3), the acid directly sional exception.
neutralizes the bicarbonate alkalinity to produce Chlorination
a soft, low-alkalinity water. The carbon dioxide Chlorination of water is most commonly used to de-
produced is removed by a degasifier. The chief disad- stroy organic (living) impurities. Organic impurities
vantages of this process are that the total dissolved fall into two categories: pathogenic, which cause dis-
solids are not reduced and control of the process is ease such as typhoid and cholera, and nonpathogenic,
somewhat more difficult. which cause algae and slime that clog pipes and valves,
In a sodium ion exchange softener plus chloride discolor water, and produce undesirable odors.
dealkalizer process, water passes first through the These pathogenic and nonpathogenic organisms
sodium ion exchange softener, which removes the can be controlled safely by chlorine with scientifi-
hardness, and then through a chloride dealkalizer. cally engineered equipment to ensure constant and
The chloride dealkalizer is an ion exchanger that reliable applications. An intelligent choice of the
operates in the chloride cycle. The bicarbonates treatment necessary cannot be made until a labora-
and sulfates are replaced by chlorides. The resin is tory analysis of the water has determined its quality
regenerated with sodium chloride (common salt). and the quantities of water to be used are known. If
The equipment is the same as that for sodium ion microorganisms are present in objectionable amounts,
softeners. This process produces soft, low-alkalinity a chlorination system is required.
water. Total dissolved solids are not reduced, but When chlorine is added to the water, hypochlorous
the chloride level is increased. The chief advantages and hydrochloric acids are formed. Hydrochloric acid
of this process are the elimination of acid and the is neutralized by carbonates, which are naturally
extreme simplicity of the operation. No blending or present in the water. It is the hypochlorous acid that
proportioning is required. provides the disinfecting properties of chlorine solu-
In some cases, the anion resin can be regenerated tions. Part of the hypochlorous acid is used quickly
with salt and caustic soda to improve capacity and to kill (by the oxidation process) the bacteria in the
water. The remaining acid
keeps the water bacteria
free until it reaches the
point of ultimate use.
This residual hypochlo-
rous acid can take two
forms. It may combine
with the ammonia pres-
ent in almost all waters.
This combined residual,
or chloramine, takes a
relatively long time to
kill the bacteria, but it is
very stable. Thus, when a
water system is large, it
is sometimes desirable to
Figure 10-3 Sodium Cycle Softener Plus Acid Addition keep a combined residual

in the system to ensure safety from the treatment Clarification

point to the farthest supply point. Turbid water has insoluble matter suspended in it.
If enough chlorine is added to the system, more hy- As turbidity in the water increases, the water looks
pochlorous acid than can combine with the ammonia more clouded, is less potable, and is more likely to
in the water is present. The excess hypochlorous acid clog pipes and valves.
is called free residual. It is quite unstable, but it kills Particles that are heavier than the fluid in which
organic matter very quickly. Though the time it takes they are suspended tend to settle due to gravity ac-
for this water to pass from the treatment plant to the cording to Stokes law:
point of ultimate use is short, only free residual can
Equation 10-1
ensure that all bacteria will be killed. Maintaining an 2
adequate free residual in the water is the only way to kd (S1 S2)
= z
ensure that the water is safe. Its presence proves that
enough chlorine was originally added to disinfect the where
=Settling velocity of the particle
water. If no residual is present, it is possible that not
k =Constant, usually 18.5
all the bacteria in the water were killed; therefore, d =Diameter of the particle
more chlorine must be added. S1 =Density of the particle
Chlorine gas or hypochlorite solutions can be read- S2 =Density of the fluid
ily and accurately added to the water at a constant z =Viscosity of the fluid
rate or by proportional feeding devices offered by a
From Equation 10-1, it can be seen that the set-
number of suppliers. Large municipal or industrial
tling velocity of the particle decreases as the density
plants use chlorine gas because it is less expensive
(S2) and the viscosity (z) of the fluid increase. Because
than hypochlorite solutions and convenient. Chlori-
the density and viscosity of the water are functions of
nators, such as the one shown in Figure 10-4, inject
its temperature, it is readily understood why, for ex-
chlorine gas into the water system in quantities pro-
ample, the rate of the particle settling in the water at
portional to the water flow.
a temperature of 32F is only 43 percent of its settling
For the treatment of small water supplies, hy-
rate at 86F. Therefore, the removal of water turbidity
pochlorite solutions sometimes are found to be more
by subsidence is most efficient in the summer.
advantageous. In feeding hypochlorite solutions,
Where the water turbidity is high, filtration alone
small proportioning chemical pumps, such as the one
may be impractical due to the excessive requirements
illustrated in Figure 10-5, may be used for injecting
for backwash and media replacement. Subsidence is
the hypochlorite solution directly into the pipelines
or the reservoir tanks.
Figure 10-4 Automatic Chlorinators

Notes: The system illustrated in (A) maintains a given residual where the flow is constant or where it changes only gradually. The direct residual control is most effective on
recirculated systems, such as condenser cooling water circuits and swimming pools. The desired residual is manually set at the analyzer. The flow is chlorinated until the residual
reaches a set upper limit. The analyzer starts the chlorinator and keeps it operating until the residual again reaches the established upper limit. In (B) the compound loop controls
the chlorinator output in accordance with two variables, the flow and the chlorine requirements. Two signals (one from the residual analyzer and another from the flow meter), when
simultaneously applied to the chlorinator, will maintain a desired residual regardless of the changes in the flow rates or the chlorine requirements.

tual operating conditions can assist the

designer in achieving the best results.
Water leaves the settling basin on
the mechanical clarifier at atmospheric
pressure. Thus, the designer should
bear in mind that the outputs must
be pumped into the water distribution
system.
Filtration
Filtration is the process of passing
a fluid through a porous medium to
physically remove suspended solids.
Where a clarifier of the type described
above precedes the filters, the heavier,
coagulated particles are removed from
the water, and only the smaller, lighter
Figure 10-5 Manual Control Chlorinator particles reach the filter bed.
As the suspended particles lodge be-
an acceptable method for the clarification of water tween the grains of the filter medium,
that permits the settling of suspended matter. flow is restricted. The coagulated particles build up
Although water flow in a horizontal plane does on the surface of the filter bed. Penetration of the
not seriously affect the particles settling velocity, an filter medium by the coagulated particles is achieved
upward flow in a vertical plane prevents particle set- at the surface in the first device or 2 inches of the
tling. The design of settling basins should, therefore, bed. This coagulated mat then acts as a fine filter for
keep such interferences to a minimum. For practical smaller particles.
purposes, the limit for removal of solids by subsidence The filter medium should be selected to provide a
is particles of 0.01 millimeter (mm) or larger diameter. top layer coarse enough to allow some penetration of
Small particles have such a low rate of settling that the top few inches of the bed by the coagulated mate-
the time required is greater than can be allowed. rial. Where a clarifier employing a chemical coagulant
Figure 10-6 shows a typical design of a set-
tling basin. Obviously, when large volumes of
water are to be handled, the settling basins
occupy large amounts of space. Also, they can
present safety and vandalism problems if not
properly protected.
Where space is limited, a more practical
approach might be the use of a mechanical
clarifier that employs chemical coagulants
(see Figure 10-7). Such devices can be
purchased as packaged units with simple
in-and-out connections. Many chemical co-
agulants currently are available from which
the designer can choose, including aluminum
sulfate, sodium aluminate, ammonium alum,
ferric sulfate, and ferric chloride. Each coagu-
lant works better than the others in certain
types of waters.
There are no simple rules to guide the en-
gineer in the choice of the proper coagulant,
coagulant dosages, or coagulant aids. Water
analysis, temperature of the water, type of
clarification equipment, load conditions, and
end use of the treated water are some of the
factors that influence selection of the proper
coagulant. A few tests conducted under ac-
Figure 10-6 Settling Basin

Figure 10-8 Gravity Sand Filter

(Rectangular shaped, material)
The design of the pressure filter is similar to that

of a gravity filter with respect to the filter medium,
Notes: The turbid water enters the central uptake mixed with the coagulant and is forced gravel bed, underdrain system, and control devices.
toward the bottom of the unit. Some water and the suspended precipitates enter the lower
end of the uptake for recirculation and contact with the incoming chemicals and the water. The filter vessel is usually a cylindrical steel tank.
New coagulation is encouraged by contact with these previously formed precipitates. The Vertical pressure sand filters, such as the one
water then enters the outer settling section. The clarified water rises to the outlet flume
above. The heavier particles settle and are moved along the bottom to the sludge pit.
shown in Figure 10-9, range in diameter from 1 foot
Figure 10-7 Mechanical Clarifier to 10 feet with capacities from 210 gallons per minute
(gpm) to 235 gpm at an average filter rate of 3 gpm
per square foot.
is placed ahead of the filters, a separate coagulant
Multimedia depth filters are replacing single-media
feed should be used to form a mat on the filter bed
pressure filters. The depth filter has four layers of
surface. Alum commonly is used for this purpose at a
filtration media, each of a different size and density.
rate of about 1/10 pound for each square foot of filter
The media become finer and denser in the lower lay-
bed surface. This coagulant mat should be replaced
ers. Particles are trapped throughout the bed, not in
after each backwash.
just the top few inches, which allows a depth filter to
Filters are either gravity or pressure type.
run longer and use less backwash water.
Gravity Filters Horizontal pressure sand filters, usually about
As their name implies, the flow of water through 8 feet in diameter and 18 feet to 30 feet in length,
gravity filters is achieved by gravity only. have a water flow rate range of 218 gpm to 570 gpm.
The filter vessel may be rectangular or circular The industry trend in recent years has been back to
in configuration and made of steel or concrete. The the horizontal pressure sand filters, which provide
filter most commonly used is the rectangular con- the advantages of a vertical filter with frequently a
crete unit illustrated in Figure 10-8. This unit has a lower installed cost. When the filter tank is used in
very basic design. In its more sophisticated form, the its horizontal position, a larger bed area can be ob-
gravity filter has storage wells for the clarified water, tained, thus increasing the flow rate available from
wash troughs for even collection of the backwash, a given tank size.
and compressed air systems for agitation of the sand As with any mechanical device, proper operation
during backwash. and maintenance are key to continued high operat-
The advantages of the gravity filter over the ing efficiency.
pressure filter are that the filter sand can be easily Chemical pretreatment often is used to enhance
inspected and the application of a coagulant is usu- filter performance, particularly when the turbidity
ally more easily controlled. The disadvantages are the includes fine colloidal particles.
initial pressure loss, requiring repumping of the water Normal water flow rates for most gravity and
to pressurize the distribution system; the additional pressure filters are 3 gpm per square foot of filter
space required for installation; and the possibility of area. Recent design improvements in coagulation
outside bacterial contamination. have enabled flow rates as high as 5 gpm to 6 gpm
Pressure Filters for gravity filters.
Pressure filters are more widely favored in indus- High-rate pressure filters, with filtration rates
trial and commercial water-conditioning applications. of 20 gpm per square foot, have proven to be very
These units have an advantage in that they may be efficient in many industrial applications. The design
placed in the line under pressure, eliminating the overcomes the basic problem of most sand and other
need to repump the water. single-medium filters, which provide a maximum fil-

Figure 10-10 Backwashing

Figure 10-9 Vertical Pressure Sand Filter
tering efficiency only in the top few inches of the filter

bed. The high-rate depth filters work at a maximum
efficiency throughout the entire filter bed.
Backwashing
As the filter material accumulates the suspended
particles removed from the water, it should be cleaned
to avoid any excessive pressure drops at the outlet
and the carryover of turbidity. The need for cleaning,
particularly in pressure filters, is easily determined
through the use of pressure gauges, which indicate
the inlet and outlet pressures. Generally, when the
pressure drop exceeds 5 pounds per square inch (psi),
backwashing is in order. (See Figure 10-10.)
Cleaning is most commonly achieved through the
process known as backwashing. In this process, the Figure 10-11 Filtration and Backsplash Cycles
filtered water is passed upward through the filter at
a relatively high flow rate of 1020 gpm per square When fissures occur in the sand bed, the cause
foot. The bed should expand at least 50 percent, as usually can be traced to one or a combination of three
illustrated in Figure 10-11. This process keeps the items: inlet water is not being distributed evenly or
grains of the filter medium close enough to rub each is entering at too high a velocity; backwash water is
other clean, but it does not lift them so high that they not being distributed evenly or is entering at too high
are lost down the drain. Backwashing can be auto- a velocity; or mudballs have stopped the passage of
mated by employing pressure differential switches water through certain areas and raised velocities in
(electronically, hydraulically, or pneumatically) to others. The filter must be drained and opened and
activate the diaphragm or control valves that initiate the filter medium cleaned and reoriented. (See Figure
the backwash cycle at a given pressure drop. 10-13.)
Some problems connected with filter beds are il- Gravel upheaval usually is caused by violent
lustrated in Figures 10-12 through 10-14. Extremely backwash cycles where water is distributed unevenly
turbid water or insufficient backwashing causes ac- or velocities are too high. (See Figure 10-14.) If not
cumulations called mudballs (see Figure 10-12). If corrected, fissures are encouraged, or worse, filter
not removed, mudballs result in uneven filtration and media is allowed to pass into the distribution system
short filter runs and encourage fissures. When the where they may cause serious damage to valves and
filter bed surface becomes clogged with these deposits equipment as well as appear in potable water.
and simple backwashing does not remove them, the Diatomaceous Earth Filters
filter may need to be taken out of service and drained The use of diatomaceous earth as a water-filtering
and the deposits removed by hand skimming, or the medium achieved prominence during the 1940s as
filter must be rebedded. a result of the need for a compact, lightweight, and
portable filtering apparatus.

Diatomaceous earth, or silica (SiO4), is produced

from mineral deposits formed by diatoms, a fossilized
plant that is similar to algae. Deposits of diatoms
have been found as much as 1,400 feet in thickness.
Commercial filter aids are produced from the crude
material by a milling process that separates the dia-
toms from one another. The finished product is in the
form of a fine powder.
When diatomaceous earth forms a cake on the
support base, a filter of approximately 10 percent
solids and 90 percent voids is achieved. The openings
in this filter are so small that even most bacteria are
strained out of the water.
The openings in the support base are not small
enough initially to prevent the passage of individual
Figure 10-12 Mudballs diatomite particles. Some of these diatomite particles
pass through the support base during the precoating
operation. However, once the formation of the coating
is complete, the interlocked mass of diatomite par-
ticles prevents any further passage of the particles.
Commercial diatomaceous earth is manufactured
in a wide range of grades with differing filtration rates
and differences in the clarity of the filtered water. The
advantages of diatomaceous earth filters, as compared
to pressure sand filters, are a considerable savings
in the weight and required space, a higher degree of
Figure 10-13 Fissures
Figure 10-15 Leaf Design, Diatomaceous Earth Filter
filtered water clarity and purity in the outgoing water,

Figure 10-14 Gravel Upheaval and no required coagulant use. One disadvantage is
that only waters of relatively low turbidity can be
The water enters the filter vessel and is drawn
used efficiently. It is not advisable to use these filters
through a porous supporting base that has been
where incoming water turbidities exceed 100 ppm,
coated with diatomaceous earth. Filter cloths, porous
since low-efficiency, short filter runs will result. Other
stone tubes, wire screens, wire wound tubes, and
disadvantages are that the initial and operating costs
porous paper filter pads are some of the support base
usually far exceed those of conventional sand filters
materials most commonly used today. Figure 10-15
and that the incidence of high-pressure drop across
illustrates a typical leaf design filter.
the unit (as much as 25 psi to 50 psi) and intermit-

tent flows cause the filter cake to detach from the trates the degree of scale deposit and the rate increase
support base. as the temperature of the water is elevated on water
having a hardness of 10 gpg. For water of 20-gpg
Water Softening hardness, scale deposit values can be multiplied by
The engineer should not overlook the fact that water two. Although the rate of scale deposit is higher as
softening is required for practically all commercial the temperature increases, significant scale buildup
and industrial building water usage. Generally, the en- occurs with cold water. Thus, the cold water scale,
gineer is cognizant of the water softening needs only while taking a longer period of time to build up, is
when designing power plants, industrial laundries, nevertheless significant.
and other similar applications. The result is usually
Water Softener Selection
that the owner has a water softener installed after
The factors the designer should consider in sizing
occupancy, at greater cost than if it had been done in
water softeners include the following: flow rate,
the original construction.
softener capacity, frequency of regeneration, single
Generally speaking, almost any building supplied
versus multiple systems, space requirements, cost,
with water having a hardness of 3.5 grains per gallon
and operating efficiency.
(gpg) or more should have a water softener. This is
true even if the only usage of the water other than for Flow Rate
domestic purposes is for heating. Most water heater After determining the total flow rate requirements for
manufacturers recognize this fact and have stated the building, including all equipment, the engineer
that the principal threat to water heater life and per- can consider the size of the water softener. The water
formance is hard water. Approximately 85 percent of softener selected should not restrict the rate of water
the water supplies in the United States have hardness flow beyond the pressure loss that the building can
values above the 3.5 gpg level. Thus, geographically withstand, based on the pressures available at the
speaking, the engineer should recognize that the need
for water softening is almost
universal.
Many engineers specify a
water softener to supply the
heating equipment only and
completely disregard the soft-
ening needs for the balance of
the cold water usage in the
building. A typical example
of this condition is in a col-
lege dormitory. Many fixtures
and appliances in a dormitory
in addition to the hot water
heater require soft water, in-
cluding the piping itself, flush
valve toilets, shower stalls,
basins, and laundry rooms.
Many fixtures and appliances
that use a blend of hot and
cold water experience scale
buildup and staining, even
with the hot water softened.
One of the most common
reasons for installing water
softening equipment is to pre-
vent hardness scale buildup
in piping systems, valves,
and other plumbing fixtures.
Scale builds up continually
and at a faster rate as the
temperature increases. The Figure 10-16 Lime Deposited from Water of 10 Grains Hardness as a Function of
graph in Figure 10-16 illus- Water Use and Temperature

source and the minimum pressure needed throughout Knowing (or estimating) the total gallons of water
the entire system. used per day indicates the frequency of regeneration.
With the rate of flow and the pressure drop known, Most often, it is best to have a slight reserve capacity
a water softener that meets both requirements can to accommodate any small increases in water usage.
be selected. Standard softener units are designed for Softening is not really a form of water purification
a pressure differential of approximately 15 psi, the since the function of a softener is to remove only the
most common differential acceptable for building hardness (calcium and magnesium) from the water
design. Thus, for general usage, a water softener may and substitute, by ion exchange, the softer element of
be selected from a manufacturers catalog. sodium. Softeners frequently are used in hard water
The softener system should be capable of provid- areas as pretreatment to distillation to simplify main-
ing the design flow rates within the desired pressure tenance. They are often necessary as a pretreatment
drop. This means not only that the pipe and valve sizes to deionizers and reverse osmosis, depending on the
must be adequate, but also that the water softener analysis of the feed water and the type of deionizer.
tank and its mineral must be capable of handling The following steps should be taken prior to select-
the flows while providing the soft water. The water ing a water softener.
softener design should be based on hydraulic and 1. Perform a water analysis.
chemical criteria.
A. Analyze water with portable test kit.
Good design practices for general use dictate that
service flow rates through the water softener be ap- B. Check with local authorities for water
proximately 15 gpm per cubic foot with mineral bed analysis.
depths of 30 inches or more. Based on these accepted C. Send a water sample to a qualified water
practices, the water softener is generally able to testing lab.
handle peak flows for short periods.
2. Determine water consumption.
The engineer should give more detailed consid-
eration to the selection of water softeners where A. Use sizing charts.
especially low-pressure losses are needed. Many B. Use consumption figures from water bills.
equipment manufacturers offer complete pressure (If bills are in cubic feet, multiply by 7.5 to
drop curves for their equipment, allowing the se- convert to gallons.)
lection of components to fit any flow pressure drop C. Take water meter readings.
conditions desired.
3. Determine continuous and peak flow rates.
Softener Capacity
A. Use the fixture count flow rate estimating
Once the size of the water softener is selected based guide to determine the required flow rate.
on flow rate, the designer should consider the length
B. Obtain flow rate figures for equipment to
of the service run.
be serviced. (If flow rate data are given in
For each standard-size water softener, a nominal
pounds per hour, divide by 500 to convert to
quantity of softening mineral is used. This amount gallons per minute.)
is based on the recommended depths of mineral (nor-
mally 3036 inches) and the proper free-board space C. Take water meter readings during peak
above the mineral (the space required for the proper periods of water consumption.
expansion of the mineral during backwashing). Thus, 4. Determine the water pressure.
from the unit initially selected, a standard capacity A. If there is a well supply, check the pumps
is known. start and stop settings.
The capacity of a water softener is its total hard-
ness exchange ability, generally expressed in terms B. Install a pressure gauge.
of grains exchange. The normal capacity of available 5. Determine the capacity: gallons per daygrains
softening mineral (resins) is 20,00030,000 grains for per gallon=grains per day.
each cubic foot of mineral. Thus, the total capacity
6. Select the smallest unit that can handle
for the water softener is obtained by multiplying this the maximum capacity required between
value by the number of cubic feet of mineral in the regenerations with a low salt dosage. Avoid
water softener. The hardness of the raw water must sizing equipment with the high dosage unless
be ascertained. By dividing the water hardness (grains there is reason to do so, such as a high-pressure
per gallon) (expressed as CaCO3 equivalent) into the boiler.
total softener capacity (grains), the designer can de-
termine the number of gallons of soft water that the
unit will produce before requiring regeneration.

Example 10-1 psi at the highest point of use in the building. The
For example, the capacity required is 300,000 grains. maximum rates are equal to the fixture count figures
What size unit should be selected? commonly used to size water lines and are applicable
especially in low water pressure areas where pressure
A 300,000-grain unit will produce this capacity drop is critical.
when regenerated with 150 pounds of salt. Following is a step-by-step procedure for estimat-
A 450,000-grain unit will produce this capacity ing fixture count flow rates.
when regenerated with 60 pounds of salt. 1. Count and list each type of fixture used
The 450,000-grain unit is the better selection intermittently. Multiply the total of each type
to remove 300,000 grains. Salt consumption is 75 by its private or public unit weight. Private or
pounds per regeneration as opposed to 150 pounds public unit weights must be determined by the
on the smaller unit, a 50 percent salt consumption use of the fixture. For example, lavatories in an
savings. It should be noted that while a salt saving is apartment house are private. Lavatories in a
realized in using the lower salting rate on the larger restaurant are public. Add the products of each
unit, hardness leakage will increase. If minimum type of fixture to determine the total fixture
hardness leakage is required, such as for boiler feed count weight.
water, the maximum salting rate (15 pounds per cubic 2. From the intermittent flow rate chart, select the
foot) should be used. total fixture count, or the next highest fixture
count, determined in step 1.
7. Determine if the unit selected will deliver the
required flow rate. 3. Add to the flow rate determined in step 2 any
A. When sizing to a continuous flow rate, continuously used flow rates in gallons per
subtract the pressure drop from the line minute. These additional requirements may
pressure. At least 30 psi should be left for include commercial dishwashers, garbage
the working pressure. disposals that run continually, boiler makeup
water, or swimming pool makeup water. In
B. When sizing to a peak flow rate, subtract some cases, these additional requirements are
the pressure drop from the line pressure. At seasonal and used separately. For example, if
least 20 psi should be left for the working boilers are shut down during the summer, use
pressure. the additional requirement of the boiler or the
C. If A or B has less than the minimum air-conditioning system, whichever is greater.
allowable working pressure, select a larger Example 10-2 10-unit apartment house
model that has a higher flow rate.
For example, the flow rate for a 10-unit apartment
D. The water softener requires a dynamic
can be estimated as follows:
pressure of 35 psi to draw brine.
Type and Number of Fixtures Private Unit Total Weight
8. Compare the dimensions of the unit selected
Weight
with the space available for installation.
10 kitchen sinks 2 = 20
9. Make sure both the softener and brine tank
will fit through all doors and hallways to the 10 bathtub/showers 2 = 20
installation area. If not, a twin unit or smaller 10 lavatories 1 = 10
brine tank may be used. 10 tank-type toilets 3 = 30
10. Make sure a drain is available that will handle 3 washing machines 2 = 6
the backwash flow rate of the unit selected.
1 air-conditioner with 5-gpm makeup = 86 total
Refer to the specification sheet for backwash
flow rates. Fixture count weight = Average gpm
86 31
Fixture Count Flow Rate Estimating Guide For a total of 86 fixture units, the corresponding
for Water Conditioners flow rate is 31 gpm.
This guide is for estimating average and maximum
flow rate requirements (in gallons per minute) for Add 31 gpm to 5 gpm for the air conditioner:
31+5=36 gpm.
both private and public buildings and is based on
fixture flow rates and probability of use. It is to be Select the smallest unit that has a continuous
used when actual continuous and peak flow rates are flow rate of 36 gpm.
not known. 4. Select the smallest water conditioner with a
The average rates may be used when line pres- continuous flow rate that is equal to or greater
sure less the conditioner pressure drop is at least 30 than the total flow rate requirement in step 3.

The line pressure less the pressure drop of the Table 10-3 Water Consumption Guide
selected unit must be at least 30 psi to handle
Apartments
the peak flow rate periods. If it is less than 30
One-bedroom units 1.75 people/apartment
psi:
Two-bedroom units Three people/apartment
A. Repeat step 2 using the maximum column Three-bedroom units Five people/apartment
on the intermittent flow rate chart. Full line 60 gpd/person
B. Add to A the additional requirements of Hot only 25 gpd/person
step 3. One bath 1.5 gpm/apartment
Two baths 2.5 gpm/apartment
C. Select a water conditioner with a Barber shops 75 gpm/chair
continuous flow rate that is equal to Beauty shops 300 gpd/person
or greater than the new total flow rate Bowling alleys 75 gpd/lane
requirement. Factories (not including process waters)
When the maximum figures are used, the With showers 35 gpd/person/shift
line pressure less the conditioner pressure Without showers 25 gpd/person/shift
drop must be 20 psi minimum. Farm animals
Dairy cow 35 gpd
Note: When water conditioners are Beef cow 12 gpd
installed in series, such as an iron filter Hog 4 gpd
in a water softener, the 30-psi and 20-psi Horse 12 gpd
minimum pressures must be maintained Sheep 2 gpd
after both units. Select combinations of Chickens 10 gpd/100 birds
conditioners with a total pressure drop, Turkeys 18 gpd/100 birds
when subtracted from the line pressure, of Hospitals 225 gpd/bed (Estimate air-
30 psi minimum when using the average conditioning and laundry
figures or 20 psi when using the maximum separately.)
figures. Motels (Estimate the restaurant, bar, air-conditioning,
swimming pool, and laundry facilities separately, and add these
Where measurements of water consumption are
to the room gallonage for total consumption.)
not possiblefor instance, where water meter records Full line 100 gpd/room
are not availablethe information in Table 10-3 can Hot only 40 gpd/room
be used to estimate the amount of water consumed Mobile home courts Estimate 3.75 people/home,
in several establishments. (Note: For more accurate and estimate 60 gpd/person.
figures, take meter readings during average or peak (Outside water for sprinkling,
periodsa week or a month. Water bills may be used washing cars, etc., should be
bypassed.)
to determine daily water consumption.)
Restaurants
If manually operated equipment is desired, longer
Total (full line) 8 gal/meal
periods between regenerations may be desired to Food preparation (hot and cold) 3 gal/meal
reduce the attention that an operator must give to Food preparation (hot only) 1.5 gal/meal
the water softener. Thus, larger capacity units must Cocktail bar 2 gal/person
be selected. Rest homes 175 gpd/bed (Estimate laundry
Single or Multiple Systems separately.)
Schools
A single-unit softener will bypass the hard water
Full line 20 gpd/student
during periods of regeneration (normally 1.5 hours).
Hot only 8 gpd/student
This is the danger in a single-unit softener. If soft Trailer parks 100 gpd/space
water requirements are critical and adequate soft
water storage is not available, a twin or duplex water
can be located on the upper side shell of the softener
softener is needed.
tank (if so specified).
Space Needs Severe room height restrictions normally require
Many times a softener system is selected without specifying a large-diameter, squat softener tank with
much concern for space needs. Generally, sufficient the same specified quantity of softening mineral.
floor space is available, although this factor should Further consideration must be given to the floor
not be overlooked for storage. More commonly over- space around the equipment, particularly around the
looked is the actual height of the softener tank and salt tanks, for loading purposes and accessibility for
the additional height required (24 inches) for access servicing the units.
through the top manhole opening for loading the unit. Where water softeners are being installed in exist-
If height in the room is critical, the upper manhole ing buildings, the door openings should be checked

for passage of the softener equipment to the final high-quality soft water is required in an area where
loading. very high-hardness water exists, this approach is not
Cost recommended.
Technical advances in the water-softening industry Sizing
and increasing labor costs are, for the most part, re- Figure 10-17 will assist the engineer in developing the
sponsible for the fact that almost all the equipment data required to size the basic softening equipment.
produced is operated automatically. The final selection of a system for specification should
For budget estimating purposes, automatic water- be made using this information. In many cases, the
softening costs range from $15.00 to $40.00 per 1,000 importance of the water-softening equipment justi-
grains of exchange capacity, depending on the degree fies calling on manufacturers representatives for
of sophistication. This estimate is based on the total their recommendations. Their specialized knowledge
capacity of all units. can help in the design of a reliable, economical water
Operating Efficiency softener system. Figure 10-18 provides a step-by-step
Most water softeners are alike in terms of their procedure for selecting the water softener equip-
operation. Their basic operating cost is the salt con- ment.
sumption. Practically all use a high-capacity, resinous Salt Recycling Systems
mineral. The mineral can exchange 30,000 grains of If the engineer is interested in increasing the efficiency
hardness per cubic foot of mineral when regenerated of the water softener in terms of salt consumption and
with 15 pounds of salt, which is the nominal standard water usage during the regeneration cycle, one option
rating currently used in the industry. to consider is the use of a salt recycling system. It is
As salt is the basic commodity that effects the essentially a hardware modification available for both
operating cost, it is the only area where reduced new and existing water softeners that immediately
costs may be considered. Fortunately, the softening reduces the amount of salt needed to regenerate a
mineral can be regenerated at different salt levels, softener by 25 percent, without any loss of resin capac-
yielding actual cost savings on the salt consumption. ity or treated water quality. It works best with water
As indicated, with a 15-pound salt level, 30,000 gains softener equipment that utilize a nested diaphragm
per cubic foot can be obtained. With a salt dosage of valve configuration as seen in Figure 10-19. It is not
10 pounds or 6 pounds, a resulting capacity yield of recommended for water softeners that utilize a top-
25,000 gains per cubic foot or 20,000 gains per cubic mounted, multi-port motorized control valve.
foot respectively is obtained. The salt recycling process adds a brine reclaim
Thus, approximately a 40 percent salt rating can step to the regeneration process after the brine draw
be effected at the lower salt level. The lower salt levels has occurred. During brine reclaim, used dilute brine
can be used effectively on general applications, result- flow is diverted from the drain and routed back to the
ing in lower operating costs. However, where very brinemaker tank where it is stored and resaturated
date
Project name
Location
Type of facility
What is water being used for?
Water analysis: (express in gr./ gal. or ppm as CaCo3)

Total hardness
Sodium
Total dissolved solids
Sodium to hardness ratio
Iron
Flow rate (gpm) peak Normal Average
Allowable pressure loss System inlet pressure
Operating hours/day Gallons/day
Influent header pipe size
Electrical characteristics
Type of operation
Special requirement or options (ASME, lining, accessories)
Space limitation L W H
Figure 10-17 Water Softener Survey Data

Date
Project name
Location
Step I. Operating conditions
A. Operating hours per day
B. Can regeneration take place once each day? Yes No
C. If B is No, state days between regenerations
D. Is a twin unit required? Yes No
E. Type of operation:
Time clock Alarm meter Auto reset meter
F. Allowable pressure loss psi.
Step 2. Flow rate (gpm) (peak, average, continuous)
Step 3. Water usage per day:
60 min./hr. GPM =
Operating hr/day Average flow rate gal/day
Step 4. Required exchange capacity:
=
Gal/day water usage Water hardness (gr/gal) Required exchange capacity (gr/day)
Step 5. Select resin capacity & salt dosage per cu ft.:
( ) 32,000 gr @ 15# ( ) 29,000 gr @ 10# ( ) 21,000 gr @ 6#

Step 6. One day of operation per regeneration (step no. 1-B)
=
Required exch. cap (gr/day) Resin cap (gr/ft3) Required resin (ft3/day)
Note: If more than one day between regenerations is required, use step no. 7 instead of step no. 6.
Step 7. More than one day of operation per regeneration (step no. 1-B)
Cubic feet of resin required:
=
Required exch. cap. (gr/day) Number of days/regn. Resin cap. (gr/ft3) Resin required (ft3)
Step 8. Salt consumption per regeneration:
=
Required resin (ft3 /regn.) Salt dosage (lb/ft3) Salt regeneration (lb)

Step 9. System selection:
(If auto-reset operation is desired, refer to step no. 10.)
A. Select from the manufacturers specification table, a single unit that meets the flow rate (step no. 2).
B. Check that selected unit meets the allowable pressure loss at the flow rate (step no. 1-F).
C. If a single unit will not meet both steps no. 9-A and 9-B, then a multiple unit is required (refer to step no. 10).
D. Check that selected unit contains the required cubic feet of resin (step no. 6 or 7).
E. If single unit will not meet step no. 9-D, then a multiple unit is required. (refer to step no. 10).
F. Select a standard system that meets, or exceeds by no more than 10%, step nos. 9-A, 9-B, and 9-D. If a good balance
is not available, refer to step no. 10.
G. Check that brine-tank salt storage is sufficient to provide a minimum of two regenerations before requiring refill (step
no. 8).
Step 10. Multiple systems:
The following procedure should be followed for a twin unit.
A. Select either auto-reset meter initiation or time clock to start regeneration. Refer to the appropriate subtitle.
Auto-reset meter-initiated regeneration.
B. Select, from the specification table, a tank size that meets the flow rate (step no. 2) and the allowable pressure loss (step
no. 1-F). Each tank in the system must meet these conditions.
C. Divide the required cu. ft. of resin (step no. 6 or 7) by two to determine the required cubic feet of resin contained in the tanks
selected in step no. 10-B. Select a tank large enough to match the required cu. ft. resin/tank.
D. Check that the brine tank salt storage is sufficient to provide a minimum of four regenerations per tank.
Time clock regeneration
E. Divide the flow rate (step no. 2) by 2 to determine the flow rate per tank. Select a tank size that meets this flow rate. (Both
tanks will be on line during the operating period.)
F. Check that the tank selected meets the allowable pressure loss (step no. 1-F) at the flow rate per tank.
G. Follow step no. 10-C to determine the required cubic feet of resin per tank.
H. Follow step no. 10-D to determine the brine tank to be used.
Step 11. Using this data, select a standard system from the softener specifications that most closely matches all the data. If none is
available, a detailed specification should be developed which will allow the manufacturer to match the system requirements.
Step 12. Select options such as ASME code tanks, lining, and materials of construction, as required.
Figure 10-18 Water Softener Sizing Procedure

Distillation
The principles of distillation are quite
simple. The water passes through two phase
changes, from liquid to gas and back to liq-
uid (see Figure 10-20). All the substances
that are not volatile remain behind in the
boiler and are removed either continuously
or intermittently. Water droplets are pre-
vented from coming up with the water vapor
by proper design of the still, which takes into
account the linear velocity, and by use of an
appropriate system of baffles.
It should be understood that, although
the nonvolatile substances can be taken
care of, the volatile substances in the feed
water cause more problems. These, mainly
CO2, which are already present in the feed
water or are formed by the decomposition of
bicarbonates, can be removed by keeping the
Figure 10-19 Water Softener with Salt Recycling System
distillate at a relatively high temperature.
for later use, thereby saving both salt and water. The The solubility of CO2 at higher temperatures
salt savings occur because the make-up water to the is much lower than at normal temperatures.
brinemaker contains approximately 25 percent of Ammonia (NH3) is much more soluble in water
the salt needed for the next regeneration. Therefore, than CO2, and its tendency to redissolve is much
only 75 percent of new salt is dissolved for the higher as well. Moreover, the ionization constant of
next regeneration. Water savings occur because the ammonium hydroxide (NH4OH) is much greater than
recycled brine is not discharged to drain but is used that of carbonic acid (H2CO3), which means that equal
to make up the brine solution for the next regenera-
tion. The effective salt dosage for the water softener
is unchanged; therefore, the 25 percent salt savings
can be realized in softener systems that use both
maximum and minimum salt dosages.
The hardware package consists of a diverter valve
(see Figure 10-19) in the drain line that routes the
recycled brine to the brinemaker tank and a modi-
fied control system that incorporates the extra brine
reclaim step.
Salt Storage Options
There are a few options for salt storage. Salt blocks
and bags of salt, or beads, may not be suitable for large
systems. Dozens or even hundreds of pounds maybe
needed on a daily basis. These systems may require
bulk salt storage and delivery systems, which may
consist of an aboveground storage tank that is loaded
directly from salt trucks. The salt then is conveyed
through piping to the brine tank. This system may
be wet or dry.
Underground storage tanks almost always require
the salt to be premixed with water in the storage
tank. It then can be piped to the brine tank as a brine
solution and mixed down to the desired concentra-
tion levels.
Figure 10-20 Distillation

amounts of NH3 and CO2 show different conductivities due to its inert characteristic. It is the least soluble.
(that for NH3 is much higher than that for CO2). (Other materials, such as gold, silver, and platinum,
The purity of the distillate is usually measured have equal or superior qualities but are not consid-
with a conductivity meter, and a resistivity of 1 ered for obvious reasons.) A secondary but almost
M or a conductivity of 1 microsiemen (S)is equal advantage of tin is its relatively low porosity,
equivalent to approximately 0.5 ppm of NaCl. Most which virtually eliminates the possibility of particle
of the conductivity is accounted for by the presence entrapment and growth in pores. In a good water
of CO2 (and NH3) and not by dissolved solids. The still, therefore, all the surfaces that come in contact
question arises: Which is preferred, 1 M resistivity with the pure vapors and distillate should be heav-
or a maximum concentration of dissolved solids? It ily coated with pure tin. Likewise, the storage tank
is quite possible that a distillate with a resistivity should be heavily coated or lined with pure tin on all
of 500,000 (a conductivity of 2 S) contains fewer interior surfaces. Tinned stills and storage tanks are
dissolved solids than a distillate with a resistivity of not significantly more expensive than glass ones in
1,000,000 (1 S). all but the smallest sizes.
A problem in distillation can be scale formation. Titanium is being strongly considered as a prom-
Scale forms either by the decomposition of soluble ising material for distillation equipment. Although
products of insoluble substances or because the some stills have been made of titanium, it is more
solubility limit of a substance is reached during the expensive than tin and has not yet been proven su-
concentration. There are several solutions to this perior.
problem: Distillation Equipment Applications and
A careful system of maintenance, with descaling Selection
at regular intervals. The use of distilled water was limited to hospitals
Softening of the feed water, that is, removing and some pharmaceutical applications until recent
2+ 2+
all Ca and Mg ions. However, this does not advances in the industry. Now, in virtually every hos-
remove the silica, which then may form a hard, pital, schools with science departments, laboratories,
dense scale that is very difficult to remove. and industries other than pharmaceuticals, distilled
Removal of the alkalinity (HCO3). When water is vital to many operational functions.
originally present, sulfate and silica still form a In the construction of buildings requiring distilled
harder scale than a carbonate scale. water, the selection of the appropriate equipment to
furnish it is usually the responsibility of the plumb-
Removal of all or most of the dissolved ing engineer. Before the proper equipment can be
substances. This can be done by
selected, the following factors should be considered:
demineralization with ion exchangers or by
reverse osmosis. The quantity of distilled water that will
be required per day (or per week) by each
It may sound foolish to remove the impurities department
from the water before distilling the water. However,
keep in mind that distillation is the only process that The purity requirements of each department
produces water guaranteed to be free of bacteria, and how critical these requirements are
viruses, and pyrogens. It may pay to have a pre- The space available for the equipment
treatment before a still to cut down on maintenance The availability of power
(descaling), downtime, and energy consumption and
to have better efficiency, capacity, and quality. It may Regarding the first two items, the engineer should
require a higher initial investment, but the supplier obtain the anticipated quantity and purity require-
who has the experience and technology in all water ments from all department heads who require distilled
treatment systems can give unbiased advicethat is, water.
to offer a systems approach instead of pushing only In this section, it is assumed that less than 1,000
one method. gallons per day (gpd) of distilled water is required
Distilled water is often called hungry water. This for applications. The single-effect still operated at
refers to the fact that distilled or deionized water atmospheric pressure is generally the most practical
absorbs in solution much of the matter, in any phase, and widely used still. For the consumption of larger
with which it comes in contact. It becomes important, quantities of distilled water, consideration may be
therefore, to select a practical material for the produc- given by the engineer to other types of stills (such
tion, storage, and distribution of distilled water. as the multiple-effect and vapor-compression stills).
Years of experience and research have shown that These stills have advantages and disadvantages that
pure tin is the most practical material for the pro- should be studied when conditions warrant.
duction, storage, and distribution of distilled water

Centralized versus Decentralized Stills Distribution Systems

The designers choice between central distillation Cost can be a significant factor in the distribution
equipment and individual stills in each department is system, particularly if it is extensive. The distribu-
a matter of economics. In the case of central distillation system can consist of 316 stainless steel, CPVC
tion, the factors to consider are the distances involved Schedule 80, and polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF). The
in piping the water to the various departments, hence, fittings should be of the same material.
the cost of the appropriate piping and, possibly, the The purity requirements should be considered
pumping requirements. For individual stills in each and a careful investigation made of the properties
department, the original and maintenance costs of and characteristics of the materials being considered.
multiple stills can be high. In the majority of instal- Many plastics have a relatively porous surface, which
lations, the use of one or two large, centrally located can harbor organic and inorganic contaminants. With
stills with piped distribution systems has proven more some metals, at least trace quantities may be imparted
practical and economical than a number of small, to the distilled water.
individual stills. Types of Stills
Example 10-3 While a well-designed still can produce pure distilled
Assume that a total of 400 gpd of distilled water is water for most purposes, the distilled water to be
required by all departments. A fully automatic still used by a hospital for intravenous injections or by a
and storage tank combination should be used in this pharmaceutical company manufacturing a product
application. Fully automatic controls stop the still for intravenous injections must be free of pyrogens
when the storage tank is full and start the still when (large organic molecules that cause individuals to
the level in the storage tank reaches a predetermined go into shock). For such uses, a still with special
low level. In addition, the evaporator is flushed out baffles to produce pyrogen-free distilled water must
each time it stops. A 30-gph still (with a 300-gallon be specified.
storage tank) produces more than the desired 400 Other types of stills are designed to meet various
gpd. Because the still operates on a 24-hour basis, as purity requirements. The recommendations of the
the storage tank calls for distilled water (even if no manufacturer should be obtained as to the proper
distilled water is used during the night), 300 gallons type of still to specify for a specific application.
are on hand to start each day. As water is withdrawn Storage Reservoir
from the storage tank, the still starts and replenishes The storage reservoir used for distilled water should
the storage tank at a rate of 30 gph. be made of a material that is suited for the application
In the foregoing example, the storage tank volume, and sealed with a tight cover so that contaminants
in gallons, is 10 times the rated gallons-per-hour ca- from the atmosphere cannot enter the system. As the
pacity of the still. This is a good rule of thumb for a distilled water is withdrawn from the storage tank,
fully automatic still and storage tank combination. A air must enter the system to replace it. To prevent
closer study of the pattern of the anticipated demands airborne contamination, an efficient filter should be
may reveal unusual patterns, which may justify a installed on the storage tank so that all air entering
larger ratio. the tank may be filtered free from dust, mist, bacteria,
Still Construction and submicron particulate matter, as well as carbon
Due to the amount of heat required in the operation to dioxide.
change the water into steam, it is impractical to make Figure 10-21 illustrates a typical air filter. This
large-capacity, electrically heated and gas-heated air filter (both hydrophilic and hydrophobic) removes
stills. All stills larger than 10 gph, therefore, should gases and airborne particles down to 0.2 . Purified
be heated by steam. For each gallon per hour of a air leaves at the bottom. The rectangular chamber
stills rated capacity, steam-heated stills require ap- is a replaceable filter cartridge. A and B are intake
proximately 13 boiler horsepower, electrically heated breather valves, and C is an exhaust valve.
stills need 2,600 watts, and gas-fired stills need 14,000 As a further safeguard against any possible
British thermal units per hour. contamination of the distilled water by biological
The still must be well designed and baffled to effect impurities, an ultraviolet light can be attached to
an efficient vapor separation without the possibility the inside of the cover (not very effective) and/or
of carryover of the contaminants and to ensure opti- immersed in the distilled water (also not very effec-
mum removal of the volatile impurities. It is equally tive) or in the flow stream to effectively maintain its
important that the materials used in construction of sterility. Ultraviolet lighting should be given strong
the still, storage reservoir, and all components coming consideration for hospital and pharmaceutical instal-
in contact with the distilled water do not react with lations, as well as for any other applications where
the distilled water. sterility is important.

automatic flushing and a bleeder valve that continu-

ously deconcentrates the buildup of the impurities
in the evaporator.
As a further aid in reducing the maintenance of a
still in areas having exceptionally hard water, it is of-
ten desirable (but not essential) to demineralize (with
a deionizer or reverse osmosis), soften, or otherwise
pretreat the feed water. Demineralizing the feed water
practically eliminates the need for cleaning the evapo-
rator. For this purpose, the demineralizing process is
relatively expensive; however, it does contribute to a
higher purity of the distilled water.
Because water softening is less expensive than
the demineralizing process, it is used more often as a
method of pretreatment. It does not have the advan-
tages of demineralized watereliminating cleaning
and contributing to a higher puritybut it does elimi-
nate hard scale formation in the evaporator.
When any kind of pretreated feed water is used, an
adequate preheater (for pretreated water) and a float
feeder valve should be specified by the designer. With
these devices, the raw water is used only as cooling
water for the condenser, and the pretreated feed water
is piped separately to the still, eliminating the waste
of the pretreated water. When the float feeder valve is
Figure 10-21 Typical Air Filter used on any still equipped with an automatic drain, an
automatic shutoff valve to the float feeder valve also
Purity Monitor should be specified so that the supply of pretreated
One frequently used accessory is the automatic purity water stops at the same time the drain valve opens.
monitor. This device tests the purity of the distilled Specifications prepared by the designer should de-
water coming from the still with a temperature- scribe the type of pretreated water to be used.
compensated conductivity cell. This cell is wired to Condensate as Feed Water
a resistivity meter that is set at a predetermined
Another method of reducing maintenance on a steam-
standard of distilled water commensurate with the
heated still is to use the condensed boiler steam as
capability of the still. If, for any reason, the purity
feed water. Here again, the raw water is used only as
of the distilled water is below the set standard, the
condenser cooling water. The condensate from the
substandard water does not enter the storage tank
steam trap is cooled and then passed through an ion
and is automatically diverted to waste. At the same
exchange cartridge and an organic removal filter.
time, a signal alerts personnel that the still is produc-
These cartridges remove any traces of scale-forming
ing substandard water so that an investigation may
salts, ionized amines, odor, or taste impurities present
be made as to the cause. Simple wiring may be used
in the original condensate, as well as organics that
to make the alarm signal visual or audible at any
may be given off by the ion exchange cartridge.
remote location, such as the plant engineers office.
This type of system commonly is referred to as the
The advantages of this automatic purity monitor are
feedback purifier. This design contributes to a higher
obvious, particularly ahead of large storage tanks (as
purity of the distillate and virtually eliminates the
one slug of bad water can ruin a whole tank).
need to clean the still (since scale-forming hardness
Feed Water has been eliminated from the feed water).
Pretreated Feed Water It is important for the engineer to determine the
In the conventional or basic operation of a still, po- characteristics of the steam condensate when con-
table water is used to condense the pure vapors from sidering the feedback purifier system. If amines are
the evaporator and is heated. Part of this preheated used as the treatment for the boiler feed water in an
water enters the evaporator as feed water, while the excessive amount, this method should not be used.
greater part goes to the drain. A well-designed still has However, most condensates are satisfactory for this
the intrinsic features to retard the formation of scale purpose.
in the evaporator. These features include frequent,

Distribution Pressure effectively kill pathogenic microorganisms. Chlorine

Whenever possible, it is best to locate the still and the also combines with hydrocarbons to form potentially
storage tank where gravity can be employed to provide carcinogenic compounds (trihalomethanes).
an adequate pressure to operate the distribution sys- Ozone Treatment
tem. When this condition is not possible, centrifugal Ozone is a compound in which three atoms of oxygen
pumps of the appropriate size must be used. Along are combined to form the ozone molecule O3. It is a
with the circulation pump, an orificed bypass back to strong, naturally occurring, oxidizing, and disinfect-
the storage tank should be installed so that the pump ing agent. The unstable ozone (O3) compound can be
can be operated continuously, maintaining adequate generated by the exposure of oxygen molecules to ul-
pressure in the distribution system. Then the distilled traviolet radiation or high-energy electrical discharge
water is available in any outlet all the time. The by- in manufactured ozone generators.
pass relieves the pressure on the circulating pump Ozone can react with any oxidizable substance,
when the water is not being drawn at its outlets. such as certain forms of inorganic material like
A low-water cutoff also should be installed on iron and manganese, many organic materials, and
the storage tank to shut off the pump if the storage microorganisms. In an oxidation reaction, energy is
tank runs dry. This pump arrangement is simple in transferred from the ozone molecule, leaving a stable
construction, efficient to operate, and less expensive oxygen (O2) and a highly reactive oxygen atom (O1).
than a pressurized tank. The molecule being oxidized then bonds with the
loose oxygen atom creating an oxidized product or a
Specialized Water Treatment
derivation of the substance. Bacterial cells and viruses
Chlorination are literally split apart (lysed) or inactivated through
Chlorination traditionally has been used for the oxidation of their DNA and RNA chains by ozone in
disinfection of drinking water. However, the initial water and wastewater treatment applications. Ozone
investment required to properly
chlorinate a potable water sup-
ply has, in many cases, restricted
its use to the large water con-
sumer or to cities, which have
the adequate financial support
and sufficient manpower to
properly maintain the chlorina-
tion system. This situation has
forced small water consumers
either to go to the expense of
purchasing an automatic chlo-
rination system or possibly to
consume contaminated water
from a poorly disinfected water
supply.
The chlorination process
has other drawbacks as a dis-
infectant beside finances. The
transportation and handling of
a gas chlorination system are
potentially dangerous. When the
safety procedures are followed,
however, there are few problems
than with either liquid or solid
products. Chemically, chlorine
is the most reactive halogen
and is known to combine with
nitrogenous and organic com-
pounds to form weak bactericidal
compounds. These compounds
(chloramines) require an ex-
tended period of contact time to Figure 10-22 Schematic Diagram of a Large-scale System

Figure 10-23 Simplified Plan View

Source: Ozone Technology, Inc. All rights reserved. Pressureless Ozone Water Purification Systems is a trademark of Ozone Technology, Inc. Copyright, 2006.
is the most powerful oxidizer that can be safely used oxidizable carbon reduction. The dosage required to
in water treatment. destroy microorganisms is the product of light inten-
Ozone frequently is used to treat wastewater sity and exposure time. The exposure requirements
and as a disinfectant and oxidant for bottled water, for different microorganisms are well documented by
ultrapure waters, swimming pools, spas, breweries, the EPA. Ultraviolet bulbs are considered to provide
aquariums, soft drinks, cooling towers, and many 8,000 hours of continuous use and not to degrade to
other applications. Ozone is not able to produce a more than 55 percent of their initial output.
stable residual in a distribution system. However, When ultraviolet equipment is sized, the flow rate
ozone can lower the chlorine demand and thus the and quality of incoming water must be taken into
amount of chlorine required and the chlorinated by- consideration. It is generally necessary to filter the
products. water before the ultraviolet equipment. Sometimes
Ozone systems can be big enough to serve central it may be necessary to filter downstream of the ultra-
plants or municipalities. The RO membrane is only violet equipment with 0.2- absolute filter cartridges
one part of a system. Figure 10-22 shows an example to remove dead bacteria and cell fragments.
of a large-scale system. Figure 10-23 shows a simpli- Ultraviolet equipment often is used in drinking
fied plan view of such a system. water, beverage water, pharmaceutical, ultra-pure
Ultraviolet Light Treatment rinse water, and other disinfection applications.
Ultraviolet light is electromagnetic radiation, or ra- Reverse Osmosis
diant energy, traveling in the form of waves. When Reverse osmosis (RO) is a water purification method
ultraviolet light of a sufficient energy level is absorbed that, over the past several years, has become an
into matter, it causes a chemical or physical change. alternative to the more traditional techniques of
In the case of microorganisms, ultraviolet light is distillation and deionization. This process is proving
absorbed to a level that is just enough to physically itself to be very practical and economical in a grow-
break the bonds in DNA to prevent life reproduction. ing number of applications. Technical innovations
Therefore, ultraviolet light is a mechanism capable of and good design have handled many of the earlier
the disinfection of water. The most widely used source limitations of the RO technology. Ozone systems can
of this light is low-pressure mercury vapor lamps be small enough for an undercounter system in a
emitting a 254-nanometer (nm) wavelength. However, home kitchen or big enough to serve central plants
185 nm can be used for both disinfection and total or municipalities. The RO membrane is only one part

of a system. Various filters, including carbon, are still

required.
RO is a relatively simple concept. In normal os-
mosis, the water diffuses through a membrane and
dilutes the more concentrated of the two solutions
(see Figure 10-24). If a pressure is applied to the
concentrated solution, however, the flow can be re-
versed, hence the term reverse osmosis (see Figure
10-25). When this condition happens, the dissolved
salts, organics, and colloidal solids are rejected by
the membrane, thus resulting in a higher quality of
water.
However, in practice only a certain percentage
of the incoming water is allowed to permeate this
membrane. The concentrate is diverted to the drain,
carrying with it the rejected contaminants. The con-
tinuous flushing process of the membrane prevents
Figure 10-24 Reverse Osmosis Process
a phenomenon known as concentration polarization,
which is a buildup of the polarized molecules on the
membrane surface that further restricts flow in a
short period.
Note: When equal volumes of water are separated
by a semipermeable membrane, osmosis occurs as
pure water permeates the membrane to dilute the
more concentrated solution. The amount of physical
pressure required to equalize the two volumes after
equilibrium has been reached is called the osmotic
pressure (see Figure 10-25).
Note: If physical pressure is applied in excess
of the osmotic pressure, reverse osmosis occurs as
water passes back through the membrane, leaving
contaminant concentrated upstream. In practice,
the concentrate is diverted to drain, thus rejecting
contaminants from the system altogether (see Figure
10-25).
Current Technology and History of RO
The current technology of RO developed rapidly as
one specific application of the larger technology of Figure 10-25 Osmotic Pressure
synthetic membranes. Several code requirements
had to be met before these membranes could be con- a thin skin (approximately 0.05 ) cast on the top of a
sidered practical or economical for water purification porous support structure (100 thick). This resulted
processes. in high flux rates, selectivity, and structural strength.
First, the membrane had to be selective, i.e., it had The resulting RO membrane proved to be highly
to be capable of rejecting contaminants and yet still be resistant to chemical and microbial degradation. It
highly permeable to water. This condition meant that also could maintain the required water quality and
it had to have a consistent polymeric structure with flow rates under a sustained high pressure. Such a
a pore size in the range of the smallest contaminant membrane could be incorporated into a system with
molecules possible. relatively low capital, equipment, and operating
Second, the membrane had to be capable of sus- costs. These attributes were combined successfully,
tained high flux rates to be economical and practical and the resulting membrane achieved a flow rate of
in water application. This condition meant that the 20 gallons per square foot per day at 800 psi with 95
membrane had to be thin and yet durable enough for percent removal of salt.
long-term use. RO Water Quality
The original cellulose-acetate membranes devel- The term high purity often is applied to a type of
oped proved to be highly permeable to the water. water that may be exceptionally free of one class of
However, later developments led to a membrane with

contaminant and yet may contain large amounts cium, magnesium, carbonates, and heavy metals to
of another. The key, of course, is the application in- the level of 98 percent, while monovalent ions, such
volved. For injectable pharmaceutical preparations, as sodium, potassium, and chloride, are removed to
particles and pyrogens are a major concern. In atomic the level of 90 percent to 94 percent by RO and 97
absorption spectrophotometry or high-pressure liq- percent by distillation processes.
uid chromatography, however, even parts-per-billion Large-scale deionization processes achieve simi-
traces of heavy metals or organics can present serious lar levels of inorganic ion removal, but they do not
problems. remove bacteria, pyrogens, particles, and organics.
One useful distinction is between reagent-grade Bacteria, in fact, can multiply on the resins, result-
water and laboratory-grade water. Reagent-grade ing in an increase of biological contaminants over
water means that all classes of contaminants have normal tap water.
been removed from the water. There are several na- It should be stressed that the degrees of water
tionally recognized standards for reagent-grade water, purity shown in Table 10-4 are obtainable only from
including those published by the American Society well-cleaned equipment that is performing to its
for Testing and Materials (ASTM) and the College of original specifications. Maintaining this condition for
American Pathologists (CAP). The minimum resistiv- the deionization process means that the resins must
ity for reagent-grade water is 10 M-cm at 25C. The be replaced (or regenerated) regularly and that the
production of reagent-grade water always requires internal components of the still must be thoroughly
more than one stage of treatment. It should be pro- cleaned. If a still is not properly and regularly cleaned,
duced at the point of use to minimize (or eliminate) the residual contaminants can cause the pH value of
transportation and storage, which invariably degrade the end product water to fall as low as pH 4. Reverse
the reagent water purity. A system for producing osmosis is the only one of the methods that uses a
reagent-grade water might, for example, use the RO reject stream to continuously remove the residual
process to produce laboratory-grade water, plus a contaminants. Regularly scheduled prefilter changes
combination of activated carbon, deionization, and and system maintenance are, of course, necessary to
0.20- membrane filtration. Only the laboratory-grade maintain the desired water quality.
water would be accumulated and stored. The reagent For dependable long-term performance, the
water would be produced at high flow rates as needed, construction of the RO equipment for large-volume
thus eliminating the need to store it. applications should be of all stainless steel fittings
Laboratory-grade water is less rigorously defined, and bowls. Such a system should use solid-state con-
but it still refers to the water from which one or trols (with simple indicator lights and gauges) plus
more types of contaminants have been removed. a conductivity meter that reads the tap and perme-
This definition should be distinguished from other ates water quality. High-pressure relief devices and
processes that exchange one
contaminant for another, such
Table 10-4 Comparison of Laboratory-grade Water Quality Produced by
as water softening (in which Centralized Systems
calcium and magnesium salts
Reverse Osmosis Distilled Deionized
are removed by exchanging
Tap, Percent Percent Percent
them with sodium salts). The Contaminant Typical Actual Removal Actual Removal Actual Removal
reverse osmosis, deionization, Microorganism/ mL 100 1 >99 1 >99 1000 a none
and distillation processes Particles 5 m/mL 10,000 1 >99 200 >97 10,000 none
are all capable of producing Pyrogens Variable >99 >99 Variable none
laboratory-grade water. Dissolved
The quality of the labora- organics ppm 12 1 >95 1 >95 12 b none
tory-grade water produced by Dissolved
several methods of central- inorganics ppm CaCO3 170 117 >9098 18 >9599 18 >9599
c
system water production is Monovalent ions >90 >97 >97
d
shown in Table 10-4. The Multivalent ions >97 >97 >97
Conductivity, S, 25C 333 240 210 210
RO and distillation processes
Specific resistance
remove more than 99 percent M/cm, 25C
0.003 0.0250.5 0.10.5 0.10.5
of all bacteria, pyrogens, col- Silicates ppm 1 0.1 >90 0.1 >90 0.1 >90
loidal matter, and organics Heavy metals ppm 1 0.1 >97 0.1 >97 0.1 >90
above molecular weight 200. pH 7.5 6. 8 47. 5 7.0
These methods remove the a
Bacteria often multiply in large deionizing (D.I.) resin beds used directly on tap water.
dissolved inorganic material, b
Large D.I. resin beds also contribute organics from the resin beds.
such as multivalent ions, cal-
c + +
Monovalent ions: Singly charged ions such as Na , K , Cl
d
Multivalent ions: Multiply charged ions such as Ca , Mg , CO32, SO42
2+ 2+

Table 10-5 Applications of RO Water RO membranes may last two or

Method of Purification three years.
Water Use RO Distilled Deionized Applications for RO
1. General process use Yes Yes Yes
The quality and cost of RO water
2. General lab use Yes Yes Yes ( except for
(buffers, chemical mfg.) pyrogens, make RO a strong competitor for
bacteria, and distillation and deionization in
organics) many applications. Table 10-5 com-
3. Dishwasher final rinse Yes Yes Yes pares the three methods of water
4. Critical lab use purification for several research
Post-treatment necessary
(reagents, tissue culture, etc.) and industrial applications.
5. USP XXIII water for injection Yes (Must meet Yes No Frequently, the user needs both
purified water
standard) laboratory-grade and reagent-
6. Hemodialysis Yes No Yes ( except for grade waters to meet a wide range
pyrogens, of needs. Figure 10-26 shows two
bacteria, and ways of approaching this situation.
organics) Alternative A consists of a central
RO system from which the water
low-pressure switches protect the membrane and the is piped to a point-of-use polishing
pump from any prefilter blockage and accidental feed system to be upgraded to reagent-grade water. This
water shutoff. A water-saver device that completely approach utilizes the economics of a large central
shuts off water flow when the storage tank is full RO system while ensuring the highest reagent-grade
but allows an hourly washing of the membrane is purity at those use points that require it. Alternative
essential. B employs smaller point-of-use RO systems, with
Three types of semipermeable membranes are point-of-use polishing, which eliminates the lengthy
manufactured from organic substances: tubular distribution piping, a potential source of recontami-
membrane, cellulose-acetate sheet membrane, and nation. Both alternatives include a final polishing by
polyamide-hollow fiber membrane. They may be used activated carbon, mixed-bed deionization, and 0.2-
for similar applications, assuming that the proper membrane filtration. In each case, laboratory-grade
pretreatment for each is furnished. water is readily available directly from the RO sys-
With the type of RO equipment described above tem. Moreover, the transportation and storage of the
and the feed water within production specifications, reagent-grade water are avoided.
Figure 10-26 Approaches to Providing Laboratory-grade and Reagent-grade Water: (A) RO Water
Purified Centrally and Transported by Pipe to Points of Use Then Polished, (B) RO System Coupled with
Deionization System Totally at the Point of Use, Eliminating Piping

Figure 10-27 Silver Ionization Unit and Control Panel
Nanofiltration tens of thousands of installations around the world.

Nanofiltration (NF) is a membrane filtration sys- They are used extensively in hospitals and health-
tem that removes particles in approximately the care centers. Figure 10-27 shows the basic system
3001,000 molecular weight range, rejecting selected components.
ionic salts and most organics. Nanofiltration rejects
the dissociated inorganic salts that are polyvalent, Glossary
such as calcium, magnesium, and sulfate, while pass- The following is a list of common terms used in
ing monovalent salts, such as sodium and chloride. connection with water conditioners. A thorough
Therefore, nanofiltration often is called a softening knowledge of these terms and their applications will
membrane system. Nanofiltration operates at low enable the designer to offer more complete service.
feed pressures. The equipment is similar to that for The following should not be used as the official
reverse osmosis. definitions of such terms. The designer is referred
to the Plumbing Terminology section of Plumbing
Ultrafiltration Engineering Design Handbook, Volume 1, Chapter
Ultrafiltration (UF) is a membrane filtration system 1, Formulae, Symbols, and Terminology or other
of separating liquids and solids. It provides filtration acceptable definition sources.
in the range of 0.0015 to 0.1 , or approximately
1,000100,000 molecular weight. Ultrafiltration often Absorption The process of taking up a substance
is used to separate oil and water as in cutting solu- into the physical structure of a liquid or solid by a
tions, mop water, and coolants. physical or chemical action but without a chemical
reaction.
Copper-Silver Ionization
Adsorption The process by which molecules, col-
Copper-silver ionization is a not a filtration system,
loids, and/or particles adhere to surfaces by physical
but a method of injecting positive ions into the water
action but without a chemical reaction.
stream. The positive cations attach to the negative
anions of organic pathogens, destroying their cell Algae A microscopic plant growth that may be
structures. It is used to eliminate Legionella and other found in some well waters in certain areas of the
waterborne organisms. These systems are used in country. This plant growth may collect on the resin

in the water conditioner and result in poor opera- Bypass A connection or a valve system that allows
tion because of a restricted water flow. Chlorination hard water to supply the system while the water
and dechlorination control this problem and protect softener is being regenerated or serviced.
plumbing lines and fixtures. Calcium As one of the principal elements that
Alkalinity The capacity to neutralize acid, usually constitutes the earths crust, calcium compounds,
because of the presence of bicarbonate or carbonate when dissolved in water, make the water hard. The
ions. presence of calcium in the water is one of the major
Anion Negatively charged ion in a solution. factors contributing to the formation of scale and
insoluble soap curds, which are two ways of easily
Automatic softener A fully automatic water soft- identifying hard water. Often it is expressed as cal-
ener that regenerates at regular intervals, without cium carbonate (CaC03).
attention, to provide a continuous supply of soft,
conditioned water. CAP College of American Pathologists, which has
set water purification standards for laboratory use.
Backwashing After the ion exchange capacity of
the water softener resin is exhausted, it is necessary Capacity The ability of certain size water con-
to regenerate the resin so that its original capacity ditioners to remove a specific quantity of hardness
may be restored. A very important step in this process minerals, iron, or manganese from the water going
is called backwashing, which is accomplished by re- through the water conditioner.
versing the flow of the water through the resin. This Carbon dioxide (CO2) A gas that is produced from
upward flow of water carries out to the drains any dirt the air when water falls as rain or by the decaying
and oxidized iron collected on top of the resin bed. action of organic matter in the earth.
Backwashing also prevents the resin from becoming Cartridge filter A filter device, usually disposable,
packed or channeled. with a wide range of micron sizes.
Bacteria Tiny organisms occurring naturally in Cation Positively charged ion.
waters. Pathogenic (disease-causing) bacteria cause
illnesses, such as typhoid, dysentery, and cholera. Chemical oxygen demand A measurement of the
amount of oxygen required to oxidize chemicals in
Bacteriological examination New wells and water.
private water supplies should be tested at periodic
intervals to determine if the water is safe to drink. Chloride (Cl) An element commonly found in most
This bacteria test should be conducted by an of- natural groundwater and generally combined with
ficial representative for the state board of health other minerals, such as sodium chloride (NaCl).
or drinking water regulatory agency in accordance Clarifier A device that removes turbidity, which
with accepted practice and local standards. A water is defined as sand, clay, silt, or other undissolved
softener, iron remover, clarifier, or neutralizer does foreign matter.
not purify the water.
Coagulant A chemical added to water and waste-
Bed depth In every water conditioner, there is a water applications to form flocs that adsorb, entrap,
material for a specific purpose. In the water softener, it and bring together suspended matter so that it can
is called high-capacity resin or ion exchange mineral. be removed.
Depending on the size of the tank, this material is
Coalescing The separation of immiscible fluids
measured in inches of depth in the tank. This mea-
(such as oil and water) with different specific gravi-
surement is called the bed depth.
ties.
Biochemical oxygen demand A measurement of
Concurrent regeneration During regeneration of
the amount of oxygen required for the biochemical
a water conditioner, the flow is in the same direction
degradation of organic material in water.
of the service flow in all steps in the regeneration cycle
Bleed through When all of the iron is not removed except the backwash.
during the service cycle of a water softener (or iron
Concentrate In cross-flow filtration, reverse osmo-
remover), the iron remaining in the effluent of treated
sis, nanofiltration, and ultrafiltration, concentrate is
water usually is referred to as the bleed through.
that amount of feed stream that does not permeate
Brine A solution of sodium chloride (common salt) (go through) the membrane and thus concentrates
used for regenerating water softeners. the ions, suspended solids, and organics in the waste
Brine tank A separate tank in the system employed stream.
to store the water and salt (sodium chloride) to form Conductivity The ability of water to conduct elec-
a brine solution. tricity. Conductivity is the inverse of resistivity. It is

measured with a conductivity meter and described the undissolved, or ferric, iron is almost always in-
as microsiemens per centimeter, which is the same soluble in water.
as micromhos per centimeter, which was used in the Dissolved solids The residual material remaining
past. after a filtered solution evaporates.
Control valve A device on a water conditioner Distributor Sometimes this device is called a
that may be manually or automatically operated and strainer. It is used within a softener tank to distrib-
used to direct (or control) the flow of the water in a ute the flow of the water throughout the tank and to
certain direction. prevent the resin from escaping into the lines.
Conversion formulaparts per million to Down flow Usually designates the down direc-
grains per gallon Hardness minerals, calcium tion in which the water flows. For example, during
and magnesium, are measured in parts per mil- the brine cycle of manual and semiautomatic water
lion (ppm) or grains per gallon (gpg). The accepted softeners, the direction of the water flow is in the
conversion factor is 17.1 ppm=1 gpg, i.e., 10 gpg of down direction.
hardness=171 ppm.
Drain valve (drain line) A valve or line employed
Corrosion The attack by water on any part of a wa- to direct or carry the backwash water, used regener-
ter system causing the wasting away of metal parts. ant, and rinse water to the nearest drain of the waste
Countercurrent regeneration During the re- system.
generation of a water conditioner, in all steps of the Effluent The water moving away from, or out of, a
regeneration cycle, the flow is in the opposite direction water conditioner.
of the service flow.
Endotoxin A heat-resistant pyrogen found in the
Cross-flow membrane filtration The separa- cell walls of viable and nonviable bacteria. Expressed
tion of components of a fluid by a semipermeable as EDU units.
membrane such as reverse osmosis, nanofiltration,
ultrafiltration, and microfiltration. Exhaustion In water softening or ion exchange,
the point where the resin no longer can exchange
Cubic foot of mineral The high-capacity resin additional ions of the type for which the process was
or ion exchange mineral used in a water softener is designed.
measured and rated in cubic foot lots. For example, 1
cubic foot of high-capacity resin will remove approxi- Ferric iron The insoluble form of iron. Ferrous
mately 30,000 grains per gallon of hardness minerals iron in the water is readily converted to ferric iron
(calcium and magnesium) before a regeneration of the by exposure to oxygen in the air.
material is required. Ferrous iron The soluble form of iron.
Cycle The cycle of a water softener is generally Filter-ag A mineral used in the clarifier to physi-
defined as the length of time it will operate without cally separate the suspended matter in some water
a backwashing and/or regeneration. supplies. This ceramic-like granular material is in-
Cycle operation Usually the sequence of valve soluble, and it backwashes freely with less water than
operations on automatic water softeners. A two-cycle sand and other similar filter materials.
valve is a device in which upflow brining is combined Filtration The process of passing a fluid through a
with the backwash cycle, sacrificing the performance filter material for the purpose of removing turbidity,
on both the backwashing and the brining. The five- taste, color, or odor.
cycle valve, such as the one fully automatic softeners
Floc The suspended particles in the water that
feature, performs each essential regeneration step
have coagulated into larger pieces and may form a
separately. Therefore, under optimum conditions,
mat on the top of the mineral or resin bed in a water
this type of valve provides a longer life, more efficient
conditioner and reduce or impair the efficient opera-
service, and better performance.
tion of the equipment.
Diatom An organism commonly found in waters
Flow rate In water treatment, this term refers
and considered by health officials to be non-harmful.
to the quantity of water flowing, in a unit of time,
Diatoms occasionally may impart objectionable odors,
often given in gallons per minute (gpm) or gallons
and their calcified skeletons make chalk and provide a
per hour (gph).
diatomite powder used for swimming pool features.
Flow regulator A mechanical or automatic device
Dissolved iron In water treatment, iron usually is
used in water treatment equipment to regulate the
described as being dissolved in water. The dissolved,
flow of the water to a specified maximum flow rate.
or ferrous, iron is highly soluble in most waters, and

Flux In cross-flow filtration, the unit membrane Influent The water moving toward, or into, a water
throughput, expressed as volume per unit of time per softener.
area, such as gallons per day per square foot. Inlet or outlet valve A gate valve on the inlet or
Free board The space above a bed of ion exchange outlet piping of a water conditioner.
resin or mineral in a water softener tank that allows Installation sequence In water treatment applica-
for the unobstructed expansion of the bed during the tions, it sometimes is necessary to install more than
backwash cycle. one piece of water treatment equipment to properly
Grains capacity The amount of hardness mineral condition the untreated water. When this situation
(calcium or magnesium) that is removed by a water is necessary, it is imperative for the water treatment
softener mineral or resin within a specified length of equipment to be installed in the proper sequence to
time or by a specific quantity of the resin. ensure a satisfactory operation.
Grains per gallon (gpg) A common basis of re- Ion An electrically charged atom or molecule. For
porting water analysis. One grain per gallon equals example, one particle of salt is composed of approxi-
17.1 parts per million. One grain is 1/7,000 of a mately 100 million molecules, and each molecule of
pound. sodium chloride (salt) is composed of one sodium
Hardness The compounds of calcium and magne- atom and one chlorine atom. The chlorine and sodium
sium that are usually present in hard water. atoms in a sodium chloride molecule are separated by
dissolving the molecule in water in a process known as
Hardness leakage The presence of hardness ionization. However, the ions retain the electrostatic
minerals (calcium and magnesium) after the water charge present in the original salt molecule.
has passed through the softener. Hardness leakage is
encountered primarily because of hardness retained Ion exchange The replacement of one ion by
in the resin bed from the previous service run. This another. In the softening process, the sodium in the
is normal, as a point of diminishing return is realized softener resin is exchanged for calcium, magnesium,
in salt consumed versus percentage of original new iron, and manganese (if present).
capacity. In normal practice, 15 pounds of salt per cubic Iron An element common to most underground
foot
of resin is considered the practical upper limit for water supplies, though not present in the large
a regeneration. The amount of leakage expected in quantities that calcium and magnesium can be. Even
a properly operating system is directly proportional small amounts of iron are objectionable in the water
to the salt rate and the total dissolved solids in the system. The small amounts of the dissolved iron may
incoming water. The greater the total dissolved solids be removed by an ion exchange process or by precipi-
and the lower the skating rate (5 pounds per cubic foot tation and filtration processes. For the latter method,
generally is considered the minimum), the greater the an iron remover is used.
hardness leakage. While some leakage is normal, as Limestone A common rock of the earth composed
explained above, excessive leakage usually indicates primarily of calcium. It combines with carbon dioxide
faulty regeneration. present in groundwater to form calcium carbonate
High-capacity resin This term applies to the and causes hardness of water.
manufactured material, in the form of beads or gran- Magnesium An element that, along with calcium,
ules, that can be described as having the power to take is responsible for the hardness of water.
hardness-forming ions and give up softness-forming
ions and the reverse cycle thereof. This material Natural water Water containing dissolved inor-
sometimes is called ion exchange resin. ganic solids, which are largely mineral salts. These
salts are introduced into the water by a solvent action,
High purity A term describing highly treated as the water passes through, or across, various lay-
water with attention to microbiological reduction ers of the earth. The type of mineral salts absorbed
or elimination, commonly used in the electronic and depends on the chemical contents of the soil through
pharmaceutical industries. which the water passes. Note: Pure water (no impuri-
Hose bib An outside plumbing connection for at- ties) is never found in nature.
taching a hose. Nitrate Something that sometimes is found in nat-
Hydrogen sulfide A highly corrosive gas that often ural water, but in trace amounts. It is becoming more
is found in water supplies. Water containing hydrogen of a concern, as nitrate contamination from sewage
sulfide gas has a characteristic boiled or rotten egg or predominantly concentrated nitrogen fertilizers
odor. A water softener is not designed to correct this in the groundwater table is surfacing in some areas
condition. of the country. High nitrate levels, generally 10 parts
per million or more, can cause a condition known as

blue baby, a condition that inhibits the transfer of Sulfate (S042) A compound commonly found in
oxygen through the lung tissue to the bloodstream, waters in the form of calcium sulfate (CaS04) or mag-
resulting in oxygen starvation. Pregnant women and nesium sulfate (MgS04).
young children are cautioned in this regard. Pregnant Suspension The foreign particles carried (but not
women are cautioned in regard to their unborn child dissolved) in a liquid, like rusty iron in water.
as opposed to their own physical well-being. Adults
do not normally suffer any effect at these levels. In Tannin An organic color or dye, not a growth,
animals, such as cattle and horses, high nitrate levels sometimes found in waters. (The latter is the result
can cause stillborn offspring and miscarriages, as well of decomposition of wood buried underground.)
as a high mortality rate of the newly born. Titration A laboratory method of determining the
Ohm A unit of measurement. One ohm (1) is presence and amount of chemical in a solution, such
equals 0.5106 parts per million or 106 microsie- as the grains hardness (calcium and magnesium) of
mens. water.
Parts per million (ppm) A common method of Total dissolved solids (TDS) All dissolved materi-
reporting water analyses. 17.1 ppm equals 1 grain als in the water that cannot be removed by mechanical
per gallon. Parts per million commonly is considered filtration, generally expressed in terms of parts per
equivalent to milligrams per liter. million.
pH value A number denoting the alkaline or acid Turbidity A term used to define the degree of
nature of the water (or solution). The pH scale ranges cloudiness of water. Laboratory analysis shows the
from 0 to 14, 7.0 being the accepted neutral point. A turbidity in nephelometric turbidity units. All undis-
pH value below 7.0 indicates acidity in the water (or solved materials, such as clay, silt, or sand, are taken
solution). Values for pH above 7.0 indicate alkalinity into consideration. If the turbidity is high and the
of the water (or solution). water is unacceptable for use, a clarifier is recom-
mended.
Precipitate A solid residue formed in the process
of removing certain dissolved chemicals out of a Up flow The up direction in which the water flows
solution. through the water conditioner during any phase of
the operating cycle.
Pressure drop A decrease in the water pressure,
typically measured in pounds per square inch. Virus A tiny organism that is smaller than bacteria
and is resistant to normal chlorination. Viruses cause
Regeneration Complete regeneration of a water diseases, such as poliomyelitis and hepatitis (both of
softener, consisting of a backwash cycle, addition of so- which are transmitted primarily through water sup-
dium chloride (salt), and rinsing the sodium chloride plies). Cross-connections or polluted waters are the
solution through the ion exchange resin to exchange primary means of transmission.
the hardness ions collected in the resin and prepare
the solution for a service cycle. Resources
Resin A synthetic polystyrene ion exchange mate- American Water Works Association: www.awwa.org
rial (often called a high-capacity resin).
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency: www.epa.
Rinse Part of the regeneration cycle of a water gov
softener where freshwater is passed through a water
EPA Water Quality Standards: www.epa.gov/
softener to remove the excess salt (sodium chloride)
waterscience/standards
prior to placing the water softener into service.
Partnership for Safe Water: www.epa.gov/safewater/
Salt A high-grade sodium chloride of a pellet or bri- psw/psw.html
quette type used for regenerating a water softener.
The Joint Commission: www.jointcommission.org
Service run The operating cycle of a water soft-
ener, during which the hard water passes through Ozone Technology Inc.: www.o3ti.com
the ion exchange resin and enters the service lines
as soft water.
+
Sodium (Na ) An element usually found in water
supplies (depending on local soil conditions) that is a
basic part of common salt (sodium chloride).
Soft water Water without hardness material, which
has been removed either naturally or through ion
exchange.


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11
All piping materials undergo dimensional changes
due to temperature variations in a given system. The
amount of change depends on the material character-
istics (the linear coefficient of thermal expansion or
Thermal
Expansion
Equation 11-1
where
L2 L1 = L1 (T2 T1)
L1 = Original pipe length, feet

contraction) and the amount of temperature change.
L2 = Final pipe length, feet
The coefficient of expansion or contraction is defined T1 = Original temperature, F
as the unit increase or decrease in length of a mate- T2 = Final temperature, F
rial per 1F increase or decrease in temperature. = Coefficient of expansion or contraction, foot/
Coefficients of thermal expansion or contraction for a footF
number of commonly used pipe materials are shown in
A typical range of temperature change in a hot
Table 11-1. These coefficients are in accordance with
water piping system is from 40F entering water to
American Society of Testing and Materials (ASTM)
120F distribution water, for an 80F temperature dif
dif-
D696: Standard Test Method for Coefficient of Linear
ferential. Total linear expansion or contraction for a
100-foot length of run when subject to an 80F change
Table 11-1 Linear Coefficients of Thermal Expansion or in temperature can be calculated for the usual piping
Contraction materials in a hot water system. A typical range of
Expansion or temperature in a drain, waste, and vent (DWV) system
Coefficient Contraction is from 100F (the highest temperature expected) to
Material in./in./F in/100 ft/10F
50F (the lowest temperature expected), for a 50F
Steel 6.5 106 0.078
Cast iron 5.6 106 0.067 temperature differential.
Copper 9.8 106 0.118
Brass 10.4 106 0.125
ABOVEGROUND PIPING
ABS 5.5 105 0.66 Two examples of aboveground piping are hot water
PVC type I 5
pipe that carries hot water intermittently with a
3.0 10 0.36
(PVC 1120 and 1220) gradual cooling in between, and drain, waste, and vent
PVC type II
4.5 105 0.54 pipe into which water ranging from 50F to 100F is
(PVC 2110, 2112, 2116, and 2120) intermittently discharged. These greater temperature
5
PB 7.5 10 0.90 changes are offset by the fact that most aboveground
PE 8.0 105 0.96 piping involves short runs with several changes in
CPVC 3.5 106 0.42
direction. Thus, for many installations, such as one-
SR 6.0 105 0.72
or two-family dwellings, no special precautions need
Notes: ABS = acrylonitrile butadiene styrene; PVC = polyvinyl chloride; PB = to be taken. Of particular concern are hot water and
polybutylene; PE = polyethylene; CPVC = chlorinated polyvinyl chloride; SR =
Styrene Rubber. DWV systems in high-rise buildings.
Pressure Piping
Thermal Expansion of Plastics Between -30C and Aboveground pressure piping incorporating short
30C With a Vitreous Silica Dilatometer and are based runs and several changes in direction normally ac-
on completely unrestrained specimens. commodate expansion or contraction. Precaution
If the coefficients of thermal expansion or contrac- should be taken to ensure that pipe hangers or clamps
tion are known, the total changes in length may be allow longitudinal movement of the pipe and that
calculated as follows: the 90-degree bends are not butted against a wall or
similar structure that restricts movement.
If runs in excess of 20 feet are required, flexural tion 11-4 is used, the flexural modulus of elasticity
offsets or loops should be provided. To not exceed the must be known. In cases where the modulus of the
maximum allowable strain in the piping, the devel- specific compound is not available, the following ap-
oped length that should be provided in the offset or proximately average values are usually adequate:
loop can be calculated from the following equation:
Compound E at 73F, psi Hydrostatic Design Stress for
Equation 11-2 Water at 73F, S
3 Copper 15.6106 6,000
PL
= Steel 3010
6
3EI
Cast iron
where Brass
=Maximum deflection at the end of a PVC 1120 400,000 2,000
cantilever beam, inches PVC 2110 340,000 1,000
P =Force at end, pounds ABS 1210 240,000 1,000
L =Length of pipe subjected to flexible stress, ABS 1316 340,000 1,600
inches PE 2306 90,000 630
E =Flexural modulus of elasticity, pounds per
square inch (psi) Equation 11-3 can be factored to yield the follow-
I =Moment of inertia, inches4 ing equation:
For pipes in which the wall thickness is not large Equation 11-5
with respect to the outside diameter, the moment of
inertia and the sectional modulus can be calculated
as follows:
L=
( )( )
3E
2S
D

3 where
I=R t E and S=Constants for any given material
and
Using the values for E and S in the above table,
Z=R2t
Equation 11-3 or Equation 11-5 reduces to the fol-
where
lowing table:
R =Outside radius, inches
t =Wall thickness, inches Compound Equation 11-3, inchesa
Z =Section modulus, cubic inches Steel pipe L=6.16 (D)
For thin-walled pipes, the maximum allowable Brass pipe L=6.83 (D)
stress and the maximum allowable strain can be Copper pipe L=7.40 (D)
PVC 1120 L=17.3 (D)
calculated as follows:
PVC 2110 L=22.8 (D)
4PL
S= D2t ABS 1210 L=19.0 (D)
ABS 1316 L=17.9 (D)
D St
2
PE 2306 L=14.6 (D)
=
4L PE 3306 L=16.9 (D)
a
where L=Developed length of piping used to absorb movement (feet); D=Outside
diameter of pipe (inches); = Amount of movement to be absorbed (inches)
S =Maximum fiber stress in bending=M/Z, psi
M =Bending moment=PL, inch pounds Provisions must be made for the expansion and
D =Outside diameter, inches contraction of all hot water and circulation mains,
=Strain risers, and branches. If the piping is restrained from
Substituting the maximum allowable stress and moving, it will be subjected to compressive stress on
the maximum allowable strain into Equation 11-2, a temperature rise and to tensile stress on a tempera-
the development length of piping can be estimated ture drop. The pipe itself usually can withstand these
by Equations 11-3 and 11-4 respectively. stresses, but failure frequently occurs at pipe joints
and fittings when the piping cannot move freely.
Equation 11-3 Two methods commonly are used to absorb pipe
(
L=
3ED
2S )
expansion and contraction without damage to the
piping:
Equation 11-4 1. Expansion loops and offsets
( )
3D 2. Expansion joints
L=
2 The total movement to be absorbed by any expan-
Equation 11-3 is used when the maximum allow- sion loop or offset often is limited to a maximum of
able stress is fixed, and Equation 11-4 is used when 1 inches for metallic pipes. Thus, by anchoring at
the maximum allowable strain is fixed. When Equa- the points on the length of run that produce 1-inch

Chapter 11Thermal Expansion 229
movement and placing the expansion loops or joints It does create problems in high-rise buildings where
midway between the anchors, the maximum move- long stacks are installed. Three methods of accom-
ment that must be accommodated is limited to modating expansion or contraction are described
inch. The piping configuration used to absorb the below:
movement can be in the form of a U bend; a single- 1. To accommodate expansion and contraction
elbow offset; a two-elbow offset; or a three-, five-, or in building drains and drainage stacks, offsets
six-elbow swing loop. In the great majority of piping may be provided. The developed length of
systems, the loop or joint can be eliminated by tak- the offset that should be provided can be
ing advantage of the changes in direction normally calculated in accordance with the appropriate
required in the layout. formula. For example, for a 50F temperature
Table 11-2 gives the total developed length re- differential in the straight run, the amount to
quired to accommodate a 1-inch expansion. (The be accommodated at the branch connection is
developed length is measured from the first elbow to approximately 38 inch. To accommodate this
the last elbow, see Figure 11-1.) amount of expansion, the branch pipe must
have sufficient development length to overcome
a bending twist without being subjected to
Table 11-2 Developed Length of Pipe to Accommodate
1-in. Movement excessive strain.
Pipe Size, in. Steel Pipe, ft Brass Pipe, in. Copper Pipe, ft 2. Where allowed by applicable codes, expansion
0.5 7.7 7.7 8.3 joints may be used. There are two types of
0.75 8.7 8.6 9.3 expansion joints: slip and bellows. The slip-type
1 9.8 9.6 10.4 joint with an elastomeric seal requires packing
1.25 10.4 10.8 11.7 and lubrication. The bellows-type expansion
1.5 11.5 11.5 12.5 joint is satisfactory for the 1-inch design
2 12.8 12.7 13.8 limitation in movement. Proper pipe guiding is
2.5 14.2 14.2 15.4 essential when using expansion joints. Guides
3 16.0 15.7 17.0 allow axial movement, but prevent lateral and
4 16.0 17.7 19.2 angular movement. Without guides, the pipe
Note: m
m = in.25.4, may buckle, causing the expansion joint to
m = ft0.3048. fail. Most manufacturers of expansion joints
require guides to be installed properly to ensure
the manufacturers warranty. The quantity
and location of the guides depend on the pipe
size, proximity of the expansion joint to the
anchor, and length of pipe run. An expansion
joint should be installed every 30 feet according
to the manufacturers recommendations.
Normally, the expansion joint is installed in the
thermal neutral position so that it can move in
either direction to absorb either expansion or
contraction. On vertical piping, the pipe should
Figure 11-1 Expansion Loop Detail be anchored by side inlets or clamps at or near
the joint.
3. Engineering studies have shown that by
If a maximum allowable strain of 0.01 inch per inch
restraining the pipe every 30 feet to prevent
for plastic pipes is used, Equation 11-4 reduces to movement, satisfactory installations can be

L=12.2 (D) made. Tensile or compressive stresses developed
Use of the factors given in the table for Equation by contraction or expansion are readily
11-3 or Equation 11-5 above indicates that a strain absorbed by the piping without any damage.
Special stack anchors are available and should
of less than 0.01 inch per inch will result.
be installed according to the manufacturers
Computer programs are available that readily
recommendations.
solve these equations as well as address the various
installation configurations.
Underground Piping
Drain, Waste, and Vent Piping Underground piping temperature changes are less
Expansion or contraction usually does not present a drastic because the piping is not exposed to direct
problem in DWV installations in one- and two-family heating from solar radiation, the insulating nature
dwellings due to the short lengths of piping involved. of the soil prevents rapid temperature changes, and

Table 11-3 Approximate Sine Wave Configuration With Displacement
Flexible Pipe
Maximum Temperature Variation (Between Installation and Service), F
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Loop Length, ft Offset for Contraction, in.
20 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
50 7 10 12 15 17 20 22 25 27 30
100 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60
Rigid Pipe
Maximum Temperature Variation (Between Installation and Service), F
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Loop Length, ft Offset for Contraction, in.
20 1 2 2 3 3 4 4 5 5 6
50 3 5 6 7 8 10 11 12 13 15
100 7 10 12 15 17 20 22 25 27 30
Note: C = (F 32) /1.8
mm = in.25.4
m = ft0.3048
(A)
(B)
Figure 11-2 Closed Hot Water System Showing the Effects as Water and Pressure Increase from
(A) P1 and T1 to (B) P2 and T2

(A)
(B)
Figure 11-3 Effects of an Expansion Tank in a Closed System as Pressure and Temperature Increase from
(A) P1 and T1 to (B) P2 and T2
the temperature of the transported medium can have Expansion Tanks

a stabilizing effect on the pipe temperature. When water is heated, it expands. If this expansion
Contraction or expansion of flexible pipe can be occurs in a closed system, dangerous water pressures
accommodated by snaking the pipe in the trench. An can be created. A domestic hot water system can be a
approximate sine wave configuration with a displace- closed system. When hot water fixtures are closed and
ment from the centerline and a maximum offset as the cold water supply piping has backflow preventers
shown in Table 11-3 accommodate most situations. or any other device that can isolate the domestic hot
The installation should be brought to the service tem- water system from the rest of the domestic water
perature prior to backfilling. After increased length supply, a closed system can be created. (See Figure
is taken up by snaking, the trench can be backfilled 11-2(A).)
in the normal manner. These pressures can quickly rise to a point at
Up to 3-inch nominal size, rigid pipe can be handled which the relief valve on the water heater unseats,
by snaking in the same manner used for flexible pipe. thus relieving the pressure, but at the same time
Offsets and loop lengths under specific temperature compromising the integrity of the relief valve. (See
variations are shown in Table 11-3. For distances of Figure 11-2(B).) A relief valve installed on a water
less than 300 feet, 90-degree changes in direction take heater is not a control valve, but a safety valve. It
up any expansion or contraction that occurs. is not designed or intended for continuous usage.
For larger sizes of pipe, snaking is not practical or Repeated excessive pressures can lead to equipment
possible in most installations. In such cases, the pipe and pipe failure and personal injury.
is brought to within 15F of the service temperature, When properly sized, an expansion tank connected
and the final connection is made. This can be accom- to the closed system provides additional system vol-
plished by shade backfilling, allowing the pipe to cool ume for water expansion while ensuring a maximum
at night and then connecting early in the morning, desired pressure in a domestic hot water system. It
or cooling the pipe with water. The thermal stresses does this by utilizing a pressurized cushion of air.
produced by the final 15F service temperature are (See Figure 11-3.)
absorbed by the piping. The objectives of this section are to show the de-
signer how to size an expansion tank for a domestic

hot water system and to explain the theory behind Equation 11-6
the design and calculations. The following discussion
is based on the use of a diaphragm or bladder-type
expansion tank, which is the type most commonly
Vew=Vs1
( vsp2
vsp1 1 )
used in the plumbing industry. This type of expansion Example 11-1
tank does not allow the water and air to be in contact
with each other. A domestic hot water system has 1,000 gallons of
water. How much will the 1,000 gallons expand from
Expansion of Water a temperature of 40F to a temperature of 140F?
A pound of water at 140F has a larger volume than
Solution
the same pound of water at 40F. To put it another
way, the specific volume of water increases with an From Table 11-4,
increase in temperature. Specific volume data show vsp1 =0.01602 (at 40F)
the volume of 1 pound of water for a given tempera- vsp2 =0.01629 (at 140F)
ture and are expressed in cubic feet per pound. If
Utilizing Equation 11-6,
the volume of water at each temperature condition
is known, the expansion of water can be calculated
as follows:
Vew=1000
( 0.01629
0.01602 1 )
Vew=Vs2 Vs1 Vew =16.9 gallons
where Note that this is the amount of water expansion
Vew =Expansion of water, gallons and should not be confused with the size of the expan-
Vs1 =System volume of water at sion tank needed.
temperature 1, gallons
Vs2 =System volume of water at Table 11-4 Thermodynamic Properties of Water at a
temperature 2, gallons Saturated Liquid
Vs1 is the initial system volume and can be deter- Specific Volume,
mined by calculating the volume of the domestic hot Temp., F ft3/lb
water system. This entails adding the volume of the 40 0.01602
water-heating equipment with the volume of piping 50 0.01602
and any other part of the hot water system. 60 0.01604
Vs2 is the expanded system volume of water at the 70 0.01605
80 0.01607
design hot water temperature. Vs2 can be expressed in
90 0.01610
terms of Vs1. To do that, look at the weight of water
100 0.01613
at both conditions. 110 0.01617
The weight (W) of water at temperature 1 (T1) 120 0.01620
equals the weight of water at T2, or W1=W2. At T1, 130 0.01625
W1=Vs1/vsp1, and similarly at T2, W2=Vs2/vsp2, 140 0.01629
where vsp equals specific volume of water at the two 150 0.01634
temperature conditions. (See Table 11-4 for specific 160 0.01639
volume data.) Since W1=W2, then:
Vs1 Vs2 Expansion of Material
vsp1 = vsp2
Will the expansion tank receive all the water expan-
Solving for Vs2: sion? The answer is no, because not just the water is
( ) vsp
Vs2=Vs1 vsp2
1
expanding. The piping and water-heating equipment
expand with an increased temperature as well. Any
Earlier it was stated that Vew=Vs2 Vs1. Sub- expansion of these materials results in less of the wa-
stituting Vs2 from above, it can be calculated that ter expansion being received by the expansion tank.
since Another way of looking at it is as follows:
( )
Vs2=Vs1 vsp2
vsp1 , then
where
Venet=Vew Vemat
( )
Vew=Vs1 vsp2 Vs1 , or
vsp1
Venet =Net expansion of water received by the
expansion tank, gallons
Vew =Expansion of water, gallons
Vemat =Expansion of material, gallons

To determine the amount of expansion each mate- Table 11-5 Nominal Volume of Piping
rial experiences per a certain change in temperature, Volume of Pipe, gal/linear
look at the coefficient of linear expansion for that ma- Pipe Size, in. ft of pipe
terial. For copper, the coefficient of linear expansion is 0.02
9.5106 inch/inchF and for steel it is 6.5106 inch/ 0.03
inchF. From the coefficient of linear expansion, the 1 0.04
coefficient of volumetric expansion of material can be 1 0.07
1 0.10
determined. The coefficient of volumetric expansion
2 0.17
is three times the coefficient of linear expansion:
2 0.25
=3
3 0.38
where
4 0.67
=Volumetric coefficient of expansion
6 1.50
=Linear coefficient of expansion
8 2.70
The volumetric coefficient for steel, then, is
19.510 6 gallon/gallonF, and for copper it is 2. The initial system volume of water (Vs1) equals
28.5106 gallon/gallonF. The material will expand Vmat1+Vmat2, or 900 gallons+100 gallons.
proportionally with an increase in temperature. From Example 11-1, 1,000 gallons of water
Equation 11-7 going from 40F to 140F expands 16.9 gallons.
So, utilizing Equation 11-8, Venet=16.9
Vemat=Vmat (T2 T1) (1.8+0.03)=15 gallons. This is the net amount
of water expansion that the expansion tank will
Making the above substitution and solving for
see. Once again, note that this is not the size of
Venet,
the expansion tank needed.
Equation 11-8
Venet=Vew [Vmat11 (T2 T1)+Vmat22 (T2 T1)] Boyles Law
After determining how much water expansion the
Example 11-2 expansion tank will see, it is time to look at how
the cushion of air in an expansion tank allows the
A domestic hot water system has a water heater made
designer to limit the system pressure.
of steel with a volume of 900 gallons. It has 100 feet
Boyles law states that at a constant temperature,
of 4-inch piping, 100 feet of 2-inch piping, 100 feet of
the volume occupied by a given weight of perfect gas
1-inch piping, and 300 feet of -inch piping. All of
(including for practical purposes atmospheric air)
the piping is copper. Assuming that the initial tem-
varies inversely as the absolute pressure (gauge pres-
perature of water is 40F and the final temperature
sure+atmospheric pressure). It is expressed by
of water is 140F, (1) how much will each material
expand, and (2) what is the net expansion of water Equation 11-9
that an expansion tank will see? P1V1=P2V2
Solution where
P1 =Initial air pressure, pounds per square inch
1. Utilizing Equation 11-7 for the steel (material absolute (psia)
no. 1), V1 =Initial volume of air, gallons
Vmat1=900 gallons P2 =Final air pressure, psia
Vemat1=900 (19.5106)(140 40) =1.8 gallons V2 =Final volume of air, gallons
How does this law relate to sizing expansion tanks
For the copper (material no. 2), first look at Table
in domestic hot water systems? The air cushion in
11-5 to determine the volume of each size of pipe.
the expansion tank provides a space into which the
4 inches 1000.67=67 gallons expanded water can go. The volume of air in the
2 inches 1000.17=17 gallons tank decreases as the water expands and enters the
tank. As the air volume decreases, the air pressure
1 inches 1000.10=10 gallons
increases.
inch 3000.02=6 gallons Utilizing Boyles law, the initial volume of air (i.e.,
Total volume of copper piping: 100 gallons the size of the expansion tank) must be based on (1)
initial water pressure, (2) desired maximum water
Utilizing Equation 11-7 for copper,
pressure, and (3) change in the initial volume of the
Vmat2 =100 gallons air. To utilize the above equation, realize that the
Vemat2=100 (28.5106)(140 40) =0.3 gallon pressure of the air equals the pressure of the water

Figure 11-4 Sizing the Expansion Tank
at each condition, and make the assumption that the P1 =Incoming water pressure, psia (Note:
temperature of the air remains constant at condition Absolute pressure is gauge pressure plus
1 and condition 2. This assumption is reasonably ac- atmospheric pressure, or 50 psig=64.7
curate if the expansion tank is installed on the cold psia.)
water side of the water heater. Remember, in sizing P2 =Maximum desired pressure of water, psia
an expansion tank, the designer is sizing a tank of Example 11-3
air, not a tank of water. Looking again at the domestic hot water system
Referring to Figure 11-4, at condition 1, the tanks described in Example 11-2, if the cold water supply
initial air pressure charge, P1, equals the incoming pressure is 50 psig and the maximum desired water
water pressure on the other side of the diaphragm. pressure is 110 psig, what size expansion tank is
The initial volume of air in the tank, V1, is also the required?
size of the expansion tank. The final volume of air in Example 11-2 determined that Venet equals 15
the tank, V2, also can be expressed as V1 less the net gallons. Converting the given pressures to absolute
expansion of water (Venet). The pressure of the air at and utilizing Equation 11-10, the size of the expansion
condition 2, P2, is the same pressure as the maximum tank needed can be determined as:
desired pressure of the domestic hot water system at
the final temperature, T2. P2 always should be less 15
than the relief valve setting on the water heater. V1= =31 gallons
1 (64.7/124.7)
Utilizing Boyles law,
P1V1=P2V2 Note: When selecting the expansion tank, make
sure the tanks diaphragm or bladder can accept 15
Since V2=V1 Venet, then gallons of water (Venet).
P1V1=P2 (V1 Venet)
P1V1=P2V1 P2Venet Summary
(P2 P1)V1=P2Venet Earlier in this section, the following were estab-
lished:
P2Venet
V1= Equation 11-6
P2 P1
Multiplying both sides of the equation by (1/P2)/
(1/P2), or by 1, the equation becomes:
Vew=Vs1
( vsp2
vsp1 1 )
Equation 11-10 Equation 11-8
Venet Venet=Vew [Vmat11 (T2 T1)+Vmat22 (T2
V1=
1 (P1/P2) T1)]
where
V1 =Size of expansion tank required to maintain In Equation 11-6, Vs1 was defined as the system
the desired system pressure, P2, gallons volume at condition 1. Vs1 also can be expressed in
Venet =Net expansion of water, gallons terms of Vmat:

Vs1=Vmat1+Vmat2
Making this substitution and combining the equa-
tions provides the following two equations:
Equation 11-11
Venet=(Vmat1+Vmat2) ( vspvsp 1 )
1
2
[Vmat11(T2 T1)+Vmat22(T2 T1)]

Equation 11-10
Venet
V1= 1 (P1/P2)
where
Venet =Net expansion of water seen by the
expansion tank, gallons
Vmat =Volume of each material, gallons
vsp =Specific volume of water at each condition,
cubic feet per pound
=Volumetric coefficient of expansion of each
material, gallon/gallonF
T =Temperature of water at each condition, F
P =Pressure of water at each condition, psia
V1 =Size of expansion tank required, gallons
These two equations are required to properly size
an expansion tank for a domestic hot water system.
Resources
Copper Tube Handbook. Copper Development As-
sociation.
Steele, Alfred. Engineered Plumbing Design II.
American Society of Plumbing Engineers.
PPI-TR 21: Thermal Expansion and Contraction in
Plastics Piping Systems. Plastics Pipe Institute.

12
Potable Water
Coolers and
Central Water
Systems
First invented in 1906, the water cooler has ex- essential because humans can subsist for only about a
perienced an ever-changing transformation. This week without it. Water constitutes approximately 75
invention is credited to Halsey Willard Taylor and percent of the human body, and on average it takes
Luther Haws. Haws patented the first drinking eight cups of water to replenish the water a body
faucet in 1911 (see Figure 12-1). The original units loses each day.
consisted of large blocks of ice used to chill the water. Water has two primary tasks in the metabolic
They evolved into cumbersome floor-standing units process: It carries nutrients and oxygen to different
with belt-driven ammonia compressors used to chill parts of the body through the bloodstream and lym-
the water. phatic system, and it allows the body to remove toxins
and waste through urine and sweat. Furthermore, it
regulates body temperature, cushions joints and soft
tissues, and lubricates articulations, hence balancing
the functions of the body.
UNITARy COOLERS
UNITARy
A mechanically refrigerated drinking-water cooler
consists of a factory-made assembly in one structure.
This cooler uses a complete, mechanical refrigeration
system and has the primary functions of cooling po-
table water and providing such water for dispensing
by integral and/or remote means.
Water coolers differ from water chillers. Water
coolers are used to dispense potable water, whereas
water chillers are used in air-conditioning systems for
residential, commercial, and industrial applications
and in cooling water for industrial processes.
The capacity of a water cooler is the quantity
of water cooled in one hour from a specified inlet
Figure 12-1 Early Drinking Faucet temperature to a specified dispensing temperature,
Source: Haws Corp.
expressed in gallons per hour (gph) (liters per hour
[L/h]). (See the section on ratings, which follows,
Today, a plethora of types and aesthetically and Table 12-1.) Standard capacities of water coolers
pleasing models satisfies even the most demanding range from 1 gph to 30 gph (3.8 L/h to 114 L/h).
applications. The industry is focused on providing the Types
highest quality of water while using the least amount The three basic types of water coolers are as fol-
of floor space, allowing water coolers to be installed lows:
in heavy-traffic areas while satisfying code and end-
user requirements. 1. A bottled water cooler (see Figure 12-2) uses
a bottle, or reservoir, for storing the supply of
W
WATER IN THE HUMAN BODy
BOD water to be cooled and a faucet or similar means
The importance of nutrients is judged by how long for filling glasses, cups, or other containers.
the human body can function without them. Water is It also includes a wastewater receptacle. The
designer should check local Table 12-1 Standard Rating Conditions

codes, because even though Temperature, F (C)
bottle water coolers are Cooled Heated
permitted, they may not Type of Cooler Ambient Inlet Water Water Potable Water
a
Spill(%)
satisfy minimal plumbing Bottle type 90 (32.2) 90 (32.2) 50 (10) 165 (73.9) None
fixture requirements. Pressure type
Utilizing precooler
2. A pressure-type water 90 (32.2) 80 (26.7) 50 (10) 165 (73.9) 60
(bubbler service)
cooler (see Figures 12-3 Not utilizing precooler
90 (32.2) 80 (26.7) 50 (10) 165 (73.9) None
and 12-4) is supplied Compartment type cooler During the standard capacity test, there shall be no melting of ice
with potable water under in the refrigerated compartment, nor shall the average temperature
pressure and includes a exceed 46F (7.8C).
wastewater receptacle or Source: ARI Standard 1010, reprinted by permission.
Note: For water-cooled condenser water coolers the established flow of water through the condenser shall not exceed 2.5
means of disposing water times the base rate capacity, and the outlet condenser water temperature shall not exceed 130F (54.4C). The base rate
to a plumbing drainage capacity of a pressure water cooler having a precooler is the quantity of water cooled in 1 h, expressed in gallons per
system. Such coolers can hour, at the standard rating conditions, with 100% diversion of spill from the precooler.
a
use a faucet or similar This temperature shall be referred to as the standard rating temperature (heating).
means for filling glasses

or cups, as well as a valve to control the flow of 3. A remote-type cooler is a factory-assembled
water as a projected stream from a bubbler so single structure that uses a complete,
that water may be consumed without the use of mechanical refrigeration system and has the
glasses or cups. primary function of cooling potable water for
delivery to a separately installed dispenser.
Figure 12-2 Bottled Water Cooler Figure 12-3 Wheelchair-accessible Figure 12-4 Pressure-type Pedestal
Pressure-type Water Cooler Water Cooler
Source: Halsey Taylor Source: Halsey Taylor

Chapter 12Potable Water Coolers and Central Water Systems 239
Figure 12-5 Wheelchair-accessible Unit

Source: Halsey Taylor
Figure 12-7 Dual-height Design with Chilling Unit

Mounted Above Dispenser
Source: Haws Corp.
for dispensing water rapidly and conveniently into

glasses or pitchers. It includes a means for disposing
wastewater to a plumbing drainage system.
A drainless water cooler is a pressure-type cooler
supplied by -inch tubing from an available source
and does not have a waste connection. As with the
bottled water cooler, a drip cup sits on a pressure
switch to activate a solenoid valve on the inlet sup-
ply to shut off the supply by the weight of the water
Figure 12-6 Dual-height Design in the cup.
Water coolers for wheelchair use are available
In addition to these basic descriptions, coolers are in several styles. The original design mounted the
described by specialized conditions of use, additional chilling unit behind the backsplash, with a surface-
functions they perform, or the type of installation. mounted bubbler projecting 14 inches from the wall,
enabling a person in a wheelchair to roll under the
Special-purpose Water Coolers
fixture. Todays wheelchair-accessible units contain a
Explosion-proof water coolers are constructed for chilling unit below the level of the basin (see Figures
safe operation in hazardous locations (volatile atmo- 12-3, 12-5, and 12-9), with the bubbler projecting from
spheres), as classified in Article 500 of the National the wall at such a height that a person in a wheelchair
Electrical Code. can roll under it. Dual-height designs (see Figure 12-6
Vandal-resistant water cooler are made for heavy- and Figure 12-7), also known as barrier-free, are the
use applications such as in schools or prisons. most popular designs today. These units recognize the
Extreme climate water coolers include frost re- needs of able-bodied individuals, those with bending
sistance for occasional cold temperatures and freeze difficulties, and those in wheelchairs at a consoli-
protection for those used during sustained cold tem- dated location. Fully recessed accessible designs, or
peratures. barrier-free inverted, mount the chilling unit above
A cafeteria-type cooler is one that is supplied with the dispenser (see Figure 12-7) to allow a recess un-
water under pressure from a piped system and is in- der the fountain for wheelchair access. When using
tended primarily for use in cafeterias and restaurants this style, the designer should ensure that the grill

Figure 12-9 Wall-hung water cooler

Source: Haws Corp.
Figure 12-8 Floor-mount Water Cooler Figure 12-10 Fully

Source: Halsey Taylor Recessed Water Cooler
vanes go upward and that the recess is of sufficient Options and Accessories
depth and width for a person in a wheelchair. (For The designer should consider all accessories and op-
additional information on ADA-compliant fixtures, tions to satisfy project requirements. Water coolers
refer to Plumbing Engineering Design Handbook, are available with several different options:
Volume 1, Chapter 6, Plumbing for People With Dis-
Activation devices, such as hands-free, sensor-
abilities and American National Standards Institute
operated, foot pedals, or push bottoms and push
(ANSI) A117.1: Accessible and Useable Buildings and bars
Facilities. Child requirements are based on the final
ruling of the U.S. Access Board.) Glass or pitcher fillers, such as push lever or
Types of installations include the following: push down
Freestanding or floor mount (see Figures 12-4 Ice and/or cup dispensers, cane apron, hot
and 12-8) water dispensers, water filters, and refrigerated
compartments
Wall hung (see Figure 12-9)
Bubblers, including standard, vandal resistant,
Fully recessed (see Figure 12-10), allowing an and the flexible bubbler, which is constructed of
unobstructed path pliable polyester elastomer that flexes on impact
Fully recessed with accessories (see Figure 12- before returning to its original position to help
11) protect against accidental injuries. Flexible
bubblers usually contain an antimicrobial agent
Fully recessed (inverted) barrier-free (see Figure
blended into the plastic to prevent bacteria from
12-12), for wheelchair access
multiplying on the surface of the bubbler.
Semi-recessed or simulated recessed (see Figure
12-13) Water Cooler Features
Water coolers may have any of the following acces-
sories (see Figure 12-14):

Figure 12-12 Fully Recessed, Figure 12-13 Semi-recessed or

Barrier-free Water Cooler for Simulated Recessed Water Cooler
Wheelchair Access Source: Halsey Taylor
Source: Oasis
Figure 12-11 Fully Recessed Water Cooler

with Accessories
1. Antimicrobial safety
2. Stainless steel basin
3. Activation, such as push button, push bar, or
infrared
4. Stream height regulator, which automatically
maintains a constant stream height
5. Water system, manufactured of copper
components or other lead-free materials
6. Compressor and motor
7. Non-pressurized cooling tank
8. Fan motor and blade
9. Condenser coil, fin or tube type
10. Drier, which prevents internal moisture from
contaminating the refrigeration system
11. Drain outlet with 1-inch slip-joint fitting
12. Preset cooler control
13. Water inlet connection (not shown), which
accepts 38-inch outside diameter tubing for
hookup to incoming water line
14. Inline strainer (not shown)
15. Water filtration Figure 12-14 Water Cooler Accessories

Refrigeration Systems frigerant feeds first to a water-cooling coil and then

As stipulated in the Montreal Protocol of 1987 and through a restrictor device to the compartment. When
substantially amended in 1990 and 1992. HFC-134a the compressor operates, both water cooling and com-
refrigerant replaced the use of chlorofluorocarbons partment cooling take place. The thermostat usually
(CFC), which have been implicated in the acceler- is located to be more affected by the compartment
ated depletion of the ozone layer. HFC-134a is a temperature, so the amount of compressor operation
commercially available, environmentally acceptable and water cooling available depends considerably on
hydrofluorocarbon (HFC) commonly used as a refrig- the usage of the compartment.
erant on HVAC systems. Some compartment coolers, generally pressure
Hermetically sealed motor compressors commonly types, are equipped with more elaborate systems,
are used for alternating-current (AC) applications, ones in which separate thermostats and solenoid
both 50 hertz (HZ) and 60 Hz. Belt-driven compres- valves are used to switch the refrigerant flow from a
sors generally are used only for direct-current (DC) common high side to either the water-cooling evapora-
and 25-Hz supply. The compressors are similar to tor or the compartment evaporator. A more recently
those used in household refrigerators and range from developed method of obtaining the two-temperature
0.08 horsepower (hp) to 0.5 hp (0.06 kilowatt [kW] function uses two separate and distinct systems, each
to 0.37 kW). having its own compressor, high side, refrigerant
Forced-air-cooled condensers are most commonly flow-metering device, and controls.
used. In coolers rated less than 10 gallons per hour
(gph) (38 liters per hour [L/h]), natural convection, Stream Regulators
air-cooled (static) condensers sometimes are included. Since the principal function of a pressure-type water
Water-cooled condensers of tube-on-tube construc- cooler is to provide a drinkable stream of cold water
tion are used on models intended for high ambient from a bubbler, it usually is provided with a valve to
temperatures or where lint and dust in the air make maintain a constant stream height, independent of
air-cooled types impractical. supply pressure. A flow rate of 0.5 gallon per minute
Capillary tubes are used almost exclusively for (gpm) (0.03 liter per second [L/s]) from the bubbler
refrigerant flow control in hermetically sealed sys- generally is accepted as providing an optimum stream
tems. for drinking.
Pressure-type coolers often are equipped with
precoolers to transfer heat from the supply water
Water Conditioning
to the wastewater. When drinking from a bubbler Most water coolers are classified by UL in accordance
stream, the user wastes about 60 percent of the cold with National Sanitation Foundation (NSF)/ANSI 61:
water down the drain. In a precooler, the incoming Drinking Water System ComponentsHealth Effects
water is put in a heat exchange relationship with the and with the Safe Drinking Water Act, which pro-
wastewater. Sometimes the cold wastewater also is tects public health by regulating the nations public
used to subcool the liquid refrigerant. A precooler with drinking water and its sources. Also, this legislation
this arrangement is called an economizer. Coolers makes professional engineers, contractors, architects,
intended only to dispense water into cups are not building owners, and maintenance staff responsible
equipped with precoolers since there is no appreciable for the quality of water dispensed from the equipment
quantity of wastewater. and fixtures they provide.
Most water coolers manufactured today consist of The effects of lead are devastating to the human
an evaporator formed by refrigerant tubing bonded body, as it accumulates on vital organs and alters the
to the outside of a water circuit. The water circuit neurological system. Children are particular sensitive
is usually a tank or a coil of large tubing. Materials to lead because of their development stagetheir
used in the water circuit are usually nonferrous or bodies are still developing their vital organs. Even in
stainless steel. Since the coolers dispense water for low concentrations, lead can hinder growth and create
human consumption, sanitary requirements are es- learning disabilities. High lead levels can promote sei-
sential. (See Underwriters Laboratories [UL] 399: zures, unconsciousness, and in extreme cases, death
Drinking Water Coolers.) from encephalopathy.
Water coolers that also provide a refrigerated stor- In cases where the quality of a buildings water
age space, commonly referred to as compartment supply is a concern, manufacturer units can be
cooler, have the same control compromises common equipped with lead-reduction systems designed to
to all refrigeration devices that attempt two-temper- remove cysts, lead particles, and chlorine. Methods
ature refrigeration using a single compressor. to avoid and remove lead before it enters the water
Most bottle-type compartment coolers are provided for the cooler include:
with the simplest series system, one in which the re-

Bottled water, which should be purchased from a An adequately sized storage tank to
reliable source accommodate the fluctuating demands of a
Lead-absorbent filters, for installation on the multiple-outlet system. Without a tank or with
incoming water to the cooler a tank that is too small, the fluctuations will
cause overloading or short-cycling, causing
Reverse osmosis (RO) systems, which can be excessive wear on the equipment. The tank must
built into the water cooler be of nonferrous construction. The evaporator
mounted in the tank should be of the same
Ratings construction as the tank to reduce galvanic
Water coolers are rated on the basis of their continu- action.
ous flow capacity under specified water temperature Circulating pumps, normally of the bronze-
and ambient conditions. Air-conditioning and Re- fitted, close-coupled, single-stage type with
frigeration Institute (ARI) 1010: Self-contained, mechanical seals. For systems designed for 24-
Mechanically Refrigerated Drinking Water Coolers hour operation, duplex pumps are installed, with
provides the generally accepted rating conditions and each pump being used 12 hours per day.
references test methods as prescribed in American So- Controls consisting of high- and low-pressure
ciety of Heating, Refrigerating, and Air-conditioning cutouts, freeze protection, and thermostatic
Engineers (ASHRAE) 18: Methods of Testing for control to limit the temperature of the water
Rating Drinking Water Coolers with Self-contained leaving the chiller. A flow switch or differential
Mechanical Refrigeration. pressure control also should be provided to stop
the compressor when there is no flow through
Central systems
A central, chilled drinking water system typically is AIR BALANCING
designed to provide water at 50F (10C) to the drink- VENT VALVE
ing fountains. Water is cooled to 45F (7.2C) at the

central plant, thus allowing for a 5F (2.8C) increase
in the distribution system. System working pressures
generally are limited to 125 pounds per square inch
gauge (psig) (861 kilopascals [kPa]). (The designer 10TH
MECHANIC
PENTHOU
should check the local code for the maximum pressure FLOOR
allowed.) A central, chilled drinking water system

10TH
should be considered in any building, such as a mul- 9TH FLOOR FLOOR
tistory office building, where eight or more drinking

fountains are stacked one above the other. 8TH FLOOR 9TH FLOO
A central, chilled drinking water system consists

of the chilling unit, distribution piping, drinking 8TH FLOO
7TH FLOOR
fountains, and controls.
Chillers 6TH FLOOR 7TH FLOO
The chiller may be a built-up or factory-assembled CIRCULATING
unit, but most installations use factory-assembled WATER
RETURN
units. In either case, the chiller consists of the fol- 5TH FLOOR
DRINKING
6TH FLOO
lowing: FOUNTAIN
(TYPICAL)
A semi-hermetic, direct-driven compressor using 4TH FLOOR 5TH FLOO
HFC-134a
A condenser of the shell-and-tube or shell-and- 3RD FLOOR 4TH FLOO
coil type. It may be water or air cooled.

A direct-expansion water cooler of the shell- 2ND FLOOR 3RD FLOO
and-tube type, with a separate field-connected RISER

SHUT-OFF
RECIRCULATING
PUMP
storage tank or an immersion-type coil installed 1ST FLOOR
VALVE
2ND FLOO
in the storage tank. If a separate tank is used, a DOMESTIC ISOLATION CHILLED

WATER
VALVE
circulating pump normally is needed to circulate WATER
SUPPLY
SUPPLY
1ST FLOOR
the water between the evaporator and the tank.
Evaporator temperatures of 30F to 34F (-1.1C WATER
CHILLER
to 1.1C) are used.
FILTER
STORAGE TANK BASEMEN
BASEMENT (OPTIONAL)
Figure 12-15 - Upfeed System

Figure 12-15
( Storage Upfeed
Tank and Central
Pump Located System
at Bottom
of System)

WATER DOMESTIC
CHILLED FILTER WATER
WATER (OPTIONAL) SUPPLY
SUPPLY
AIR
VENT
RECIRCULATING
PUMP
CHILLER
MECHANICAL STORAGE TANK
PENTHOUSE
10TH
FLOOR
9TH FLOOR
DRINKING
FOUNTAIN
(TYPICAL) Figure 12-17 Drinking Fountain
8TH FLOOR Source: Halsey Taylor
7TH FLOOR
6TH FLOOR
DRINKING
FOUNTAIN
(TYPICAL)
5TH FLOOR
4TH FLOOR
3RD FLOOR
2ND FLOOR
CHILLED
WATER BALANCING
SUPPLY VALVE
1ST FLOOR
CIRCULATING
Figure 12-18 Drinking Fountain
WATER Source: Haws Corp.
RETURN
BASEMENT
glass fiber insulationsuch as that normally used
Figure( Storage
12-16 Downfeed Central System
Figure 12-16 - Downfed System
Tank and Pump Located at Top of on chilled-water piping, with a conductivity (k) of
System) 0.22 (32) at a 50F (10C) mean temperature and a
the cooler. Another desirable item is a time vapor barrier jacketor equal. All valves and piping,
switch that can be used to operate the plant
including the branch to the fixture, should be insu-
during periods of building occupancy.
lated. The waste piping from the drinking fountain,
Distribution Piping System including the trap, should be insulated. This insula-
The distribution piping delivers chilled water to the tion is the same as is recommended for use on cold
drinking fountains. Systems can be upfeed as shown water lines.
in Figure 12-15 or downfeed as shown in Figure 12- Drinking Fountains
16. The piping can be galvanized steel, copper, or Any standard drinking fountain can be used on a
brass designed for a working pressure of 125 psig central drinking water system. Drinking fountains
(861 kPa). typically are made of vitreous china or stainless steel.
Drinking Water Coolers and Central However, the automatic volume or stream regulator
Systems provided with the fountain must be capable of provid-
The makeup cold water lines are made of the same ing a constant stream height from the bubbler with
material as the distribution piping. When the water inlet pressures up to 125 psig (861 kPa). (See Figures
supply has objectionable characteristics, such as high 12-17 and 12-18.)
iron or calcium content, or contains odoriferous gases
System Design
in solution, a filter should be installed in the makeup
water line. Refrigeration
Insulation is necessary on all the distribution pip- For an office building, a usage load of 5 gph (19 L/h)
ing and the storage tanks. The insulation should be per fountain for an average corridor and office is

normal. The water consumption Table 12-2 Drinking-water Requirements

for other occupancies is given in Bubbler Service: Persons Cup Service: Persons
Table 12-2. Table 12-3 is used to Served Per Gallon (Liter) of Served Per Gallon (Liter) of
convert the usage load in gph (L/h) Location Standard Rating Capacity Base Rate Capacity
to the refrigeration load in Brit- Offices 12 (3) 30 (8)
Hospitals 12 (3)
ish thermal units per hour (Btuh)
Schools 12 (3)
(watts [W]). The heat gain from
Light manufacturing 7 (2)
the distribution piping system Heavy manufacturing 5 (2)
is based on a circulating water Hot heavy manufacturing 4 (1)
temperature of 45F (7.2C). Table Restaurants 10 (3)
12-4 lists the heat gains for various Cafeterias 12 (3)
ambient temperatures. The length Hotels (corridors)
of all lines must be included when
Required Rated Capacity per Bubbler, gph (L/h)
calculating the heat gain in the One Bubbler Two or More Bubblers
distribution piping. Table 12-5 Retail stores, hotel lobbies,
tabulates the heat input from 12 (3) 5 (20) 5 (20)
office building lobbies
variously sized circulating pump Public assembly halls, 2025
100 (26) 15 (60)
motors. amusement parks, fairs, etc. (80100)
The total cooling load con- Theaters 19 (5) 10 (40) 7.5 (30)
sists of the heat removed from Source: Reprinted from ARI Standard 1010, by permission.
the makeup water, heat Note: Based on standard rating conditions, with delivered water at 50F (10C).
gains from the piping, Table 12-3 Refrigeration Load

heat gains from the stor- Btu/Gal (W/L) Cooled to 45F (7.2C)
age tank, and heat input Water inlet temp., F ( C) 65(18.3) 70(21.1) 75(23.9) 80(26.7) 85(29.4) 90(32.2)
from the pumps. A safety Btu/gal 167(13) 208(17) 250(20) 291(23) 333(27) 374(30)
factor of 10 percent to 20 Multiply load for 1 gal (L) by total gph (L/h).
percent is added before
selecting a condensing Table 12-4 Circulating System Line Loss
unit. The size of the safety factor is governed Btu/h per 100 Ft (W per 100 m)
Btu/h per Ft [45F (7.2C) Circulating Water]
by usage. For example, in a building with week-
Pipe Size, in. Per F Room Temperature, F (C)
end shutdowns, the higher safety factor allows
(mm) (W/C/m) 70 (21.1) 80 (26.7) 90 (32.2)
pickup when reopening the building on Monday (13) 0.110 (0.190) 280 (269) 390 (374) 500 (480)
morning when the total volume of water in the (19) 0.119 (0.206) 300 (288) 420 (403) 540 (518)
system would need to be cooled to the operating 1 (25) 0.139 (0.240) 350 (336) 490 (470) 630 (605)
temperature. Since the water to the chiller is a 1 (32) 0.155 (0.268) 390 (374) 550 (528) 700 (672)
mixture of makeup and return water, the chiller 1 (38) 0.174 (0.301) 440 (422) 610 (586) 790 (758)
selection should be based on the resultant mixed 2 (51) 0.200 (0.346) 500 (480) 700 (672) 900 (864)
water temperature. 2 (64) 0.228 (0.394) 570 (547) 800 (768) 1030 (989)
3 (76) 0.269 (0.465) 680 (653) 940 (902) 1210 (1162)
Circulating Pump
The circulating pump is sized to Table 12-5 Circulating Pump Heat Input
circulate a minimum of 3 gpm (0.2 (0.19) 3 (0.25) (0.37) (0.56) 1 (0.75)
Motor, Hp (kW) 1
L/s) per branch or the gpm (L/s) Btu/h (W) 636 (186) 850 (249) 1272 (373) 1908 (559) 2545 (746)
necessary to limit the tempera-
ture rise of the circulatory water Table 12-6 Circulating Pump Capacity
to 5F (2.8C), whichever is greater. Table 12-6 lists Pipe Size, Room Temperature, F (C)
the circulating pump capacity needed to limit the in. (mm) 70 (21.1) 80 (26.7) 90 (32.2)
temperature rise of the circulated water to 5F (2.8C). (13) 8.0 (99) 11.1 (138) 14.3 (177)
If a separate pump is used to circulate water between (19) 8.4 (104) 11.8 (146) 15.2 (188)
the evaporator and the storage tank, the energy input 1 (25) 9.1 (113) 12.8 (159) 16.5 (205)
to this pump must be included in the heat gain. 1 (32) 10.4 (129) 14.6 (181) 18.7 (232)
1 (38) 11.2 (139) 15.7 (195) 20.2 (250)
Storage Tank Notes
The storage tanks capacity should be at least 50 1. Capacities are in gph per 100 ft (L/h per 100 m) of pipe including all branch
percent of the hourly usage. The hourly usage may lines necessary to circulate to limit temperature rise to 5F (2.8C) [water at
45F (7.2C)].
be selected from Table 12-2. 2. Add 20% for a safety factor. For pump head, figure longest branch only. Install
pump on the return line to discharge into the cooling unit. Makeup connection
should be between the pump and the cooling unit.

Distribution Piping 5. Provide a pressure relief valve and air vents at

high points in the chilled water loop.
Sizing
General criteria for sizing distribution piping for The following example illustrates the calculations
a central, chilled drinking water system are as fol- required to design a central chilled drinking water
lows: system.
1. Limit the maximum velocity of the water in the Example 12-1
circulating piping to 3 feet per second (fps) (0.9 Design a central drinking water system for the build-
meters per second [m/s]) to prevent the water ing in Figure 12-15. The net floor area is 14,600 square
from having a milky appearance. feet (1,356 square meters) per floor, and occupancy
is assumed to be 100 square feet (9.3 m2) per person.
2. Avoid excessive friction head losses. The energy
necessary to circulate the water enters the Domestic water is available at the top of the building,
water as heat and requires additional capacity with 15-psig (103-kPa) pressure. Applicable codes
in the water chiller. Accepted practice limits the are the Uniform Plumbing Code and the Uniform
maximum friction loss to 10 feet (3 meters) of Building Code.
head per 100 feet (30 m) of pipe. Solution
3. Dead-end piping, such as that from the main
1. Number of drinking fountains required:
riser to the fountain, should be kept as short as
Occupancy=14,600/100=146 people per floor
possible, and in no event should it exceed 25 feet
(1,356/9.3=146 people per floor). The Uniform
(7.6 m) in length. The maximum diameter of
Building Code requires one fountain on each
such dead-end piping should not exceed 38-inch
floor for every 75 people. So, 146/74=1.94
(9.5-mm) iron pipe size (IPS), except on very
fountains per floor. Therefore, use two fountains
short runs.
per floor, or a total of 20 fountains.
4. Size piping on the total number of gallons
2. Estimated fountain usage: From Table 12-2,
circulated. This includes gallons consumed plus
(1460.083)/2=6 gph (22.7 L/h) per fountain
gallons necessary for heat leakage.
3. Total anticipated makeup water: 6 gph10
Design Layout fountains=60 gph per riser, or 120 gph for
General criteria for the design layout of piping for two risers (see Figure 12-15) (22.7 L/h10
a central chilled drinking water system are as fol- fountains=227 L/h per riser, or 454 L/h for two
lows: risers)
1. Keep pipe runs as straight as possible with a 4. Refrigeration load to cool makeup water: From
minimum number of offsets. Table 12-3, assuming 70F (21.1C) water
inlet temperature, 120 gph208 Btuh per
2. Use long sweep fittings wherever possible to gallon=25,000 Btuh (454 L/h16 W/L=7,300
reduce friction loss. W)
3. In general, limit maximum pressure developed 5. Refrigeration load due to piping heat gain:
in any portion of the system to 80 psi (552 Determination of heat gain in piping requires
kPa). If the height of a building should cause pipe sizes, but these sizes cannot be accurately
pressures in excess of 80 psi (552 kPa), divide known until the heat gains from the makeup
the building into two or more systems. water, piping, storage tank, and pumps are
4. If more than one branch line is used, install known. Therefore, assume 1-inch (25-mm)
balancing cocks on each branch. diameter chilled water risers, circulation line,
Table 12-7 Friction of Water in Pipes

-in. (13-mm) Pipe -in. (19-mm) Pipe 1-in. (25-mm) Pipe 1-in. (32-mm) Pipe 1-in. (38-mm) Pipe
Velocity, Head, ft Velocity, Head, ft Velocity, Head, ft Velocity, Head, ft Velocity, Head, ft
gpm (L/h) ft/s (m/s) (m) ft/s (m/s) (m) ft/s (m/s) (m) ft/s (m/s) (m) ft/s (m/s) (m)
1 (227) 1.05 (0.32) 2.1 (0.64)
2 (454) 2.10 (0.64) 7.4 (2.26) 1.20 (0.37) 1.90 (0.58)
3 (681) 3.16 (0.96) 15.8 (4.82) 1.80 (0.55) 4.1 (1.25) 1.12 (0.34) 1.26 (0.38)
4 (912) 2.41 (0.73) 7.0 (2.13) 1.49 (0.65) 2.14 (0.65) 0.86 (0.26) 0.57 (0.17)
5 (1,135) 3.01 (0.92) 10.5 (3.20) 1.86 (0.57) 3.25 (0.99) 1.07 (0.33) 0.84 (0.26) 0.79 (0.24) 0.40 (0.12)
10 (2,270) 3.72 (1.13) 11.7 (3.57) 2.14 (0.65) 3.05 (0.93) 1.57 (0.48) 1.43 (0.44)
15 (3,405) 3.20 (0.98) 6.50 (1.98) 2.36 (0.72) 3.0 (0.91)
20 (4,540) 3.15 (0.96) 5.2 (1.58)
Note: Table gives loss of head in feet (meters) due to friction per 100 ft (30 m) of smooth straight pipe.

Table 12-8 Pressure Drop Calculations for Example 12-1

Pipe Length, ft (m) Pressure Drop, ft (m) Cumulative
Water Flow, Selected gpm Pressure Drop,
Froma Actual Equivalentb gpm (L/h) Size, in. 100 ft Actual ft ft (m)
A to B 30(9) 45(14) 6(23) 1 5.0(1.5) 2.25 (0.7) 2.25(0.7)
B to D 180(55) 270(82) 3(11.5) 1 1.3(0.4) 3.5 (1.1) 5.75(1.8)
D to A 270(82) 406(124) 6(23) 1 5.0(I.5) 20.02 (6.1) 25.77(7.9)
a
Refer to Figure 12-15.
b
Increase 50% to allow for fittings. If an unusually large number of fittings is used, each should be considered for its actual contribution to pressure drop.
and distribution piping to the risers. Then, the Standards, codes, and
heat gains in the piping system are (from Table regulations
12-4): Whether a self-contained (unitary) cooler or a central
Risers: (120 feet) (490 Btu/100 feet) (2 risers) = 1,189 Btuh (349 W) chilled water system, most mechanical installations
Distribution mains: (90 feet) (490 Btu/100 feet) = 440 Btuh (129 W) are subject to regulation by local codes. They must
Return riser: (330 feet) (490 Btu/100 feet) = 1,620 Btuh (475 W) comply with one or more plumbing, refrigeration,
Total piping heat gain = 3,249 Btuh (953 W)
electrical, and accessibility codes. The majority of
The water that must be cooled and circulated is such local codes is based on guide codes prepared by
at a minimum of 3 gpm (11.4 L/h) per riser, or a associations of nationally recognized experts.
total of 6 gpm (22.7 L/h). Municipalities choose one of these model codes and
6. Refrigeration load due to circulating pump modify it to suit local conditions. For this reason, it
input: The pump head can be determined from is important to refer to the code used in the locality
data given in Table 12-7 and Figure 12-15. The and the authority having jurisdiction.
results of the calculations are given in Table Local refrigeration codes vary considerably. The
12-8, with the indicated pumping requirements Uniform Building Code sets up guide regulations
being 6 gpm (22.7 L/h) at a 25.77-foot (7.85-m) pertaining to the installation of refrigeration equip-
head. Data from one manufacturer indicates ment. It is similar in most requirements to ANSI/
that a -hp (0.56-kW) motor is needed. From ASHRAE 15: Safety Standard for Refrigeration
Table 12-5, the heat input of the pump motor is Systems, with some notable exceptions. Therefore, it
1,908 Btuh (559 W). is important to carefully apply the local codes in the
7. Refrigeration load due to storage tank heat design of the refrigeration portion of chilled drinking
gain: The tank is normally sized for 50 percent water systems. Other local codes that merit a careful
of the total hourly demand. Thus, for 100 gph review are the electrical regulations as they apply to
(379 L/h), a 50-gallon (190-L) tank would be controls, disconnection switches, power wiring, and
used. This is approximately the capacity of a American Society of Mechanical Engineer (ASME)
standard 16-inch (406-mm) diameter, 60-inch requirements for tanks and piping.
(1,524-mm) long tank. Assume 1-inch (38-mm) In addition to ARI 1010 and ASHRAE 18: Methods
insulation, 45F (7.2C) water, with the tank of Testing for Rating Drinking Water Coolers with
in a 90F (32.2C) room. Assume an insulation Self-contained Mechanical Refrigeration, UL 399
conductivity of 0.13 Btuh per square foot (0.4 covers safety and sanitation requirements. Federal
W/m2). The surface area of the tank is about 24
Specification WW-P-541: Plumbing Fixtures, among
square feet (2.2 m2). Thus, the heat gain is (24)
others, usually is prescribed by government purchas-
(0.13)(90 45)=140 Btuh (41 W).
ers.
Thus, the load summary is as follows:
ANSI/NSF 61 is intended to cover specific materi-
Item Heat Gain, Btuh (W)
als or products that come into contact with drinking
Makeup water 25,000 (7,325)
water, drinking water treatment chemicals, or both.
Piping 3,240 (949)
Pump heat input 1,908 (559)
The focus of the standard is the evaluation of contami-
Storage tank 140 (41) nants or impurities imparted indirectly to drinking
Subtotal 30, 288 (8,874) water.
20 percent safety factor 6,050 (1,773) Many local plumbing codes apply directly to water
Required chiller capacity 36,338 (10,647) coolers. Primarily, these codes are directed toward
Installation eliminating any possibility of cross-connection be-
tween the potable water system and the wastewater
A supply stop should be used so that the unit may be
(or refrigerant) system. Therefore, most coolers are
serviced or replaced without having to shut down the
made with double-wall construction to eliminate the
water system. Also, the designer should consult local,
possibility of conflict with any code.
state, and federal codes for proper mounting height.

13
Bioremediation
Pretreatment
Systems
Pretreatment of effluent prior to discharge is a trients, or combinations thereof (additives) to grease

requirement established by federal legislation and waste drainage, grease traps, or grease interceptors.
implemented by federal regulations and state and The use of additives in conventional apparatus is a
local legislation. Pretreatment requirements ap- cleaning method resulting in the removal of FOG
ply to both direct discharges (i.e., to drain fields, from the apparatus and its deposition downstream.
streams, lakes, and oceans) and indirect discharges, Recombined FOG is usually a denser form, which is
as in collection systems leading to treatment works. more difficult to remove from sewer mains and lift
Pretreatment is required of all industrial discharges, stations than the substance not altered by the ap-
which are all discharges other than those from a do- plication of additives.
mestic residence. Bioremediation systems are engineered systems
Pretreatment can involve the removal of metals, ad- containing the essential elements of a bioreactor
justment of pH, and removal of organic compounds. that can be operated by the kinetic energy imparted
CFR Title 40: Protection of Environment, published from flowing water or mechanically agitated by vari-
by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), ous pumping and aeration methods. Bioremediation
defines pretreatment as the reduction of the amount systems can be aerobic (requiring oxygen for the
of pollutants, or the alteration of the nature of pol- metabolic activity of the organisms), anaerobic (not
lutant properties in wastewater prior to or in lieu of requiring oxygen), or a combination of both. The type
discharging or otherwise introducing such pollutants of bioremediation system employed is determined
into a POTW (publicly owned treatment works). mainly by the target compound and the organisms
The reduction or alteration may be obtained by physi- necessary to metabolize that compound. In the case
cal, chemical, or biological processes, process changes, of FOG, typically the application of bioremediation
or by other means, except as prohibited. is aerobic. Figure 13-1 shows a kinetically operated
Bioremediation is one method of simultaneously aerobic bioremediation system.
removing the pollutant from the waste stream and Central to the operation of all on-site bioremedia-
disposing of the pollutant by altering its chemical tion systems applied to FOG are the following:
or physical structure such that it no longer causes Separation, or the removal of FOG from the
depreciation of water quality, in the case of direct dynamic waste flow
discharges, or interference or pass-through, in the
case of indirect discharges. Generally speaking, Retention, allowing the cleaned wastewater to
bioremediation can be described as the action of liv- escape except for the static water content of the
device
ing organisms on organic or inorganic compounds
resulting in reduction in complexity or destruction Disposal, or the metabolic disassembly of FOG
of the compound. Typically, bioremediation processes to its elements of hydrogen, oxygen, and carbon,
are conducted at the source of the pollutant to avoid usually in the form of water and carbon dioxide
transporting large quantities of polluted wastewater Incidental to the application of a bioremediation
or concentrations of pollutants. The most common system to FOG are the following:
application of bioremediation to plumbing systems is
Sizing, or the calculation of the potential
for the disposal of fats, oils, and grease (FOG).
maximum flow over a designated interval
PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION Food solids removal from the liquid waste
Bioremediation systems, as described here, do not stream
include the practice of adding enzymes, bacteria, nu-
Figure 13-1 Kinetically Operated Aerobic Bioremediation System
Placement, to minimize the length of untreated Retention

grease waste piping The retention of FOG in a bioremediation system
is essential to its disposal by a reduction in its con-
Separation stituent elements. Retention is facilitated by baffles,
Separation of FOG with the greatest efficiency, mea- compartmentalization, or sedimentation, depending
sured as the percentage of FOG present in the waste on the system design. Because only 15 percent of
stream and the time necessary to effect separation, suspended FOG (at a specific gravity of 0.85) is above
is essential to the accomplishment of retention and the water surface, bioremediation systems that retain
disposal. The standards for this measurement are FOG a greater distance from dynamic flows generally
Plumbing and Drainage Institute (PDI) G101: Test- have greater retention efficiencies and capacities than
ing and Rating Procedure for Grease Interceptors and those that rely on suspension alone.
American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME)
A112.14.6: FOG (Fats, Oils, and Greases) Disposal Disposal
Systems. Separation can be effected by simple grav- The disposal of FOG by biochemical processes within
ity flotation, in which case the device must be of an on-site system is the single most distinguishing
sufficient volume to provide the proper retention feature of bioremediation systems. The organisms
time and quiescence to allow ascension of suspended responsible for metabolizing the FOG may be endemic
FOG (see Chapter 8: Grease Interceptors). Separa- to the waste stream or, more likely, seeded by means
tion also can be effected by coalescence, coagulation, of a timed or flow-sensitive metering device. Crucial
centrifugation, dissolved air flotation, and skimming. to a disposal function equal to ongoing separation and
In these instances, for a given flow, the device is retention rates is a sufficient population of organisms
typically smaller in dimension than in the gravity in contact with the FOG. While this is a function of
flotation design. sizing (see Sizing Guidelines later in this chapter),
Because food particles generally have a specific it is also a function of system design.
gravity greater than one and are oleophilic, the pres- The mechanism typically utilized to provide a
ence of food particles materially interferes with the stable, structured population of organisms in a biore-
efficient separation of FOG from the waste stream. mediation system is a biofilm. Biofilms are controlled
Food grinders typically are not used upstream of biological ecosystems that protect multiple species
bioremediation systems for this reason and because of organisms from washouts, biocides, and changing
of the increased biological oxygen demand (BOD) that environmental conditions in the bioremediation sys-
the additional waste places on the system. tem. Biofilm forms when bacteria adhere to surfaces

Chapter 13Bioremediation Pretreatment Systems 251
in aqueous environments and begin to excrete a slimy, The general sizing procedure contains the follow-
glue-like substance that can anchor them to many ing steps:
materials, such as metals, plastics, soil particles, 1. Fixture inventory: Itemize each and every
medical implants, and tissue, according to the Center fixture capable of liquid discharge to the grease
for Biofilm Engineering. waste piping system including, but not limited
Biofilms are cultivated on structures of various to, sinks, hoods, ware washers, floor sinks
configurations of the greatest possible surface area per and drains, and kettles. Grinder pulpers are
given volume. The structure or structures generally generally not to be discharged to bioremediation
are referred to as media. The media may be fixed systems. Review the manufacturers
(i.e., stationary relative to the device and the waste requirements for each particular system.
flow); moved by mechanical movement, such as a se- 2. Capacity calculation: Calculate the capacity (in
ries of rotating discs or small, ball-shaped elements; gallons) of liquid-retaining devices such as sinks
or moved randomly by the energy of the waste stream as follows:
flow and/or pump or aerator agitation.
The organisms inhabiting biofilms reduce the LengthWidthDepth=Capacity, in cubic
inches (cubic centimeters)
FOG to carbon dioxide and water through a process
called beta oxidation, which is a catabolic process CapacityNumber of compartments=Total
consisting of the shortening of fatty acid chains by the capacity, in cubic inches (cm3)
successive removal of two carbon fragments from the Total cubic capacity 231=Gallons (liters)
carboxyl end of the chain, according to the Diction- capacity
ary of Bioscience. Bioremediation systems utilizing
Gallons capacity0.75(fill factor) =Rated
structured biofilms are much more resistant to the
discharge, in gallons per minute (gpm) (liters
effects of biocides, detergents, and other chemicals
per second [L/s])
frequently found in kitchen effluent than systems
using planktonic application of organisms. The effi- (Note: If a 2-minute drain duration is used,
ciency of bioremediation systems in terms of disposal divide the rated discharge by two.)
depends on the total surface area of the media relative 3. Rated discharges: Fixtures such as ware washers
to the quantity of FOG separated and retained, the with a manufacturers rated water consumption
viability and species diversity of the biofilm, system or single discharge rate are calculated at the
sizing, and installation. greater rate.
4. Floor sinks and drains: Floor sinks and drains
Flow Control generally are rated at 4.0 gpm. Count the
Flow control sometimes are used with bioremedia- number of floor drains and sinks not receiving
tion systems depending on system design. When flow indirect discharges from the fixtures calculated
control devices are prescribed by the manufacturer, above and multiply by 4.0 to determine gpm
generally they are best located near the discharge of potential. Should this number exceed the total
the fixtures they serve. However, because bioreme- supply to the facility, select the smaller of the
diation systems are engineered systems, the use and two numbers.
placement of system elements are prescribed by the 5. Loading influences: Some manufacturers
manufacturer. In instances in which elements of a may prescribe multipliers for various facility
bioremediation system may be common to the plumb- characteristics such as cuisine to accommodate
ing industry, the manufacturers prescription for the anticipated increased organic content per gallon
application of those elements to the system shall pre- of calculated discharge. Refer to manufacturers
vail over common practice or code requirements. requirements for specific systems.
Sizing Guidelines Design Considerations

These guidelines are intended as a tool for the engi- Each manufacturer of a bioremediation system has
neer to quantify the maximum hydraulic potential specific design elements to establish fitness for the
from a given facility. Typically, fixture unit equiva- purpose of its particular design. Certain fundamen-
lency prediction sizing methods and other estimation tal materials and methods utilized in the design and
tools based on utilization rate weighted factors are manufacture of bioremediation systems are indicated
not acceptable sizing tools for bioremediation sys- by the following standard designations:
tems. Bioremediation systems must be capable of
ASME A112.14.6
accommodating maximum hydraulic events without
experiencing upset, blockage, or pass-through.

American Society for Testing and Materials Stainless Steel

(ASTM) C33: Standard Specification for Stainless steel used in bioremediation systems should
Concrete Aggregates be of type 316 or of some other type with equal or
ASTM C94: Standard Specification for Ready- greater corrosion resistance.
mixed Concrete Fiberglass Reinforced Polyester
ASTM C150: Standard Specification for Bioremediation systems constructed principally of
Portland Cement fiberglass reinforced polyester should comply with the
ASTM C260: Standard Specification for Air- minimum requirements expressed for septic tanks in
entraining Admixtures for Concrete Section 5 of IAPMO PS 1.
ASTM C618: Standard Specification for Coal Fly Polyethylene
Ash and Raw or Calcined Natural Pozzolan for Bioremediation systems constructed principally
Use in Concrete of polyethylene should comply with the minimum
PDI G101 standards expressed for septic tanks in Section 5 of
IAPMO PS 1.
American Concrete Institute (ACI) 318:
Building Code Requirements for Structural Structural Considerations
Concrete Bioremediation systems should be designed to handle
International Association of Plumbing and all anticipated internal, external, and vertical loads.
Mechanical Officials (IAPMO) PS 1: Tank Risers Bioremediation systems containers, covers, and
Underwriters Laboratories (UL) 5085-3: Low structural elements that are intended for burial and/
Voltage TransformersPart 3: Class 2 and Class or traffic loads should be designed for an earth load
3 Transformers of not less than 500 pounds per square foot (24 kPa)
when the maximum coverage does not exceed 3 feet
American Association of State Highway and
(0.9 meters). Each system and cover should be struc-
Transportation Officials (AASHTO) H20-44
turally designed to withstand all anticipated earth
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) or other loads and should be installed level and on a
Test Method 1664: Guidelines Establishing Test solid surface.
Procedures for the Analysis of Oil and Grease Bioremediation systems, containers, covers, and
and Non-polar Material structural elements for installation in traffic areas
should be designed to withstand an AASHTO H20-
Materials 44 wheel load and an additional 3-foot (0.9-m) earth
Concrete load with an assumed soil weight of 100 pounds per
If concrete is used as a container for bioremediation square foot (4.8 kPa) and 30-pound-per-square-foot
systems, the concrete and reinforcement should be (1.4-kPa) fluid equivalent sidewall pressure.
of sufficient strength to resist stresses caused during Internal construction of separations, coalescing
handling and installation without structural cracking surfaces, baffles, and structures that may compart-
and be of such corrosion-resistant quality to resist mentalize fluids should be designed to withstand the
interior and exterior acids that may be present. Con- maximum expected hydrostatic pressure. Maximum
crete should have a minimum compressive strength hydrostatic pressure should include the pressure
of 3,500 pounds per square inch (24,132 kilopascals exerted by one compartment at maximum capacity
[kPa]). Concrete should have a maximum water- with adjacent compartments empty. The internal
cementing materials ration of 6 gallons per sack of structures should be of suitable, sound, and durable
cement. Concrete should be made with Type II or V, materials consistent with industry standards.
low-alkali Portland cement conforming to ASTM C150 In buried applications, bioremediation systems
and also should include sulfate expansion option as should have safe, reasonable access for prescribed
specified in Table 4 of ASTM C150 for Type II or V. maintenance and monitoring. Access could consist of
Concrete should contain 4 percent to 7 percent en- horizontal manways or manholes. Each access open-
trained air utilizing admixtures conforming to ASTM ing should have a leak-resistant closure that cannot
C260. Concrete aggregates should conform to ASTM slide, rotate, or flip. Manholes should extend to grade,
C33. If ready-mix concrete is used, it should conform have a minimum size of 20-inch (0.5-m) diameter or
to ASTM C94. Fly ash and raw or calcined natural 20 20-inch (0.50.5-m) square, and should comply
pozzolan, if used as mineral admixture in Portland with IAPMO PS 1 Section 4.7.1.
cement concrete, should conform to ASTM C618. Bioremediation systems should be provided with
drawings as well as application and disposal function
details. Descriptive materials should be complete,

Chapter 13Bioremediation Pretreatment Systems 253
showing dimensions, capacities, flow rates, structural

and process ratings, and all application and operation
facts.
Dimension and Performance

Considerations
Bioremediation systems differ relative to type and
operating method but should have a minimum
volume-to-liquid ratio of 0.400 gallons per 1.00-gpm
flow rating and a minimum retention ratio of 3.75
pounds of FOG per 1.00-gpm flow. The inside dimen-
sion between the cover and the dynamic water level
at full-rated flow should be a minimum of 2 inches
(51 mm). While the airspace should have a minimum
volume equal to 10.5 percent of the liquid volume, air
management and venting shall be prescribed by the
manufacturer.
The bioremediation systems separation and
retention efficiency rating should be in accordance
with PDI G101. Bioremediation systems should show
no leakage from seams, pinholes, or other imperfec-
tions.
Performance testing of bioremediation systems
should demonstrate performance equal to or exceed-
ing manufacturer claims and should have a minimum
discharge FOG content not to exceed 100 milligrams
per liter. Performance testing should be conducted
only by accredited, third-party, independent labora-
tories in accordance with current scientific methods
and EPA analysis procedures.
Installation and
Workmanship
Installation should be in accordance with the manu-
facturers requirements. Bioremediation systems
should be free of cracks, porosity, flashing, burrs,
chips, and filings or any defects that may affect per-
formance, appearance, or serviceability.
Resources
Center for Biofilm Engineering, Montana State
University.
Dictionary of Bioscience, 5th ed. New York:
McGraw-Hill.
International Association of Plumbing and
Mechanical Officials (IAPMO). 2000. Uniform
Plumbing Code.
Plumbing and Drainage Institute. PDI G101:
Testing and Rating Procedure for Grease
Interceptors With Appendix of Sizing and
Installation Data.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Code of
Federal Regulations, Title 40.

14
Green Plumbing
Plumbing engineers play some part in the grand If all mothers refresh their floral arrangements
scheme of things, but they are not the green police. and flowering plants after Mothers Day, they
Their primary responsibility is serving the client that use a total of 2.8 million gallons of water. Thats
hires them to design a specific set of plumbing sys- equivalent to the amount needed to supply a
tems. However, plumbing engineers can try to educate weeks worth of water to 1,157 households.
clients and help them appreciate the immediate and 1 inch of rainfall drops 7,000 gallons, or nearly
long-term benefits of sustainable design, and as a re- 30 tons of water, on a 60 180-foot plot of land.
sult, an increasing number of projects is going green.
On average, 5070 percent of residential water is
In fact, many code authorities already require some used outdoors for watering lawns and gardens.
of the practices discussed in this chapter.
This chapter is designed to help plumbing engi- After a typical Thanksgiving dinner, 16.4 million
neers incorporate sustainable design practices in their Americans watch football. At halftime, American
designs, as well as to provide assistance in designing toilets flush 16.4 million times and use 48.5
Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design million gallons of water. Using water-efficient
toilets would save 22.3 million gallons of water,
(LEED)-certified projects. These are expansive sub-
or the same amount of water needed to fill 1,476
jects with a constant growth of emerging technologies.
swimming pools.
It is up to each individual to further investigate these
concepts and technologies, as plumbing engineering The average five-minute shower uses 1525
continues its journey into this new era. gallons of water.
All benefit by increasing the efficiency of build-
Water and Sanitation
ings. Also, it is essential to make efforts to preserve
some of the natural resources that are being flushed What about underdeveloped nations?
away every day. Some of these design considerations An estimated 2.6 billion people lack adequate
are mandated by federal law. Some may be legislated sanitation, and 1.1 billion people are without
in the future. Others provide immediate financial access to safe water, according to UNICEF.
benefits, and many provide health benefits. Part of Globally, more than 125 million children under
this learning process begins with some facts about five years of age live in households without
the current state of affairs to further appreciate the access to an improved drinking-water source,
need for these practices. and more than 280 million children under five
live in households without access to improved
THE BIG PICTURE sanitation facilities, according to UNICEF.
Humanity is consuming the worlds natural resources 90 percent of wastewater in developing countries
at an amazing rate. is discharged into rivers and streams without
Water Use Facts any treatment, according to World Resources
According to the American Water Works Association 2000-2001: People and Ecosystems: The Fraying
(AWWA): Web of Life.
Approximately 4,776 gallons of water are needed Diarrhea can be reduced by 26 percent when
to raise a Christmas tree. For the 35 million basic water, hygiene, and sanitation are supplied,
Christmas trees that U.S. families enjoy each according to the World Health Organization
year, a total of 167 billion gallons of water is (WHO).
consumed.
Water and Disease In addition, the U.S. Environmental Protection

Major diseases transmitted by water include cholera, Agency (EPA) finds that people spend 90 percent of
typhoid, bacillary dysentery, infectious hepatitis, their time indoors, yet 30 percent of new and reno-
and Giardia. Major diseases caused by lack of water vated buildings have indoor air quality problems.
include scabies, skin sepsis and ulcers, yaws, leprosy,
trachoma, and dysentery. Some alarming facts about What is Sustainable Design?
water and disease include the following: Sustainable design is not a new concept. It has been
done for years. In some cases, sustainable design
4,000 children die each day as a result of water- actually returns to old technologies that were aban-
related illnesses, according to WHO.
doned when petroleum products became so available
In the past 10 years, diarrhea has killed more and cheap. However, sustainable design has taken
children than all the people lost to armed on new meaning with the popularity of green build-
conflict since World War II, according to the ing. Plumbing engineers always should consider the
Water Supply and Sanitation Collaborative efficiency of the systems they design for any project
Council (WSSCC). and utilize the sustainable technologies that are
Water is implicated in 80 percent of all sickness appropriate for each projects needs. While some
and disease worldwide. 19 percent of deaths sustainable practices help achieve LEED certifica-
from infection and disease worldwide are water tion, many do not, but certification should not be the
related, and waterborne diseases contribute to only objective.
nearly 4 million child deaths, according to the The Brundtland Commission, also known as the
Rehydration Project. U.N. World Commission on the Environment and
At any one time, it is estimated that one-half Development, defines sustainability as the ability to
of the worlds hospital beds are occupied with meet the needs of the present, without compromising
patients suffering from water-related diseases, the needs of the future. Sustainability also might be
according to WSSCC. described as design and construction practices that
Diarrhea kills more than 3 million people each significantly reduce or eliminate the negative impact
year, and chronic diarrhea is a leading killer of of buildings on the environment and occupants in five
people with AIDS, according to the U.S. Agency broad areas:
for International Development (USAID). Sustainable site planning
Water and Economic Growth Safeguarding water and water efficiency

According to Water for People, Energy efficiency and renewable energy
More than 40 billion work hours are lost each Conservation of materials and resources
year in Africa to the need to fetch drinking Indoor environmental quality
water.
Water-related illnesses cost the Indian economy Standards and Validation
73 million working days per year. Numerous organizations worldwide provide rat-
ing and accreditation processes for various types of
Buildings pose both economic and environmental
construction. The Building Research Establishment
impacts. Buildings comprise:
Environmental Assessment Method (BREEAM) is the
65 percent of total U.S. electricity consumption European equivalent and predecessor to the United
36 percent of total U.S. primary energy use States Green Building Council (USGBC), which offers
the LEED program.
30 percent of total U.S. greenhouse gas
emissions U.S. Green Building Council
136 million tons of construction and demolition The USGBC is a nonprofit coalition of leaders from
waste in the United States (approximately 2.8 across the building industry that works to promote
pounds per person per day) buildings that are environmentally responsible,
profitable, and healthy places to live and work. The
12 percent of potable water in the United States purpose of this organization is to integrate building
40 percent (3 billion tons annually) of raw industry sectors and lead a market transformation.
materials used globally This includes the need to educate owners and prac-
40 percent of the worlds energy, 75 percent of titioners.
the worlds wood, and 16 percent of the worlds
water

Chapter 14Green Plumbing 257
How Can LEED Help? the scorecard, a project narrative, and documentation
LEED stands for Leadership in Energy and Environ- for each prerequisite and credit.
mental Design. A LEED AP is a LEED Accredited The LEED Rating System
Professional. The LEED rating system covers different types of
The LEED certification process encourages a buildings and construction, which are differentiated
whole-building approach. This promotes and guides under the following LEED categories:
a collaborative approach toward integrated design
LEED-NC: LEED for New Construction and
and construction process. It includes a rating system
Major Renovations
that includes new construction, existing building
renovations, core and shell, commercial interiors, LEED-EB: LEED for Existing Buildings:
and residential projects. It is expanding to encompass Operations and Maintenance
other categories, such as neighborhood development, LEED-CI: LEED for Commercial Interiors
as needs are identified. LEED helps plumbing engi-
LEED-CS: LEED for Core and Shell
neers design systems that optimize environmental
and economic factors, increasing efficiency in these LEED-H: LEED for Homes
areas. LEED-SC: LEED for Schools
LEED also provides recognition of quality build-
LEED for Homes
ings and environmental stewardship through:
LEED for Healthcare
Third-party validation of achievement
LEED for Neighborhood Development (in pilot
Federal, state, and local government incentives
in 2008)
Contributing to a growing knowledge base
LEED for Retail (in pilot in 2008)
LEED certification plaques to mount on
For the latest information on LEED categories, go
buildings
to www.usgbc.org.
Official certificates The program offers a total of 69 possible points
Marketing exposure via the USGBC website, to achieve certification. The four levels of LEED
case studies, and media announcements certification are:
Certified: 2632 points
The LEED Certification Process
The LEED certification process is essentially a three- Silver: 3338 points
step process: Gold: 3951 points
1. Project registration Platinum: 52 or more points
2. Technical support Note that the certification levels are subject to
3. Building certification change and reflect the current system. For instance,
LEED for Schools has a total of 79 points. Always
The project team can register a building at www. double-check which system and version applies to
leedbuilding.org. Someone on the team must be each particular project.
committed to overseeing the certification process. A The LEED program is broken into six catego-
LEED Accredited Professional would be ideal, but is ries:
not required.
After the project is registered, the team is entitled 1. Sustainable Sites
to two free credit interpretation rulings (CIRs). Any- 2. Water Efficiency
one on the team can search and view previous CIRs 3. Energy and Atmosphere
on the USGBC website.
A review process starts 14 days after submittal. 4. Materials and Resources
When the application is returned to the team leader, 5. Indoor Environmental Quality
the team has a maximum of 30 days to correct appli- 6. Innovation and Design Process
cation deficiencies and resubmit. The USGBC then
performs a final review, concluding with a certification Some of these credits are directly related to water
score. If problems with the application still exist, the use reduction, and some are related to other aspects
client or design team must appeal within 30 days. The of plumbing systems. Among those that are directly
USGBC then has another 30 days to respond. related to reduced water consumption are:
For the final submittal, the following items must be Water Efficiency (WE) Credit 1.1: Water
sent in a three-ring binder: a copy of the application, Efficient Landscaping: Reduce by 50 Percent

WE Credit 1.2: Water Efficient Landscaping: No Perceived high cost of LEED documentation
Potable Water Use or No Irrigation Design and construction costs
WE Credit 2: Innovative Wastewater Resistance to change
Technologies
Lack of financial resources
WE Credit 3.1: Water Use Reduction, 20 Percent
Reduction Domestic Water Use
WE Credit 3.2: Water Use Reduction, 30 Percent Reduction for irrigation
Reduction Credits WE 1.1 and WE 1.2 are related to irrigation.
Sustainable Sites (SS) Credit 6.1: Storm Water A building can receive one point if the project team
Design: Quantity Control demonstrates that the domestic water required for
irrigation and landscaping was reduced by 50 percent.
SS Control 6.2: Storm Water Design: Quality
Control By eliminating domestic water use for landscaping al-
together, the building receives an additional point.
Innovation and Design (ID) Credit 1: Innovation How to accomplish this? Methods for earning these
in Design credits include many deign choices, such as:
ID Credit 1 may be applied to water management Utilizing plantings that do not require watering
design or may be related to some other aspect, such other than the rain that they receive naturally
as reduced energy consumption in plumbing sys-
Using rainwater to sustain the landscaping
tems. Other applicable credits that may be obtained
in plumbing system design include those relating Capturing and reusing various wastewater from
to energy savings, third-party Commissioning, and the building, such as condensate waste, for
recycled materials. This chapter focuses primarily on landscaping needs
credits relating to water use reduction and wastewa-
ter management. Domestic Water Use
Reduction for Fixtures
Real Life Financial Benefits The water reduction credits related to plumbing
Increased sustainability in plumbing system designs fixture specifications are WE 3.1 and WE 3.2. The
can have direct financial rewards. It is estimated project team must demonstrate that the domestic
that construction costs may increase 3 percent for water required for plumbing fixtures was reduced by
a LEED-certified building. In fact, the construction 20 percent to qualify for one point. The total domestic
cost of a typical office building has been shown to be water used for fixtures must be reduced by 30 percent
about 2 percent of the total lifetime cost, assuming to qualify for an additional point.
a 20-year lifespan, and about 5 percent for operation Low-flow Fixtures
and maintenance, whereas the people inhabiting the A number of low-consumption fixtures facilitate this
building may account for as much as 92 percent of task. Specifying these fixtures in lieu of conventional
the total cost through salaries and benefits. fixtures can easily accomplish this objective for most
Some of the ways that sustainable design practices projects. The standards used as the reference, or
can provide tangible financial benefits are through baseline, are per the requirements of the Energy
reduced operating costs and reduced maintenance Policy Act of 1992. This includes 1.6-gallon-per-flush
costs: (gpf) toilets, 1.0-gpf urinals, 2.5-gallon-per-minute
Higher valuation of the building: The rule of (gpm) faucets, and 2.5-gpm showerheads. Note that
thumb is to divide the reduction in annual flush fixtures are rated in gpf, and flow fixtures are
operating costs by 10 percent to get the rated in gpm. These fixture types have different
increased value of the building, which may be up characteristics and need to be addressed relative to
to $4 in increased valuation for every $1 spent. their functionality.
Higher visibility and marketability Some of the reduced-consumption fixtures in-
clude:
Reduced insurance and risk of liability:
Improved health of occupants, greater occupant 1.28-gpf toilets
satisfaction, improved performance of occupants, 0.5-gpf urinals
reduced absenteeism, lower environmental
impacts, and streamlined regulatory approvals 0.125-gpf urinals
Obstacles and Objections Waterless urinals

According to some surveys, the most common objec- 0.5-gpm faucets
tions to building green are: 1.6-gpm kitchen faucets

2.0-gpm, 1.8-gpm, 1.5-gpm, and even 1.0-gpm shall be provided for irrigation and cooling use.
showerheads Provide a collection tank, circulating pump, and
Which fixtures are best? It depends on the project. point of connection for landscaping, coordinating
This is a decision that must be made by the plumbing with the landscape and heating, ventilating, and
designer in conjunction with the architect, taking air-conditioning (HVAC) contractors. Recovery
into consideration the needs of the owner. Some of and delivery systems should include redundant
the considerations may be site-specific. For instance, tanks and other equipment to facilitate cleaning
waterless urinals may be a good choice for areas that and maintenance. Domestic water makeup also
have little or no water supply. 0.125-gpf urinals may should be included for emergency use and when
be more appropriate for other projects. supplementary water is required. Excess water
Another water-saving technique is vacuum- production from Level 1 shall be conveyed to
operated waste transport systems. They are used on Level 2.
cruise ships and in some prisons. The water closets Level 2: Low-level potable systems: Level 2
require only 0.5 gpf, but additional energy is required systems shall collect water from graywater
to operate the vacuum pumping systems. This drain- processing, as well as from Level 1 production
age system relies on a mechanical device requiring surpluses. Each system should include
power to operate, which adds another potential weak redundant tanks and other equipment to
point to the system. facilitate cleaning and maintenance. Domestic
water makeup also should be included for
Wastewater Management emergency use and when supplementary water
Wastewater management must be part of a total is required. Each graywater system shall include
sustainable building strategy. This must include con- filters, an ultraviolet (UV) system, tanks,
sideration for environmental aspects relative to waste. pumps, etc., all of which must be indicated on
The quality, quantity, and classification of wasted mat- the plumbing drawings. The graywater reuse
ter must be taken into
account. The wastewater
Table 14-1 Treatment Stages for Water Reuse
expelled from build-
Level 1 Components
ings is a combination
Nonpotable systems needing limited treatment
of biodegradable waste, Catchment flushing Screen
reusable waste, storm Large contaminate removal First Flush
water runoff, and non- Sediment filtration Vortex/Centrifugal
degradable waste. The Level 2 Components
biodegradable waste can Low-level potable systems Everything above
be considered a source All of the previous steps Cartridge filters
Treatment for odor control Automated sand filters
of nutrients that can Increased level of filtration Ultraviolet (UV) light
go back into nature by Limited treatment for disease-causing pathogens Ozone
bioremediation methods. Level 3 Components
Many non-degradable Potable water for human consumption Everything above
wastes can be recycled. All of the previous steps Membrane filtration
Some by-products may Automated system testing of pre-potable incoming water Reverse osmosis (RO)
require handling as Increased level of filtration Nanofiltration
Increased level of disinfection processes Chlorination as required
hazardous materials. Automated system of testing the water after treatment
Storm water runoff can to confirm water quality meets the standards for human
be recycled and used to consumption
reduce domestic water Level 4 Components
consumption. Black water for nonpotable systems Everything above.
Wastewater reclama- All of the previous steps Manmade wetlands
Bio-remediation with membrane system and air injectors Additional filtration
tion and reuse systems Post-recovery filtration similar to Level 3: RO, O3, UL, etc. Additional testing and monitoring.
can be categorized into Additional testing with strict manual and electronic monitoring 24-hour technician on site
levels (see Table 14-1). Biosludge disposal 24-hour technician on site
On-site technician, 24/7 Proper disposal plan and systems
Level 1: Nonpotable
Level 5 Components
systems needing
Black water for potable systems Everything above
limited treatment: All of the previous steps Additional filtration
Rainwater and Additional filtration similar to Level 3: RO, O3, UL, etc. Additional testing and monitoring
condensate waste Additional testing with strict manual and electronic monitoring Proper disposal plan and systems
collection systems On-site technician, 24/7

fixtures may return their waste to a black water captured water may be used for irrigation, flushing
treatment system. This type of system typically toilets, cooling tower makeup, or other uses. Various
treats suspended solids, odors, and bacteria in filtration methods may be necessary, depending on
water to be reused for toilet flushing. the final use of the water. Ideally, the storage tanks
Level 3: Potable water for human consumption: should be elevated, such as on the top floor of the
Level 3 consists of both public domestic water building, to reduce or eliminate pumping require-
and water from Level 1 and Level 2 systems, ments. Remember that tanks store water, but also
with additional treatment. Water shall be can store pressure by permitting the stored water to
collected from the public water utility, as well as flow by gravity. Static head increases with height. If
from Level 1 and Level 2 production surpluses. the building is high enough to require multiple water
The Level 1 and 2 water must be processed with pressure zones, multiple tanks can be located at vary-
UV, reverse osmosis (RO), ozone, and filtering ing levels, possibly with one tank cascading down to
systems similar to Level 2, but monitored to another. As with all aspects of design, the approach
EPA or National Sanitation Foundation (NSF) must be customized relative to each individual proj-
standards or local equivalents. Each system shall ect. Figure 14-1 shows a typical small cistern system
include filters, a UV or similar system, tanks, diagram.
pumps, etc., all of which must be indicated on Many jurisdictions require rainwater detention to
the plumbing drawings. control the release rate into the sewer systems. Many
municipal systems are overloaded and cannot process
Level 4: Black water for
nonpotable systems: Level 4
includes water not meant for
human consumption without
further processing. It can be
used for toilet flushing and
laundry facilities. This system
must include redundancy.
Water shall be collected from
the graywater system, as well
as from Level 1 and Level 2
production surpluses. Each
system shall be provided with
emergency domestic water
makeup. Each system shall
include filters, a UV system,
tanks, pumps, etc., all of which
must be indicated on the
plumbing drawings.
Level 5: Black water for
potable systems: Level 5
includes water not meant
for human consumption or Figure 14-1 Typical Small Rainwater Cistern System Diagram
contact without additional
treatment. It consists of black water that has the storm water entering the system during times of
been collected and treated. Each system shall significant rain events. Some cities have combined
include membrane filters, bio-chambers, a UV storm and sanitary sewer systems, which can make
system, tanks, pumps, etc., as indicated on the problem even worse. One of the causes of this
the plumbing drawings. Sludge accumulation problem is increased impermeable surface features
shall be conveyed to a suitable site for further due to increased density, a result of urban sprawl. This
processing and disposal, based on analysis of effect can be reduced through the use of green roofs,
sludge components. permeable paving materials, storm water detention,
and other innovative approaches.
Rainwater Capture and Reuse Table 14-2 outlines some types of treatment for
Rainwater reuse can help earn more than one credit: rainwater systems. Many options are available,
water use reduction, innovative wastewater, storm for different purposes. Most systems require some
water management, and innovation in design. The combination of these treatment options. Table 14-3

compares the cost, maintenance, and effectiveness of Figure 14-2 and Table 14-5 compare the two types of
these filtration and disinfection methods. wastewater.
Storage Tanks Wastes from dishwashers and kitchen sinks can
Storage tanks come in many shapes, sizes, and mate- be piped to automatic grease separators. These
rials. They can be located below grade, above grade, separators automatically siphon off the fats, oils,
near the roof, or in many other locations. Table 14-4 and greases, which can be used for bio-diesel fuel.
compares the different storage tank options for rain- The remaining wastewater then is processed as black
water collection. water. Its a good idea to locate these facilities on the
truck dock or another location that provides plenty
Graywater and Black Water of external venting to reduce odors indoors.
About 68 percent of household wastewater is graywa-
Biosolids Technology
ter. The other approximately 32 percent is black water.
Biosolids can be a by-product of graywater, but they
primarily come from blackwater processing. Biosolids
Table 14-2 Rainwater Treatment Options

Treatment Method Location Result
Screening
Prevents leaves and debris from
Leaf screens and strainers Gutters and downspouts
entering tank
Settling
Sedimentation Within tank Settles out particulates
Activated charcoal Before tap Removes chlorine*
Filtering
Roof washers Before tank Removes suspended material
Inline multistage cartridge After pump Sieves sediment
Activated charcoal After sediment filter Removes chlorine* and improves taste
Slow sand filters After tank Traps particulates
Microbial Treatment/Disinfection
Boiling/distilling Before use Kills microorganisms
Chemical treatment Within tank or at pump (liquid, tablet, or
Kills microorganisms
(chlorine or iodine) granular) before activated charcoal
Ultraviolet light After activated charcoal filter and before tap
Silver ionization After activated charcoal filter and before tap
Ozonation After activated charcoal filter and before tap
-3 -4
Nanofiltration Before use, polymer membrane (10 10 pores) Removes molecules
-3 -4 Removes ions (contaminants) and
Reverse osmosis Before use, polymer membrane (10 10 pores)
microorganisms
*Should be used if chlorine has been used as a disinfectant.
Source: Texas Guide to Rainwater Harvesting, 2nd edition, Texas Water Development Board
Table 14-3 Filtration/Disinfection Method Comparison

Treatment Method Cost Maintenance Effectiveness Comments
Removes particulates > 3 Disinfection treatment also
Cartridge filters $2060 Change filters regularly
microns is recommended
Change filter when
Removes particulates > Disinfection treatment also
Reverse osmosis $4001,500 clogged (depends on
0.001 microns is recommended
turbidity)
Disinfects filtered water
Replace bulb every 10,000 Water must be filtered
$3501,000 ($80 bulb provided (< 1,000
Ultraviolet light hours or 14 months; clean prior to exposure for
replacement) coliforms per 100
protective cover regularly maximum effectiveness
millimeters)
Monitor effectiveness
Less effective in high
with frequent testing or Requires pump to circulate
Ozonation $7002,600 turbidity; should be
monitoring equipment ozone molecules
prefiltered
(about $1,200)
Excessive chlorine levels
$1/month manual dose or Less effective in high
Include monitoring with have been linked to health
Chlorination $6003,000 for automatic turbidity; should be
automatic dosing issues and damage to
dosing system prefiltered
copper piping systems
Source: Texas Guide to Rainwater Harvesting, 2nd edition, Texas Water Development Board

Table 14-4 Storage Tank Options

Material Features Cautions Cost Weight
Plastics
Commercially available, UV-degradable; must be
Polyethylene/polypropylene $.0351.00/gallon 8 lbs/gallon
alterable, and moveable painted
Commercially available, Must be sited on smooth,
Fiberglass $0.502.00/gallon 8 lbs/gallon
alterable, and moveable solid, level footing
Metals
Commercially available,
Steel Prone to rust and corrosion $0.502.00/gallon 8 lbs/gallon
alterable, and moveable
Possibly prone to rust and
Commercially available,
Welded steel corrosion; must be lined for $0.804.00/gallon 8 lbs/gallon
alterable, and moveable
potable use
Concrete and Masonry
Ferrocement Durable and immovable Potential to crack and fail $0.502.00/gallon 8 lbs/gallon
Stone, concrete block Durable and immovable Difficult to maintain $0.502.00/gallon 8 lbs/gallon
Monolithic/poured in place Durable and immovable Potential to crack and fail $0.301.25/gallon 8 lbs/gallon
Wood
Attractive, durable, can be
Redwood, fir, cypress Expensive $2.00/gallon 8 lbs/gallon
disassembled and moved
are the remaining sludge and

Figure 14-2 Graywater versus Black Water
also what is skimmed from the
surface. It consists of different Graywater Black Water
components requiring a vari-
ety of handling methods and Showers Toilets
technologies.
A compostable material is
one that undergoes physical,
chemical, thermal, and/or bio- Baths Urinals
logical degradation in a mixed
municipal solid waste (MSW)
composting facility such that it Lavatories Kitchen Sinks
is physically indistinguishable
from the finished compost.
The final product ultimately Clothes Washers Dish Washers
mineralizes (biodegrades to
carbon dioxide, water, and bio-
mass as new microorganisms) Graywater = Wastewater Black water = Wastewater
at a rate like that of known that has a low bacteria, that has a high bacteria or
compostable materials in solid chemical, or solids loading high organic content
waste such as paper and yard
waste.
A compost-compatible ma- Table 14-5 Comparison of Graywater and Black Water
terial is one that disintegrates Parameter Graywater Black Water Grey+Black
and becomes indistinguishable BOD51 (g/p/d2 and mg/l) 25 and 150-300 20 and 2,0003,000 71
from the final compost and is BOD5 (% of UOD3) 90 40
COD4 (g/p/d and mg/l) 48 and 300 72 and 2,0006,000
either biodegradable or inert
Total P (g/p/d and mg/l) 2 and 435 1.6 4.6
in the environment.
Total N (g/p/d) 1 (0.65 mg/l) 11 (main source urine) 13.2
A removable material is TSS (g/p/d) 18 > 50 70
one that can be removed (not Pathogens Low Very high Very high
to be composted) by existing Inorganics, organics,
technologies in MSW compost- Main Characteristic Inorganic chemicals Organics, pathogens
and pathogens
ing (such as plastics, stones, 1
BOD5 = O xygen required for the decomposition of the organic content in graywater during the first five days, determined as BOD
or glass). 2
after a five-day period of incubation under standard conditions
g/p/d = grams/person/day
Biosolids are categorized as 3
UOD = Ultimate (total) oxygen demand in a sample taken
Class A and Class B biosolids. 4
COD = Oxygen demand for all chemical (organic and inorganic) activities; a measure of organics
To ensure that biosolids ap- Sources: Haug 1993; Droste 1997; Dixon et al. 1999b; Hammes et al. 2000; Lindstrom 2000a, 2000b

plied to the land do not threaten public health, the rial decomposes, oxygen filters through the compost
EPA created 40 CFR Part 503.This rule categorizes site, releasing water, heat, and carbon dioxide. This
biosolids as Class A or B depending on the level of process helps dry the organic material, while the
pathogenic organisms in the material and describes generated heat increases the rate of decomposition
specific processes to reduce pathogens to these lev- and kills pathogens.
els.The rule also requires vector attraction reduction Heat dryingThis process applies direct or indirect
(VAR)reducing the potential for spreading of infec- heat to reduce the moisture in biosolids. It eliminates
tious disease agents by vectors (i.e., flies, rodents, and pathogens, reduces volume, and results in a product
birds)and spells out specific management practices, that can be used as a fertilizer or soil amendment.Be-
monitoring frequencies, recordkeeping, and reporting cause dryers produce a 90 percent dry material,
requirements.Incineration of biosolids also is covered additional VAR is not required.
in the regulation.
Class A biosolids contain minute levels of patho- Digestion In autothermal thermophilic aerobic
gens.To achieve Class A certification, biosolids must digestion (ATAD) systems, biosolids are heated from
undergo heating, composting, digestion, or increased 131F to 140F (55C to 60C) and aerated for about 10
pH that reduces pathogens to below detectable levels. days. This autothermal process generates its own heat
Some treatment processes change the composition of and reduces volume. The result is a high-quality Class
the biosolids to a pellet or granular substance, which A product acceptable for reuse as a liquid fertilizer.
can be used as a commercial fertilizer. Once these Pasteurization Pasteurization produces a Class A
goals are achieved, Class A biosolids can be applied to material when the biosolids are heated to at least
land without any pathogen-related restrictions at the 158F (70C) for 30 minutes. This extreme heat kills
site. Class A biosolids can be bagged and marketed to pathogens in the organic matter. When followed by
the public for application on lawns and gardens. anaerobic digestion, the VAR is attained, and the bio-
Class B biosolids have less stringent standards solids can be applied to land with minimal restrictions.
for treatment and contain small but compliant The majority of the energy used in the pasteuriza-
amounts of bacteria. Class B requirements ensure tion process is recovered with an innovative heat
that pathogens in biosolids have been reduced to exchanger system and used to maintain the proper
levels that protect public health and the environment temperature in downstream anaerobic digesters.
and include certain restrictions for crop harvesting,
Class B Technologies
grazing animals, and public contact for all forms of
The EPA regulations list a number of technologies,
Class B biosolids. As is true of their Class A counter-
which, under certain operating conditions, can treat
part, Class B biosolids are treated in a wastewater
and reduce pathogens so that the material qualifies
treatment facility and undergo heating, composting,
as Class B biosolids. These processes are known as
digestion, or increased pH processes before leaving the
processes that can significantly reduce pathogens, or
plant. This semi-solid material can receive further
PSRP. Class B technologies include anaerobic diges-
treatment when exposed to the natural environment
tion, aerobic digestion, composting, air-drying, and
as a fertilizer, where heat, wind, and soil microbes
lime stabilization.
naturally stabilize the biosolids.
The biosolids rule spells out specific treatment Digestion Several EPA-approved stabilization
processes and treatment conditions that must be met technologies are available for anaerobic and aerobic
for both A or B classifications. digestion, including:
Class A Technologies Heaters, heat exchangers, digester covers, gas,
Technologies that can meet Class A standards include and hydraulic mixing systems, all important
thermal treatment methods such as composting, heat components in conventional anaerobic digestion
drying, heat treatment, thermophilic (heat generat- systems
ing) aerobic digestion, and pasteurization. Class A Temperature-phased anaerobic digestion
technologies are known as PFRP, or processes that (TPAD) systems, which optimize anaerobic
can further reduce pathogens. The technologies must digestion through a heat recovery system that
process the biosolids for a specific length of time at a pre-heats raw material and simultaneously cools
specific temperature. the digested biosolids
Composting This is an environmentally friendly Membrane gas storage systems, which include
way to recycle the nutrients and organic matter an expandable membrane cover that provides
found in wastewater solids. Composting systems variable digester gas storage, optimizes digester
turn wastewater biosolids, sawdust, yard waste, and gas utilization for heating and electrical
wood chips into high-quality compost.As the mate- generation, and increases storage capacity

Hydraulic mixers, which use a multi-port with several factors, including incoming water tem-
discharge valve to greatly improve biosolids perature and return temperature. These factors apply
mixing in the digestion process to all types of heaters, but the numbers typically are
Air diffusers and aerators, which can jaded. Thus, it might be reasonable to assume that
be incorporated in any aerobic digester the system is still 14 percent more efficient. Using
configuration low-flow fixtures, with their related reduced hot wa-
ter consumption, saves as much as 40 percent of the
Lime stabilization Adding lime can stabilize biosol-
energy required to heat the domestic hot water.
ids by raising the pH and temperature. While adding
The expected energy savings can be calculated
sufficient amounts of lime to wastewater solids pro-
using gallon-per-day (gpd) figures and extrapolating
duces Class B biosolids, adding higher amounts yields
an estimated savings. These numbers, combined with
Class A biosolids. Combining low amounts of lime
energy consumption and reduction figures for other
with anoxic storage also can yield Class A biosolids.
aspects of the building, can indicate the percentage
Energy Requirements of total energy saved. These savings may be applied
Rainwater and condensate collection systems use to LEED Energy and Atmosphere credits.
minimal electrical power. Graywater systems for a High efficiency does not always come from high-
large project may be estimated to require up to 10,000 efficiency equipment alone. The efficacy must be
kilowatt-hours per year. Blackwater systems for the considered relative to the application. 98 percent ef-
same project may be estimated to require as much ficient water heaters do not necessarily save energy
as 20,000 kilowatt-hours per year. These numbers on every system. All designs require an integrated
are subject to the building systems for the particular approach and a balance of the correct elements rela-
project and vary greatly from project to project. tive to the needs of the project and the goals of the
As an example, the power consumption ratios of a client.
typical bioremediation system may consists of:
Solar Water Heating
38 percent for membrane aeration blowers
Solar water heating is an excellent way to reduce
35 percent for other blowers energy consumption. The average solar system for a
16 percent for recirculation pumps typical home (see Figure 14-3) can save about two-
5 percent for process pumps thirds of the homes yearly cost for providing domestic
4 percent for mixers 2

2 percent for controls, monitors, and
other equipment
This does not include pumping the wa- 2 7
ter throughout the building, which may
require additional power.
4 3
SOLAR
Energy Efficiency 5
RADIATION
and Energy-Saving
Strategies 1 6
Energy consumption within plumbing
systems can be reduced using several
methods, such as variable-frequency drive
domestic booster pump systems. The en-
ergy savings are difficult to define precisely
and vary for every project.
Water heaters offer a potential area for
energy savings, as plumbing engineers are
specifying more high-efficiency equipment
LEGEND
these days. If required to specify a mini-
mum efficiency of 84 percent for gas-fired 1. SOLAR COLLECTORS 5. WATER SUPPLY
boilers, specifying 98 percent efficient 2. TEMPERATURE/PRESSURE 6. AUXILLARY HEAT SOURCE
units can save 14 percent of energy costs, RELIEF VALVE 7. TO BUILDING
theoretically. 3. STORAGE TANK
One problem in quantifying these sav- 4. HEAT EXCHANGER
ings lies in the fact that efficiencies vary Figure 14-3 Simple Solar Domestic Water Heater Diagram

hot water. The energy savings for a commercial ap-

plication are more difficult to precisely quantify, but
they may be in the same range, depending on a variety
of factors.
One important factor in any system involving
heat transfer is the loading of the system. Other
than when they are shut down and using no energy,
heat exchangers, like pumps, are most efficient when
they are running at 100 percent capacity. Oversizing
equipment leads to reduced efficiencies and maybe
even premature failure of the equipment.
Refer to other Plumbing Engineering Design
Handbook chapters for additional information, in-
cluding Volume 3, Chapter 10: Solar Energy and
Volume 2, Chapter 6: Domestic Water Heating
Systems, as well as the resources listed at the end
of this chapter.
Geothermal Systems
Geothermal energy can be used for homes, as well as
industrial and commercial buildings. They even are
used by some utility companies to generate steam to
spin turbines, creating electrical power for munici-
palities. They can be used for radiant heat, as well
as radiant cooling.
Refer to other Plumbing Engineering Design
Handbook chapters for additional information, includ-
ing Volume 4, Chapter 10: Water Treatment, as well
as the resources listed at the end of this chapter.
RESOURCES
LEED Green Building Rating System: www.
leedbuilding.org
U.S. Green Building Council: www.usgbc.org
American Water Works Association: www.awwa.org
American Rainwater Catchment Systems
Association: www.arcsa.org
Water for People: www.waterforpeople.org
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency: www.epa.
gov
Texas Manual on Rainwater Harvesting, Third
Edition. Texas Water Development Board, 2005.

Index
(delta), 2004 V1:14

(micro) prefix, 2004 V1:34
A
A, X#, X#A (compressed air). See compressed air
(ohms), 2004 V1:33 A/m (amperes per meter), 2004 V1:33
cm (ohm-centimeter units), 2007 V3:47, 2008 V4:195 A (amperes). See amperes
m (ohm-meters), 2004 V1:33 A (area). See area (A)
% (percentages), 2004 V1:15 a (atto) prefix, 2004 V1:34
1-compartment sinks, 2008 V4:10 A-weighted sound levels, 2004 V1:194
1-family dwellings, numbers of fixtures for, 2008 V4:19, 20 A-53 standard, 2008 V4:48
1-occupant toilet rooms, 2008 V4:1718 A-106 standard, 2008 V4:48
1-pass cooling for equipment, 2004 V1:264 A-135 standard, 2008 V4:48
1-piece water closets, 2008 V4:3 AAMI (Association for the Advancement of Medical
1-stage distillation, 2005 V2:210 Instrumentation), 2005 V2:197, 229, 230
1-time costs, defined, 2004 V1:223 AAV (automatic air vents), 2004 V1:10
1-wall tanks, 2007 V3:135 abandoned septic tanks, 2005 V2:156
2-bed deionizing units, 2007 V3:48 abandoned wells, 2005 V2:167
2-compartment sinks, 2008 V4:10, 1112 abbreviations
2-family dwellings, numbers of fixtures for, 2008 V4:19 International System of Units, 2004 V1:32
2-pipe venturi suction pumps, 2005 V2:165 plumbing and piping symbols, 2004 V1:713
2-point vapor recovery, 2007 V3:142 text, drawings, and computer programs, 2004 V1:1416
2-pole fan-cooled electric motors, 2004 V1:196 The ABCs of Lawn Sprinkler Systems, 2007 V3:96
2-step deionization (dual-bed), 2005 V2:216, 217 above-finished floor (AFF), 2004 V1:14
2-valve parallel pressure-regulated valves, 2005 V2:78 above-slab grease interceptors, 2008 V4:162
2-way braces, 2008 V4:142 aboveground piping
2-word expressions of functions, 2004 V1:225, 231 inspection checklist, 2004 V1:103
2,4-D materials for, 2005 V2:13
levels in drinking water, 2008 V4:186 storm-drainage systems, 2005 V2:50
treating in water, 2008 V4:187 thermal expansion and contraction, 2008 V4:227229
3-bolt pipe clamps, 2008 V4:142 aboveground sanitary piping codes, 2004 V1:42
3-compartment sinks, 2008 V4:10, 1112 aboveground tank systems
4-way braces, 2008 V4:136 codes and standards, 2007 V3:134
5-minute storm duration, 2005 V2:5761 connections and access, 2007 V3:145
10-minute storm duration, 2005 V2:5761 construction, 2007 V3:144145
10-year rainfall return periods, 2005 V2:5761 corrosion protection, 2007 V3:145
15-minute storm duration, 2005 V2:5761 electronic tank gauging, 2007 V3:139
18-8 SS, 2004 V1:141 filling and spills, 2007 V3:145
18-8-3 SS, 2004 V1:141 industrial wastes, 2007 V3:8384
28 CFR Part 36, 2004 V1:106 leak prevention and monitoring, 2007 V3:145146
70:30 Cu Ni, 2004 V1:144 liquid fuel systems, 2007 V3:144147
80/20 rule, 2004 V1:224, 258 materials for, 2007 V3:144
90:10 Cu Ni, 2004 V1:144 overfill prevention, 2007 V3:145
100% area (full port), 2008 V4:74, 84 product-dispensing systems, 2007 V3:146
100-year rainfall return periods, 2005 V2:5761 tank protection, 2007 V3:146
1964 Alaska Earthquake, 2004 V1:161162 testing, 2007 V3:149
1971 San Francisco Earthquake, 2004 V1:162 vapor recovery, 2007 V3:146
3408 HDPE. See HDPE (high density polyethylene) venting, 2007 V3:145
abrasion, 2004 V1:146, 2005 V2:16, 195, 2008 V4:105

ABS. See acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene (ABS) ACI (American Concrete Institute), 2005 V2:64, 2008
abs, ABS (absolute), 2004 V1:14 V4:252
absolute (abs, ABS), 2004 V1:14 acid absorbers in ion exchange, 2008 V4:197
absolute pressure acid-containing inhibitors, 2005 V2:218
Boyles law, 2008 V4:233234 acid dilution tanks, 2008 V4:197
defined, 2004 V1:17, 2007 V3:166, 169, 2008 V4:177 acid feed pumps, 2007 V3:125126
formulas, 2008 V4:169170 acid fumes, 2007 V3:46
in vacuums, 2005 V2:176 acid manholes, 2007 V3:223
absolute temperature, 2004 V1:17, 2007 V3:166 acid neutralization, 2007 V3:4345, 84
absolute zero, 2004 V1:17 acid-neutralization tanks, 2007 V3:4445
absorber area, defined, 2007 V3:183 acid pickling, 2008 V4:59
absorber (plate), defined, 2007 V3:183 acid radicals, 2005 V2:199
absorphan (carbon filtration). See activated carbon acid regenerants, 2005 V2:209, 216, 217
filtration (absorphan) acid resins, 2005 V2:210
absorptance, defined, 2007 V3:183 acid-resistant fixtures, 2008 V4:12
absorption acid-resistant floor drains, 2005 V2:15
air drying, 2007 V3:172 acid-resistant glass foam insulation, 2008 V4:107
defined, 2004 V1:17, 2008 V4:220 acid-resistant piping, 2005 V2:13, 249
rates for soils, 2007 V3:91 acid-resistant sinks, 2007 V3:41
trenches. See soil-absorption sewage systems acid vents (AV), 2004 V1:8, 17
absorptive silencers, 2007 V3:171 acid-waste systems
ac, AC (alternating current), 2004 V1:14 acid-waste treatment, 2005 V2:244245
AC (air chambers). See air chambers (AC) continuous systems, 2005 V2:246
AC-DC rectifiers, 2004 V1:150, 151 health and safety concerns, 2005 V2:239240
acc (accumulate or accumulators), 2004 V1:14, 17 health care facilities, 2007 V3:4246
acceleration introduction, 2005 V2:239
earthquakes, 2004 V1:159, 160 large facilities, 2005 V2:244, 245
linear, 2004 V1:33, 35 metering, 2007 V3:45
measurements, 2004 V1:33 piping and joint material, 2005 V2:242244, 2008 V4:54
acceleration limiters, 2008 V4:134 solids interceptors, 2007 V3:4445
accelerators (dry-pipe systems), 2007 V3:8, 9 system design considerations, 2005 V2:244
accelergrams, 2004 V1:159 types of acid, 2005 V2:240242
access. See also people with disabilities acid wastes (AW), 2004 V1:8, 17, 2007 V3:4246
aboveground tank systems, 2007 V3:145 acidity
bioremediation pretreatment systems, 2008 V4:252 in corrosion rates, 2004 V1:145
clean agent gas fire containers, 2007 V3:27 pH control, 2007 V3:8485
to equipment, piping and, 2008 V4:23 in water, 2005 V2:168, 199, 202203
underground liquid fuel tanks, 2007 V3:136137 acids, defined, 2005 V2:198
access channels for pipes, 2008 V4:134 acme threads, 2004 V1:17
access doors, 2004 V1:17 acoustics in plumbing systems
access openings for pipes, 2008 V4:134 acceptable levels in buildings, 2004 V1:193
accessibility, 2004 V1:17. See also people with disabilities acoustics, defined, 2004 V1:206
Accessibility Guidelines for Buildings and Facilities, 2004 building material acoustic insulation, 2004 V1:193
V1:105 cork insulation, 2008 V4:149150
Accessible and Usable Buildings and Facilities, 2004 critical problems with noise, 2008 V4:145
V1:105, 123, 2008 V4:2 design procedures, 2004 V1:198200
accessories section in specifications, 2004 V1:91 equipment selection, 2004 V1:200
accreditation of health care facilities, 2007 V3:51 flow velocity, 2004 V1:198
accumulate (acc, ACCUM), 2004 V1:14 glossary, 2004 V1:206210
accumulators (acc, ACCUM), 2004 V1:14, 17, 2008 V4:134 gurgling noises in pipes, 2005 V2:37
accuracy hangers and supports, 2008 V4:120
in measurements, 2004 V1:32 insulation and, 2008 V4:105, 115
of pressure-regulating valves, 2005 V2:67 introduction, 2004 V1:193
ACEC (American Consulting Engineers Council), 2004 neoprene vibration control, 2008 V4:149150
V1:62 noise and vibration control, 2004 V1:199200
acetylene, 2005 V2:126 occupied domestic spaces, 2004 V1:196
acfh (actual cfh), 2005 V2:131 pipe sleeves and, 2004 V1:201
acfm (actual cubic feet per minute) pressure and, 2004 V1:200
defined, 2007 V3:76, 169 pumps, 2004 V1:196198, 201202
medical air compressors, 2007 V3:62, 63 ratings for fixtures and appliances, 2004 V1:194195,
medical vacuum systems, 2007 V3:6465 198
vacuum systems, 2005 V2:177178 silencers on vacuum systems, 2005 V2:189

Index 269
sound power levels, 2004 V1:194 ADAAG Review Federal Advisory Committee, 2004 V1:123
system design, 2004 V1:200206 adapter fittings, 2004 V1:17
system layout, 2004 V1:202 addenda in contract documents, 2004 V1:6263
transmission in pipes, 2005 V2:14 addresses of organizations and associations, 2004 V1:58
vacuum systems, 2005 V2:184 59
vibration isolation, 2004 V1:202206 adiabatic processes, 2007 V3:165
water hammer, 2004 V1:198, 201, 2005 V2:7982 adjustable, defined, 2008 V4:134
water piping design, 2004 V1:195196 adjustable diverter plate, fountains, 2007 V3:103
acoustics in swimming pools, 2007 V3:107 adjustment devices, 2008 V4:134
acquisition costs adjustment section in specifications, 2004 V1:71, 92
acquisition prices defined, 2004 V1:222 administrative and operation costs in value engineering.
base acquisition costs, 2004 V1:223 See overhead
ACR/MED pipes, 2008 V4:31 administrative authorities, 2004 V1:17
ACR piping, 2008 V4:31 admiralty brass, 2004 V1:144
acres, converting to SI units, 2004 V1:39 adp, ADP (apparatus dew points), 2004 V1:14
acrylic fixtures, 2008 V4:2 adsorption, 2007 V3:172, 2008 V4:220
acrylic insulation jackets, 2008 V4:108 adult-sized wheelchairs, dimensions, 2004 V1:108. See also
acrylonitrile-butadiene rubber (ABR), 2007 V3:147 wheelchairs
acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene (ABS) Advanced Chem, 2008 V4:224
defined, 2004 V1:17 advanced oxidation water treatment, 2005 V2:228
fixtures, 2008 V4:2 aerated lagoons, 2007 V3:88
insulation jackets, 2008 V4:108 aeration, 2004 V1:17, 2008 V4:196197
pipe characteristics, 2008 V4:4950, 54 aeration cells, 2004 V1:151
piping, 2005 V2:13, 14, 50, 2007 V3:49 aerators
stress and strain figures, 2008 V4:228229 aeration treatment, 2005 V2:208, 228
thermal expansion or contraction, 2008 V4:227 lavatories and sinks, 2007 V3:35
activated alumina air dryers, 2007 V3:172 sovent aerators, 2005 V2:17
activated alumina water treatment, 2005 V2:228, 2008 aerobic bioremediation, 2008 V4:249
V4:187 aerobic, defined, 2004 V1:17
activated carbon filtration (absorphan) aerobic digestion, biosolids, 2008 V4:263
in gray-water systems, 2005 V2:30 aerobic wastewater treatment plants, 2005 V2:157158
in gray-water treatment, 2005 V2:31 AFF (above-finished floor), 2004 V1:14
illustrated, 2005 V2:215 AFFF foam concentrates, 2007 V3:25
overview, 2005 V2:211214 after cold pull elevation, 2008 V4:134
pure-water systems, 2005 V2:231232 after-coolers
RO treatments, 2008 V4:219 air compressors, 2007 V3:171
small water systems, 2005 V2:228 air dryers and, 2007 V3:175
water problems, 2008 V4:187 medical air compressors, 2007 V3:63
well water, 2005 V2:168 after-filters, 2007 V3:171
Activated Carbon Process for Treatment of Wastewater aftercooling, defined, 2007 V3:166
Containing Hexavalent Chromium (EPA 600/2-79- AGA (American Gas Association)
130), 2007 V3:88 defined, 2004 V1:17
activated sludge systems, 2007 V3:88 relief valve standards, 2005 V2:116
active controls, cross-connections, 2008 V4:173175 water heating standards, 2005 V2:124
active, defined, 2004 V1:151 age of water mains, 2007 V3:6
active potential, defined, 2004 V1:151 age-related disabilities, 2004 V1:107
active sludge, 2004 V1:17 agglomeration, 2008 V4:157
Active Solar Energy System Design Practice Manual, 2007 aggressiveness index, 2005 V2:208
V3:194 aging disabilities, 2004 V1:107
active solar systems, 2007 V3:185 aging water mains, 2007 V3:6
active verbs in function analysis, 2004 V1:224, 225 agitators in kill tanks, 2005 V2:252
activities in FAST approach, 2004 V1:231 agreement documents, 2004 V1:62
actual cfh (acfh), 2005 V2:131 agreement states, 2005 V2:248
actual cubic feet per minute. See acfm (actual cubic feet AHJ. See authorities having jurisdiction
per minute) ahp, AHP (air horsepower), 2004 V1:14
actual flow rates, 2007 V3:4, 202 AHU (air-handling units), 2004 V1:14
actual liters per minute (aL/min), 2007 V3:6465, 169 AI (aggressiveness index), 2005 V2:208
actual pressure. See static pressure (SP) AIA (American Institute of Architects). See American
ACU (air-conditioning units), 2004 V1:14 Institute of Architects
ADA. See Americans with Disabilities Act air
ADAAG (Americans with Disabilities Act Accessibility depleted in air chambers, 2005 V2:81
Guidelines), 2004 V1:105, 106 expansion and contraction, 2008 V4:233234

free, 2004 V1:17, 2007 V3:165, 167, 169170 defined, 2004 V1:17, 2008 V4:177, 180
oil-free, 2007 V3:76 shortfalls, 2008 V4:176
in pipes, 2005 V2:2 standards, 2008 V4:172
properties, 2007 V3:165 air-gate valves, 2005 V2:189
standard, 2004 V1:1718 air-handling units (AHU), 2004 V1:14, 267
water vapor in, 2007 V3:169170 air horsepower (ahp, AHP), 2004 V1:14
air, compressed. See compressed air (A, X#, X#A) air intakes, 2007 V3:178, 2008 V4:163
air, free, 2004 V1:17, 2007 V3:165, 167, 169170 air lines
air, oil-free, 2007 V3:76 ABS pipe, 2008 V4:54
air, standard, 2004 V1:17 direct connection hazards, 2008 V4:184
air-admittance valves, 2004 V1:43, 2005 V2:46 air locks, 2004 V1:201
air-bleed vacuum controls, 2005 V2:189 air pressure, 2005 V2:176178, 2007 V3:9
air-bleed valves, 2005 V2:181 air purges in vacuum pumps, 2005 V2:182
air breaks, 2004 V1:17. See also air gaps air receivers, 2007 V3:173174
air chambers (AC) air solar systems, 2007 V3:185
defined, 2004 V1:17 air springs, 2004 V1:203, 210
symbols for, 2004 V1:10 air temperatures, swimming pools and, 2007 V3:107
water hammer arresters, 2004 V1:198, 201, 2005 air tests
V2:8081, 81 in cold-water systems, 2005 V2:103
air circuits in instrumentation, 2007 V3:165 defined, 2004 V1:18
air compressors air velocity in vacuum cleaning systems, 2005 V2:190191
accessories, 2007 V3:171172 air vents in centralized drinking-water systems, 2008
compressed air systems, 2007 V3:170171 V4:246
dry-pipe systems, 2007 V3:9 air vessels (chambers), 2004 V1:198
medical systems, 2007 V3:62 airborne contamination, 2008 V4:213
pulsation, 2007 V3:173 aircraft cable bracing method, 2004 V1:171
selection factors, 2007 V3:178179 aircraft fuel, 2005 V2:12
sizing, 2007 V3:177179 airgaps. See air gaps
types of, 2007 V3:170171 airport runways, piping underneath, 2008 V4:120
vacuum pumps, 2005 V2:180 aL/min (actual liters per minute), 2007 V3:6465, 169
AIR COND (air conditioning). See air-conditioning alachlor levels in drinking water, 2008 V4:186
systems ALARA (as low as reasonably achievable), 2005 V2:248
Air-Conditioning and Refrigeration Institute (ARI), 2004 alarm check valves, 2004 V1:13, 18, 2007 V3:67
V1:4647, 58, 2008 V4:243 alarm lines on sprinklers, 2007 V3:67
air-conditioning cooling towers. See cooling-tower water alarm relays, 2007 V3:2728
air-conditioning engineers, 2007 V3:29 alarms
air-conditioning systems (AIR COND) aboveground tank leakage, 2007 V3:146
direct water connections, 2008 V4:184 defined, 2004 V1:18, 2007 V3:76
fixture-unit values, 2005 V2:8 on bulk oxygen supply, 2007 V3:59
pipes, 2008 V4:31 on corrosive-waste systems, 2007 V3:43
symbols, 2004 V1:14 on hazardous waste systems, 2007 V3:84
waste heat usage, 2004 V1:131 on kill tanks, 2005 V2:252
water chillers, 2008 V4:237 on medical gas systems
air-conditioning units (ACU), 2004 V1:14 area alarms, 2007 V3:6768
air-consuming devices, 2007 V3:174 master alarms, 2007 V3:67
air-cooled after-coolers, 2007 V3:171 testing, 2007 V3:75
air densities, calculating, 2004 V1:5 on vacuum systems, 2005 V2:180, 182
air dryers overfill prevention, 2007 V3:137, 145
compressed air systems, 2007 V3:172173 pressurized fuel delivery systems, 2007 V3:141
deliquescent dryers, 2007 V3:174175 Alaska Earthquake, 2004 V1:161162
desiccant dryers, 2007 V3:175 Albern, W.F., 2005 V2:196
medical air compressors, 2007 V3:63 alcohol-resistant AFFF foam concentrates, 2007 V3:25
refrigerated air dryers, 2007 V3:175 algae, 2005 V2:199, 205, 2008 V4:199, 220221
selection, 2007 V3:173 alkali neutralization, 2008 V4:196
air ducts, 2007 V3:27 alkalinity
air filters after ion exchange, 2008 V4:198199
hydrophilic and hydrophobic, 2008 V4:213214 alkaline solutions in corrosion rates, 2004 V1:145
stills, 2008 V4:213214 boiler feed water, 2005 V2:226
air flow rates, 2004 V1:14 cork and, 2008 V4:149
air gaps. See also air breaks; effective openings dealkalizing treatment, 2005 V2:209210
applications, 2008 V4:185 defined, 2008 V4:221
booster pumps and, 2005 V2:73 distillation feed water, 2008 V4:212

Index 271
low-alkalinity water, 2008 V4:198 American Chemical Society, 2004 V1:153

measuring, 2005 V2:199 American Concrete Institute (ACI), 2005 V2:64, 2008
neutralization of water, 2008 V4:196 V4:252
pH and, 2005 V2:202203, 239, 2007 V3:84 American Consulting Engineers Council (ACEC), 2004
predicting scale and corrosion, 2005 V2:206 V1:62
swimming pools, 2007 V3:123127 American Gas Association (AGA)
water saturation, 2005 V2:207 codes and standards, 2005 V2:126, 127
all-service jackets (ASJ), 2008 V4:108, 110 defined, 2004 V1:17
allowable leakage in compressed air systems, 2007 V3:176 relief valve standards, 2005 V2:116
allowable radiation levels, 2005 V2:247 water heating standards, 2005 V2:124
allowable vacuum system pressure loss, 2005 V2:184 American Institute of Architects (AIA)
alloy pipes, 2004 V1:18 General Conditions of the Contract for Construction,
alloys, 2004 V1:18, 2008 V4:134 2004 V1:62
alpha ray radiation, 2005 V2:246 Masterspec, 2004 V1:71
alt, ALT (altitude), 2004 V1:14 medical gas guidelines, 2007 V3:51
alteration (altrn, ALTRN), 2004 V1:14 specifications format, 2004 V1:63
alternate bracing attachments for pipes, 2004 V1:174 American National Standards Institute (ANSI)
alternating current (ac, AC), 2004 V1:14 abbreviation for, 2004 V1:14, 18
alternative collection and treatment of waste water, 2005 address, 2004 V1:58
V2:153, 157 consensus process, 2004 V1:41
alternative energy solutions, 2004 V1:263267 gas approvals, 2005 V2:126
alternative energy sources, 2004 V1:130131 list of standards, 2004 V1:46
alternative sanitary drainage systems, 2005 V2:1619 MSS standards and, 2008 V4:73
alternative sketches in value engineering, 2004 V1:254, publications, 2004 V1:41
255 ANSI A112.2.1, 2008 V4:184
Alternatives for Small Wastewater Treatment ANSI A112.6.1, 2008 V4:6
Systems:Cost-effectiveness Analysis, 2005 V2:162 ANSI A112.18.3, 2008 V4:13
Alternatives for Small Wastewater Treatment Systems:On- ANSI A112.19.6, 2008 V4:5, 9
site Disposal/Seepage Treatment and Disposal, ANSI A117.1-1980, 2004 V1:105
2005 V2:162 ANSI A117.1-1986, 2004 V1:105
Alternatives for Small Wastewater Treatment ANSI A117.1-1998, 2004 V1:105, 106, 109123,
Systems:Pressure Sewers/Vacuum Sewers, 2005 2008 V4:2, 13
V2:162 ANSI/ASME B16.18 Cast Copper Alloy Solder
alternators Joint Pressure Fittings, 2008 V4:32
medical air compressors, 2007 V3:63 ANSI/ASME B16.22 Wrought Copper and Copper
vacuum systems, 2007 V3:65 Alloy Solder Joint Pressure Fittings, 2008
altitude (alt, ALT), 2004 V1:14, 2007 V3:166. See also V4:32
elevation ANSI-ASSI:Building Code Requirements for
altitude valves, 2005 V2:172 Minimum Design Loads in Buildings and
altrn, ALTRN (alteration), 2004 V1:14 Other Structures, 2004 V1:191
alum, 2005 V2:209, 2008 V4:201 ANSI/AWWA C104/A21.4 Cement Mortar Lining,
aluminosilicates, 2007 V3:172 2008 V4:28
aluminum, 2004 V1:139, 144, 2005 V2:199, 2007 V3:26, ANSI/AWWA C105/A21.5 Polyethylene Encasement,
2008 V4:187 2008 V4:28
aluminum 1100, 2004 V1:141 ANSI/AWWA C110/A21.10 Fitting, 2008 V4:28
aluminum 2017 and 2024, 2004 V1:141 ANSI/AWWA C111/A21.11 Rubber-Gasket Joints,
aluminum hydroxide, 2005 V2:199 2008 V4:28
aluminum jackets, 2008 V4:108 ANSI/AWWA C115/A21.15 Flanged Pipe, 2008
aluminum piping, 2005 V2:50, 2007 V3:49, 176, 2008 V4:28
V4:59 ANSI/AWWA C116/A21.16 Fusion-Bonded Epoxy
aluminum silicates, 2005 V2:215 Coating, 2008 V4:28
aluminum sulfate, 2005 V2:209, 2008 V4:201 ANSI/AWWA C150/A21.50 Thickness Design, 2008
amb, AMB (ambient), 2004 V1:14 V4:28
ambient (amb, AMB), 2004 V1:14 ANSI/AWWA C151/A21.51 Manufacturing, 2008
ambient temperature, 2004 V1:18 V4:28
drinking-water coolers and, 2008 V4:238 ANSI/AWWA C153/A21.53 Compact Fittings, 2008
hangers and supports for systems, 2008 V4:126 V4:28
piping for ambient temperatures, 2008 V4:125 ANSI/AWWA C600 Installation, 2008 V4:28
ambulatory accessible stalls, 2004 V1:114 ANSI B-3.13:Chemical Plant and Petroleum
American Association of State Highway and Refinery Piping, 2007 V3:88
Transportation Officials (AASHTO) ANSI B-16.45 Sovent systems, 2005 V2:17
H20-44 standard, 2008 V4:252 ANSI B16.10, 2008 V4:89

ANSI B16.21, 2008 V4:65 consensus process, 2004 V1:41

ANSI B31.9:Building Services Plumbing, 2008 electronics-grade water standards, 2005 V2:230
V4:61 high-purity water standards, 2005 V2:229
ANSI/NFPA 30:Flammable and Combustible list of standards, 2004 V1:41, 4952
Liquids Code, 2005 V2:127 membrane filters, 2005 V2:204
ANSI/NFPA 54:National Fuel Gas Code, 2007 publications
V3:35, 235, 239 A-53 standard, 2008 V4:48
ANSI/NFPA 58:Liquefied Petroleum Gas Code, A-74 standard, 2008 V4:23, 24
2007 V3:35 A-106 standard, 2008 V4:48
ANSI/UL 144:Pressure Regulating Values for LPG, A-126 standard, 2008 V4:78, 85
2005 V2:127 A-135 standard, 2008 V4:48
ANSI Z83.3:Gas Utilization Equipment for Large A-240 standard, 2008 V4:108
Boilers, 2005 V2:127 A-304 standard, 2008 V4:108
ANSI Z358.1, 2008 V4:17 A-518 standard, 2008 V4:59
ANSI ZE 86.1:Commodity Specification for Air, A-536 standard, 2008 V4:85
2007 V3:62, 78 A-716:Culvert Pipe, 2008 V4:28
ASME/ANSI B16.23 Cast Copper Alloy Solder- A-746:Gravity Sewer Pipe, 2008 V4:28
Joint Drainage Fittings, 2008 V4:42 A-861 standard, 2008 V4:59
ASME/ANSI B16.26 Cast Copper Alloy Fittings for A-888 standard, 2008 V4:24
Flared Copper Tube, 2008 V4:32 B-16.9 standard, 2008 V4:48
ASME/ANSI B16.29 Wrought Copper and Wrought B-16.11 standard, 2008 V4:48
Copper Alloy Solder-Joint Drainage B-16.23:Cast Copper Alloy Solder-Joint Drainage
Fittings, 2008 V4:42 Fittings, 2008 V4:42
NSF Standard no. 61, 2008 V4:56 B-16.28 standard, 2008 V4:48
Z1001 standard, 2008 V4:153 B-16.50:Wrought Copper Braze Fittings, 2008
standard air definition, 2007 V3:168169 V4:42
water hammer arrester certification, 2005 V2:81 B-62 standard, 2008 V4:85
water quality standards, 2005 V2:230 B-75:Specification for Seamless Copper Tube, 2008
web site, 2007 V3:89 V4:32
American Petroleum Institute (API) B-88:Specification for Seamless Copper Water
emergency vent standards, 2007 V3:145 Tube, 2008 V4:32
fiberglass pipe standards, 2008 V4:56 B-99 standard, 2008 V4:85
publications B-209 standard, 2008 V4:108
AOIRP 1004:Bottom Loading and Vapor Recovery B-280:Specification for Seamless Copper Tube for
for MC-306 Tank Motor Vehicles, 2007 Air-conditioning and Refrigeration Field
V3:151 Service, 2008 V4:32
API Bulletin no. 1611:Service Station Tankage B-306:Standard Specification for Copper Drainage
Guide, 2007 V3:151 Tube (DWV), 2008 V4:32, 41
API Bulletin no. 1615:Installation of Underground B-371 standard, 2008 V4:85
Gasoline Tanks and Piping at Service B-584:Specification for Copper Alloy Sand Castings
Stations, 2007 V3:151 for General Applications, 2008 V4:32
API Specification 12D:Large Welded Petroleum B-813:Standard Specification for Liquid and Paste
Tanks, 2007 V3:88 Fluxes for Soldering Applications of Copper
API Specification 12F:Small Welded Petroleum and Copper Alloy Tube, 2008 V4:32, 62
Tanks, 2007 V3:88 B-819:Specification for Seamless Copper Tube for
API Standard 250:Steel Tanks for Oil Storage, Medical Gas Systems, 2008 V4:32
2007 V3:88 B-828:Standard Practice for Making Capillary
removal of globules standards, 2005 V2:255256 Joints by Soldering of Copper and Copper
separators, 2007 V3:87 Alloy Tube and Fittings, 2008 V4:32, 62
valve standards, 2008 V4:73 B-837:Specification for Seamless Copper Tube for
web site, 2007 V3:89, 151 Natural Gas and Liquefied Petroleum (LP)
American Public Health Service, 2005 V2:203 Gas Fuel Distribution Systems, 2008 V4:32
American Rainwater Catchment Systems Association, C-12 standard, 2008 V4:56
2008 V4:265 C-14:Standard Specification for Concrete Sewer,
American Society for Healthcare Engineering (ASHE), Storm Drain, and Culvert Pipe for Non-
2005 V2:118 reinforced Concrete, 2008 V4:28
American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) C-33:Specification for Concrete Aggregates, 2008
abbreviation for, 2004 V1:18 V4:252
address, 2004 V1:58 C-76:Standard Specification for Reinforced
ASTM A53 piping, 2007 V3:239 Concrete Culverts, Storm Drain, and Sewer
ASTM A106 piping, 2007 V3:239 Pipe, 2008 V4:38
ASTM B819 tubing, 2007 V3:69 C-94:Specification for Ready Mix Concrete, 2008

Index 273
V4:252 F-442 standard, 2008 V4:54

C-150:Specification for Portland Cement, 2008 F 628 standard, 2008 V4:54
V4:252 F-771 standard, 2008 V4:51
C-260:Specification for Air Entraining Admixtures F-810 standard, 2008 V4:51
for Concrete, 2008 V4:252 F-876 standard, 2008 V4:52
C-301 standard, 2008 V4:56 F-877 standard, 2008 V4:52
C-443:Standard Specification for Joints for F-1055 standard, 2008 V4:55
Circular Concrete Sewer and Culvert Pipe, F-1056 standard, 2008 V4:55
Using Rubber Gaskets, 2008 V4:32 F-1281 standard, 2008 V4:52
C-534 standard, 2008 V4:106107 F-1290-989:Electrofusion Joining Polyolefin Pipe
C-547 standard, 2008 V4:106 and Fittings, 2008 V4:63
C-564 standard, 2008 V4:24, 60 F-1412 standard, 2008 V4:55
C-655:Standard Specification for Reinforced F-2389 standard, 2008 V4:55
Concrete D-Load Culvert Storm Drain and reagent-grade water standards, 2005 V2:197, 229, 2008
Sewer Pipe for Reinforced Concrete Pipe, V4:218
2008 V4:28 American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE)
C-700 standard, 2008 V4:56 contract publications, 2004 V1:62
C-828 standard, 2008 V4:56 sewer publications, 2005 V2:64
C-896 standard, 2008 V4:56 American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-
C-1091 standard, 2008 V4:56 Conditioning Engineers, Inc. (ASHRAE)
C-1208 standard, 2008 V4:56 address, 2004 V1:58
C-1277 standard, 2008 V4:61 cold water systems, 2005 V2:104
C-1540 standard, 2008 V4:24 defined, 2004 V1:18
D-638 standard, 2008 V4:55 hot-water recirculation systems, 2004 V1:265
D-696 standard, 2008 V4:227 Legionella standards, 2005 V2:118
D-1527 standard, 2008 V4:54 list of standards, 2004 V1:47
D-1785 standard, 2008 V4:53 publications, 2007 V3:194
D-2235 standard, 2008 V4:54 Equipment Handbook, 2007 V3:194
D-2239 standard, 2008 V4:51 Handbook of Fundamentals, 2004 V1:2, 5, 6, 40,
D-2241 standard, 2008 V4:53 2007 V3:162, 194
D-2464 standard, 2008 V4:53 Standard 15, 2008 V4:247
D-2466 standard, 2008 V4:53 Standard 18:Methods of Testing for Rating
D-2467 standard, 2008 V4:53 Drinking Water Coolers with Self-
D-2564 standard, 2008 V4:53 Contained Mechanical Refrigeration
D-2609 standard, 2008 V4:51 Systems, 2008 V4:243, 247
D-2661 standard, 2008 V4:54 Standard 90.1, 2008 V4:116
D-2665 standard, 2008 V4:53 Systems and Applications Handbook, 2007 V3:194
D-2672 standard, 2008 V4:53 water heating codes and standards, 2005 V2:124
D-2680 standard, 2008 V4:54 American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME)
D-2729 standard, 2008 V4:53 address, 2004 V1:58
D-2737 standard, 2008 V4:51 air receivers, 2007 V3:173
D-2751 standard, 2008 V4:54 defined, 2004 V1:18
D-2846 standard, 2008 V4:53 drinking water cooler standards, 2008 V4:247
D-2863:Method for Measuring the Minimum fired and unfired pressure vessel standards, 2005
Oxygen Concentration to Support Candle- V2:124
like Combustion of Plastics, 2007 V3:78 list of standards, 2004 V1:4748
D-2996 standard, 2008 V4:56 publications
D-3035 standard, 2008 V4:51 ANSI/ASME A112.6.1, 2008 V4:6
D-3222 standard, 2008 V4:55 ANSI/ASME A112.18.1, 2008 V4:13
D-3309 standard, 2008 V4:51 ANSI/ASME A112.19.6, 2008 V4:5, 9
D-5127 standard, 2008 V4:55 ANSI/ASME B16.18:Cast Copper Alloy Solder
E-33.08b:Plumbing Noise, 2004 V1:194 Joint Pressure Fittings, 2008 V4:32
E-84 standard, 2008 V4:106 ANSI/ASME B16.22:Wrought Copper and Copper
F-437 standard, 2008 V4:53 Alloy Solder Joint Pressure Fittings, 2008
F-438 standard, 2008 V4:53 V4:32
F-439 standard, 2008 V4:53 ANSI/ASME B16.23:Cast Copper Alloy Solder
F-441 standard, 2008 V4:53 Joint Pressure Fittings (DWV), 2008 V4:32

ANSI/ASME B16.24:Cast Copper Alloy Pipe ANSI/AWWA C116/A21.16:Fusion-Bonded Epoxy

Flanges and Flanged Fittings, 2008 V4:32 Coating, 2008 V4:28
ANSI/ASME B16.26:Cast Copper Alloy Fittings for ANSI/AWWA C150/A21.50:Thickness Design, 2008
Flared Copper Tube, 2008 V4:32 V4:28
ANSI/ASME B16.29:Wrought Copper and Copper ANSI/AWWA C151/A21.51:Manufacturing, 2008
Alloy Solder Joint Pressure Fittings V4:28
(DWV), 2008 V4:32, 42 ANSI/AWWA C153/A21.53:Compact Fittings, 2008
ANSI/ASME B16.39:Cast Copper Alloy Solder V4:28
Joint Pressure Fittings (DWV), 2008 V4:32 ANSI/AWWA C509-89:Standard for Resilient-
ASME A17.1:Safety Code for Elevators and Seated Gate Valves, 2008 V4:85
Escalators, 2007 V3:29 ANSI/AWWA C509:Standard for Resilient-Seated
ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code, 2007 V3:88 Gate Valves, 2008 V4:90
Fuel-Gas Piping, 2005 V2:144 ANSI/AWWA C550-90:Standard for Protective
Grease Removal Devices, 2008 V4:166 Epoxy Interior Coating for Valves, 2008
relief valve standards, 2005 V2:116 V4:85
web site, 2007 V3:89 ANSI/AWWA C550:Standard for Protective Epoxy
American Society of Plumbing Engineers (ASPE) Interior Coating for Valves, 2008 V4:90
ASPE Solar Energy System Design Handbook, 2004 ANSI/AWWA C600:Installation, 2008 V4:28
V1:130, 2007 V3:194 ANSI/AWWA C651:Disinfecting, 2008 V4:28
defined, 2004 V1:18 AWWA Cross Connection Control Manual, 2005
Domestic Water Heating Design Manual, 2005 V2:104, V2:104
2007 V3:47 AWWA Standard for Disinfecting Water Mains,
medical gas station guidelines, 2007 V3:51, 5253 2005 V2:104
publications, 2005 V2:47 AWWA Standard for Disinfection of Water Storage
American Society of Plumbing Engineers Research Facilities, 2005 V2:104
Foundation (ASPERF), 2004 V1:18 water purveyor responsibility statement, 2008 V4:184
American Society of Safety Engineers (ASSE), 2004 V1:18 water usage data, 2008 V4:255
American Society of Sanitary Engineering (ASSE), 2004 web site, 2008 V4:224
V1:18 American Welding Society (AWS), 2004 V1:52, 58, 167,
address, 2004 V1:58 2008 V4:61
ASSE 1001 standard, 2008 V4:185 American wire gage (AWG), 2004 V1:14
ASSE 1002, 2008 V4:8 Americans with Disabilities Act Accessibility Guidelines
ASSE 1011 standard, 2008 V4:185 (ADAAG), 2004 V1:106
ASSE 1012 standard, 2008 V4:185 Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA)
ASSE 1013 standard, 2008 V4:185 ADAAG Review Federal Advisory Committee, 2004
ASSE 1015 standard, 2008 V4:185 V1:123
ASSE 1020 standard, 2008 V4:185 faucet flow rates, 2004 V1:135
ASSE 1024 standard, 2008 V4:185 fixture standards, 2008 V4:2
ASSE 1035 standard, 2008 V4:185 history, 2004 V1:106
ASSE 1056 standard, 2008 V4:185 overview, 2004 V1:105
cross connection control, 2008 V4:179 swimming pool guidelines, 2007 V3:130
list of standards, 2004 V1:4849 Amin, P., 2005 V2:234
water hammer arrester certification, 2005 V2:81 amines in boiler feed water, 2008 V4:214
American standard pipe threads, 2004 V1:18 ammonia (NH3), 2005 V2:199, 209, 2008 V4:211212
American Standards Association. See American National ammonium alum, 2008 V4:201
Standards Institute (ANSI) ammonium hydroxide (NH4OH), 2008 V4:211212
American Water Works Association (AWWA) amoebic dysentery, 2008 V4:171
address, 2004 V1:58 amp, AMP, AMPS (ampere). See amperes
cold water systems, 2005 V2:67 ampacity, 2007 V3:76
cross connection control, 2008 V4:179 amperes (A, amp, AMP, AMPS)
defined, 2004 V1:18 ampere-hours, 2004 V1:139
list of standards, 2004 V1:52 amperes per meter, 2004 V1:33
publications measurement conversions, 2004 V1:33
ANSI/AWWA C104/A21.4:Cement Mortar Lining, symbols for, 2004 V1:14
2008 V4:28 amphoteric corrosion, defined, 2004 V1:151
ANSI/AWWA C105/A21.5:Polyethylene Encasement, amphoteric materials, 2004 V1:145
2008 V4:28 amusement parks
ANSI/AWWA C110/A21.10:Fittings, 2008 V4:28 drinking fountain usage, 2008 V4:245
ANSI/AWWA C111/A21.11:Rubber-Gasket Joints, numbers of fixtures for, 2008 V4:18
2008 V4:28 anaerobic bacteria in septic tanks, 2005 V2:153
ANSI/AWWA C115/A21.15:Flanged Pipe, 2008 anaerobic bioremediation, 2008 V4:249
V4:28 anaerobic digestion, biosolids, 2008 V4:263

Index 275
anaerobic wastewater treatment, 2007 V3:88 annual costs. See costs and economic concerns
anaerobic, defined, 2004 V1:18, 151 annular chambers in dry-pipe systems, 2007 V3:8
Analysis phase of value engineering, 2004 V1:213, 224. See annular spaces in wells, 2005 V2:164, 166
also Function Analysis phase in value engineering anodes
analytical grade water, 2005 V2:229 anode expected life, 2004 V1:148
anchor bolts, 2008 V4:134 anodic protection, 2004 V1:151152
anchoring equipment defined, 2004 V1:139, 151
anchorage forces in earthquakes, 2004 V1:186 galvanic series of metals, 2004 V1:141
anchors, defined, 2004 V1:191 sacrificial anodes, 2004 V1:147
fire-protection equipment, 2007 V3:27 anodic inhibitors, 2004 V1:151
illustrations of potential problems, 2004 V1:189 anodic potential (electronegative potential), 2004 V1:153
seismic protection, 2004 V1:163 anodic protection, defined, 2004 V1:151152
anchoring pipes, 2005 V2:16, 63 ANSI. See American National Standards Institute (ANSI)
anchors, defined, 2008 V4:134 anthracite coal filters, 2005 V2:168, 211
anchors for hangers and supports, 2008 V4:127131 anthropometrics for wheelchairs, 2004 V1:109
DWV stacks, 2008 V4:229 anti-cross-connection precautions, 2005 V2:35
hangers and supports, 2008 V4:125 anti-siphon ballcocks, 2008 V4:8
types of anchors, 2008 V4:6365, 123 antifreeze, 2008 V4:189190
water hammer and, 2008 V4:119 apartment buildings
anchors, defined, 2004 V1:18, 12004 V1:191, 2008 V4:134 firefighting demand flow rates, 2007 V3:216
anechoic chambers, 2004 V1:198 gas demand, 2005 V2:135, 136
anesthesia workrooms hot water demand, 2005 V2:109, 110
fixtures, 2007 V3:39 natural gas demand, 2005 V2:135
health care facilities, 2007 V3:36 numbers of fixtures for, 2008 V4:19, 20
medical air, 2007 V3:53 water consumption, 2008 V4:208
medical gas stations, 2007 V3:52 API. See American Petroleum Institute
anesthetic gas management, 2007 V3:6667 apparatus dew points (adp, ADP), 2004 V1:14
anesthetics, 2007 V3:76 appearance functions
anesthetizing locations, 2007 V3:76 defined, 2004 V1:225
ANG (angle). See angles (ANG) in value engineering, 2004 V1:243
ANGI (angles of incidence), 2004 V1:14 appearance of pipes, 2008 V4:105, 107
angle-globe valves, 2008 V4:83 appliances. See also fixtures
angle of incidence, defined, 2007 V3:183 acoustic ratings, 2004 V1:194195, 198
angle of reflection, defined, 2007 V3:183 codes and standards, 2004 V1:4344
angle of refraction, defined, 2007 V3:183 gas control valves, 2005 V2:127
angle snubbers, 2004 V1:165 gas demand, 2005 V2:128
angle stops, 2004 V1:18 gas regulators, 2007 V3:237
angle valves (AV), 2004 V1:9, 18 Applied Polymer Science, 2008 V4:224
defined, 2008 V4:76 Applied Technology Council (ATC), 2004 V1:183, 191
resistance coefficients, 2005 V2:100 approaches to toilet compartments, 2004 V1:114
stems, 2008 V4:79 approvals
angled grates in school shower rooms, 2005 V2:11 for radioactive materials systems, 2005 V2:248
angles (ANG) for special-waste drainage systems, 2005 V2:237238
measurements, 2004 V1:33 approved, defined, 2004 V1:18, 2008 V4:180
symbols, 2004 V1:14 approved testing agencies, 2004 V1:18
angles of bend, 2004 V1:18 approximate (approx., APPROX)
angles of incidence (ANGI), 2004 V1:14 approximate values, 2004 V1:32
angular acceleration measurements, 2004 V1:33 defined, 2004 V1:14
angular velocity measurements, 2004 V1:33 appurtenances, in plumbing cost estimation, 2004 V1:93,
animal research centers, 2005 V2:251, 2007 V3:52 97
animal shelters, 2005 V2:15 aquastats, 2004 V1:10
animal treatment rooms, 2007 V3:47 Aqueous Film-Forming Foam (AFFF), 2007 V3:25
anion exchange aquifers
anion exchangers defined, 2008 V4:197 defined, 2005 V2:163164
in water treatment, 2008 V4:187 formation of, 2005 V2:163
anions potentiometric surfaces, 2005 V2:165
anion resins, 2005 V2:201, 218 unconsolidated aquifers, 2005 V2:165
defined, 2004 V1:151, 2005 V2:197, 2008 V4:197, 221 Arabic numerals, 2004 V1:32
in electromotive force series, 2004 V1:144 arcades, numbers of fixtures for, 2008 V4:18
in ion exchange, 2005 V2:215, 216 Architect-engineers Turf Sprinkler Manual, 2007 V3:96
in pH values, 2005 V2:239 architects supplemental instructions (ASI), 2004 V1:63
annealed temper (soft), 2008 V4:32 Architectural Barriers Act (90-480), 2004 V1:106

area (A) ASTs (aboveground storage tanks). See aboveground tank

calculating, 2004 V1:35 systems
conversion factors, 2004 V1:35 ATBCB (U.S. Architectural and Transportation Barriers
measurements, 2004 V1:33 Compliance Board), 2004 V1:106, 107
non-SI units, 2004 V1:34 ATC-3 (Tentative Provisions for the Development of
symbols, 2004 V1:14 Seismic Regulations for Buildings), 2004 V1:183,
area alarms, 2007 V3:50, 6768, 75 191
area, aperture, defined, 2007 V3:183 Atienze, J., 2005 V2:35
area drains, 2004 V1:18 atm, ATM (atmospheres). See atmospheres
area, gross collector, defined, 2007 V3:183 atmospheres (atm, ATM)
areas of sprinkler operation, 2007 V3:12 converting to SI units, 2004 V1:39
arenas, numbers of fixtures for, 2008 V4:18 symbols, 2004 V1:14
ARI (Air Conditioning and Refrigeration Institute), 2004 vacuum units, 2005 V2:176
V1:4647, 58, 2008 V4:243 atmospheric backflow preventers, 2008 V4:185
arm baths, 2005 V2:109, 2007 V3:36, 38, 40 atmospheric pressure
Army Corps of Engineers, 2004 V1:63 Boyles law, 2008 V4:233234
arresters for water hammer. See water hammer arresters defined, 2008 V4:177
arsenic atmospheric pressure breakers, 2008 V4:177
levels in drinking water, 2008 V4:186 atmospheric pressure in vacuum, 2005 V2:175
treating in water, 2008 V4:187 atmospheric regulators, 2007 V3:237
arterial vents, 2004 V1:18 atmospheric tanks
articulated-ceiling medical gas systems, 2007 V3:57 defined, 2007 V3:133
as built, defined, 2008 V4:134 foam, 2007 V3:25
as low as reasonably achievable (ALARA), 2005 V2:248 venting, 2007 V3:137
ASA. See American National Standards Institute (ANSI) atmospheric vacuum breakers (AVB)
ASA A117.1-1961, 2004 V1:105 defined, 2004 V1:18, 2008 V4:177, 180
asbestos cement piping, 2005 V2:83, 2007 V3:232 dual check with atmospheric vent devices, 2008 V4:180,
asbestos in water, 2008 V4:187 185
ASCE. See American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE) faucets, 2008 V4:13
ASHE (American Society for Healthcare Engineering), illustrated, 2008 V4:175
2005 V2:118 irrigation sprinklers, 2007 V3:95
ASHRAE. See American Society of Heating, Refrigerating atmospheric vaporizers, 2007 V3:59
and Air-Conditioning Engineers, Inc. (ASHRAE) atmospheric vent devices, 2008 V4:180, 185
ASI (architects supplemental instructions), 2004 V1:63 atmospheric vents (steam or hot vapor) (ATV), 2004 V1:9
ASJ (all-service jackets), 2008 V4:108, 110 atomic absorption spectrophotometry, 2008 V4:218
ASME. See American Society of Mechanical Engineers atrazine levels in drinking water, 2008 V4:186
(ASME) attachments, 2004 V1:191
ASPE. See American Society of Plumbing Engineers atto prefix, 2004 V1:34
(ASPE) ATV (atmospheric vents), 2004 V1:9
ASPERF (American Society of Plumbing Engineers Auciello, Eugene P., 2005 V2:64
Research Foundation), 2004 V1:18 auditoriums, numbers of fixtures for, 2008 V4:18, 20
asphalt-dipped piping, 2005 V2:86 augered wells, 2005 V2:164
aspirators, 2004 V1:18, 2007 V3:40, 2008 V4:184 austenitic stainless steel, 2008 V4:59
ASSE. See American Society of Safety Engineers (ASSE); authorities having jurisdiction
American Society of Sanitary Engineering (ASSE) alternative sanitary systems, 2005 V2:16
assemblies, defined, 2008 V4:134 cross-connection programs, 2008 V4:177
assembly costs, 2004 V1:222 defined, 2004 V1:17, 18, 2007 V3:76
assembly halls fire-protection system design, 2007 V3:1
drinking fountain usage, 2008 V4:245 gaseous fire-suppression systems, 2007 V3:26
numbers of fixtures for, 2008 V4:18, 20 manholes, 2007 V3:217
single-occupant toilet rooms, 2008 V4:18 medical gas stations, 2007 V3:51
assisted creativity, 2004 V1:232 public sewer availability, 2007 V3:217
assisted living facilities, numbers of fixtures for, 2008 swimming pools, 2007 V3:105
V4:19 autoclaves, 2008 V4:184
Association for the Advancement of Medical automatic air vents (AAV), 2004 V1:10
Instrumentation (AAMI), 2005 V2:197, 229, 230 automatic alternators, 2007 V3:65
Association of Pool and Spa Professionals (APSP), 2007 automatic controls on ion exchangers, 2008 V4:198
V3:105 automatic drain valves, 2007 V3:95
Association of State Drinking Water Administrators, 2005 automatic drains in vacuum systems, 2007 V3:65
V2:163 automatic fire-detection devices, 2007 V3:9
ASTM. See American Society for Testing and Materials automatic fire-protection systems
(ASTM) history and objectives, 2007 V3:12

Index 277
pipes and hangers, 2007 V3:1819 wall (WAZ), 2004 V1:14

automatic flushometer valves, 2008 V4:8
automatic grease interceptors, 2008 V4:159160
automatic grease recovery devices, 2008 V4:185
B
B-16.9 standard, 2008 V4:48
automatic heat-up method, condensate drainage, 2007 B-16.11 standard, 2008 V4:48
V3:160 B-16.28 standard, 2008 V4:48
automatic overfill prevention, 2007 V3:145 b/m (bills of material), 2004 V1:14
automatic overrides for irrigation controllers, 2007 V3:95 back pressure tests, 2008 V4:5
automatic purity monitors, 2008 V4:214 back pressures in pipes, 2005 V2:2, 4, 2007 V3:237, 2008
automatic softeners, 2008 V4:221 V4:170171, 171
automatic sprinkler systems back-siphonage, 2004 V1:18, 2005 V2:67, 2007 V3:95. See
combined dry-pipe and pre-action, 2007 V3:1011 also backflow; siphonage
design density, 2007 V3:1112 defined, 2008 V4:177, 180
elevator shafts, 2007 V3:29 devices for, 2008 V4:185
fire hazard evaluation, 2007 V3:2 reverse flow, cause of, 2008 V4:170171
fire pumps for, 2007 V3:2122 back-spud water closets, 2008 V4:3
gaseous fire-suppression systems and, 2007 V3:26 back-to-back water closets, 2008 V4:6
history, 2007 V3:12 backfilling
hydraulic design, 2007 V3:1117 around septic tanks, 2005 V2:154
numbers of sprinklers in operation, 2007 V3:12 backfill defined, 2004 V1:18
pipes and hangers, 2007 V3:9, 1819 building sewers and, 2005 V2:14
pre-action systems, 2007 V3:9 labor productivity rates, 2004 V1:96
system design, 2007 V3:220 in plumbing cost estimation, 2004 V1:93
types, 2004 V1:29, 2007 V3:611 storage tanks, 2007 V3:135, 150
water supplies, 2007 V3:26 backflow. See also back-siphonage
Automatic Sprinkler Systems Handbook, 2004 V1:191 backflow connections, defined, 2004 V1:18
automatic storage water heaters, 2005 V2:111 defined, 2004 V1:18, 2005 V2:67, 2008 V4:177, 180
automatic tank gauging, 2007 V3:139140 devices for, 2008 V4:185
automatic trap primers, 2005 V2:10 prevention, 2008 V4:173176, 177
automotive traffic, 2005 V2:11 swing check valves, 2008 V4:77
autopsy rooms testing devices, 2008 V4:183
fixtures, 2007 V3:38, 40 backflow preventers
health care facilities, 2007 V3:36 applications, 2008 V4:185
medical gas stations, 2007 V3:52, 56 codes, 2004 V1:42
medical vacuum, 2007 V3:54 cold-water systems, 2005 V2:6970
non-potable water, 2007 V3:47 cross-connection control devices, 2005 V2:6970
auxiliary energy subsystems, 2007 V3:183 defined, 2004 V1:18, 2008 V4:177, 178179, 180
auxiliary stops, 2008 V4:134 domestic cold water systems, 2005 V2:6970
auxiliary water supplies domestic water supply, 2007 V3:206208
defined, 2008 V4:180 existing devices, 2008 V4:183
direct connection hazards, 2008 V4:184 faucets, 2008 V4:1314
AV (acid vents), 2004 V1:8, 17 fire-protection connections, 2007 V3:209, 212
AV (angle valves). See angle valves (AV) fixtures in health care facilities, 2007 V3:35
availability. See demand pressure loss, 2007 V3:207208
available vacuum, safety factors and, 2005 V2:195 reduced pressure zones, 2007 V3:207208
AVB. See atmospheric vacuum breakers (AVB) spill proof indoors, 2008 V4:185
average (avg, AVG), defined, 2004 V1:14 thermal expansion compensation and, 2005 V2:116
average flow rates for fixtures, 2008 V4:207 vacuum breakers, 2007 V3:35, 4647
avg, AVG (average), 2004 V1:14 background levels of radiation, 2005 V2:247
AW (acid wastes), 2004 V1:8, 17, 2007 V3:4246, 2008 backing rings, 2004 V1:18
V4:54 backup, defined, 2004 V1:18
AWG (American wire gage), 2004 V1:14 backup demineralizers, 2007 V3:48
AWS. See American Welding Society (AWS) backup storm-drainage systems, 2005 V2:5556
AWWA. See American Water Works Association (AWWA) backwash from water softeners, 2005 V2:168, 220
axial braces, 2008 V4:134 backwashing
axial motions, hangers and supports and, 2008 V4:119, 124 defined, 2008 V4:221
axial pumps, 2008 V4:9397 filters, 2005 V2:211, 2008 V4:203
Ayres, J.M., 2004 V1:191 pressure differential switches, 2008 V4:203
az, AZ (azimuth). See azimuth (az, AZ) in regeneration cycle, 2005 V2:217
azimuth (az, AZ) backwater valves, 2004 V1:19, 43, 2005 V2:12
solar (SAZ), 2004 V1:14 bacteria
symbols for, 2004 V1:14 biological fouling, 2005 V2:205, 228

chemical control, 2005 V2:223 symbols for, 2004 V1:14

copper-silver ionization, 2008 V4:220 vacuums and, 2005 V2:176
defined, 2008 V4:221 barometric (baro, BARO), defined, 2004 V1:14
demineralizer systems, 2007 V3:48 barometric loops, 2008 V4:180
distilled water and, 2007 V3:48, 2008 V4:195, 212 barometric pressure (baro pr, BARO PR, BP)
in drinking water, 2005 V2:168, 2008 V4:186 altitude adjustments, 2005 V2:178
in feed water, 2005 V2:198199 barometric, defined, 2004 V1:14
in filters, 2005 V2:211 barometric pressure, defined, 2004 V1:15
in hot water, 2007 V3:47 defined, 2007 V3:166, 167, 169
killing in water systems, 2005 V2:120122 in vacuums, 2005 V2:176, 194
laboratory grade water and, 2008 V4:218 barrels
ozone treatments and, 2008 V4:215216 converting to SI units, 2004 V1:39
in septic tanks, 2005 V2:153 dimensions, 2008 V4:2527
solar water heating and, 2007 V3:189 barrier free, 2004 V1:18. See also people with disabilities
in water-heating systems, 2005 V2:117122 barrier-free water coolers, 2008 V4:239
in wells, 2005 V2:166 barriers
bacteriological examination, 2008 V4:221 around tanks, 2007 V3:146
baffle systems, 2007 V3:48 in sound insulation, 2004 V1:193
bioremediation pretreatment systems, 2008 V4:252 bars, converting to SI units, 2004 V1:39
bioremediation systems, 2008 V4:250 bars, numbers of fixtures for, 2008 V4:18
grease interceptors, 2008 V4:158 base acquisition costs, 2004 V1:223
in stills, 2008 V4:213 base materials
baffleplates, 2004 V1:18 base defined, 2004 V1:18
bag-filter gross filtration, 2005 V2:211 compounds in water, 2005 V2:198
Bahamas, gray-water systems in, 2005 V2:35 pH control, 2007 V3:8485
bailers, 2007 V3:140 base supports, 2008 V4:134
baking soda, 2008 V4:193 base units, 2004 V1:33
balanced-piston valves, 2008 V4:81 basic functions in value engineering, 2004 V1:225, 227,
balancing cocks, 2008 V4:246 230
balancing pumps, 2004 V1:197 basic material standards, 2004 V1:66
balancing valves (BLV), 2004 V1:9 Basic Plumbing Code (BOCA), 2007 V3:134
ball check valves, 2004 V1:18 basket strainers, 2005 V2:100
ball joints, 2004 V1:171, 2008 V4:64 bathhouses, 2005 V2:159, 2007 V3:107109
ball removal tests, 2008 V4:5 bathing rooms, 2004 V1:112113
Ball Valves, 2008 V4:85, 86, 87, 90 bathroom groups, 2007 V3:198
ball valves (BV), 2004 V1:9, 18, 2005 V2:100, 240, 2007 bathtub fill valves, 2008 V4:16
V3:67 bathtubs
compressed-air systems, 2008 V4:86 accessibility design, 2004 V1:117119
defined, 2008 V4:7677 acoustic ratings of, 2004 V1:194
high-rise service, 2008 V4:90 bathtub enclosures, 2004 V1:118119
hot and cold water supply service, 2008 V4:85 estimated water flows from, 2005 V2:33
low-pressure steam systems, 2008 V4:87 fill valves, 2008 V4:185
medical gas service, 2008 V4:87 fixture pipe sizes and demand, 2005 V2:94
quarter-turn, 2008 V4:84 fixture-unit loads, 2005 V2:3
vacuum system service, 2008 V4:87 grab bars, 2004 V1:116, 117
Ballanco, Julius, 2005 V2:64 gray-water systems and, 2004 V1:135, 2005 V2:26
ballast pads, 2007 V3:150 health care facilities, 2007 V3:36
ballcocks, 2008 V4:8 hot water demand, 2005 V2:109
Baltimore Dept. of Public Works, 2005 V2:35 infant bathtubs, 2007 V3:38
band hangers, 2008 V4:126, 134 minimum numbers of, 2008 V4:1821
banquet halls, numbers of fixtures for, 2008 V4:18 overflows, 2008 V4:15
baptismal fonts, 2008 V4:184 patient rooms, 2007 V3:37
bar joist hangers, 2008 V4:129 resilient-mounting design, 2004 V1:206
bar joists, 2008 V4:130 seats, 2004 V1:122
barber shop water consumption, 2008 V4:208 sound-damping materials, 2004 V1:196
bare pipe, 2004 V1:150, 2004 V1:150 standards, 2008 V4:2
bariatric water closets (WC), 2008 V4:5, 7 submerged inlet hazards, 2008 V4:184
barium, 2005 V2:199, 2008 V4:186, 187 temperatures, 2007 V3:47
baro, BARO (barometric), 2004 V1:14 types and requirements, 2008 V4:1516
baro pr, BARO PR (barometric pressure). See barometric water fixture unit values, 2007 V3:198
pressure batteries
barometers (baro, BARO) corrosion cells in sacrificial anodes, 2004 V1:148

Index 279
of fixtures, 2004 V1:18 bicarbonate of soda, 2008 V4:193

batteries of fixtures bicarbonates, 2005 V2:199, 206, 210, 2008 V4:196, 199
circuit and loop venting, 2005 V2:4041 bid bonds, 2004 V1:62
defined, 2005 V2:39 bid by invitation, 2004 V1:62
battery-controlled valves, 2004 V1:135 bid shopping, 2004 V1:68
battery installations of water-pressure regulators, 2008 bidders
V4:82 defined, 2004 V1:61
Baumeister, Theodore, 2004 V1:1, 2, 3, 5, 40 information in project manuals, 2004 V1:61
BCMC (Board for Coordination of Model Codes), 2004 well construction, 2005 V2:172
V1:106 bidding documents, 2004 V1:61
BCuP brazing, 2008 V4:42 bidding requirements, 2004 V1:61
beach components in pools, 2007 V3:107 Biddison, 2004 V1:191
bead-to-bead joints, 2008 V4:48, 63 bidets, 2005 V2:94, 2007 V3:198, 2008 V4:2, 16, 184
bead-to-cut-glass end joints, 2008 V4:48 bilge pumps, 2008 V4:99
bead-to-plain-end joints, 2008 V4:63 bills of material (b/m, BOM), 2004 V1:14
beads, ion exchange, 2008 V4:197199 bimetallic traps, 2007 V3:158
beam attachments, 2008 V4:129 binding, preventing in cleanouts, 2005 V2:9
beam clamps, 2004 V1:190, 2008 V4:122, 126, 129, 134 biochemical measurements of microorganisms, 2005
bearing plates. See roll plates; slide plates V2:199
Beausoliel, R.W., 2005 V2:48 biocides, 2005 V2:223, 227, 228, 232233
beauty shops, 2008 V4:208 biodegradable foam extinguishers, 2007 V3:25
Beckman, W.A., 2007 V3:194 biofilm, 2005 V2:120, 2008 V4:250251
bed depths, 2008 V4:221 biofouling, 2005 V2:205, 227
bed locator units, 2007 V3:55 biohazardous materials. See infectious and biological waste
bedding and settlement systems
building sewers and, 2005 V2:1415 biological and biomedical laboratories. See laboratories
defined, 2007 V3:217218 biological characteristics of drinking water, 2005 V2:228
illustrated, 2007 V3:219 biological control in pure water systems. See microbial
pipe supports and, 2005 V2:13 growth and control
protecting against settlement, 2005 V2:16 biological fouling, 2005 V2:205, 227
settlement loads, 2004 V1:186 biological oxygen demand (BOD), 2007 V3:25, 87, 2008
bedpan washers, 2007 V3:36, 37, 39, 40, 2008 V4:184 V4:221, 250
bell-and-spigot joints and piping. See also hub-and-spigot biological treatment
piping and joints in gray-water treatment, 2005 V2:32
defined, 2004 V1:18 of oil spills, 2005 V2:255
earthquake protection and, 2004 V1:167 in pure water systems, 2005 V2:232233
bell-hub depressions, 2005 V2:14 of sewage in septic tanks, 2005 V2:153
bell-mouth inlets or reducers, 2005 V2:101 wastewater treatment plants, 2007 V3:8788
bellows expansion joints, 2008 V4:229 biological waste systems. See infectious and biological
bellows-style water hammer arresters, 2005 V2:81, 82 waste systems
bellows traps, 2007 V3:158 biopure water, 2007 V3:4748
bells, defined, 2004 V1:18 defined, 2008 V4:195
belt-driven compressors, 2008 V4:242 distillation, 2008 V4:195
bend-and-loop pipe configurations, 2004 V1:199 bioreactors, 2008 V4:249
bending moments, 2008 V4:228 bioremediation grease interceptor, 2008 V4:160
bending movements, 2004 V1:35 bioremediation pretreatment systems
bending pipes, 2008 V4:63 codes and standards, 2008 V4:251252
bending presses, 2008 V4:63 defined, 2008 V4:249
benefits in value engineering presentations, 2004 V1:258 dimensions and performance, 2008 V4:253
Bennett, E.R., 2005 V2:161 flow control, 2008 V4:251
bentonite clay, 2005 V2:215 materials and structure, 2008 V4:252253
bentonite grout, 2005 V2:167 principles, 2008 V4:249251
bents, 2008 V4:134 retention system, 2008 V4:250
benzene levels in drinking water, 2008 V4:186 separation, 2008 V4:249250
Bernoullis equation, 2004 V1:56 sizing, 2008 V4:251
beta oxidation, 2008 V4:251 types of, 2008 V4:249
beta ray radiation, 2005 V2:246 biosafety cabinets, 2005 V2:251
beveling edges for welding, 2008 V4:63 biosafety levels (BL1-BL4), 2005 V2:251
BFP (backflow preventers). See backflow preventers biosolids, 2008 V4:261264
BFV (butterfly valves), 2004 V1:9, 20 biostats, 2005 V2:223, 228
bhp, BHP (brake horsepower), 2004 V1:6, 14, 2007 V3:22 birthing rooms, 2007 V3:39, 52, 56
bicarbonate ions (HCO3), 2008 V4:193, 197 bitumastic-enamel-lined piping, 2005 V2:83

bituminized felt, 2004 V1:196 cast-iron supports for, 2004 V1:162

BL1-4 levels, 2005 V2:251 central heating, 2007 V3:122123
Black, A. P., 2008 V4:224 codes and standards, 2004 V1:42
black iron coated pipe, 2008 V4:48 condensation, 2004 V1:267
black pipes, 2004 V1:18 direct connection hazards, 2008 V4:184
black steel piping, 2005 V2:50, 2007 V3:145, 239 earthquake protection, 2004 V1:163
black-water systems feed lines, 2008 V4:32
amount of generated black water, 2005 V2:31, 2008 feed water corrosion inhibitors, 2004 V1:151
V4:261 feed water treatments, 2005 V2:226
compared to gray water, 2005 V2:25, 31 gas train arrangements, 2007 V3:237
estimating sewage quantities, 2005 V2:158160 scaling, 2005 V2:205
sources, 2008 V4:262 sediment buckets in drains, 2005 V2:11
types of, 2008 V4:260 water cross contamination case, 2008 V4:188
bladder bags, 2004 V1:116 boiling points (bp, BP)
bladder tanks, 2007 V3:25, 2008 V4:232 defined, 2005 V2:142
blades in pumps, 2004 V1:197 liquid fuels, 2007 V3:133
Blake, Richard T., 2005 V2:234 liquid oxygen, 2007 V3:59
blank flanges, 2004 V1:18 symbols for, 2004 V1:14
blast furnace gas, 2005 V2:126 bollards, 2007 V3:146, 150
blast gates, 2005 V2:189 bolted bonnet joints, 2008 V4:80
bleachers, numbers of fixtures for, 2008 V4:18 bolting problems in seismic protection, 2004 V1:190
bleaches, 2005 V2:156 bolts and bolting
bleaching powder, 2008 V4:193 defined, 2008 V4:134
bleed air, 2005 V2:181 lubricating, 2008 V4:62
bleed cocks, 2007 V3:3 types of bolts, 2008 V4:127
bleed throughs, 2008 V4:221 water closets, 2008 V4:6
block-like soils, 2005 V2:148 BOM (bills of material), 2004 V1:14
block-method irrigation, 2007 V3:92 bonded joints, 2004 V1:150
blocking creativity, 2004 V1:231232 bonds and certificates, 2004 V1:62
blood analyzers, 2005 V2:13 bonnets, 2004 V1:18, 2008 V4:73, 7980
blood or other objectionable materials, 2005 V2:15, 2008 booster pump control valves, 2008 V4:82
V4:187. See also infectious and biological waste booster pump controls, 2008 V4:101
systems booster-pump systems
blood-type floor drains, 2007 V3:38 cold-water supplies, 2005 V2:7077
blow-off in air compressors, 2007 V3:173 connections, 2007 V3:209
blowdown domestic water service, 2007 V3:198
boiler blowdown, 2005 V2:226, 227 fire-protection systems, 2007 V3:6
cooling towers, 2005 V2:227 in health care facilities, 2007 V3:46
removing sludge, 2005 V2:205 noise control, 2004 V1:199
blowout fixtures, acoustic design and, 2004 V1:195 vacuum systems, 2005 V2:182
blowout urinals, 2008 V4:89 booster water heaters, 2004 V1:126, 129, 2005 V2:111
blowout water closets, 2008 V4:3 borate, 2005 V2:199
blue dyes in gray water, 2005 V2:35 bored wells, 2005 V2:164165, 172
BLV (balancing valves), 2004 V1:9 borosilicate glass piping, 2005 V2:13, 14, 83, 2007 V3:42,
Board for Coordination of Model Codes (BCMC), 2004 2008 V4:48
V1:106 Bosich, Joseph F., 2004 V1:154
boarding houses, numbers of fixtures for, 2008 V4:19 bottle water coolers, 2008 V4:237, 238
BOCA. See Building Officials and Code Administrators bottled water, 2008 V4:14, 238
International, Inc. (BOCA) Bottom Loading and Vapor Recovery for MC-306 Tank
BOD (biological oxygen demand), 2007 V3:25, 87, 2008 Motor Vehicles (AOIRP 1004), 2007 V3:151
V4:221, 250 Bourdon gauges, 2005 V2:181
bodies of valves, 2008 V4:73 bowl depth of sinks, 2004 V1:117
body sprays, 2008 V4:15 bowling alleys, 2008 V4:208
Boegly, W.J., 2005 V2:161 Boyles law, 2005 V2:73, 2008 V4:233234
Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code, 2007 V3:88 BP (barometric pressure). See barometric pressure
boiler blow-off tanks, 2004 V1:18 bp, BP (boiling points). See boiling points (bp, BP)
boiler blow-offs, 2004 V1:18 braces (walking aids), 2004 V1:107
boiler room earthquake protection, 2004 V1:166 bracing
Boiler Water Treatment, 2005 V2:234 aircraft cable method, 2004 V1:171
boilers alternate attachments for pipes, 2004 V1:174
backflow prevention, 2008 V4:185 avoiding potential earthquake problems, 2004 V1:189
boiler steam as distillation feed water, 2008 V4:214 brace assemblies, 2008 V4:134

Index 281
brace, hanger, or support drawings, 2008 V4:134 brazed joints

braces, defined, 2008 V4:134 earthquake protection and, 2004 V1:167
defined, 2004 V1:191 inspection, 2007 V3:74
hanger rod connections, 2004 V1:177 medical gas tubing, 2007 V3:69, 2008 V4:42
hanger rods, 2004 V1:166 brazing, defined, 2008 V4:62
hubless cast-iron pipe, 2004 V1:177 brazing ends, 2004 V1:18
lateral sway bracing, 2004 V1:181182 Brazing Joints for Copper and Copper Alloy Pressure
longitudinal and transverse bracing, 2004 V1:180 Fittings, 2008 V4:42
longitudinal-only bracing, 2004 V1:172, 180 break tanks, 2005 V2:73, 2008 V4:176
open-web steel joists, 2004 V1:176 breathing apparatus for emergencies, 2005 V2:239, 241
pipes on trapeze and, 2004 V1:175, 178 BREEAM (Building Research Establishment
piping systems for seismic protection, 2004 V1:166182 Environmental Assessment Method), 2008 V4:256
riser bracing for hubless pipes, 2004 V1:178 Breton, E. J., 2008 V4:224
self bracing, 2004 V1:190 brine tanks
spacing of, 2004 V1:184 defined, 2008 V4:221
steel beam connections, 2004 V1:175 submerged inlet hazards, 2008 V4:184
structural angle bracing, 2004 V1:171 brines, 2008 V4:211, 221
structural channel bracing, 2004 V1:171 hydrostatic monitoring systems, 2007 V3:139140
strut bracing, 2004 V1:173, 175 refrigerants, 2004 V1:151
superstrut, 2004 V1:170 in water softening, 2005 V2:220
sway bracing, 2004 V1:179, 180, 181182, 185186, 187 British thermal units (Btu, BTU)
Tension 360 bracing, 2004 V1:169 British thermal units per hour (Btu/h), 2004 V1:18
transverse bracing, 2004 V1:171, 179 Btu (J) (fire loads), 2007 V3:2
truss-type actions, 2004 V1:190 calculating hot water savings, 2004 V1:127
typical earthquake bracing, 2004 V1:168 converting to SI units, 2004 V1:39
brackets defined, 2004 V1:18, 136, 2008 V4:105
defined, 2008 V4:135 natural gas services, 2007 V3:236
hangers and supports, 2008 V4:126 solar energy, 2007 V3:185186
illustrated, 2008 V4:68, 122, 128 symbols for, 2004 V1:14
securing pipes, 2008 V4:67 bromine, 2005 V2:120, 2007 V3:126127
brainstorming in creativity, 2004 V1:232 bromtrifluoro-methane CBrF3 (halon 1301), 2004 V1:25
brake horsepower (bhp, BHP) Bronze Gate, Globe, Angle and Check Valves, 2008 V4:85
fire pumps, 2007 V3:22 bronze-mounted, defined, 2004 V1:18
pumps, 2004 V1:6 bronze seats for valves, 2008 V4:83
symbols for, 2004 V1:14 bronze sediment buckets, 2005 V2:13
branch-bottom connections, 2004 V1:11 bronze trim, 2004 V1:18
branch intervals, 2004 V1:18, 2005 V2:38 bronze valves, 2008 V4:78
branch length method, 2005 V2:67, 97, 9899 bronze, in electromotive force series, 2004 V1:141
branch lines, 2007 V3:78 Brown & Sharpe wire gage (B&S), 2004 V1:14
branch sewers (submain sewers), 2004 V1:30 Brown, F.R., 2004 V1:191
branch tees, 2004 V1:18 Brown, J., 2005 V2:234
branch-top connections, 2004 V1:11 Brownstein, E., 2005 V2:47
branch vents, 2004 V1:18 Brundtland Commission, 2008 V4:256
air admittance valves, 2005 V2:46 B&S (Brown & Sharpe wire gage), 2004 V1:14
defined, 2005 V2:38 Btu, BTU (British Thermal units). See British Thermal
sizing, 2005 V2:38 units
branches Btu/h (British thermal units per hour), 2004 V1:18
defined, 2004 V1:18 Btu (J) (fire loads), 2007 V3:2
thermal expansion and contraction in, 2008 V4:228 bubble aerators, 2005 V2:208
brand names in specifications, 2004 V1:66, 67 bubbler irrigation heads, 2007 V3:94
brass bubbler system, 2007 V3:127
corrosion, 2008 V4:196 bubblers on water coolers, 2008 V4:240, 244
dezincification, 2004 V1:141 pressure-type water coolers, 2008 V4:238
in electromotive force series, 2004 V1:144 stream regulators, 2008 V4:242
in galvanic series, 2004 V1:141 wastage, 2008 V4:242
stress and strain figures, 2008 V4:228229 water consumption, 2008 V4:245
thermal expansion or contraction, 2008 V4:227 bubbles, 2007 V3:24. See also detergents; soaps; suds
valves, 2008 V4:78 bucket traps, 2007 V3:158159
brass (copper alloy) pipe, 2005 V2:13 Budnick, J., 2007 V3:194
brass floor drains, 2005 V2:15 buffing finishes on grates, 2005 V2:11
brass pipes, 2005 V2:50, 83, 86, 2007 V3:102 building code list of agencies, 2004 V1:42
brazed ends on valves, 2008 V4:80

Building Code Requirements for Minimum Design Loads butt-end welding, 2008 V4:80
in Buildings and Other Structures, 2004 V1:191 butt-welded standard weight pipe, 2008 V4:48
building drains butt welding
combined, 2004 V1:19 butt-weld end connections, 2004 V1:23
cross-sections of, 2005 V2:2 butt weld joints, 2004 V1:20
defined, 2004 V1:19 butt weld pipes, 2004 V1:20
flow in, 2005 V2:2 defined, 2008 V4:62
inspection checklist, 2004 V1:102103 radioactive drainage systems, 2005 V2:249
installation, 2005 V2:1415 Butterfield, C. T., 2008 V4:224
pneumatic pressure in, 2005 V2:23 Butterfly Valves, 2008 V4:85, 86, 90
sanitary. See sanitary drainage systems butterfly valves (BFV), 2004 V1:9, 20, 2005 V2:100, 2007
storm. See storm-drainage systems V3:121, 127128
Building Officials and Code Administrators International, compressed-air service, 2008 V4:86
Inc. (BOCA), 2005 V2:64, 2007 V3:134 defined, 2008 V4:73, 7677
BOCA Basic Plumbing Code, 2005 V2:64, 2007 V3:134 design details, 2008 V4:84
Building Research Establishment Environmental high-rise service, 2008 V4:90
Assessment Method, 2008 V4:256 hot and cold water supply service, 2008 V4:8586
building sewers (house drains), 2004 V1:19, 2005 V2:1415 low-pressure steam systems, 2008 V4:87
building sites. See site utilities; sites medium-pressure steam service, 2008V4:88
building storm-sewer pipe codes, 2004 V1:42 vacuum service, 2008 V4:87
building structure attachments, 2008 V4:126 butylene, 2005 V2:126
building subdrains, 2004 V1:19 BV (ball valves), 2004 V1:9, 18, 2005 V2:240
Building Systems Design, 2005 V2:196 bypass systems for water-pressure regulators, 2008 V4:81
building traps, 2004 V1:19 bypass valves, 2004 V1:20, 2008 V4:17
defined, 2005 V2:38 gate valves and, 2008 V4:75
vent sizing and, 2005 V2:4344 bypasses, 2004 V1:20, 2008 V4:221
buildings
acceptable plumbing noise levels, 2004 V1:193
building material acoustic insulation, 2004 V1:193
C
C, C (celsius), 2004 V1:14, 34
construction and fire hazards, 2007 V3:2 c (centi) prefix, 2004 V1:34
defined, 2004 V1:18 C (conductance), 2004 V1:14, 33
essential facilities, 2004 V1:191 C (coulombs), 2004 V1:33, 139
expansion, 2007 V3:50 c (curies), 2005 V2:247
minimum numbers of fixtures, 2008 V4:1821 C (specific heat). See specific heat
standard fire tests, 2007 V3:2 c to c, C TO C (center to center), 2004 V1:14
storm-drainage systems. See storm-drainage systems C-12 standard, 2008 V4:56
subdrains, 2004 V1:19 C-301 standard, 2008 V4:56
traps, 2004 V1:19 C-425 standard, 2008 V4:56
type of structure and earthquake protection, 2004 C-700 standard, 2008 V4:56
V1:167 C-828 standard, 2008 V4:56
utilities. See site utilities C-896 standard, 2008 V4:56
vibration and, 2008 V4:145 C-1091 standard, 2008 V4:56
built-in showers, 2008 V4:14 C-1208 standard, 2008 V4:56
bulk media tests, 2008 V4:56 C clamps, 2008 V4:122, 126, 129, 135
bulk oxygen systems, 2007 V3:5759 C-clamps. See C clamps
bulkhead fittings, 2007 V3:141 C/m3 (coulombs per cubic meter), 2004 V1:33
bull head tees, 2004 V1:20 CAAA (Clean Air Act Amendments), 2007 V3:134
bumpers, 2007 V3:212213 cable sway braces, 2008 V4:130, 135
Buna-N (nitrile butadiene), 2007 V3:147, 2008 V4:83, 86 cables
Bunsen burners, 2005 V2:128129 defined, 2008 V4:135
burat ochre, 2008 V4:193 earthquake protection and, 2004 V1:166
buried piping. See underground piping CABO (Council of American Building Officials), 2004
burners, defined, 2005 V2:142 V1:123
burning methane, 2004 V1:130131 cadmium, 2004 V1:141, 2008 V4:186, 187
burning rates of plastic pipe, 2008 V4:4950 cafeterias
burst pressure, 2004 V1:20 cafeteria-type water coolers, 2008 V4:239
bushels, converting to SI units, 2004 V1:39 drinking fountain usage, 2008 V4:245
bushings, 2004 V1:20, 2005 V2:100 calcined natural pozzolan, 2008 V4:252
businesses, numbers of fixtures for, 2008 V4:18 calcium
butadiene and acrylonitrile (Buna-N), 2008 V4:83, 86 defined, 2005 V2:200, 2008 V4:221
butane, 2005 V2:126, 143. See also fuel-gas piping systems in hardness, 2008 V4:198
butt caps on fire hydrants, 2007 V3:3 laboratory grade water, 2008 V4:218

Index 283
metal (Ca2+), 2008 V4:193 air, defined, 2007 V3:166

nanofiltration, 2008 V4:220 swimming pools, 2007 V3:105106, 109110
scale formation and corrosion, 2005 V2:206 water conditioners, 2008 V4:221
in water, 2005 V2:168, 199 water coolers, 2008 V4:237
water hardness and, 2008 V4:196 water softeners, 2008 V4:206
calcium 45, 2005 V2:248 capacity coefficient, defined, 2008 V4:98
calcium bicarbonate, 2005 V2:199, 2008 V4:193 capacity (flow). See flow rates
calcium carbonate (lime), 2005 V2:199, 200, 201, 206, 2008 capillaries, 2004 V1:20
V4:193 capillary tubes (water coolers), 2008 V4:242
calcium chloride, 2005 V2:200 Capitol Dome, Washington, D.C., 2008 V4:119
calcium hardness, swimming pools, 2007 V3:123127 caps on ends of pipes, 2004 V1:11
calcium hydroxide, 2005 V2:200 caps on valves, 2008 V4:73
calcium hypochlorite, 2005 V2:168, 2008 V4:193 capture-type vacuum pumps, 2005 V2:180
calcium phosphate, 2005 V2:200 capturing rainwater, 2008 V4:260261
calcium salts, 2008 V4:196 car traffic, 2005 V2:11
calcium silicates, 2005 V2:200, 2008 V4:111 car washes
calcium sulfate, 2005 V2:199, 2008 V4:193 cross-connections, 2008 V4:188189
calculations. See equations gray-water use, 2004 V1:267
calendars for irrigation controllers, 2007 V3:95 heat recovery systems, 2004 V1:266
California Administrative Code of Regulations, 2004 carbifuran levels in drinking water, 2008 V4:186
V1:183 carbohydrazide, 2005 V2:226
California Code of Regulations, 2004 V1:191 carbon
California Office of Statewide Health Planning and adsorption of oil spills, 2005 V2:255
Development (OSHPD), 2008 V4:138 corrosion, 2004 V1:139, 145
California Plumbing Code, 2005 V2:36 total organic carbon, 2005 V2:204
calories, converting to SI units, 2004 V1:39 in water, 2005 V2:199, 2008 V4:193
calorific values in fire loads, 2007 V3:2 carbon 14, 2005 V2:248
2
calsil, 2008 V4:111 carbon dioxide (CO )
Cameron Hydraulic Data, 2005 V2:104, 2007 V3:206 biofilms and, 2008 V4:251
Camp, Thomas, 2008 V4:166 color coding, 2007 V3:55
camps, septic tank systems for, 2005 V2:156157 decarbonation, 2005 V2:210
CAN/CSA-B137.1 standard, 2008 V4:52 defined, 2008 V4:221
CAN/CSA-B137.10 standard, 2008 V4:52, 53, 54 distillation and, 2008 V4:211212
can pumps, 2004 V1:24 extinguishing systems, 2007 V3:2526
CAN3-B137.8 standard, 2008 V4:51, 52 feed system, 2007 V3:125126
The Canadian Renewable Energy Guide, 2007 V3:194 formula, 2008 V4:193
Canadian Solar Industries Association web site, 2007 from cation exchange, 2008 V4:198
V3:194 medical gas system tests, 2007 V3:76
Canadian Standards Association (CSA) portable fire extinguishers, 2007 V3:28
address, 2004 V1:58 symbols for, 2004 V1:9
consensus process, 2004 V1:41 in water, 2005 V2:199, 200, 209, 2008 V4:196
list of standards, 2004 V1:5354 Carbon Dioxide Extinguishing Systems (NFPA 12), 2007
medical compressed air standards, 2007 V3:63 V3:25, 29
publications carbon filtration (absorphan). See activated carbon
CAN/CSA-B137.1 standard, 2008 V4:52 filtration (absorphan)
CAN/CSA-B137.10 standard, 2008 V4:52, 53, 54 carbon monoxide, 2005 V2:126, 2007 V3:76
CAN3-B137.8 standard, 2008 V4:51, 52 carbon steel, 2004 V1:144, 2007 V3:84, 85, 176, 2008
CSA Z-305.1:Non-flammable Medical Gas Piping V4:132
Systems, 2007 V3:78 carbon tetrachloride, 2008 V4:186
water closet standards, 2008 V4:6 carbonate films, 2004 V1:151
web site, 2007 V3:79 carbonate ions, 2008 V4:193
canals, piping systems near, 2008 V4:120 carbonate salts, 2008 V4:198
candelas (cd), 2004 V1:33 carbonates, 2005 V2:199, 200, 206, 2008 V4:199200, 218
2)
candelas per meter squared (cd/m , 2004 V1:33 carbonic acid, 2005 V2:199
cantilevered drinking fountains, 2004 V1:112 carbonic acid (H2CO3), 2008 V4:196, 212
cantilevers, 2008 V4:135 carburetted water gas, 2005 V2:126
CAP (College of American Pathologists), 2005 V2:197, 229, carcinogens, diatomaceous earth as, 2007 V3:116
2008 V4:218, 221 carpets, vacuum calculations for, 2005 V2:190
capacitance cartridge filtration, 2005 V2:211, 219, 224, 231, 2008
measurements, 2004 V1:33 V4:221
tank gauging, 2007 V3:139 Cartwright, Peter, 2005 V2:234
capacity cascade waterfall aerators, 2005 V2:208

case studies of cross connections, 2008 V4:187190 CISPI 301 standard, 2008 V4:24
casings CISPI 310 standard, 2008 V4:24, 61
driven wells, 2005 V2:165 Cast Iron Swing Check Valves, Flanged and Threaded
jetted wells, 2005 V2:165 Ends, 2008 V4:86, 88, 90
pumps, 2008 V4:94 cast-iron tank legs, 2004 V1:163
well casings, 2005 V2:164 Cast Iron Valves, 2008 V4:85, 87, 88, 89
Cassidy, Victor M., 2004 V1:137 Category II, III, or IV vent systems, 2004 V1:43
Cast Copper Alloy Fittings for Flared Copper Tube, 2008 cathodes
V4:32 defined, 2004 V1:139, 152
Cast Copper Alloy Pipe Flanges and Flanged Fittings, galvanic series of metals, 2004 V1:141
2008 V4:32 cathodic corrosion, 2004 V1:152
Cast Copper Alloy Solder-Joint Drainage Fittings, 2008 cathodic inhibitors, 2004 V1:151
V4:42 cathodic potential (electropositive potential), 2004 V1:153
Cast Copper Alloy Solder Joint Pressure Fittings (DWV), cathodic protection
2008 V4:32 criteria, 2004 V1:150151
cast-filled acrylic fixtures, 2008 V4:2 defined, 2004 V1:20, 152
cast-filled fiberglass fixtures, 2008 V4:2 introduction, 2004 V1:139
cast glands, 2007 V3:213 liquid fuel tanks, 2007 V3:135
cast-in-place anchor bolts, 2004 V1:163 methods, 2004 V1:147151
cast iron wells, 2005 V2:172
in electromotive series, 2004 V1:144 cathodic, defined, 2004 V1:152
fixtures. See cast-iron fixtures cation exchangers
in galvanic series, 2004 V1:141 defined, 2008 V4:197
graphitization, 2004 V1:141 hydrogen-sodium ion exchange plants, 2008 V4:198
hanging rolls, 2008 V4:126 199
pipe sleeves, 2008 V4:69 water problems, 2008 V4:187
piping. See cast-iron soil pipe cations
pumps, 2007 V3:119 cation resins, 2005 V2:201, 217
stanchions, 2008 V4:126 defined, 2004 V1:152, 2005 V2:197, 2008 V4:221
stress and strain figures, 2008 V4:228229 in ion exchange, 2005 V2:215, 216, 2008 V4:197
supporting rolls, 2008 V4:126 in pH values, 2005 V2:239
thermal expansion or contraction, 2008 V4:227 caulked joints, defined, 2008 V4:61
cast-iron boiler supports, 2004 V1:162 caulking
cast-iron fixtures caulked joints on floor drains, 2005 V2:15
enameled, 2008 V4:1 defined, 2004 V1:20
in health care facilities, 2007 V3:35 drains, 2005 V2:13
standards, 2008 V4:2 pipe sleeves, 2008 V4:69
cast-iron floor drains, 2005 V2:15 causes and effects
Cast Iron Gate Valves, Flanged and Threaded Ends, 2008 in creativity checklist, 2004 V1:234
V4:85, 88, 90 of earthquakes, 2004 V1:156158
cast-iron piping caustic embrittlement, 2004 V1:152
bracing, 2004 V1:177 caustic soda, 2005 V2:245, 2007 V3:85. See also sodium
corrosion and, 2004 V1:150 hydroxide (lye or caustic soda)
laboratories, 2007 V3:42 caustic waste from regeneration cycle, 2005 V2:217
Manning formula and, 2007 V3:232 cavitation
natural gas, 2007 V3:239 cavitation corrosion, 2004 V1:152
radioactive materials systems and, 2005 V2:249 defined, 2004 V1:20, 152
roughness, 2005 V2:83, 86 flexible pipe connectors and, 2004 V1:200
sanitary drainage systems, 2005 V2:13 modifications to pump plants, 2004 V1:197
underground piping, 2005 V2:50 pressure levels and, 2004 V1:200
cast-iron soil pipe reducing noise source strength, 2004 V1:199
dimensions of hubs, spigots and barrels, 2008 V4:2527 cavitation corrosion, 2004 V1:152
gaskets, 2008 V4:60 CCS (Certified Construction Specifier), 2004 V1:72
hangers, 2008 V4:132 ccw, CCW (counterclockwise), 2004 V1:14
lead and oakum joints, 2008 V4:61 CD. See construction contract documents (CD)
shielded hubless coupling, 2008 V4:61 cd (candelas), 2004 V1:33
telescoping and laying lengths, 2008 V4:24 CD (condensate drains), 2004 V1:8
types, 2008 V4:2527 cd/m2, 2004 V1:33
Cast-iron Soil Pipe and Fittings Engineering Manual, CDA (Copper Development Association), 2004 V1:20
2005 V2:64 CDC (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention), 2005
Cast Iron Soil Pipe Institute (CISPI), 2004 V1:20, 53, 58, V2:118
2005 V2:64 CDI (continuous deionization), 2005 V2:219220

Index 285
CE (coefficient of expansion), 2008 V4:69 centrifugal separators

ceiling-mounted medical gas systems, 2007 V3:5557 centrifugal-type vacuum separators, 2005 V2:188
ceiling plates, 2008 V4:129 for oil spills, 2005 V2:256
ceiling-with-gas-stacks systems, 2007 V3:56 centrifugal vacuum cleaning systems, 2005 V2:194
ceilings, piping in, 2004 V1:195, 201 centrifugation in FOG separation, 2008 V4:250
cell pairs, 2005 V2:219 centrifugation of oil, 2005 V2:255
cells, defined, 2004 V1:152 ceramic fixtures
cellular glass insulation, 2008 V4:107, 111 standards, 2008 V4:2
cellular urethane, 2008 V4:111 types of, 2008 V4:1
cellulose, 2007 V3:116 ceramic wool, 2004 V1:193
cellulose acetate membranes, 2005 V2:223, 2008 V4:217, CERCLA (Comprehensive Environmental Response
219 Compensation and Liability Act), 2007 V3:81, 83
cellulose gas filters, 2007 V3:236 certificates of insurance, 2004 V1:62
cellulose tricetate membranes, 2005 V2:223 certification
celsius (C), 2004 V1:14 certification of performance, 2005 V2:103
cement grout, 2005 V2:167 LEED program, 2004 V1:263264, 2008 V4:257
cement joints, 2004 V1:20 medical gas systems, 2007 V3:6976
cement-lined piping medical gas zones, 2007 V3:67
Manning formula and, 2007 V3:232 storage tanks, 2007 V3:149
pressure classes, 2008 V4:28 Certified Construction Specifier (CCS), 2004 V1:72
roughness, 2005 V2:83 Certified Plumbing Designer (CPD), 2004 V1:72
in sprinkler hydraulic calculations, 2007 V3:13 cesspools
water pipes, 2008 V4:2538 defined, 2004 V1:20
Cement Mortar Lining, 2008 V4:28 irrigation systems and, 2005 V2:30
cement plaster joints, 2008 V4:32 CF (contact factors), 2004 V1:14
center beam clamps, 2008 V4:135 CFAC, CFACT (correction factors), 2004 V1:14
Center for Biofilm Engineering, 2008 V4:251, 253 CFCs (chlorofluorocarbons), 2007 V3:26
center-guided check valves, 2008 V4:83 cfh (cubic feet per hour), 2007 V3:169, 235
center to center (c to c, C TO C), 2004 V1:14 cfm (cubic feet per minute). See cubic feet per minute
centerline spacing of gas outlets, 2007 V3:55 CFR (Code of Federal Regulations), 2007 V3:81
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2005 V2:118 CFT (cubic feet), 2004 V1:14
centersets for faucets, 2008 V4:10 cfus (colony forming units), 2005 V2:199
centi prefix, 2004 V1:34 CGA. See Compressed Gas Association, Inc.
Centigrade conversion factors, 2004 V1:38 cGMP (current good manufacturing practices), 2005
centipoise, 2004 V1:39, 2007 V3:134 V2:234, 237
central chilled drinking water systems, 2004 V1:265 CGPM (General Conference of Weights and Measures),
central heating boiler, 2007 V3:122123 2004 V1:32
central-supply rooms, 2007 V3:47 chain hangers, 2008 V4:67
central-water purification equipment, 2005 V2:233234 chainwheel-operated valves, 2004 V1:20
centralized distillation, 2008 V4:213 chalk, 2008 V4:193
centralized drinking-water cooler systems, 2008 V4:243 chambers (air chambers). See air chambers (AC)
247 Chan, Wen-Yung W., 2004 V1:40
chillers, 2008 V4:243244 change orders, 2004 V1:63
circulating pumps, 2008 V4:245 changed standpipes, 2004 V1:13
codes and standard, 2008 V4:247 channel clamps, 2008 V4:135
design layout and example, 2008 V4:246247 channels, 2004 V1:20
fountains, 2008 V4:244 character in creativity checklist, 2004 V1:234
pipes and piping, 2008 V4:243244, 246 characteristic curves for pumps, 2008 V4:9798
refrigeration, 2008 V4:244245 Characteristics and Safe Handling of Medical Gases (CGA
storage tanks, 2008 V4:246 P-2), 2007 V3:78
centrally-located vacuum cleaning systems. See vacuum Characteristics of Rural Household Waste Water, 2005
cleaning systems V2:36
centrifugal air compressors, 2007 V3:62, 171, 173 chases, 2004 V1:20, 2008 V4:7, 10, 11
centrifugal drum traps, 2007 V3:4546 check valves (CV)
centrifugal pumps compressed-air service, 2008 V4:8687
acid wastes and, 2005 V2:241 defined, 2004 V1:20, 2008 V4:74
defined, 2004 V1:24 design details, 2008 V4:83
end-suction, 2007 V3:119 dry-pipe systems, 2007 V3:8
pump pressure and, 2005 V2:72 flow data, 2005 V2:102
shallow well discharge, 2005 V2:170 globe valves, 2008 V4:83
types, 2008 V4:9398 high-pressure steam service, 2008 V4:89
vacuum pumps, 2005 V2:180 high-rise service, 2008 V4:90

hot and cold water supply service, 2008 V4:86 chemicals. See also names of specific chemicals
irrigation systems, 2007 V3:95 chemical characteristics of drinking water, 2005
low-pressure steam systems, 2008 V4:88 V2:227228, 228
medium-pressure steam service, 2008 V4:88 chemical control of microbes in water, 2005 V2:223
swing check and lift check valves, 2008 V4:77 chemical treatment of oil spills, 2005 V2:255256
symbols for, 2004 V1:9 emulsions, 2007 V3:87
thermal expansion compensation and, 2005 V2:116 laboratory vacuum systems, 2005 V2:182
vacuum systems, 2005 V2:189 material safety data sheets, 2007 V3:83
checklists and forms in septic tanks, 2005 V2:155156
creativity worksheets, 2004 V1:233234, 236 in special-waste effluent, 2005 V2:238
designs and drawings, 2004 V1:100102 swimming pools, 2007 V3:113114, 123127
detail/product/material specification checklist, 2004 water softeners, 2008 V4:193, 194
V1:220 chemistry of water. See water chemistry
evaluation checklists, 2004 V1:237238 The Chemistry, Technology and Physiology of Iodine in
field checklists, 2004 V1:102103 Water Disinfection, 2008 V4:224
final checklist, 2004 V1:103 Chicago
forms of agreement, 2004 V1:62 case of cross connections, 2008 V4:171
fuel systems, 2007 V3:148 city building code, 2005 V2:118
function definitions, 2004 V1:225227 children, fixtures and
functional evaluation worksheets, 2004 V1:243251 fixture heights, 2004 V1:107
general checklists for jobs, 2004 V1:99 in hot water demand classifications, 2005 V2:109
health care facility medical gas and vacuum systems, water closets, 2008 V4:5
2007 V3:5051 water coolers, 2008 V4:14
idea development and estimated cost forms, 2004 chilled drinking water recirculating (DWR), 2004 V1:8
V1:241242 chilled drinking water supply (DWS), 2004 V1:8, 265, 2007
idea evaluation worksheet, 2004 V1:243, 253 V3:37
project information checklists, 2004 V1:215220 chilled water returns (CWR), 2004 V1:8
project information sources checklists, 2004 V1:221 chilled water supply (CWS), 2004 V1:8, 2008 V4:185
recommendations worksheets, 2004 V1:258, 259 chilling systems
storage tanks, 2007 V3:150151 centralized drinking-water systems, 2008 V4:243244
using in presentations, 2004 V1:257 laser machine cross contamination case, 2008 V4:189
value engineering checklists, 2004 V1:214 chimneys
chemical cleaning connections, 2007 V3:4849 codes, 2004 V1:43
chemical coagulants defined, 2005 V2:143
in filtration, 2008 V4:201202 china fixtures, 2008 V4:1. See also ceramic fixtures
functions of, 2008 V4:196 chips in acid-neutralization tanks, 2007 V3:44, 45
mechanical clarifiers, 2008 V4:201 chloramines
chemical descaling, 2008 V4:59 in chlorination, 2008 V4:215
chemical feed pumps, 2007 V3:125126 defined, 2008 V4:199
chemical feeders, 2008 V4:184 chlordane, 2008 V4:186
chemical fumes, 2008 V4:120 chloride (Cl)
chemical oxygen demand (COD), 2008 V4:221 defined, 2008 V4:221
Chemical Plant and Petroleum Refinery Piping (ANSI laboratory grade water, 2008 V4:218
B3.13), 2007 V3:88 levels in drinking water, 2008 V4:186
chemical plants, 2007 V3:81 nanofiltration, 2008 V4:220
chemical pre-treatment with sand filters, 2008 V4:202 treating in water, 2008 V4:187
chemical pretreatment of oils, 2007 V3:87 water hardness and, 2008 V4:196
chemical reactions, hangers and supports and, 2008 chloride of lime, 2008 V4:193
V4:120 chlorides, 2004 V1:147, 2005 V2:199, 200, 216, 2008 V4:59
chemical regeneration in demineralizers, 2007 V3:48 chlorimine, 2005 V2:211
chemical-resistance testing, 2008 V4:2 chlorinated polyethylene sheet shower pans, 2008 V4:14
chemical spill emergency fixtures, 2008 V4:17 chlorinated polyvinyl-chloride (CPVC)
chemical tanks, 2008 V4:185 defined, 2004 V1:21, 2005 V2:67
chemical-waste drains industrial waste usage, 2007 V3:85
glass pipe, 2008 V4:48 pipe characteristics, 2007 V3:49, 2008 V4:4950
plastic pipes, 2008 V4:4849 pipes, 2005 V2:201, 2008 V4:5354
chemical-waste systems thermal expansion or contraction, 2008 V4:227
codes and standards, 2005 V2:252253 velocity and, 2005 V2:92
defined, 2004 V1:20 VOCs and, 2005 V2:201
design considerations, 2005 V2:253 chlorination
pipe and joint selection, 2005 V2:253 automatic chlorinators, 2008 V4:200
chemically-stabilized emulsions, 2005 V2:255 defined, 2008 V4:199201, 215

Index 287
direct connection hazards, 2008 V4:184 abbreviation, 2004 V1:20

domestic water systems, 2005 V2:103 address, 2004 V1:58
drinking water, 2005 V2:168 Cast Iron Soil Pipe and Fittings Engineering Manual,
economic concerns, 2008 V4:200 2005 V2:64
gray water, 2005 V2:28, 35 CISPI 301 standard, 2008 V4:24
manual control chlorinators, 2008 V4:201 CISPI 310 standard, 2008 V4:24
wells, 2005 V2:166 publications, 2004 V1:53
chlorine cisterns, 2005 V2:170, 2008 V4:260262
as biocides, 2005 V2:120 citing codes and standards, 2004 V1:67
bleaches, 2005 V2:156 citric acid, 2004 V1:146
chlorine-resistant grates, 2005 V2:13 City of Chicago Building Code, 2005 V2:118
cyanide and, 2007 V3:87 city water. See municipal water supply
formation of hypochlorous and hydrochlorous acids, ckt, CKT (circuits), 2004 V1:14, 20
2008 V4:199200 CL, C/L (critical level), 2004 V1:21
formula, 2008 V4:193 clad steel tanks, 2007 V3:135, 144, 150
hyperchlorination, 2005 V2:122 Claes, 2004 V1:154
microbial control, 2005 V2:223 clamp gate valves, 2004 V1:20
pure water systems, 2005 V2:232 clamp joints, 2008 V4:24
reflecting pools and fountains, 2007 V3:99100 clamping tools, 2008 V4:61
removing, 2005 V2:211 clamps
reverse osmosis and, 2007 V3:48 beam clamps, 2008 V4:122
small drinking water systems, 2005 V2:228 defined, 2008 V4:135
swimming pools, 2007 V3:123127 hangers and supports, 2008 V4:126
in water chemistry, 2005 V2:199, 201 pipe clamps, 2008 V4:121
chlorine dioxide gas injection, 2005 V2:120 types of, 2008 V4:68
chlorine dioxide treatment, 2005 V2:122 clams, 2005 V2:199
chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), 2007 V3:26 clappers, 2007 V3:8, 2008 V4:74
chloroform, 2007 V3:66 clarification treatments for water, 2005 V2:208209, 225,
cholera, 2008 V4:199 2008 V4:200201
chromium clarifiers
boiler water contamination case, 2008 V4:188 defined, 2008 V4:221
levels in drinking water, 2008 V4:186 turbidity and, 2008 V4:196
treating in water, 2008 V4:187 clarifying tanks, 2007 V3:43
chromium III, 2007 V3:87 Class 2 & Class 3 Transformers, 2008 V4:252
chromium-iron, 2004 V1:141 classes, biosolids, 2008 V4:262263
chromium VI, 2007 V3:87 classes of service, standpipe systems, 2004 V1:30, 2007
Church, James, 2005 V2:64 V3:20
churches, numbers of fixtures for, 2008 V4:18, 20 classifications
churn, defined, 2008 V4:98 bedding, 2007 V3:217218, 219
cigarette burn testing, 2008 V4:2 disabilities, 2004 V1:107
CIN (cubic inches), 2004 V1:14 fires, 2007 V3:2, 20, 28
circles, calculating area, 2004 V1:5 liquid fuel, 2007 V3:133134
circuit venting, 2004 V1:20, 2005 V2:39, 4445 claw-type pumps, 2005 V2:180
circuits (ckt, CKT), 2004 V1:14, 20 clay loams, 2007 V3:91, 229
circular concrete piping, 2008 V4:30 clay piping
circular lavatories, 2008 V4:10 industrial discharge piping, 2005 V2:253
circulating pumps noise insulation, 2005 V2:14
centralized drinking-water coolers, 2008 V4:245, 247 surface roughness, 2005 V2:83
chilled drinking-water systems, 2008 V4:243 underground piping, 2005 V2:50
controls, 2008 V4:101 vitrified clay pipe, 2008 V4:5657, 5758
circulating water systems clay soils, 2005 V2:29, 30
in geothermal energy systems, 2004 V1:131 clays
hot water systems, 2005 V2:115 in feed water, 2005 V2:205
standby losses in, 2004 V1:127 in soil texture, 2005 V2:148
circulation Clean Agent Extinguishing Systems (NFPA 2001), 2007
pumps, 2007 V3:119120 V3:26, 28, 30
swimming pools, 2007 V3:111114 clean agent fire suppression systems, 2007 V3:2628
circulation loops, 2007 V3:48 Clean Air Act Amendments (CAAA), 2007 V3:134
Circulation System Components and Related Materials for clean extinguishing agents, 2007 V3:26
Swimming Pools, Spas/Hot Tubs, 2007 V3:109 Clean Water Act, 2005 V2:49, 252, 2007 V3:81, 82, 88
CISMA Standard 177, 2005 V2:17 cleaning
CISPI (Cast Iron Soil Pipe Institute) cold-water systems, 2005 V2:103104

fixtures, 2008 V4:1 cloth lagging, 2008 V4:108

insulation, 2008 V4:106, 108 clothes washers. See laundry systems and washers
medical gas pipes, 2007 V3:69, 74 clubs, hot water demand, 2005 V2:109
pipes and piping, 2008 V4:23 CMPR (compressors). See compressors
pure-water systems, 2007 V3:4849 cndct, CNDCT (conductivity), 2004 V1:14, 33
radioactive waste piping, 2005 V2:249 CO (cleanout plugs), 2004 V1:11
section in specifications, 2004 V1:71, 92 CO (yard cleanouts or cleanouts to grade). See cleanouts;
septic tanks, 2005 V2:154 cleanouts to grade
cleaning liquids, 2008 V4:120 CO2 (carbon dioxide). See carbon dioxide
cleanout plugs (CO), 2004 V1:11 coagulation
cleanouts coagulants in clarification, 2005 V2:209, 2008 V4:201,
chemical-waste systems, 2005 V2:253 221
cleaning drains, 2005 V2:15 in filtration, 2008 V4:201202
defined, 2004 V1:20 flow rates and, 2008 V4:202
manholes, 2007 V3:221, 226 FOG separation, 2008 V4:250
radioactive waste systems, 2005 V2:250 in gray-water treatment, 2005 V2:30
sanitary drainage systems, 2005 V2:9 turbidity and, 2008 V4:196
vacuum cleaning systems, 2005 V2:195 coal tar epoxy, 2007 V3:135
cleanouts to grade (CO), 2004 V1:11 coalescence
cleanup/utility rooms, 2007 V3:36 bioremediation pretreatment systems, 2008 V4:252
clear floor space coalescing, defined, 2008 V4:221
bathtub accessibility, 2004 V1:117 filtration of oil spills, 2005 V2:255
bathtubs, 2004 V1:117 FOG separation, 2008 V4:250
drinking fountains and water coolers, 2004 V1:112, coalescing filters in vacuum systems, 2005 V2:181
2008 V4:239240 coalescing media, 2007 V3:87
insulation in confined spaces, 2008 V4:116 coarse sands, 2005 V2:29, 30, 2007 V3:91
laundry equipment, 2004 V1:123 coat hooks
lavatories and sinks, 2004 V1:117 accessibility in toilet and bathing rooms, 2004 V1:113
urinal design, 2004 V1:116 ambulatory accessible toilet compartments, 2004
water closet and toilet accessibility, 2004 V1:113116 V1:115116
water softeners and, 2008 V4:207, 208 coated metal
for wheelchairs, 2004 V1:109, 110, 2008 V4:239240 cathodic protection, 2004 V1:150
clear space in septic tanks, 2005 V2:154 corrosion protection, 2004 V1:147
clear-water wastes passivation, 2004 V1:146147
defined, 2004 V1:20 sprinkler head ratings, 2007 V3:13
clearance storage tanks, 2007 V3:150
clean agent gas fire containers, 2007 V3:27 storm piping, 2005 V2:50
fixtures in health care facilities, 2007 V3:35 coaxial vapor recovery, 2007 V3:142, 145
piping and, 2008 V4:23 cocks, 2004 V1:20
clevis devices and clevis hangers COD (chemical oxygen demand), 2008 V4:221
defined, 2008 V4:135 Code for Motor Fuel Dispensing Facilities and Repair
functions, 2008 V4:67 Garages (NFPA 30A), 2007 V3:151
illustrated, 2008 V4:121 Code of Federal Regulations (CFR), 2005 V2:229, 2007
insulating, 2008 V4:110 V3:81, 88, 134
selecting, 2008 V4:126 codes and standards
clevis plates, 2008 V4:128 bioremediation pretreatment systems, 2008 V4:251
clg load, CLG LOAD (cooling loads), 2004 V1:14 252
climate, storm-drainage systems and, 2005 V2:49 centralized drinking-water cooler systems, 2008 V4:247
clinic sinks, 2007 V3:36 chemical-waste systems, 2005 V2:252253
clinics, 2007 V3:76 citing, 2004 V1:67
clips, 2008 V4:122, 126 codes, defined, 2004 V1:20
clo, converting to SI units, 2004 V1:39 cold water systems, 2005 V2:68
CLOAD (cooling loads), 2004 V1:14 concrete pipe, 2008 V4:2832
clockwise (cw, CW), 2004 V1:14 cross-connections, 2008 V4:176
clogging in grease interceptors, 2008 V4:162, 166 domestic water supply, 2007 V3:198
close-coupled water closets, 2008 V4:3 ductile iron pipe, 2008 V4:2528
close nipples, 2004 V1:20 fire protection, 2007 V3:1, 210
closed-circuit cooling systems, 2004 V1:151 fixtures, 2008 V4:2
closed proprietary specifications, 2004 V1:67 gasoline and diesel-oil systems, 2007 V3:134
closed solar systems, 2007 V3:185 gray-water systems, 2005 V2:2526
closed systems, dangerous pressures in, 2008 V4:231 grease interceptors, 2008 V4:162, 164165
closed-type sprinklers, 2007 V3:6 hangers and supports, 2008 V4:117118

Index 289
health care facilities, 2007 V3:33, 35 excess water pressure, 2005 V2:7779
hot-water systems, 2005 V2:124 glossaries, 2005 V2:67
industrial wastewater treatment, 2007 V3:8183 heat loss, 2008 V4:113
infectious and biological waste systems, 2005 V2:251 introduction, 2005 V2:67
medical gas systems, 2007 V3:76 pipe codes, 2004 V1:45
natural gas services, 2007 V3:235 pipe sizing, 2005 V2:8696, 8790
natural gas systems, 2005 V2:127 potable water systems, 2007 V3:47
NFPA standards, 2007 V3:1 references, 2005 V2:104
plumbing codes, defined, 2008 V4:178 sizing, 2005 V2:97
plumbing materials and equipment, 2004 V1:4157 testing, cleaning, and disinfection, 2005 V2:103104
plumbing standards for people with disabilities, 2004 valves for, 2008 V4:8586
V1:105106 water flow tests, 2005 V2:95
preventing Legionella growth, 2005 V2:118 water hammer, 2005 V2:7982
private water systems, 2005 V2:163 water line sizing, 2005 V2:82103
reference-based standards, 2004 V1:66 water pressure, 2008 V4:86
sanitary drainage systems, 2005 V2:1 water supply graph, 2007 V3:204
searching, 2007 V3:197 cold working pressure (CWP), 2008 V4:85
seismic protection, 2004 V1:171184 Colebrook formula, 2005 V2:8486
special-waste drainage systems, 2005 V2:237 coliform group of bacteria, 2004 V1:21, 2008 V4:186
storm-drainage systems, 2005 V2:50 coliform organism tests, 2005 V2:104
storm sewers, 2007 V3:227 coliseums, numbers of fixtures for, 2008 V4:18
sustainable design, 2008 V4:256 collective bargaining agreements, cost estimates and, 2004
swimming pools, 2007 V3:105 V1:98
vacuum-cleaning systems, 2005 V2:188 collectors (dug wells), 2005 V2:164
vacuum systems, 2005 V2:182 collectors (solar)
valves, 2008 V4:73 concentrating, 2007 V3:183, 186187
water analysis, treatment and purification, 2005 cover, defined, 2007 V3:184
V2:197, 229 defined, 2007 V3:183
water heaters, 2004 V1:129 efficiency, defined, 2007 V3:184
coefficients (coeff., COEF), 2004 V1:14 evacuated tube (vacuum tube), 2007 V3:183
coefficients of expansion (CE), 2004 V1:20, 2008 V4:69, flat-plate, 2007 V3:183, 186188
227, 233 subsystem, defined, 2007 V3:184
coefficients of hydrant discharge, 2007 V3:3, 4 tilt, defined, 2007 V3:184
coefficients of permeability (K factor), 2005 V2:166 transpired, defined, 2007 V3:184
coefficients of valve flow (Cv, Cv, CV), 2004 V1:14 trickle, defined, 2007 V3:184
coefficients of volumetric expansion, 2008 V4:233 vacuum tube, 2007 V3:183, 186
coffee sinks. See sinks and wash basins College of American Pathologists (CAP), 2005 V2:197, 229,
coffee urns, 2008 V4:184 2008 V4:218, 221
cogeneration systems, waste heat usage, 2004 V1:134 Collentro, W.V., 2005 V2:234
coherent unit systems, 2004 V1:32 colloidal particles
coils (COIL), 2004 V1:14 laboratory grade water, 2008 V4:218
coke oven gas, 2005 V2:126 removing, 2005 V2:209, 2007 V3:87
cold elevation. See after cold pull elevation; design colloidal silica, 2005 V2:200
elevations colony forming units (cfus), 2005 V2:199
cold fluids color
hangers and supports for systems, 2008 V4:126 of drinking water, 2005 V2:227, 2008 V4:186
piping for, 2008 V4:125 of feed water, 2005 V2:198, 203
cold hanger location, 2008 V4:135 of gray water, 2005 V2:35
cold loads, 2008 V4:135 of soils, 2005 V2:148
cold settings, 2008 V4:135 treating in water, 2008 V4:187
cold shoes, 2008 V4:135 color codes
cold spring, 2008 V4:135 copper drainage tube, 2008 V4:41
cold water (CW), 2004 V1:8 copper pipes, 2008 V4:3031
cold-water systems medical gas codes, 2007 V3:51, 55
backflow prevention, 2005 V2:6970 medical gas tube, 2008 V4:42
booster pump systems, 2005 V2:7077 seamless copper water tube, 2008 V4:32
chilled drinking-water systems, 2008 V4:244 colored finishes, 2008 V4:135
codes and standards, 2005 V2:68 columns in ion exchange systems, 2005 V2:216
constant pressure in, 2005 V2:72 combination building water supplies, 2007 V3:210212
cross connection controls, 2005 V2:6970 combination dry-pipe and pre-action systems, 2004 V1:29,
domestic water meters, 2005 V2:6869 2007 V3:1011
examples for pipe sizing, 2005 V2:9799 combination fixtures, defined, 2004 V1:21

combination storm-drainage and sanitary sewers, 2005 composition disc valves

V2:12, 32, 2007 V3:233 angle valves, 2008 V4:76
combination temperature and pressure relief valves, 2005 gate valves, 2008 V4:83
V2:115 globe valves, 2008 V4:75
combination thermostatic and pressure balancing valves, composting biosolids, 2008 V4:262263
2008 V4:1415 composting toilets, 2004 V1:136, 265
combination vacuum-cleaning systems, 2005 V2:188 compound magnetic drive meters, 2005 V2:95, 96
combination waste and vent systems, 2004 V1:21 Compound Parabolic Concentrator (CPC) system, 2007
combined building drains, 2004 V1:20 V3:189
combined residuals, 2008 V4:199200 compound water meters, 2005 V2:68, 69
Combustible Metals, Metal Powders, and Metal (NFPA compounds in water, 2005 V2:199
484), 2007 V3:30 Comprehensive Environmental Response Compensation
combustibles and Liability Act (CERCLA), 2007 V3:81, 83, 88
defined, 2007 V3:76, 133 compressed air (A, X#, X#A). See also compressed air
fire loads, 2007 V3:2 systems
metal fires, 2007 V3:23 compared to free air, 2007 V3:165
combustion efficiency, 2004 V1:21 defined, 2004 V1:18, 2007 V3:166
combustion products, 2007 V3:76 laboratory or medical compressed air, 2004 V1:8, 2007
combustion properties of gases, 2005 V2:126 V3:4142, 6164, 70, 7576
Commercial and Industrial Insulation Standards, 2008 overview, 2007 V3:165166
V4:116 supplies to water tanks, 2005 V2:170
Commercial Energy Conservation Manual, 2004 V1:137 symbols for, 2004 V1:8
commercial facilities tools and equipment, 2007 V3:175
commercial/industrial gas service, 2007 V3:235 uses, 2007 V3:165
estimating sewage quantities, 2005 V2:158 water vapor in air, 2007 V3:169170
firefighting demand flow rates, 2007 V3:216 Compressed Air and Gas Data, 2005 V2:144
gray-water systems, 2005 V2:2829 Compressed Air and Gas Handbook, 2007 V3:179
grease interceptors, 2005 V2:12 Compressed Air Data, 2007 V3:179
oil interceptors in drains, 2005 V2:12 Compressed Air Design for Industrial Plants, 2007
radioactive waste drainage and vents, 2005 V2:245 V3:179
commercial kitchen sinks, 2008 V4:12 Compressed Air for Human Respiration (CGA G-7.0), 2007
commercial laundries. See laundry systems and washers V3:78
commercial piping systems, 2008 V4:135 Compressed Air Fundamentals, 2007 V3:179
commercial service gas, 2005 V2:126 Compressed Air Handbook, 2007 V3:179
Commercial Standards (CS), 2004 V1:21 Compressed Air Magazine, 2007 V3:179
Commercial Water Use Research Project, 2005 V2:35 compressed air systems
commissioning section in specifications, 2004 V1:71, 92 accessories, 2007 V3:171172
Commodity Specification for Air (CGA G-7.1/ANSI ZE air dryers, 2007 V3:172173, 174175
86.1), 2007 V3:62, 76, 78 air receivers, 2007 V3:173174
Commodity Specification for Nitrogen (CGA G-10.1), 2007 compressors, 2007 V3:170171, 177179
V3:78 condensate removal, 2007 V3:179
commodity tube, 2008 V4:30 contaminants, 2007 V3:170
common vents (dual vents), 2004 V1:21, 2005 V2:38 definitions, 2007 V3:165169
air admittance valves, 2005 V2:46 earthquake bracing for piping, 2004 V1:167
defined, 2005 V2:38 glossary, 2007 V3:165169
sizing, 2005 V2:38 gravity filters, 2008 V4:202
community bathhouses, 2005 V2:159 measurement units, 2007 V3:169170
Compact Fittings, 2008 V4:28 overview, 2007 V3:165
compacted fill, building sewers and, 2005 V2:14 piping system design
companion flanges, 2004 V1:21 air-consuming devices, 2007 V3:174175
comparative cost analysis, 2004 V1:254 air dryers, 2007 V3:174175
comparing functions in value engineering, 2004 V1:243 design sequence, 2007 V3:174
compartment coolers, 2008 V4:238, 242 duty cycles, 2007 V3:175
compartmentalization in bioremediation systems, 2008 filters, 2007 V3:174
V4:250, 252 future expansion, 2007 V3:176
compartments in septic tanks, 2005 V2:154155 leakage, 2007 V3:176
competition swimming pools, 2007 V3:106, 107 materials, 2007 V3:176177
competitive swimming meets, 2007 V3:106 sizing piping, 2007 V3:69, 7273, 177178
components use factors, 2007 V3:175176
defined, 2008 V4:135 pressure drops, 2007 V3:178
section in specifications, 2004 V1:91 references, 2007 V3:179
composite tanks, 2007 V3:135 regulation methods, 2007 V3:173

Index 291
starting unloaders, 2007 V3:173 plumbing cost estimation, 2004 V1:93, 98

tools and equipment, 2007 V3:175 specifications programs, 2004 V1:7172
valves, 2008 V4:8687 computer room waste heat usage, 2004 V1:134
water vapor in air, 2007 V3:169170 concealed piping, 2007 V3:68
compressed cork, 2008 V4:149 concealed sprinklers, 2004 V1:29
compressed gas. See natural gas systems concentrates, cross flow filtration and, 2008 V4:221
Compressed Gas Association, Inc. (CGA), 2007 V3:55 concentrating collectors, 2007 V3:183, 186187
address, 2004 V1:58 concentrating ratio, defined, 2007 V3:184
list of standards, 2004 V1:53 concentration cells
publications attack corrosion, 2004 V1:141
CGA C-9:Standard for Color-marking of defined, 2004 V1:152
Compressed Gas Cylinders Intended for concentration gradients, 2005 V2:221
Medical Use, 2007 V3:79 concentration polarization, 2004 V1:152, 2008 V4:217
CGA G-7.0:Compressed Air for Human concentration tests, 2007 V3:76
Respiration, 2007 V3:78 concentrators, defined, 2007 V3:184
CGA G-7.1/ANSI ZE 86.1:Commodity Specification concentric reducers, 2004 V1:10
for Air, 2007 V3:76, 78 concrete
CGA G-8.1:Standard for the Installation of Nitrous anchoring to, 2008 V4:125132
Oxide Systems at Consumer Sites, 2007 bioremediation pretreatment systems, 2008 V4:252
V3:79 concrete aggregates, 2008 V4:252
CGA G-10.1:Commodity Specification for Nitrogen, concrete anchors
2007 V3:78 anchoring pipes to, 2008 V4:125132
CGA P-2:Characteristics and Safe Handling of concrete block anchors, 2008 V4:6365
Medical Gases, 2007 V3:78 floor-mounted equipment, 2004 V1:163
CGA P-9:Inert Gases:Argon, Nitrogen and Helium, problems in seismic protection, 2004 V1:188
2007 V3:75, 76, 79 concrete ballast pads, 2007 V3:150
CGA V-5:Diameter-Index Safety System, 2007 concrete barriers around tanks, 2007 V3:146
V3:76, 78 concrete base devices, 2004 V1:204205
Compressed Air and Gas Handbook, 2007 V3:179 concrete block anchors, 2008 V4:6365
standard air definition, 2007 V3:168169 concrete embedments, 2004 V1:190
web site, 2007 V3:79 concrete fasteners, 2008 V4:135
compressibility, 2007 V3:166 concrete floors, leveling around, 2005 V2:16
compressibility factor (Z), 2007 V3:166 concrete grease interceptors, field-formed, 2008 V4:161
compression couplings concrete gutters, 2007 V3:111112
clay pipe, 2008 V4:57 concrete inertia bases, 2004 V1:203
flexible couplings, 2008 V4:6465 concrete insert boxes, 2008 V4:135
glass pipe, 2008 V4:48 concrete inserts, 2008 V4:121, 127, 128, 135
mechanical joints, 2008 V4:60 Concrete Pipe Handbook, 2005 V2:64
compression efficiency, 2007 V3:166 concrete piping
compression fittings circular, 2008 V4:30
cast iron, 2008 V4:24, 25 flow rate, 2007 V3:232
defined, 2004 V1:24 noise insulation, 2005 V2:14
compression joints, 2004 V1:21 roughness, 2005 V2:86
compression ratio, 2007 V3:166 standards, 2008 V4:2832
compressive strength of plastic pipe, 2008 V4:50 surface roughness, 2005 V2:83
compressive stresses underground piping, 2005 V2:50, 2008 V4:2832
piping, 2008 V4:69 concrete restraints, 2007 V3:213
stacks, 2008 V4:229 concrete roofing drains, 2005 V2:63
with temperature change, 2008 V4:228 concrete shielding from radiation, 2005 V2:247
compressors (cprsr, CMPR) concrete slab hangers, 2008 V4:67
centralized drinking-water systems, 2008 V4:243 concrete-tank saddles, 2004 V1:164
defined, 2004 V1:21 concrete tanks, 2007 V3:84, 144
earthquake protection, 2004 V1:164 concurrent regeneration, 2008 V4:221
symbols for, 2004 V1:14 cond, COND (condensers, condensation). See
vibration and noise problems, 2008 V4:145 condensation; condensers
water coolers, 2008 V4:242 condensate drains (CD), 2004 V1:8
computer-controlled grease interceptors, 2008 V4:159160 condensates. See also steam and condensate systems
computer processing of specifications, 2004 V1:7172 corrosion inhibitors, 2004 V1:151
computer programs defined, 2004 V1:21, 2005 V2:143, 2007 V3:153155
abbreviations in, 2004 V1:1416 drainage, 2007 V3:159162
computer analysis of piping systems, 2004 V1:186 high-pressure piping, 2007 V3:162
ETI (Economic Thickness of Insulation), 2004 V1:127 removal, 2007 V3:157158

condensates, as feed water for distillation, 2008 V4:214 hot water system improvements, 2004 V1:127
condensation (cond, COND) insulation thickness and, 2008 V4:109113
air drying, 2007 V3:172 introduction, 2004 V1:124
compressed air systems, 2007 V3:179 nondepletable and alternate energy sources, 2004
corrosion and, 2004 V1:146 V1:130131
dew points, 2007 V3:170 off-peak power, 2004 V1:128129
earthquakes and, 2004 V1:170 reduced water flow rates, 2004 V1:126127
formation of, 2008 V4:113 references, 2004 V1:137
gray water systems, 2004 V1:267 saving utility costs, 2004 V1:128130
insulation and, 2008 V4:105 standby losses in circulating systems, 2004 V1:127
non-circulating hot water systems, 2004 V1:127 thermal insulation thickness, 2004 V1:127
protecting against, 2005 V2:16 waste heat usage, 2004 V1:131134
swimming pools, 2007 V3:107 conserving water
symbols for, 2004 V1:14 design techniques, 2004 V1:134135
vacuum piping, 2005 V2:184 domestic water supply, 2007 V3:46
condensed steam green design, 2004 V1:263267
defined, 2007 V3:153155 institutional wastewater systems, 2005 V2:157
removal, 2007 V3:157158 introduction, 2004 V1:124
condensers urinals, 2008 V4:89
centralized drinking-water systems, 2008 V4:243 water closet fixtures, 2008 V4:3
condenser system water treatments, 2005 V2:227 constant-pressure pumps, 2005 V2:72
distilled water systems, 2007 V3:48 constant support hangers and indicators, 2008 V4:135
scale deposits, 2005 V2:205 constant supports, 2008 V4:124
symbols for, 2004 V1:14 constant velocity method, 2005 V2:67, 97
waste heat reclamation, 2004 V1:132, 133 Constructed Science Research Foundation Spectext, 2004
condensing gas water heaters, 2004 V1:130 V1:71
conditioning compressed air, 2007 V3:174175, 178 construction change directives, 2004 V1:63
conditioning water. See water treatment construction contract documents (CD)
conditions in creativity checklist, 2004 V1:234 contract documents defined, 2004 V1:61
conductance (C), 2004 V1:14, 33, 2008 V4:105 defined, 2004 V1:61
conduction, defined, 2007 V3:184 overview, 2004 V1:61
conductivity cells, 2008 V4:198, 214 project manuals, 2004 V1:6263
conductivity (cndct, CNDCT, K). See also thermal value engineering clauses in, 2004 V1:258, 260
conductivity (k, K) construction costs in value engineering, 2004 V1:212
defined, 2008 V4:105, 221222 Construction Specifications Canada (CSC) Uniformat,
hangers and supports and, 2008 V4:120 2004 V1:64
insulation, 2008 V4:105 Construction Specifications Institute (CSI)
laboratory grade water, 2008 V4:218 classes, 2004 V1:72
measurements, 2004 V1:33 Constructed Science Research Foundation, 2004 V1:71
mho (specific conductivity), 2005 V2:203 general conditions documents, 2004 V1:62
symbols for, 2004 V1:14 Manual of Practice, 2004 V1:61
conductivity/resistivity meters, 2008 V4:198, 212, 218 MasterFormat, 2004 V1:64
conductors MasterFormat 2004, 2004 V1:6465, 7788
defined, 2004 V1:21 MasterFormat Level Four (1995), 2004 V1:76
number of, 2004 V1:14 MasterFormat Level One (1995), 2004 V1:73
conduits MasterFormat Level Three (1995), 2004 V1:76
defined, 2004 V1:21 MasterFormat Level Two (1995), 2004 V1:7375
seismic protection, 2004 V1:155 section shell outline, 2004 V1:8892
cones Sectionformat, 2004 V1:65
calculating volume, 2004 V1:4 solar energy specifications, 2007 V3:192194
of depression, 2005 V2:165 Uniformat, 2004 V1:64, 73
Conference Generale de Poids et Measures, 2004 V1:32 web site, 2004 V1:65
confluent vents, 2004 V1:21 Consultation phase in value engineering, 2004 V1:243, 254
connected loads, defined, 2005 V2:144 consumption. See demand
connected standbys, 2007 V3:27 contact corrosion, defined, 2004 V1:152
connection strainers, 2007 V3:120 contact factors (CF), 2004 V1:14
connections section in specifications, 2004 V1:91 contact sheets, 2007 V3:197
conserving energy contact time for microbial control, 2005 V2:223
alternate energy sources, 2004 V1:130131 containment
Bernoullis equation, 2004 V1:56 biological wastes, 2005 V2:250251
domestic water temperatures, 2004 V1:124125 defined, 2008 V4:177, 181
glossary, 2004 V1:136137

Index 293
Containment Control in Biotechnology Environments, 2005 on water heaters, 2005 V2:114

V2:256 pumps, 2008 V4:101
containment floors or dikes, 2007 V3:84 for vacuum systems, 2005 V2:181, 189, 2007 V3:65
containment sumps, 2007 V3:136, 141, 145 water level, fountains, 2007 V3:102103
contaminants convection, 2007 V3:184, 2008 V4:105
defined, 2008 V4:177 convention halls, numbers of fixtures for, 2008 V4:20
Safe Drinking Water Act levels, 2008 V4:186 conventional angle valves, 2008 V4:76
treating in water, 2008 V4:187 conventional disc globe valves, 2008 V4:76
contamination issues conventional port valves, 2008 V4:84
backflow prevention, 2005 V2:69 convergent thinking in evaluation, 2004 V1:235
bored wells, 2005 V2:165 converging seismic plates, 2004 V1:158
compressed air, 2007 V3:170 conversion factors and converting
contaminant classification, 2007 V3:207 Fahrenheit and Centigrade, 2004 V1:38
contaminators, defined, 2004 V1:21 feet of head to pounds per square inch, 2004 V1:2
dug wells, 2005 V2:164 gas pressure to destinations, 2005 V2:138, 141
gray-water irrigation systems and, 2005 V2:35 IP and metric units, 2007 V3:20
well protection, 2005 V2:166 IP and SI, 2004 V1:3940, 2005 V2:176
contingency measurements, 2004 V1:32
plans for industrial wastes, 2007 V3:83 meters of head to pressure in kilopascals, 2004 V1:2
in plumbing cost estimation, 2004 V1:94 vacuum acfm and scfm, 2005 V2:176178, 178
continuing education, 2004 V1:72 vacuum pressures, 2005 V2:176178
continuous acid-waste treatment systems, 2005 V2:246 water impurity measurements, 2005 V2:202
continuous deionization (CDI), 2005 V2:219220 converting parts per million to grains per gallon, 2008
continuous duty pumps, 2007 V3:22 V4:222
continuous flow. See steady flow cooling compressors, 2007 V3:170
continuous inserts, 2008 V4:135 cooling equipment, green building and, 2004 V1:264
continuous vents, defined, 2004 V1:21, 2005 V2:39 cooling fire areas, 2007 V3:25
continuous waste, 2004 V1:21 cooling grease, 2008 V4:162
continuous wastewater treatment, 2007 V3:87 cooling loads (clg load, CLG LOAD, CLOAD), 2004 V1:14,
continuous welding technique, 2008 V4:48 2008 V4:245
contract documents. See construction contract documents cooling systems
contraction of materials, 2008 V4:231235 direct connection hazards, 2008 V4:184
contraction of pipes solar, 2007 V3:184
aboveground piping, 2008 V4:227229 cooling-tower water
anchors, 2008 V4:6365 backflow prevention, 2008 V4:185
calculating, 2004 V1:3 corrosion inhibitors, 2004 V1:151
hangers and supports, 2008 V4:119 cross contamination case, 2008 V4:189190
overview, 2008 V4:69 exclusion from gray-water systems, 2005 V2:25
protecting against, 2005 V2:16 Legionella pneumophila, 2005 V2:117
underground piping, 2008 V4:231 monitoring, 2008 V4:194
Control of Pipeline Corrosion, 2004 V1:154 reducing makeup water, 2004 V1:264
control panels submerged inlet hazards, 2008 V4:184
clean gas systems, 2007 V3:2728 use of gray water in, 2005 V2:25
fire alarm, 2004 V1:12 waste heat usage, 2004 V1:131
vacuum systems, 2005 V2:181 water treatments, 2005 V2:227
control systems in geothermal energy systems, 2004 cooling vacuum pumps, 2005 V2:181
V1:131 coordination disabilities, 2004 V1:107
control valves coordination with other designers, 2005 V2:52, 64
defined, 2008 V4:222 COP (coefficient of performance), 2004 V1:136
medical gas systems, 2007 V3:67 copper
controlled-flow storm-drainage systems, 2005 V2:5253 coefficient of linear expansion, 2008 V4:233
controlled-substance spills, 2005 V2:195196 corrosion, 2004 V1:139
controllers in electromotive series, 2004 V1:144
chemical, 2007 V3:124127 in galvanic series, 2004 V1:141
defined, 2004 V1:21 levels in drinking water, 2008 V4:186
differential-pressure, 2007 V3:127128 stress and strain figures, 2008 V4:228229
for irrigation systems, 2007 V3:9596 thermal expansion or contraction, 2008 V4:227
controls treating in water, 2008 V4:187
in accessible shower compartments, 2004 V1:120 copper alloy piping, 2005 V2:13
in bathtubs, 2004 V1:118 copper-copper sulfite half-cells, 2004 V1:144
defined, 2004 V1:21 Copper Development Association (CDA), 2004 V1:20, 2005
on gas boosters, 2005 V2:133 V2:47

Copper Tube Handbook, 2008 V4:61, 62, 235 hot-water relief valves, 2005 V2:115
Copper Development Institute, 2005 V2:104 impure water and, 2008 V4:194
copper drainage tube, 2008 V4:40, 4142 inhibitors, 2004 V1:151
copper-nickel alloys, 2004 V1:141 insulation and, 2008 V4:107
copper-phosphorous-silver brazing (BCuP), 2008 V4:42 introduction, 2004 V1:139
copper-phosphorus brazing, 2008 V4:42 oxygen and carbon dioxide, 2008 V4:196
copper piping passivation, 2004 V1:146147
aboveground piping, 2005 V2:13, 50 plastic water pipes, 2005 V2:172
bending, 2008 V4:63 predicting water deposits and corrosion, 2005 V2:206
commodity tube, 2008 V4:30 208
compressed air systems, 2007 V3:176 prevention, 2004 V1:152
conserving energy, 2004 V1:128 protection, 2007 V3:145
copper K piping, 2005 V2:183 references, 2004 V1:154
copper L piping, 2005 V2:183 sacrificial anodes, 2004 V1:148
hangers and supports, 2008 V4:67 soldering and, 2008 V4:62
Legionella control and, 2005 V2:122 storage tanks, 2007 V3:84, 135, 145
mechanical joints, 2008 V4:6162 total organic carbon and, 2005 V2:204
pure-water system, 2007 V3:49 types of, 2004 V1:141
radioactive waste systems, 2005 V2:249 water mains, 2007 V3:6
roughness, 2005 V2:83 Corrosion, 2004 V1:154
sprinkler systems, 2007 V3:13 Corrosion and Resistance of Metals and Alloys, 2004
tape wrapping, 2008 V4:67 V1:154
types, 2008 V4:3032 Corrosion Causes and Prevention, 2004 V1:154
velocity and, 2005 V2:92 Corrosion Control, 2004 V1:154
copper plating, 2008 V4:135 Corrosion Engineering, 2004 V1:154
copper-silver ionization, 2005 V2:120, 122, 2008 V4:220 corrosion fatigue, 2004 V1:152
Copper Sovent Single-stack Plumbing System Handbook Corrosion Handbook, 2004 V1:154
Supplement, 2005 V2:47 corrosion mitigation, 2004 V1:152
copper-sulfate electrodes, 2004 V1:150 corrosion potential, 2004 V1:152
Copper Tube Handbook, 2008 V4:61, 62, 235 corrosion prevention, 2004 V1:152
copper tube size (CTS), 2008 V4:51 Corrosion Prevention for Practicing Engineers, 2004
copper water tube, 2008 V4:3042, 61, 132 V1:154
Copson, H.R., 2004 V1:154 corrosion-resistant materials, 2004 V1:146, 2005 V2:14
cork Corrosion Resistant Materials Handbook, 2007 V3:89
elastomer-cork mountings, 2008 V4:150 corrosion-resistant sprinklers, 2004 V1:29
speed and vibration control, 2008 V4:146, 149, 151 corrosive atmospheres, insulation and, 2008 V4:116
corona-discharge generators, 2005 V2:224 corrosive wastes, 2005 V2:13, 2007 V3:42
corona discharge ozone system, 2007 V3:129 double containment, 2008 V4:60
corporation cocks, 2004 V1:21 duriron pipe, 2008 V4:57
correction factors, 2004 V1:14 stainless steel valves, 2008 V4:79
correctional centers, numbers of fixtures for, 2008 V4:19 corrosivity levels in drinking water, 2008 V4:186
corroded end of galvanic series, 2004 V1:141 corrugated bends in pipes, 2008 V4:63
corrosion corrugated stainless steel tubing (CSST), 2008 V4:60
boilers, 2005 V2:226 corrugated steel piping, 2005 V2:83, 2007 V3:232
calcium carbonate and, 2005 V2:206 cosmic radiation, 2005 V2:247
cathodic protection, 2004 V1:147151 Cost Analysis phase in value engineering, 2004 V1:235,
causes, 2005 V2:205206 241243, 254
coatings, 2004 V1:147 costs and economic concerns
control of, 2004 V1:145151, 2005 V2:16, 168 administrative and operation costs, 2004 V1:212
cooling towers, 2005 V2:227 collecting data on, 2004 V1:222225
corrosion cells, 2004 V1:139, 140, 148 construction costs, 2004 V1:212
corrosion mitigation, 2004 V1:152 cost fitting, defined, 2004 V1:258
corrosion potential, 2004 V1:152 cost information in value engineering, 2004 V1:222
corrosion-resistant materials, 2004 V1:146, 2005 V2:14 225
corrosion-resistant sprinklers, 2004 V1:29 cost of goods, 2004 V1:222
corrosive wastes, 2005 V2:13 cost-to-function relationship, 2004 V1:225
deaeration and, 2005 V2:209 defined, 2004 V1:213, 222225
defined, 2004 V1:139, 152, 2008 V4:136, 222 development costs, 2004 V1:212
electromotive force series, 2004 V1:144 economic values, 2004 V1:213214
factors in rate of, 2004 V1:144145 engineering and design costs, 2004 V1:212
fatigue and fatigue limits, 2004 V1:152 estimating costs, 2004 V1:9398
glossary, 2004 V1:151154

Index 295
idea development and estimated cost forms, 2004 countercurrent regeneration, 2008 V4:222
V1:241242 counterzoning, 2007 V3:2728
labor costs, 2004 V1:212 couple action. See galvanic corrosion
life-cycle costs, 2004 V1:137 couples, defined, 2004 V1:152
material costs, 2004 V1:212 couplings. See joints
overhead, 2004 V1:212 course vacuum, 2005 V2:175
Pareto principle, 2004 V1:224 coverings. See jacketing
relationships, 2004 V1:223 covers, collector, defined, 2007 V3:184
specific applications cp, cp, CP (sp ht at constant pressure), 2004 V1:16
air dryers, 2007 V3:174175 CPC (Compound Parabolic Concentrator) system, 2007
cathodic protection costs, 2004 V1:150, 2004 V3:189
V1:151 CPD (Certified Plumbing Designer), 2004 V1:72
centralized or decentralized stills, 2008 V4:213 cprsr (compressors). See compressors
chlorination, 2008 V4:200, 215 CPVC. See chlorinated polyvinyl-chloride (CPVC)
corrosion resistant materials, 2004 V1:146 CPVC (chlorinated polyvinyl chloride). See chlorinated
diatomaceous earth filters, 2008 V4:204 polyvinyl-chloride (CPVC)
double containment, 2008 V4:60 cracking, defined, 2004 V1:152
fuel product dispensing systems, 2007 V3:143 Craytor, J., 2005 V2:35
galvanic cathodic protection costs, 2004 V1:150 creativity
gas booster location, 2005 V2:133 assisted and unassisted, 2004 V1:232
gray-water system costs, 3234 creativity worksheets, 2004 V1:233234, 236
grease interceptors, 2008 V4:166 first phase in value engineering, 2004 V1:213, 231235
green plumbing benefits, 2008 V4:258 questions for, 2004 V1:234
hardness treatments, 2008 V4:196 second phase in value engineering, 2004 V1:254
horizontal pressure sand filters, 2008 V4:202 creep, pipe supports and, 2005 V2:13
hot-water systems, 2005 V2:107 crevice-attack corrosion
insulation, 2008 V4:113115 crud traps in radioactive-waste piping, 2005 V2:249,
insulation thickness, 2008 V4:109113 250
ion-exchange cartridges, 2005 V2:219, 233 defined, 2004 V1:141, 152, 2005 V2:206
ion-exchange resins, 2005 V2:216, 217 reducing, 2004 V1:146
iron and bronze valves, 2008 V4:7879 crimping tools, 2008 V4:32
laboratory acid-waste drainage, 2005 V2:242 CRIP (critical pressure), 2004 V1:15
sanitary drainage systems, 2005 V2:1 critical care areas, 2007 V3:36, 55
seismic protection costs, 2004 V1:156, 183 critical flows, defined, 2004 V1:2
solar energy, 2007 V3:182183, 186 critical level, defined, 2004 V1:21
special-waste drainage systems, 2005 V2:238 critical path functions, 2004 V1:230
utility costs, 2004 V1:128130 critical pressure, 2004 V1:15
vacuum system piping, 2005 V2:183 critical pressure, defined, 2007 V3:166
vibration control, 2008 V4:151 critical temperature, defined, 2007 V3:166
water distillers, 2005 V2:210 Cross-connection Control Manual, 2008 V4:179
water softeners, 2008 V4:209 cross connections. See also back-siphonage; backflow
water treatments, 2008 V4:194 active control, 2008 V4:173175
water usage, 2008 V4:256 air gaps, 2008 V4:172173
well construction, 2005 V2:165, 172 authorities having jurisdiction, 2008 V4:177
in specifications, 2004 V1:69 backflow prevention, 2005 V2:69
supporting details for, 2004 V1:257258 barometric loops, 2008 V4:172173
types of, 2004 V1:222225 break tanks, 2008 V4:176
value engineering process and, 2004 V1:211 case studies, 2008 V4:187190
vs. prices, 2004 V1:222 Chicago example, 2008 V4:171
cotton gin, creativity and, 2004 V1:231 cold-water systems, 2005 V2:6970
coulombs (C) control paradox, 2008 V4:172
corrosion, 2004 V1:139 defined, 2004 V1:21, 2008 V4:177178, 181
SI units, 2004 V1:33 field testing, 2008 V4:176
3
coulombs per cubic meter (C/m ), 2004 V1:33 flood hazard, 2008 V4:176
Council of American Building Officials (CABO), 2004 glossary, 2008 V4:177179
V1:123 health care facilities, 2007 V3:4647
countdown timer delays, 2007 V3:2728 installation, 2008 V4:175176
counter-e.m.f.s, 2004 V1:153 medical gas pipe tests, 2007 V3:74
counter-mounted kitchen sinks, 2008 V4:12 model ordinances, 2008 V4:179183
counter-mounted lavatories, 2008 V4:11 overview, 2008 V4:169171
counter sinks, 2007 V3:36 passive control techniques, 2008 V4:172173
counterclockwise (ccw, CCW), 2004 V1:14 product standards, 2008 V4:176

quality control, 2008 V4:176177 cup sinks, 2007 V3:36, 40, 41

reverse flow, causes, 2008 V4:170171 curb boxes, 2004 V1:21
splashing, 2008 V4:176 curies (c), 2005 V2:247
taking precautions against, 2005 V2:31 current
types of prevention devices, 2005 V2:6970 cathodic protection, 2004 V1:147
vacuum breakers, 2008 V4:173174, 175, 176 in corrosion, 2004 V1:139, 144
water distribution hazards, 2008 V4:171172 electromotive force series, 2004 V1:144
cross-country pipe lines, 2004 V1:150 large anode current requirements, 2004 V1:150
cross-flow filter media, 2005 V2:201, 211 measurements, 2004 V1:33
cross-flow membrane filtration, 2008 V4:222 current good manufacturing practices (cGMP), 2005
cross-linked polyethylene/aluminum/cross-linked V2:234, 237
polyethylene (PEX-AL-PEX), 2008 V4:52 cuspidors, dental, 2007 V3:40, 2008 V4:184
cross-linked polyethylene (PEX), 2008 V4:52 custom-made grease interceptors, 2008 V4:161
cross-sections of ditches, 2007 V3:234 cut-in sleeves, 2008 V4:69
cross-sections of drains, 2005 V2:2, 3 Cutting and Welding Processes, 2005 V2:144
cross valves, 2004 V1:21 cutting oils, 2005 V2:12, 2008 V4:62
crosses, defined, 2004 V1:21 cutting short, 2008 V4:136
crossovers, 2004 V1:21 cutting threads, 2008 V4:62
crown vents, 2004 V1:21 CV (check valves). See check valves
crowns, 2004 V1:21 cv, cv, CV (sp ht at constant volume), 2004 V1:16
crud traps, 2005 V2:206, 249, 250 Cv, Cv, CV (valve flow coefficients), 2004 V1:14
crutches, 2004 V1:107 CVOL (specific volume). See specific volume
cryogenic systems, 2008 V4:59, 107 CW (clockwise), 2004 V1:14
cryogenic tanks, 2007 V3:59 cw, CW (clockwise), 2004 V1:14
CS (Commercial Standards), 2004 V1:21 CWA. See Clean Water Act
CSA. See Canadian Standards Association (CSA) CWP (cold working pressure), 2008 V4:85
CSC (Construction Specifications Canada) Uniformat, CWR (chilled water return), 2004 V1:8
2004 V1:64 CWS (chilled water supply), 2004 V1:8
CSI and CSI format. See Construction Specifications cyanide, 2007 V3:87
Institute (CSI) cycle of concentration in cooling towers, 2005 V2:227
CSST (corrugated stainless steel tubing), 2008 V4:60 cycles and cycle operation in water softeners, 2008 V4:222
CTS (copper tube size), 2008 V4:51 cyclopropane, 2007 V3:55
CU IN (cubic inches), 2004 V1:14 cylinder-manifold-supply systems, 2007 V3:57, 58, 5960,
CU FT (cubic feet), 2004 V1:14, 2007 V3:30 61, 62, 6465
cubes, calculating volume, 2004 V1:4 cylinder snubbers, 2004 V1:164
3
cubic feet (ft , CU FT, CUFT, CFT), 2004 V1:14, 2007 cylinders
V3:30 calculating volume, 2004 V1:4
cubic feet per hour (cfh), 2007 V3:169, 235 carbon dioxide extinguishing systems, 2007 V3:2526
cubic feet per minute (cfm, CFM), 2007 V3:169. See also clean agent gas fire suppression, 2007 V3:27
scfm, SCFM (standard cubic feet per minute) cystoscopic rooms
compressed air systems, 2007 V3:178 fixtures, 2007 V3:38
converting to metric units, 2007 V3:30 health care facilities, 2007 V3:36
defined, 2005 V2:143 medical gas stations, 2007 V3:52, 56
medical vacuum systems, 2007 V3:6465
symbols for, 2004 V1:14
vacuum exhausters and, 2005 V2:193194
D
d (deci) prefix, 2004 V1:34
vacuum measurements, 2005 V2:176 D (difference or delta), 2004 V1:14
cubic feet per second, standard (scfs, SCFS), 2004 V1:14 D (drains). See drains
cubic foot meters (cfms) D (indirect drains), 2004 V1:8
defined, 2005 V2:143 D-1527 standard, 2008 V4:54
vacuum exhausters and, 2005 V2:193194 D-1785 standard, 2008 V4:53
vacuum measurements, 2005 V2:176 D-2209 standard, 2008 V4:51
3
cubic inches (in , CU IN, CUIN, CIN), 2004 V1:14 D-2235 standard, 2008 V4:54
cubic meters, 2004 V1:33 D-2239 standard, 2008 V4:51
cubic meters per kilogram, 2004 V1:33 D-2241 standard, 2008 V4:53
cubic meters per minute, 2007 V3:169 D-2464 standard, 2008 V4:53
cubic meters per second, 2004 V1:33 D-2466 standard, 2008 V4:53
CUFT (cubic feet), 2004 V1:14, 2007 V3:30 D-2467 standard, 2008 V4:53
cultured marble acrylic fixtures, 2008 V4:2 D-2564 standard, 2008 V4:53
cultured marble fixtures, 2008 V4:2 D-2609 standard, 2008 V4:51
Culvert Pipe, 2008 V4:28 D-2661 standard, 2008 V4:54
cup service for drinking water, 2008 V4:245 D-2665 standard, 2008 V4:53

Index 297
D-2672 standard, 2008 V4:53 deci prefix, 2004 V1:34

D-2680 standard, 2008 V4:54 decibel (A) scale (dB(A)), 2004 V1:206
D-2729 standard, 2008 V4:53 decibels (dB, DB)
D-2737 standard, 2008 V4:51 defined, 2004 V1:206
D-2751 standard, 2008 V4:54 symbols for, 2004 V1:14
D-2846 standard, 2008 V4:53 decomposition potential, 2004 V1:152
D-3035 standard, 2008 V4:51 decontaminating radioactive waste piping, 2005 V2:249
D-3222 standard, 2008 V4:55 decontamination area, 2007 V3:39, 52
da (deka) prefix, 2004 V1:34 decorative pools, gray water and, 2005 V2:25
Daltons law, 2005 V2:81 deep-bed sand filtration, 2005 V2:211
damage. See bedding and settlement; corrosion; creep; deep (dp, DP, DPTH). See depth
hazards; scale and scale formation; seismic deep ends of swimming pools, 2007 V3:106
protection; water damage deep fill, building sewers and, 2005 V2:14
damped, single-leaf barriers, 2004 V1:193 deep-seated fires, 2007 V3:27
dampen, defined, 2004 V1:21 deep wells, 2005 V2:163, 164, 169
damping definitions. See glossaries
defined, 2008 V4:146 definitions section in specifications, 2004 V1:69, 88
in earthquakes, 2004 V1:160161, 183, 186 deflection
sound damping, 2004 V1:195 joints, 2008 V4:61
dance halls, numbers of fixtures for, 2008 V4:18 natural frequencies and, 2008 V4:146
Darcys law, 2004 V1:2, 3, 2005 V2:6, 84, 165166 steel spring isolators, 2008 V4:149150
data storage for specifications programs, 2004 V1:71 thermal expansion and contraction, 2008 V4:228229
databases of plumbing costs, 2004 V1:93, 98 deformation, joints resistant to, 2008 V4:61
Daugherty, Robert L., 2005 V2:19 deg., , DEG (degrees), 2004 V1:14
Davis, Calvin V., 2008 V4:166 degasification, 2005 V2:209, 2008 V4:196, 198
Dawson, F.M., 2005 V2:4, 19, 80 degradation of pure water, 2005 V2:233
dB, DB (decibels), 2004 V1:14, 206 degreasers, 2008 V4:185
DB (dry-bulb temperature), 2004 V1:14, 23 degree of saturation, defined, 2007 V3:168
dB(A) (decibel (A) scale), 2004 V1:206 degrees (deg., , DEG), 2004 V1:14
dbt, DBT (dry-bulb temperature), 2004 V1:23 degrees celsius, 2004 V1:34, 2008 V4:105
dbt, DBT (effective temperature), 2004 V1:14 degrees Fahrenheit, 2008 V4:105
DC current, 2004 V1:14, 147, 2005 V2:219 degrees Kelvin (K), defined, 2007 V3:166
dc, DC (direct current), 2004 V1:14, 147, 2005 V2:219 degrees Rankine (R), defined, 2007 V3:166
DC (double containment systems), 2008 V4:60 DEHA (diethylhydroxylamine), 2005 V2:226
DCBP (double-check backflow preventers), 2004 V1:10 dehumidification, swimming pools, 2007 V3:123
DCV (double-check valves), 2007 V3:207208 deionization, 2005 V2:215. See also demineralizer systems;
DD (design development phase), 2004 V1:64 service deionization
DE (deionized water), 2004 V1:8 deionized water (DE), 2004 V1:8, 2008 V4:195
DE (diatomaceous earth). See diatomaceous earth deka prefix, 2004 V1:34
De Renzo, D.J., 2007 V3:89 delay relays, 2007 V3:2728
deactivation, defined, 2004 V1:152 delays in clean gas extinguishing systems, 2007 V3:2728
dead-end pressure, 2007 V3:166 deliquescent dryers, 2007 V3:174175
dead-end service in pressure-regulated valves, 2005 V2:67 delivery rooms. See birthing rooms
dead ends delivery section in specifications, 2004 V1:70, 8990
centralized drinking-water cooler systems, 2008 V4:246 Delphia method of evaluation, 2004 V1:254
defined, 2004 V1:21 delta (diff., , DIFF, D, DELTA), 2004 V1:14
valves in, 2008 V4:86 delta t (temperature differential), 2004 V1:136
dead legs in pure water systems, 2005 V2:233 DELTP (pressure drops or differences). See pressure drops
dead loads on roof, 2005 V2:53 or differences
dead-man abort stations, 2007 V3:2728 Deluge Foam-water Sprinkler Systems and Foam-water
deadweight loads, 2008 V4:136 Spray Systems (NFPA 16), 2007 V3:25
deaerators deluge systems, 2004 V1:29, 2007 V3:911
boiler feed water, 2005 V2:226 deluge valves, 2004 V1:13, 2007 V3:910
deaeration, defined, 2008 V4:196197 demand
deaeration water treatment, 2005 V2:209 average flow rates for fixtures, 2008 V4:207
pressure and vacuum, 2008 V4:197 centralized chilled water systems, 2008 V4:244245
sovent deaerators cold-water systems, 2005 V2:83
in sovent systems, 2005 V2:17 defined, 2005 V2:143
dealkalizing treatment, 2005 V2:209210 drinking fountains, 2008 V4:244245
dealloying, defined, 2004 V1:152 drinking water, 2005 V2:167
decarbonation, 2005 V2:210 estimating, 2005 V2:91
decentralized distillation, 2008 V4:213 estimation guide, 2008 V4:208

fire demand, 2007 V3:3 Depth of Freeze and Thaw in Soils, 2008 V4:116
fire hydrant water demand, 2007 V3:46 derived units of measurement, 2004 V1:33
flow rates, 2007 V3:214217 description in value engineering phases, 2004 V1:214
gas appliances, 2005 V2:128 descriptive specifications, 2004 V1:66
hot water, 2004 V1:136, 2005 V2:107 desiccant air dryers, 2007 V3:172, 175
hydropneumatic-tank systems, 2005 V2:72, 7374 design
medical air systems, 2007 V3:63 LEED (Leadership in Energy and Environmental
medical gas systems, 2007 V3:50, 51, 53, 57 Design), 2008 V4:23
medical school-laboratory water demand, 2007 V3:46 for people with disabilities, 2004 V1:107
natural gas, 2005 V2:136, 2007 V3:239 reducing corrosion, 2004 V1:146
natural gas systems, 2005 V2:135 seismic, 2004 V1:160161, 186188
pipe sizing and, 2005 V2:86, 92 sustainable, 2008 V4:256
sizing water heaters, 2005 V2:108109 value engineering and, 2004 V1:212
sprinkler systems, 2007 V3:26, 13 design areas for sprinkler systems, 2007 V3:12
vacuum systems, 2007 V3:55, 66 design (built-in) compression ratio, 2007 V3:166
water conservation and paybacks, 2004 V1:126 design density, 2007 V3:1112
water heater types and, 2005 V2:111 design development phase (DD), 2004 V1:64
water softeners and, 2008 V4:206 design elevations, 2008 V4:136
water treatment methods and, 2005 V2:221 Design Information for Large Turf Irrigation Systems,
demineralizer systems, 2005 V2:209, 215, 2007 V3:48 2007 V3:96
activated carbon, mixed bed deionization, 2008 V4:219 design loads, 2008 V4:136
cation and anion tanks, 2008 V4:197 Design of Hoffman Industrial Vacuum Cleaning Systems,
compared to distillation, 2008 V4:197 2005 V2:196
compared to reverse osmosis, 2008 V4:218 design standards, 2004 V1:66
defined, 2008 V4:195 design storms, 2007 V3:228229
for distillation, 2008 V4:214 desolver tanks, 2005 V2:220
laboratory grade water comparison, 2008 V4:218 destruction phase in ozonation, 2005 V2:225
using with distillation, 2008 V4:212 destructive forces in pipes. See water hammer
water softening pretreatment, 2008 V4:206 details in projects, checklists, 2004 V1:220
demographics in hot water demand classifications, 2005 detector-check water meters, 2005 V2:6869
V2:109 detectors, smoke, 2004 V1:22
demolition work, in plumbing cost estimation, 2004 V1:93 detention centers, numbers of fixtures for, 2008 V4:19
Denoncourt, 2005 V2:234 detention periods
dens, DENS (density). See density grease interceptors, 2008 V4:157
density (dens, DENS, RHO) treated water, 2005 V2:208
gas, defined, 2007 V3:166 detergent cross contamination case, 2008 V4:188189
grease particles, 2008 V4:154156 detergents
measurements, 2004 V1:33 factors in trap seal loss, 2005 V2:45
of natural gas, 2005 V2:131133 high-expansion foam, 2007 V3:25
purified water, 2005 V2:82 in septic tanks, 2005 V2:156
settling velocity and, 2008 V4:200 venting for, 2005 V2:46
symbols for, 2004 V1:14 developed length, 2004 V1:22
dental equipment, 2007 V3:42, 52, 2008 V4:185 developers
department connections, 2004 V1:12 perception of engineering, 2004 V1:260
departments having jurisdiction, 2004 V1:22 value engineering and, 2004 V1:212
dependent functionality development costs
defined, 2004 V1:225 defined, 2004 V1:222
in FAST approach, 2004 V1:230 in value engineering, 2004 V1:212
depolarization, defined, 2004 V1:152 Development phase in value engineering
depolarizing cathodes, 2004 V1:145 activities, 2004 V1:235, 243, 254
deposition corrosion, defined, 2004 V1:152 idea development and estimated cost forms, 2004
deposits from feed water, 2005 V2:205206. See also scale V1:241242
and scale formation; sediment; slime; sludge in process, 2004 V1:213
depth (dp, DP, DPTH) sketches, 2004 V1:254, 255
grease interceptors, 2008 V4:157 Development Presentation phase in value engineering,
of liquids in septic tanks, 2005 V2:155 2004 V1:213
of reflecting pools, 2007 V3:101 deviations in measurements, 2004 V1:32, 2008 V4:136
of septic tanks, 2005 V2:154 dew-point temperature (dpt, DPT), 2004 V1:14
of soils, 2005 V2:148 dew points
symbols for, 2004 V1:14 defined, 2004 V1:22, 2007 V3:166, 170, 2008 V4:113
of wells, 2005 V2:164 lowering, 2007 V3:172
depth filters, 2005 V2:221, 2008 V4:202 medical gas system tests, 2007 V3:76

Index 299
monitors, 2007 V3:63 codes and standards, 2007 V3:134

refrigerated air dryers, 2007 V3:175 components, 2007 V3:135
table, 2008 V4:112 definitions and classifications, 2007 V3:133134
dewatering pumps, 2008 V4:99 designing
dezincification of brass, 2004 V1:141, 2008 V4:78 installation considerations, 2007 V3:150151
DFRAD (diffuse radiation), 2004 V1:14 piping materials, 2007 V3:146147
dfu (drainage fixture units), 2004 V1:24, 2005 V2:39 piping sizing, 2007 V3:147148
DHEC (Department of Health and Environmental submersible pump sizing, 2007 V3:148149
Control), 2005 V2:124 testing, 2007 V3:149150
DI (deionization), 2005 V2:215 overview, 2007 V3:133
dia., DIA (diameters). See diameters references, 2007 V3:151
diagnostic facilities, 2005 V2:248 resources, 2007 V3:151
dialogue in FAST approach, 2004 V1:231 underground tank systems, 2007 V3:135144
dialysis machines, 2007 V3:42, 2008 V4:189190, 219 leak detection and system monitoring, 2007
Diameter-Index Safety System (CGA V-5), 2007 V3:76, 78 V3:138141
diameters (dia., DIA) product dispensing systems, 2007 V3:142143
defined, 2004 V1:22 storage tanks, 2007 V3:135138
inside (ID), 2004 V1:14 vapor recovery systems, 2007 V3:141142
outside (OD), 2004 V1:14 dietary services in health care facilities, 2007 V3:36
symbols for, 2004 V1:14 diethylhydroxylamine, 2005 V2:226
diaper changing stations, 2008 V4:18 diff., DIFF (difference or delta), 2004 V1:14
diaphragm-actuated valves, 2007 V3:121122 difference (diff., (, DIFF, D, DELTA), 2004 V1:14
diaphragm gauges, 2005 V2:181 differential aeration cells, 2004 V1:152
diaphragm pumps, 2005 V2:180, 2007 V3:125126 differential environmental conditions, corrosion by, 2004
diaphragm reciprocating compressors, 2007 V3:170 V1:141
diaphragm tanks, 2007 V3:25, 2008 V4:232 differential flow sensors, 2007 V3:121
diaphragm valves, 2004 V1:22, 2005 V2:240, 2008 V4:81 differential movement in earthquakes, 2004 V1:161
diaphragms differential pressure
defined, 2004 V1:22 controllers, 2007 V3:127128
water-pressure regulators, 2008 V4:80 water-pressure regulators, 2008 V4:81
diatomaceous earth filters, 2007 V3:112113, 116119 differential regulators, 2007 V3:237
diatomaceous earth filtration, 2008 V4:203205. See also differentials, defined, 2004 V1:22
silica difficulties in value engineering presentations, 2004
advantages and disadvantages, 2005 V2:228 V1:258
swimming pool usage, 2007 V3:108 diffuse radiation (DFRAD), 2004 V1:14
diatomes, 2008 V4:222 diffusion aerators, 2005 V2:208, 228
1,2-dibromo-3-chloropropane (DBCP), 2008 V4:186 digester gas, 2005 V2:126
dichlor, 2007 V3:124 digesting biosolids, 2008 V4:263264
dichlorobenzenes levels in drinking water, 2008 V4:186 digestion, 2004 V1:22
dichloroethanes levels in drinking water, 2008 V4:186 digits, 2004 V1:32
dichloropropane levels in drinking water, 2008 V4:186 dikes
Dictionary of Bioscience, 2008 V4:253 for aboveground storage tanks, 2007 V3:144, 145146
die-cast metals, 2007 V3:35 for hazardous waste areas, 2007 V3:84
dielectric fittings, 2004 V1:22 dilution air, defined, 2005 V2:143
dielectric insulation, 2004 V1:146, 2004 V1:151 dilution, pollution and, 2007 V3:81
dielectric unions, 2007 V3:135, 2008 V4:6465 dimensions
diesel drivers, 2007 V3:22 in creativity checklist, 2004 V1:234
diesel engines, 2007 V3:22 defined, 2004 V1:32
diesel fuel, 2005 V2:12 wheelchairs, 2004 V1:108
diesel-oil systems dimple/depth stops, 2008 V4:61
aboveground tank systems, 2007 V3:144147 DIN 52218, 2004 V1:194
connections and access, 2007 V3:145 dir radn, DIR RADN (direct radiation), 2004 V1:14
construction, 2007 V3:144145 DIRAD (direct radiation), 2004 V1:14
corrosion protection, 2007 V3:145 direct-acting, balanced-piston valves, 2008 V4:81
filling and spills, 2007 V3:145 direct-acting, diaphragm-actuated valves, 2008 V4:81
leak prevention and monitoring, 2007 V3:145146 direct-acting gas regulators, 2007 V3:237
materials, 2007 V3:144 direct connections, 2008 V4:184
overfill prevention, 2007 V3:145 direct-count epifluorescent microscopy, 2005 V2:199
product dispensing systems, 2007 V3:146 direct current (dc, DC)
tank protection, 2007 V3:146 cathodic protection, 2004 V1:147
vapor recovery, 2007 V3:146 in deionization, 2005 V2:219
venting, 2007 V3:145 symbols for, 2004 V1:14

direct discharge of effluent, 2008 V4:249 Disinfecting, 2008 V4:28

direct fill ports, 2007 V3:136 Disinfection of Escherichia Coli by Using Water
direct-filtration package plants, 2005 V2:228 Dissociation Effect on Ion Exchange Membranes,
direct-fired gas water heaters, 2004 V1:130, 2007 V3:122 2005 V2:234
direct-operated pressure-regulated valves, 2005 V2:78 disintegrations per second (dps), 2005 V2:247
direct pump water supplies, 2007 V3:6 disk filters, 2005 V2:221
direct radiation (dir radn, DIR RADN, DIRAD), 2004 dispenser pans, 2007 V3:143
V1:14 dispensers
directly-heated, automatic storage water heaters, 2005 aboveground tanks, 2007 V3:146147
V2:111 high-rate dispensers, 2007 V3:148
dirt cans for vacuum systems, 2005 V2:188 multiple dispenser flow rates, 2007 V3:148
dirt in feed water, 2005 V2:205 dispersed oil, 2005 V2:255
dirty gas, 2007 V3:236 displacement
disabled individuals. See people with disabilities defined, 2004 V1:22, 2007 V3:166
disc-type positive displacement meters, 2005 V2:95, 96 in earthquakes, 2004 V1:159
disc water meters, 2005 V2:68 water meters, 2005 V2:69
discharge characteristic fixture curves, 2005 V2:3 disposal fields (sewage). See soil-absorption sewage
discharge coefficients, 2004 V1:5 systems
discharge curves, 2007 V3:203 disposal of grease
discharge permits, 2007 V3:8183 approved methods, 2008 V4:165166
discharge piping for vacuum cleaning systems, 2005 bioremediation systems, 2008 V4:250, 251
V2:193194 disposal wells in geothermal energy, 2004 V1:131
discharge pressure, defined, 2007 V3:166 disposers. See food waste grinders
discharge rates in sizing bioremediation systems, 2008 DISS connectors, 2007 V3:76
V4:251 dissolved air flotation, 2008 V4:250
discharge temperature, defined, 2007 V3:166 dissolved elements and materials in water
discharge times in fire suppression, 2007 V3:27 dissolved gases, 2005 V2:200, 209, 226
discontinuous regulation in air compressors, 2007 V3:173 dissolved inorganics, 2005 V2:204
discs dissolved iron, 2008 V4:222
defined, 2004 V1:22, 2008 V4:74 dissolved metals, 2007 V3:8587
gate valves, 2008 V4:83 dissolved minerals, 2005 V2:226
globe/angle-globe valves, 2008 V4:83 dissolved oil, 2005 V2:255
globe valves, 2008 V4:7576 dissolved organics, 2005 V2:211
discussions in FAST approach, 2004 V1:231 dissolved oxygen, 2007 V3:87
disease, 2008 V4:256 dissolved solids, 2005 V2:204, 2008 V4:222
dished ends on tanks, 2007 V3:135 laboratory grade water, 2008 V4:218
dishwashers removing, 2008 V4:197
acoustic ratings of, 2004 V1:195 distances in standpipe systems, 2007 V3:20
backflow prevention, 2008 V4:185 distilled water (DL)
defined, 2004 V1:22 applications, 2008 V4:212
direct connection hazards, 2008 V4:184 decentralized or centralized, 2008 V4:213
fixture pipe sizes and demand, 2005 V2:94 defined, 2008 V4:195
fixture-unit loads, 2005 V2:3 distillation compared to demineralizer systems, 2008
grades of water for, 2008 V4:219 V4:197
graywater, 2008 V4:261 distillation compared to reverse osmosis, 2008 V4:219
grease interceptors and, 2008 V4:162 distillation treatment, 2005 V2:210211, 214
health care facilities, 2007 V3:39 distribution systems for water, 2008 V4:213, 215
heat recovery systems, 2004 V1:266 feed water, 2008 V4:214215
hot water demand, 2005 V2:109 feedback purifiers, 2008 V4:214
water fixture unit values, 2007 V3:198 health care facility stills, 2007 V3:42
water temperatures, 2007 V3:47 laboratory grade water comparison, 2008 V4:218
disinfecting. See also sterilization overview, 2008 V4:211212
codes for, 2004 V1:43 producing, 2007 V3:48
cold-water systems, 2005 V2:103104 purity monitors, 2008 V4:214
decontaminating infectious wastes, 2005 V2:252 sizing equipment, 2008 V4:212, 213
drinking water, 2005 V2:168 storage reservoirs, 2008 V4:213
feed water, 2005 V2:205, 223225 symbols for, 2004 V1:8
gray water, 2005 V2:28, 35 types of equipment, 2008 V4:213
septic tanks, 2005 V2:155 ultraviolet light, 2008 V4:213
small drinking water systems, 2005 V2:228 water problems, 2008 V4:187
wastewater, 2008 V4:261 distribution graywater pumps, 2004 V1:267
water systems, 2005 V2:172 distribution of wealth, 2004 V1:224

Index 301
distribution piping, steam, 2007 V3:155157 valves for, 2008 V4:8586

distribution subsystems, solar, defined, 2007 V3:184 water fixture unit values, 2007 V3:198
distributors in water softeners, 2008 V4:222 water mains, 2007 V3:198
disturbing forces, 2008 V4:146 water utility letters, 2007 V3:200, 243
disturbing frequency (fd), defined, 2008 V4:146 doors, accessibility and, 2004 V1:113, 114, 115
ditches, 2007 V3:233234 dope, pipe, 2005 V2:201
divergent thinking dormant water freezing points (fp, FP), 2008 V4:114
in creativity, 2004 V1:231235 dormitories
in evaluation, 2004 V1:235 acoustic plumbing design for, 2004 V1:196
diversity factor numbers of fixtures for, 2008 V4:19, 20
compressed air tools, 2007 V3:175 doses of radiation, 2005 V2:247
defined, 2005 V2:143 dosimeters, 2005 V2:247
health care facility systems, 2007 V3:46 dosing tanks, 2004 V1:22
liquid fuel piping, 2007 V3:148 dot products, defined, 2004 V1:93
medical gas, 2007 V3:51, 70 DOTn. See U.S. Department of Transportation (DOTn)
medical vacuum, 2007 V3:51, 55, 70 double. See also entries beginning with dual-, multiple-, or
natural gas systems, 2007 V3:235, 239 two-
nitrogen systems, 2007 V3:6970 double-acting altitude valves, 2005 V2:172
nitrous oxide, 2007 V3:70 double-acting cylinders in compressors, 2007 V3:170
oxygen, 2007 V3:70 double-acting devices, 2008 V4:136
vacuum systems, 2005 V2:184185 double-bolt pipe clamps, 2008 V4:142
diverter plate, fountains, 2007 V3:103 double-check backflow preventers (DCBP), 2004 V1:10
diverters, spray accessories on sinks, 2008 V4:1314 double-check valve assemblies, 2008 V4:174, 178, 185
diving pools, 2007 V3:106 double-check valves (DCV), 2007 V3:207208
divinyl benzene, 2005 V2:216 double-check valves with intermediate atmospheric vents,
division in SI units, 2004 V1:34 2008 V4:180
Divisions in MasterFormat 2004, 2004 V1:65, 7788 double-compartment sinks, 2008 V4:1112
DL. See distilled water (DL) double-contained piping systems, 2005 V2:252, 253, 2007
DN (nominal diameter), 2005 V2:175 V3:43, 141
DNA materials, 2005 V2:251, 2008 V4:215 double-contained tanks, 2007 V3:135136
dolomite limestone chips, 2005 V2:245 double-containment systems, 2008 V4:55, 60
dome grates in shower rooms, 2005 V2:11 double discs, 2004 V1:22
dome roof drains, 2005 V2:54 check valves, 2008 V4:83
dome strainers, 2005 V2:63 gate valves, 2008 V4:75, 83
domestic booster pumps, 2008 V4:99 double extra-strong steel pipe, 2008 V4:48
domestic sewage, 2004 V1:22 double-leaf barriers, 2004 V1:193
domestic spaces, acoustic plumbing design for, 2004 double offsets, 2004 V1:22
V1:196 double-ported valves, 2004 V1:22
domestic systems. See domestic water supply; residential double-seated pressure-regulated valves, 2005 V2:78
systems double-sweep tees, 2004 V1:22
Domestic Water Heating Design Manual, 2005 V2:104, double tees, 2008 V4:67
109, 2007 V3:47 double-wall piping, 2005 V2:237
domestic water meters, 2005 V2:6869 double-wall tanks, 2007 V3:135136
domestic water supply double wedges, 2004 V1:22
codes and standards, 2007 V3:198 Dow Chemical Corp., 2005 V2:234
combined with fire-protection supply, 2007 V3:210212 down, defined, 2004 V1:22
fixtures, usage reduction, 2008 V4:258259 down flow, defined, 2008 V4:222
health care facilities, 2007 V3:4650 downfeed risers, 2008 V4:243
irrigation, usage reduction, 2008 V4:258 downspouts and leaders. See also vertical stacks
overview, 2007 V3:198 calculating flows, 2005 V2:53
preliminary information, 2007 V3:197198 defined, 2004 V1:22, 26
service components and design, 2007 V3:202210 roof drainage systems, 2005 V2:5152, 64
backflow prevention, 2007 V3:206208 roof expansion and, 2005 V2:51
elevation differences, 2007 V3:208210 roof leaders, 2005 V2:51
piping runs, 2007 V3:206 downstream, defined, 2004 V1:22
strainer losses, 2007 V3:208 downward-tapered weirs, 2007 V3:101
taps, 2007 V3:206 dp, DP (depth). See depth
valves and fittings, 2007 V3:206 dps (disintegrations per second), 2005 V2:247
water meters, 2007 V3:208 dpt, DPT (dew-point temperature), 2004 V1:14
water pressure, 2007 V3:202206 DPTH (depth). See depth
service connection, 2007 V3:206 draft hoods, 2005 V2:143
system requirements, 2007 V3:198200 drag coefficients, 2008 V4:154

drag force, 2008 V4:136 defined, 2004 V1:22

drag, frictional, 2008 V4:154 grease interceptors, 2008 V4:154
drain bodies. See sumps and sump pumps main, piping, swimming pools, 2007 V3:110
drain cleaners in septic tanks, 2005 V2:156 secondary containment areas, 2007 V3:84
drain fields. See soil-absorption sewage systems swimming pools, 2007 V3:127128
drain line carry tests, 2008 V4:5 symbols for, 2004 V1:11
drain tiles, 2005 V2:151 for water softeners, 2008 V4:207
drain valves, 2007 V3:95, 2008 V4:222 drawdowns (wells), 2005 V2:166, 169, 172
drain, waste, and vent pipes (DWV) drawings, plumbing. See plumbing drawings
copper drainage tube, 2008 V4:4142 drawn temper (hard), 2008 V4:32, 41, 42
copper pipe, 2008 V4:31 drawoff installations. See specific kinds of interceptors
defined, 2004 V1:23, 2008 V4:136 drench equipment for emergencies, 2005 V2:239
dimensions, 2008 V4:38 drench showers, 2007 V3:36, 41. See also emergency
DWV pattern schedule 40 plastic piping, 2005 V2:13 fixtures
DWV piping, 2005 V2:50 dressing facilities, 2007 V3:108109
glass pipe, 2008 V4:48 drift
plastic pipe, 2008 V4:4849 defined, 2004 V1:22
polypropylene, 2008 V4:54 problems in seismic protection, 2004 V1:190
PVC pipe, 2008 V4:5354 drilled anchor bolts, 2004 V1:163, 190
Sovent systems, 2005 V2:17 drilling wells, 2005 V2:172
thermal expansion or contraction, 2008 V4:227, 229 drink dispensers, 2008 V4:185
drain, waste, and vent stacks (DWV) drinking fountains
copper, 2008 V4:32 access to, 2004 V1:109112
Sovent systems, 2005 V2:17 backflow prevention, 2008 V4:185
drainage channels, irrigation systems and, 2005 V2:29 centralized systems, 2008 V4:243247
drainage (corrosion), defined, 2004 V1:152 energy use, 2004 V1:266
drainage fittings, 2004 V1:22 estimating water usage, 2008 V4:246
drainage fixture units (dfu), 2004 V1:24, 2005 V2:39. See fixture pipe sizes and demand, 2005 V2:94
also fixture units and unit values graywater systems, 2004 V1:135
drainage piping health care facilities, 2007 V3:36, 37, 40
acoustic ratings of fixtures, 2004 V1:194 materials and components, 2008 V4:245
copper pipe, 2008 V4:32 minimum numbers of, 2008 V4:1821
double containment, 2008 V4:60 office building usage, 2008 V4:244
glass pipe, 2008 V4:48 stand-alone water coolers, 2008 V4:237240
nonreinforced concrete pipe, 2008 V4:28 standards, 2008 V4:2
drainage structures submerged inlet hazards, 2008 V4:184
defined, 2007 V3:218 swimming pool bathhouses, 2007 V3:108
manholes, 2007 V3:220 types, 2008 V4:14
drainage systems. See also specific types of drainage water fixture unit values, 2007 V3:198
systems wheelchair approaches, 2004 V1:112
air compressor systems, 2007 V3:178 drinking water
condensate, 2007 V3:159162 amount of, 2004 V1:263
defined, 2004 V1:22, 2005 V2:1 blood contamination in, 2008 V4:187
health care facilities, 2007 V3:4246 boiler water contamination case, 2008 V4:188
laboratories chilled systems, 2004 V1:265
acid-waste drainage, 2007 V3:4246 contaminant levels, 2008 V4:186
acid-waste metering, 2007 V3:45 cross connections to nonpotable water, 2008 V4:170
acid-waste solids interceptors, 2007 V3:4445, 45 drinking water supply (DWS), 2004 V1:8
acidic-waste neutralization, 2007 V3:4345 drinking water supply recirculating (DWR), 2004 V1:8
corrosive-waste piping materials, 2007 V3:4546 drinking water systems. See private water systems
discharge to sewers, 2007 V3:43 fountains vs. cup service, 2008 V4:245
sink traps, 2007 V3:4546 health care facilities, 2007 V3:46, 47
waste and vent piping, 2007 V3:4546 material codes, 2004 V1:43
pumps, 2008 V4:99100 potable water, 2004 V1:27, 263, 2008 V4:178, 194
storm water, 2007 V3:233 potable water supplies, 2008 V4:179183
drainage, waste, and vents (DWV). See drain, waste, and Safe Drinking Water Act, 2008 V4:186
vent shipyard cross contamination case, 2008 V4:189
drainless water coolers, 2008 V4:239 treatments for, 2005 V2:228, 2008 V4:187
drainline heat reclamation, 2004 V1:134 typical usage in offices, 2008 V4:244245
drains (D). See also building drains; horizontal drains; drinking-water coolers
specific types of drains access to, 2004 V1:109112
butterfly valves, float-operated main, 2007 V3:127128 accessories, 2008 V4:240

Index 303
centralized systems, 2008 V4:243247 dry-vacuum cleaning systems (DVC), 2004 V1:9, 2005
compared to water chillers, 2008 V4:237 V2:188, 194, 2007 V3:65
defined, 2008 V4:237 dry-weather flows, 2004 V1:23
features, 2008 V4:240241 dry wells (leaching wells), 2004 V1:26, 2007 V3:233
health care facilities, 2007 V3:36 dryers in laundry facilities, 2007 V3:39
heating functions, 2008 V4:240 du Moulin, G.C., 2005 V2:234
installing, 2008 V4:247 dual. See also entries beginning with double-, multiple-, or
invention of, 2008 V4:237 two-
options, 2008 V4:240 dual-bed deionization (two-step), 2005 V2:216, 217
public areas in health care facilities, 2007 V3:37 dual-check valve assemblies
ratings, 2008 V4:238 applications, 2008 V4:185
refrigeration systems, 2008 V4:242 with atmospheric vents, 2008 V4:185
standards, 2008 V4:2 defined, 2008 V4:174175, 180
stream regulators, 2008 V4:242 dual-flush water closets, 2004 V1:136, 265
types, 2008 V4:14, 237240 dual-gas booster systems, 2005 V2:132
water conditioning for, 2008 V4:242243 dual-height water coolers, 2008 V4:239
wheelchair space around, 2004 V1:112 dual vents (common vents), 2004 V1:21. See also common
drip irrigation, 2004 V1:266 vents
drip legs, condensate drainage, 2007 V3:160 dual water-supply systems, 2007 V3:46
drip pots, 2007 V3:238 ductile action of building systems, 2004 V1:183
drive points, 2005 V2:165 ductile iron grates, 2005 V2:13
driven wells, 2005 V2:165 ductile iron piping
drives, variable-frequency (VFD), 2007 V3:122 characteristics and standards, 2008 V4:2829
droop, 2004 V1:22, 2008 V4:80 hangers, 2008 V4:132
drop elbows, 2004 V1:22 pressure classes, 2008 V4:28
drop manholes, 2007 V3:220, 224 radioactive waste and, 2005 V2:249
drop nipples on pendant sprinklers, 2004 V1:13 sizing, 2007 V3:232
drop tees, 2004 V1:23 underground piping, 2005 V2:50
drop tubes, 2007 V3:136137, 142 ducts. See vents and venting systems
drops, 2004 V1:11, 22, 2007 V3:136 Duffie, J.A., 2007 V3:194
dross, 2004 V1:23 dug wells, 2005 V2:164
drug rooms, 2007 V3:38 Dumfries Triangle and Occoquan-Woodbridge Sanitary
drum traps, 2007 V3:4546 District, 2005 V2:35
dry (DRY), 2004 V1:14 dump loads, 2007 V3:47
dry-bulb temperature (dbt, DBT, DB), 2004 V1:14, 23, Dunleavy, M., 2005 V2:234
2007 V3:167, 2008 V4:112, 113 duplex. See also entries beginning with double-, dual-, or
dry-chemical extinguishing systems, 2007 V3:23, 28 two-
Dry Chemical Extinguishing Systems (NFPA 17), 2007 duplex air compressors, 2007 V3:63, 179
V3:23, 30 duplex bed pressure swing dryers, 2007 V3:172
dry gas, 2007 V3:167, 239 duplex manifolds, 2007 V3:60, 62
dry hose stations, 2004 V1:13 duplex sump pump systems, 2005 V2:8
dry ice, 2007 V3:26 duplex vacuum pump arrangements, 2005 V2:182183,
dry nitrogen, 2007 V3:241 186
dry pendent sprinklers, 2004 V1:29 duration of rainfall, 2005 V2:5357, 2007 V3:231
dry-pipe systems Durham systems, 2004 V1:23
accelerators, 2007 V3:9 durion, 2004 V1:23
air compressors, 2007 V3:9 duriron pipe, 2008 V4:5759
combined dry-pipe and pre-action systems, 2007 duty cycles, 2007 V3:174, 175, 178
V3:1011 duty-cycling controls, 2007 V3:63, 65
defined, 2004 V1:29 DVC (dry vacuum cleaning), 2004 V1:9, 2005 V2:188, 194
normal conditions, 2007 V3:89 dwellings. See buildings
riser diagram, 2007 V3:8 DWR (drinking water supply recirculating), 2004 V1:8
sprinklers, 2007 V3:79 DWS (drinking water supply), 2004 V1:8
dry-pipe valves, 2004 V1:13, 23 DWV. See drain, waste, and vent pipes (DWV); drain,
dry-pit pumps, 2008 V4:100 waste, and vent stacks (DWV)
dry-powder extinguishing systems, 2007 V3:23 dye tests, 2008 V4:5, 9
dry pumps, 2005 V2:183 dyes in gray water, 2005 V2:35
dry standpipes, 2004 V1:13, 30 dynamic air compressors, 2007 V3:62, 63, 170
dry-storage water softeners, 2005 V2:220 dynamic force (dynamic loading), 2008 V4:136
dry surfaces, 2004 V1:16 dynamic head, 2005 V2:169
dry units, defined, 2007 V3:167 dynamic loads, 2008 V4:136
dry upright sprinklers, 2004 V1:29 dynamic pressure, 2004 V1:15

dynamic pressure drop, 2005 V2:67 layers of in septic tanks, 2005 V2:153
dynamic properties of piping, defined, 2004 V1:191 pumps, 2008 V4:99
dynamic response (K) to ground shaking, 2004 V1:159, 161 samples of radioactive waste effluent, 2005 V2:250
dynamic viscosity special-waste drainage systems, 2005 V2:237
converting to SI units, 2004 V1:39 temperature of special-waste effluent, 2005 V2:238
measurements, 2004 V1:33 treatment of sewage effluent, 2005 V2:153
dyne, converting to SI units, 2004 V1:39 Effluent Guideline program, 2007 V3:8283
dysentery, 2008 V4:171 EFT (effectiveness), 2004 V1:14
Egozy, 2005 V2:234
E EJ (expansion joints). See expansion joints
EJCDC (Engineers Joint Contract Documents
E (exa) prefix, 2004 V1:34
E (roughness), 2004 V1:16. See also roughness Committee), 2004 V1:63
E (volts). See volts ejector pumps and pits, 2007 V3:220
E-33.08B (Plumbing Noise), 2004 V1:194 ejectors
early flame knockdown, 2007 V3:23 defined, 2005 V2:8
earth loads in sanitary drainage systems, 2005 V2:8
bioremediation pretreatment systems, 2008 V4:252 EL (elevation). See elevation
protecting against, 2005 V2:16 elastic limits, 2004 V1:23
earthquake protection of plumbing equipment. See seismic elastic rebound theory, 2004 V1:158
protection elastic vibration in pipes, 2004 V1:6
Earthquake Resistance of Buildings, 2004 V1:191 elasticity
Earthquake Resistant Design Requirements Handbook, flexural modulus of, 2008 V4:228
2004 V1:191 plastic pipes, 2006 V4:50
Eaton, Herbert N., 2005 V2:4, 19 elastomeric insulation
eccentric fittings, 2004 V1:23 defined, 2008 V4:106107
eccentric reducers, 2004 V1:10 elastomer-cork mountings, 2008 V4:150
eccentricity in connections, 2004 V1:189 heat loss, 2008 V4:111
economic concerns. See costs and economic concerns vibration insulation, 2008 V4:149150
Economic Thickness of Insulation, 2004 V1:127 elastomeric seals or gaskets
economic values, 2004 V1:213214 reinforced concrete pipe, 2008 V4:32
economizers in drinking water coolers, 2008 V4:242 slip expansion joints, 2008 V4:229
Eddy, 2005 V2:161 water closets, 2008 V4:6
edge distances, problems in seismic protection, 2004 elbow lugs, 2008 V4:136
V1:190 elbow offsets, 2008 V4:229
edr, EDR (equivalent direct radiation), 2004 V1:14, 39 elbows
educating public on graywater systems, 2005 V2:35 angle valves and, 2008 V4:76
educational facilities. See schools ells, 2004 V1:23
eff, EFF (efficiency). See efficiency risers up or down, 2004 V1:10
effective openings, 2004 V1:23, 2008 V4:178 elderly
effective pressure, 2005 V2:67 aging disabilities, 2004 V1:107
effective temperature (ET*, ET), 2004 V1:14 fixtures and, 2004 V1:107
effectiveness (EFT), 2004 V1:14 in hot water demand classifications, 2005 V2:109
effects in multi-effect distillation, 2005 V2:210211 electric arc welding, 2008 V4:6263
effects of earthquakes, 2004 V1:156158 electric capacitance measurements, 2004 V1:33
efficiency (eff, EFF) electric charge density measurements, 2004 V1:33
energy, 2008 V4:264 electric fire pumps, 2007 V3:22
fin (FEFF), 2004 V1:14 electric hot-water heaters, 2004 V1:129130
grease interceptors, 2008 V4:157 electric inductance, 2004 V1:33
heat transfer, 2007 V3:158 electric instantaneous water heaters, 2004 V1:265
pumps, 2008 V4:9496 electric irrigation valves, 2007 V3:94
surface (SEFF), 2004 V1:14 electric permeability measurements, 2004 V1:33
symbols for, 2004 V1:14 electric permitivity measurements, 2004 V1:33
thermal, 2004 V1:136 electric resistance, 2004 V1:33
water softeners, 2008 V4:209 electric-resistance welding (ERW), 2008 V4:48
efficiency quotient (Eq), defined, 2008 V4:145 electric resistivity measurements, 2004 V1:33
effluent. See also private onsite wastewater treatment electric solenoid level-sensing systems, 2007 V3:127128
systems (POWTS) electric vaporizers, 2007 V3:59
bioremediation pretreatment. See bioremediation electric water heaters, 2005 V2:110
pretreatment systems electrical components in gas boosters, 2005 V2:130
chemicals in special-waste effluent, 2005 V2:238 electrical engineers, 2007 V3:29
defined, 2004 V1:23, 2008 V4:222 electrical equipment
estimating sewage quantities, 2005 V2:158160 fires, 2007 V3:25

Index 305
installation of pipe and, 2008 V4:23 elevation pressure, 2005 V2:67

electrical leakage, 2008 V4:120 elevator shafts
electrical phases, 2004 V1:15 medical gas piping and, 2007 V3:68
electricity protection systems, 2007 V3:29
conversion factors, 2004 V1:35 ellipses, calculating area, 2004 V1:4
electric current, 2008 V4:6465 ells (elbows), 2004 V1:23. See also elbows
measurements, 2004 V1:33 elongated bowls on water closets, 2008 V4:34
off-peak power savings, 2004 V1:128129 elutriation, 2004 V1:23
electrochemical equivalents in corrosion, 2004 V1:139 embedding, defined, 2008 V4:136
Electrochemical Society, 2004 V1:153 embedments, problems in seismic protection, 2004 V1:190
electrodeionization, 2005 V2:219220 emergency equipment for acid spills, 2005 V2:239, 241
electrodes emergency fixtures
in conductivity meters, 2008 V4:198 emergency eyewashes, 2008 V4:17
defined, 2004 V1:152 emergency showers, 2008 V4:17
electrofusion joining, 2008 V4:63 standards, 2008 V4:2
Electrofusion Joining Polyolefin Pipe and Fittings, 2008 Emergency Planning and Community Right-To-Know Act
V4:63 (EPCRA) (SARA Title III), 2007 V3:134
electrogalvanization, 2008 V4:136 emergency power for fire pumps, 2007 V3:22
electrolysis, 2004 V1:23. See also galvanic action emergency rooms
defined, 2008 V4:136 fixtures, 2007 V3:36, 38
dezincification of brass, 2008 V4:78 medical gas stations, 2007 V3:52, 56
electrolytes medical vacuum, 2007 V3:54
defined, 2004 V1:139, 152, 2005 V2:197 water demand, 2007 V3:46
specific resistance, 2005 V2:203 emergency showers, 2007 V3:35, 36, 41
electromagnetic radiation, 2005 V2:247, 2008 V4:216 emergency shutoffs for fuel dispensers, 2007 V3:143
electrometric compression liners, 2008 V4:48 emergency tank vents, 2007 V3:145
electromotive force (emf, EMF) e.m.f. series, 2004 V1:144, 152
counter-e.m.f.s, 2004 V1:153 emissivity, defined, 2007 V3:184
electromotive force series, 2004 V1:144 emittance, defined, 2007 V3:184
measurements, 2004 V1:33 emitters in irrigation systems, 2005 V2:30
symbols for, 2004 V1:14 Empire State Building, 2008 V4:119
electromotive force series, 2004 V1:144, 152 employee facilities, numbers of fixtures for, 2008 V4:19, 20
electron microscopes, 2007 V3:40, 42, 47, 52 emptying noises, acoustic design and, 2004 V1:195
electronegative potential, 2004 V1:153 emulsions, 2005 V2:255
electronic grade water, 2008 V4:49, 55 enameled cast iron fixtures
electronic pressure differential switches, 2008 V4:203 defined, 2008 V4:1
electronic product level gauges, 2007 V3:146 health care facilities, 2007 V3:35
electronic tank gauging, 2007 V3:139 standards, 2008 V4:2
electronics-grade water, 2005 V2:229, 230 enameled floor drains, 2005 V2:15
electroplating enameled sediment buckets, 2005 V2:13
defined, 2008 V4:136 enclosed impellers, 2008 V4:95, 99
wastewater treatment, 2007 V3:86 enclosures for showers, 2004 V1:120
electropositive potential, 2004 V1:153 end connections, 2004 V1:23
electroregeneration, 2005 V2:220 end-head flows, 2007 V3:13, 20
elemental bromine, 2007 V3:126127 end-suction pumps, 2004 V1:24, 2007 V3:119
elements in water, 2005 V2:199 end-use restrictions
elev., ELEV (elevation). See elevation conserving energy, 2004 V1:126
elevated water storage tanks, 2005 V2:170 reduced water usage, 2004 V1:126
elevated water supplies, 2005 V2:7476, 2007 V3:6 end venting, 2005 V2:39
elevation (elev., EL, ELEV) endotoxins, 2005 V2:199, 204, 2008 V4:222
adjustments for vacuum, 2005 V2:178, 194 endrin
air compressors and, 2007 V3:63 levels in drinking water, 2008 V4:186
altitude (alt, ALT), 2004 V1:14 treating in water, 2008 V4:187
altitude valves, 2005 V2:172 energy
compressed air and, 2007 V3:165, 178 conversion factors, 2004 V1:35
defined, 2008 V4:136 defined, 2004 V1:137, 2007 V3:167
medical vacuum systems and, 2007 V3:6465 efficiency, green plumbing, 2008 V4:264
natural gas and, 2005 V2:129 measurements, 2004 V1:33
pressure drops and, 2005 V2:95 non-SI units, 2004 V1:34
pressure losses and, 2007 V3:208210 nondepletable, 2004 V1:130131, 137
in sprinkler hydraulic calculations, 2007 V3:13 recovered, 2004 V1:137
symbols for, 2004 V1:14 requirements, wastewater management, 2008 V4:264

solar. See solar energy EQIN (equivalent inches), 2004 V1:14

Energy & Atmosphere design (LEED), 2004 V1:263 eqiv ft, EQIV FT (equivalent feet), 2004 V1:14
energy code list of agencies, 2004 V1:42 eqiv in, EQIV IN (equivalent inches), 2004 V1:14
energy conservation. See conserving energy equations
energy efficiency. See conserving energy absolute, atmospheric, and gage pressure, 2008 V4:169
Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy web site, 2007 acfm to scfm, 2007 V3:6263
V3:194 air receiver sizing, 2007 V3:173174
Energy Policy Act (EPACT), 2004 V1:124, 136, 264, 2008 anode expected life, 2004 V1:148
V4:3, 8, 10, 11 areas and volumes, 2004 V1:35
Energy Policy and Conservation Act (EPCA), 2004 V1:124 Bernoullis equation, 2004 V1:56
Energy Saving and the Plumbing System, 2004 V1:137 bioremediation system size, 2008 V4:251
Energy Star web site, 2007 V3:194 Boyles law, 2005 V2:73, 2008 V4:233234
energy transport subsystem, defined, 2007 V3:184 calculating seismic forces, 2004 V1:183186
energy use, 2007 V3:181 chemical formulas, 2008 V4:193
enflurane, 2007 V3:66 clean agent weight, 2007 V3:27
engineered drawings, 2008 V4:136 coefficients of expansion, 2008 V4:233
engineered dry-chemical systems, 2007 V3:23 Colebrook formula, 2005 V2:8486
engineered hanger assemblies, 2008 V4:136 corrosion rates, 2004 V1:144
Engineered Plumbing Design, 2004 V1:40, 2005 V2:64 CPC system, 2007 V3:189
Engineered Plumbing Design II, 2005 V2:104, 2008 V4:235 Darcys Law, 2004 V1:2, 3, 2005 V2:6, 84
engineered plumbing systems, 2004 V1:23 drinking fountain requirements, 2008 V4:246
engineering and design costs, 2004 V1:212 drinking water usage and refrigeration loads, 2008
Engineering Fluid Mechanics, 2005 V2:104 V4:244245
Engineering Manual of the War Department, 2005 V2:64 Faradays Law, 2004 V1:144
Engineers Joint Contract Documents Committee fixture flow rates and water softeners, 2008 V4:207
(EJCDC), 2004 V1:63 flash steam, 2007 V3:153155
engines, earthquake protection for, 2004 V1:164 flow at outlets, 2004 V1:3, 5
entering (entr, ENT), 2004 V1:14 flow capacity in vertical stacks, 2005 V2:3
enthalpy (H), 2004 V1:14, 2007 V3:167 flow from outlets, velocity of, 2004 V1:6
entr (entering), 2004 V1:14 flow rates, 2004 V1:1
entrainment ratios, 2007 V3:167 freezing in pipes, 2008 V4:114115
entropy (S), 2004 V1:14, 33, 2007 V3:167 friction head, 2004 V1:6, 2005 V2:71
environmental concerns. See also green plumbing friction head loss, 2004 V1:2
environmental design, 2004 V1:263267 gas expansion and contraction, 2008 V4:233234
pumps, 2008 V4:100101 gas laws, 2005 V2:131
environmental conditions gravity circulation, 2004 V1:5
corrosion by, 2004 V1:141 grease interceptors, 2008 V4:154156, 163164
hangers and supports and, 2008 V4:117 Hazen-Williams formula, 2004 V1:2, 2005 V2:6, 83
environmental conditions, hangers and supports and, 2008 hot-water systems, 2005 V2:109110
V4:119 hydrant flow tests, 2007 V3:4
Environmental Protection Agency. See U.S. Environmental hydraulic shock, 2004 V1:6
Protection Agency insulation and heat loss, 2008 V4:113115
Environmental Quality design (LEED), 2004 V1:263 International System of Units (SI), 2004 V1:1
environs (facilities with radiation), 2005 V2:247 Joukowskys formula, 2005 V2:7980
EPA. See U.S. Environmental Protection Agency kinetic energy, 2004 V1:2
The EPA Effluent Guidelines Series (EPA 440), 2007 V3:88 Manning formula
EPACT (Energy Policy Act), 2004 V1:124, 136, 264 alternative sewage-disposal systems, 2005 V2:152
EPCA (Energy Policy and Conservation Act), 2004 V1:124 open-channel flow, 2004 V1:1, 2005 V2:6
EPCRA (Emergency Planning and Community Right-To- sloping drains, 2005 V2:7
Know Act) (SARA Title III), 2007 V3:134 maximum allowable strain, 2008 V4:228229
EPDM (ethylene-propylene diene monomer), 2008 V4:41, medical gas pipe sizing, 2007 V3:6869
86 mixing flows of water, 2004 V1:126
epicenters of earthquakes, 2004 V1:156 natural gas pipe sizing, 2005 V2:136137
epicyclic gears, 2004 V1:196 Newtons equation, 2008 V4:154
epm (equivalents per million), 2005 V2:201 Ohms Law, 2004 V1:144
epoxy pipe expansion and contraction, 2004 V1:3, 2008
as thermoset, 2008 V4:49 V4:227
coatings, 2004 V1:147, 2007 V3:147 plumbing cost estimation, 2004 V1:9398
fiberglass pipe and, 2008 V4:56 potential energy, 2004 V1:2
valve coatings, 2008 V4:86 pump affinity laws, 2004 V1:6
epsom salt, 2008 V4:193. See also magnesium sulfate pump efficiency, 2004 V1:67
EQFT (equivalent feet), 2004 V1:14 pump head, 2005 V2:71

Index 307
pump head/capacity curves, 2008 V4:97 essential facilities, defined, 2004 V1:191
pump noise levels, 2004 V1:198 estates, septic tank systems for, 2005 V2:156157
Rational Method formulas, 2004 V1:7, 2007 V3:228 estimating calculations, solar energy, 2007 V3:185186
references, 2004 V1:40 estimating costs. See also costs and economic concerns
Reynolds number, 2004 V1:2, 2008 V4:154 factors in estimates, 2004 V1:98
soil resistivity, 2004 V1:150 idea development and estimated cost forms, 2004
solar energy, 2007 V3:185186 V1:241242
Spitzglass formula, 2004 V1:7, 2005 V2:137 overestimating, 2004 V1:224
sprinkler demand, 2007 V3:13 per-area costs, 2004 V1:9798
sprinkler design density, 2007 V3:12 per-fixture or per-appurtenance estimates, 2004 V1:97
sprinkler end-head pressures, 2007 V3:14 plumbing cost estimation, 2004 V1:9398
SRTA absorber, 2007 V3:188 software for cost estimation, 2004 V1:98
stack terminal velocity and length, 2004 V1:3 in value engineering, 2004 V1:243
steady-state heat balance equations, 2005 V2:109110 estimating medical gas and vacuum stations, 2007 V3:51,
steam velocity, 2007 V3:155 5253
Stokes law, 2008 V4:154, 200 ET*, ET (effective temperature), 2004 V1:14
storm drainage, 2004 V1:7 ethane, 2005 V2:126
tank volume, 2008 V4:154 ethylbenzene levels in drinking water, 2008 V4:186
terminal velocity and terminal length, 2005 V2:2 ethylene dibromide levels in drinking water, 2008 V4:186
thermal efficiency, 2007 V3:187188 ethylene glycol, 2008 V4:189190
thermal expansion and contraction, 2008 V4:228229 ethylene-propylene diene monomer (EPDM), 2008 V4:41,
vacuum system demand, 2007 V3:66 86
value, worth and cost, 2004 V1:213 ETI (Economic Thickness of Insulation), 2004 V1:127
velocity head, 2004 V1:5 EVAC stations, 2007 V3:5253
vent piping length, 2004 V1:3 Evaluation phase in value engineering
vibration transmission, 2008 V4:146149 activities, 2004 V1:235243
water expansion, 2008 V4:232235 checklists, 2004 V1:237238
water flow in pipes, 2004 V1:2 comparing functions, 2004 V1:243
water hammer, 2004 V1:198 functional evaluation worksheets, 2004 V1:243251
water heating, swimming pools, 2007 V3:122 idea evaluation checklist, 2004 V1:243, 253
water mass and volume, 2005 V2:77 in process, 2004 V1:213
water vapor transmission, 2008 V4:106 second creativity, cost, and evaluation analysis, 2004
well equilibrium equations, 2005 V2:165166 V1:254
Weymouth formula, 2004 V1:7, 2005 V2:137 evap, EVAP. See evaporation; evaporators
equilibrium equations for wells, 2005 V2:165166 evaporation (evap, EVAP)
equipment staged, 2005 V2:210
acoustic concerns in selection, 2004 V1:200 storage tanks, 2007 V3:149
defined, 2004 V1:191 symbols for, 2004 V1:14
section in specifications, 2004 V1:91 evaporative coolers. See cooling-tower water
seismic protection, 2004 V1:163171 evaporative cooling, defined, 2007 V3:167
Equipment Handbook, ASHRAE, 2007 V3:194 evaporators (evap, EVAP), 2004 V1:14, 2007 V3:48
equivalent air, defined, 2007 V3:167 centralized chilled water systems, 2008 V4:243
equivalent direct radiation (edr, EDR) drinking water coolers, 2008 V4:242
EDR hot water, 2004 V1:39 flushing in stills, 2008 V4:214
EDR steam, 2004 V1:39 evapotranspiration
symbols for, 2004 V1:14 defined, 2004 V1:23
equivalent feet (eqiv ft, EQIV FT, EQFT), 2004 V1:14 in irrigation, 2007 V3:96
equivalent inches (eqiv in, EQIV IN, EQIN), 2004 V1:14 sewage treatment, 2005 V2:153
equivalent length exa prefix, 2004 V1:34
compressed air piping, 2007 V3:176 exact conversions, 2004 V1:32
defined, 2005 V2:144 exam/treatment rooms
medical gas piping, 2007 V3:68 fixtures, 2007 V3:38
natural gas piping, 2005 V2:136 health care facilities, 2007 V3:36
equivalent static force, calculating, 2004 V1:183 medical gas stations, 2007 V3:52
equivalent weight, 2005 V2:198, 199 medical vacuum, 2007 V3:54
equivalents per million, 2005 V2:201 examination section in specifications, 2004 V1:71, 91
erected elevations, 2008 V4:136 excavation
erosion, 2004 V1:23, 2007 V3:49, 91, 157 labor productivity rates, 2004 V1:9597
impure water and, 2008 V4:194 plumbing cost estimation, 2004 V1:93
erosion corrosion, 2005 V2:205 excess air, defined, 2005 V2:143
erosion feeders, 2007 V3:126 excess flow gas valves, 2005 V2:127
ERW (electric-resistance welding), 2008 V4:48 excess pressure pumps, 2004 V1:24

excess water pressure, 2005 V2:7779 water-pressure regulators, 2008 V4:81

excessive costs, value engineering and, 2004 V1:212 expansion bends, 2005 V2:16
exchange capacity of resins, 2005 V2:216 expansion hook plates, 2008 V4:67
exchangers in distillers, 2005 V2:210 expansion joints (EJ)
Execution section in specifications, 2004 V1:69, 9192 anchoring, 2008 V4:6365
exhaust defined, 2004 V1:23
filters on vacuum systems, 2005 V2:182 DWV pipes, 2008 V4:229
from vacuum, 2005 V2:184 roofs, 2005 V2:54
pressure loss in vacuum systems, 2005 V2:194 spacing, 2008 V4:229
vacuum exhaust pipe sizing, 2005 V2:186 symbols for, 2004 V1:10
vacuum system piping, 2005 V2:180, 194, 2007 V3:65 thermal expansion and, 2005 V2:16, 2008 V4:228229
66 types of, 2008 V4:6465, 229
vacuum system stacks, 2007 V3:6566 use of, 2008 V4:69
exhausted cartridges in ion exchange, 2005 V2:219 expansion loops
exhausters (dry-pipe systems), 2007 V3:8 bracing and, 2004 V1:171
exhausters (vacuum) defined, 2004 V1:23
air-bleed controls, 2005 V2:189 loops and offsets, 2008 V4:228229
defined, 2005 V2:188 protecting against thermal expansion, 2005 V2:16
locating, 2005 V2:190 use of, 2008 V4:69
sizing, 2005 V2:193194 expansion tanks, 2005 V2:7677
exhaustion, defined, 2008 V4:222 air cushion expansion and contraction, 2008 V4:233
exhibition halls, numbers of fixtures for, 2008 V4:18 234
existing work, 2004 V1:23 effects of, 2008 V4:231
exp, EXP (expansion). See expansion materials expansion, 2008 V4:232233
expanded air in vacuums, 2005 V2:178 overview, 2008 V4:231232
expanded perlite, 2008 V4:111 sizing, 2008 V4:231, 234
expanded system volumes, 2008 V4:232 expert costs, 2004 V1:223
expansion (exp, EXP, XPAN) explosion-proof water coolers, 2008 V4:239
aboveground piping, 2008 V4:227229 explosions
ABS pipes, 2008 V4:54 explosion-proof (XP) construction, 2005 V2:130
anchors, 2008 V4:6365 explosion-relief devices for vacuums, 2005 V2:188
backflow prevention and, 2005 V2:70 fire-protection systems, 2007 V3:26
buildings, 2007 V3:50 hot-water heaters, 2005 V2:107
calculating pipe expansion, 2004 V1:3 nitric acid, 2005 V2:242
Capitol Dome, Washington, D.C., 2008 V4:119 exposed ends of piping, 2008 V4:23
converting to SI units, 2004 V1:39 extended-coverage sidewall sprinklers, 2004 V1:29
copper, 2008 V4:233 extended handles, 2008 V4:84, 87
defined, 2008 V4:227 extension riser clamps, 2008 V4:136
expansion tanks, 2008 V4:231235 external energy, defined, 2007 V3:167
fiberglass pipe, 2008 V4:56 external water treatments, 2008 V4:194
foam extinguishing agents, 2007 V3:25 extinguishing systems, 2004 V1:12
future expansion of compressed air systems, 2007 extra-hazard occupancies
V3:176 defined, 2004 V1:29
glass pipe, 2008 V4:48 deluge systems, 2007 V3:910
hangers and supports, 2008 V4:119 firefighting hose streams, 2007 V3:217
HDPE pipe, 2008 V4:51 portable fire extinguishers, 2007 V3:28, 29
hot-water systems and, 2005 V2:116 extra-heavy cast-iron soil pipe (XH), 2008 V4:2426
insulation, 2008 V4:116 extra-heavy gaskets, 2008 V4:60
linear expansion in PVC pipe, 2008 V4:53 extra-heavy piping, 2004 V1:23
materials expansion, 2008 V4:232233 extra materials section in specifications, 2004 V1:70, 90
pipes, 2008 V4:69 extra-strength vitrified clay piping, 2005 V2:50
plastic pipe, 2008 V4:50 extra-strong steel pipe, 2008 V4:48
protecting against pipe expansion, 2005 V2:16 extractors in laundry facilities, 2007 V3:39
PVDF pipe, 2008 V4:55 extruded steel piping, 2008 V4:48
sanitary drainage systems, 2005 V2:16 eye nuts, 2008 V4:121
stainless steel, 2008 V4:5960 eye rods, 2008 V4:136
storage tanks and piping, 2007 V3:149 eye sockets, 2008 V4:127, 136
symbols for, 2004 V1:14 eyeball fittings, fountains, 2007 V3:103
thermal expansion coefficients (TXPC), 2004 V1:16 eyewashes for emergencies, 2005 V2:239240, 2007 V3:35,
thermal expansion loops, 2004 V1:162 41, 2008 V4:17
thermal expansion tanks, 2005 V2:116
water expansion formulas, 2008 V4:232235

Index 309
F Failsafe Neutralization of Wastewater Effluent, 2005

V2:256
F, F (Fahrenheit), 2004 V1:14, 38
F (farads), 2004 V1:33 failure values of anchors, 2004 V1:190
f (femto) prefix, 2004 V1:34 Fair Housing Accessibility Guidelines, 2004 V1:106
F (fire-protection water supply). See fire-protection fairly-rough piping, 2005 V2:89
systems fairly-smooth piping, 2005 V2:88
f to f, F TO F (face to face), 2004 V1:14, 23 fall-off pressure, 2005 V2:67, 2008 V4:80
f-chart sizing method, solar energy, 2007 V3:189192 false alarms for sprinkler systems, 2007 V3:7
F/m (farads per meter), 2004 V1:33 families, in hot water demand classifications, 2005 V2:109
F-437 standard, 2008 V4:53 fan-coil units, 2004 V1:267
F-438 standard, 2008 V4:53 fan-cooled electric motors, 2004 V1:196
F-439 standard, 2008 V4:53 fan pressurization tests, 2007 V3:28
F-441 standard, 2008 V4:53 fans (FAN)
F-442 standard, 2008 V4:54 pulsation from, 2004 V1:196
F-477 standard, 2008 V4:53 silencers, 2004 V1:197
F-628 standard, 2008 V4:54 symbols for, 2004 V1:14
F-771 standard, 2008 V4:51 Faradays Law, 2004 V1:139, 144
F-810 standard, 2008 V4:51 farads, 2004 V1:33
F-876 standard, 2008 V4:52 farads per meter, 2004 V1:33
F-877 standard, 2008 V4:52 farm animal water consumption, 2008 V4:208
F-894 standard, 2008 V4:51 FAST approach to function analysis, 2004 V1:227231
F-1055 standard, 2008 V4:55 fasteners, sound damping, 2004 V1:195
F-1056 standard, 2008 V4:55 fats, oils, and grease (FOG). See also grease interceptors
F-1281 standard, 2008 V4:52 bioremediation systems, 2008 V4:249
F-1282 standard, 2008 V4:52 disposal systems, 2008 V4:160
F-1290 standard, 2008 V4:55 exclusion from graywater systems, 2005 V2:25
F-1412 standard, 2008 V4:55 fats in kitchens, 2007 V3:39
F-1673 standard, 2008 V4:55 grease traps, defined, 2004 V1:25
F-2389 standard, 2008 V4:55 grease waste drains, 2008 V4:249
fa, FA (face area), 2004 V1:14 interceptors. See grease interceptors
fabricated steel parts, 2008 V4:136 recombined FOG (fats, oil, and grease), 2008 V4:249
fabrication, defined, 2008 V4:136 removing grease, 2008 V4:165166
fabrication section in specifications, 2004 V1:91 faucets
fabricators, 2008 V4:136 accessible shower compartments, 2004 V1:120
face area (fa, FA), 2004 V1:14 acoustic design and pressure, 2004 V1:200
face to face (f to f, F TO F) backflow prevention, 2008 V4:1314
face-to-face dimensions, defined, 2004 V1:23 centersets, 2008 V4:10
symbols for, 2004 V1:14 Energy Policy Act requirements, 2004 V1:264
face velocity (fvel, FVEL, FV), 2004 V1:14 flow rates, 2008 V4:10, 13
face washes, 2007 V3:35, 41 health care facilities, 2007 V3:3537
Facility Piping System Handbook, 2005 V2:104, 196, 234, leakage, 2004 V1:134
256, 2007 V3:151, 179, 2008 V4:116 low flow, 2004 V1:136
factories patient rooms, 2007 V3:37
numbers of fixtures for, 2008 V4:18 reduced water usage, 2004 V1:126127
water consumption, 2008 V4:208 reducing flow rates, 2004 V1:135
factors residential kitchen sinks, 2008 V4:11
correction factors (CFAC, CFACT), 2004 V1:14 self-metering, 2008 V4:13
friction factors (FFACT, FF), 2004 V1:14 sinks, 2004 V1:117
factory-beaded pipe, 2008 V4:63 standards, 2008 V4:2
Factory Mutual Research Corporation (FM) types of, 2008 V4:1314
air compressors in dry-pipe systems, 2007 V3:9 wasted water, 2004 V1:136
design density requirements, 2007 V3:12 water usage reduction, 2008 V4:258
Factory Mutual (FM) Loss Prevention Data Sheets, faults and fault zones, 2004 V1:156158
2005 V2:129, 2007 V3:210 FC (flexible connectors). See flexible connectors
FM Global, 2005 V2:127 FCO (floor cleanouts), 2004 V1:11
seismic protection recommendations, 2004 V1:184 FD (floor drains with p-traps), 2004 V1:11
valve standards, 2008 V4:73, 90 FDA (Food and Drug Administration), 2005 V2:197, 231,
Fahrenheit (F, F) 234, 237
conversion factors, 2004 V1:38 features, defined, 2004 V1:32
symbols for, 2004 V1:14 fecal matter. See black-water systems; effluent
fail-safe mixing valves, 2008 V4:17 federal agencies. See specific agencies under US

Federal Energy Management Improvement Act (FEMIA), cold water systems, 2005 V2:68
2004 V1:124 exposed piping on storage tanks, 2007 V3:145
Federal Food, Drug and Cosmetic Act, 2005 V2:229 fixtures, 2008 V4:2
Federal Register (FR), 2007 V3:81 fuel product dispensing, 2007 V3:147
federal specifications (FS), 2004 V1:25, 54, 58. See also liquid fuel tanks, 2007 V3:135
U.S. Federal Specifications plastic pipe, 2008 V4:56
Fdration Internationale de Nataton Amateur (FINA), storage tanks, 2007 V3:144, 150
2007 V3:105 sulfuric acid and, 2007 V3:85
feed-gas treatment units in ozone generators, 2005 V2:224 velocity, 2007 V3:148
feed systems, swimming pools, 2007 V3:123127 VOCs and, 2005 V2:201
feed water fiberglass-reinforced polyester, 2008 V4:252
condensate as, 2008 V4:214 fiberglass-reinforced storage tanks
defined, 2005 V2:197 aboveground storage tanks, 2007 V3:144
distillation, 2008 V4:214215 high-purity water, 2005 V2:233
pure-water systems, 2005 V2:230231 liquid fuel tanks, 2007 V3:135
raw water, defined, 2008 V4:194 storage tanks, 2007 V3:150
raw water as cooling water for stills, 2008 V4:214 storage tanks and hazardous wastes, 2007 V3:84
feedback purifiers, 2008 V4:214 fiberglass sealants, 2004 V1:193
feet (ft, FT) field-beaded pipe, 2008 V4:63
converting to metric units, 2007 V3:30 field checklists, 2004 V1:102103
converting to SI units, 2004 V1:39 field-formed concrete grease interceptors, 2008 V4:161
feet per minute (fpm, FPM), 2004 V1:14, 2007 V3:30 field orders, 2004 V1:63
feet per second (fps, FPS), 2004 V1:14 field quality control section in specifications, 2004 V1:71,
foot-pounds (ft-lb, FT LB), 2004 V1:14 9192
of head, converting, 2004 V1:2 field testing cross-connection controls, 2008 V4:176
symbols for, 2004 V1:14 fill
FEFF (efficiency, fin), 2004 V1:14 sewers, 2005 V2:1415
felt, 2004 V1:195 types of, around building sewers, 2005 V2:1415
female threads, 2004 V1:23 fill hoses, 2007 V3:137
FEMIA (Federal Energy Management Improvement Act), fill ports, 2007 V3:145
2004 V1:124 filling
femto prefix, 2004 V1:34 aboveground tank systems, 2007 V3:145
ferric chloride, 2008 V4:201 underground liquid fuel tanks, 2007 V3:136137
ferric hydroxide, 2005 V2:199 film coefficients
ferric iron, 2005 V2:199, 200, 2008 V4:222 inside (FI, HI), 2004 V1:14
ferric oxide, 2008 V4:193 outside (FO, HO), 2004 V1:14
ferric sulfate, 2008 V4:196, 201 film-processing areas, 2007 V3:42, 47
ferritic stainless steel, 2008 V4:59 films
ferrous bicarbonate, 2005 V2:200 carbonate, 2004 V1:151
ferrous carbonate, 2008 V4:193 film formation in rate of corrosion, 2004 V1:145
ferrous iron, 2005 V2:199, 200, 2008 V4:222 sodium hexametaphosphate, 2004 V1:151
ferrous oxide, 2008 V4:193 sodium silicate, 2004 V1:151
ferrous pipes, 2004 V1:5152, 2007 V3:101 filter-ag, 2008 V4:222
FF (friction factors), 2004 V1:14 filter alum, 2005 V2:209
FF (full-flow conditions), 2004 V1:1 filter beds
FFACT (friction factors), 2004 V1:14 defined, 2008 V4:201
FI (film coefficients), 2004 V1:14 problems, 2008 V4:203204
fiber piping, 2005 V2:83 filter cloths, 2008 V4:204
fiber stress in bending, 2008 V4:228 filter intakes, 2007 V3:63
fiberglass filters and filtration
insulation, 2008 V4:106107 air compressors, 2007 V3:171172
tank insulation, 2008 V4:109 air filters, 2008 V4:213214
fiberglass cloth, skrim, and kraft paper (FSK), 2008 backsplash cycles, 2008 V4:203
V4:108 backwashing, 2008 V4:203
fiberglass fixtures, 2008 V4:2 chilled drinking-water systems, 2008 V4:244
fiberglass insulation compressed air systems, 2007 V3:175
chilled drinking-water systems, 2008 V4:244 defined, 2004 V1:23, 2008 V4:196, 222
freezing points and, 2008 V4:114115 diatomaceous earth filters, 2008 V4:203205
heat loss, 2008 V4:110, 111 filter bags on vacuum systems, 2005 V2:188189
fiberglass lagging, 2008 V4:108 filter elements or media, 2004 V1:23
fiberglass pipe hangers, 2008 V4:132 filtration water systems, 2007 V3:48
fiberglass-reinforced plastic (FRP) fuel dispensers, 2007 V3:143

Index 311
gas line filters, 2007 V3:236 flammable or volatile liquids, 2005 V2:12, 254256
gravity filters, 2008 V4:202 oxygen storage areas, 2007 V3:60
gray water, 2004 V1:267, 2005 V2:3032, 35 fire lines
infectious waste systems, 2005 V2:252 defined, 2004 V1:24
iron filters, 2008 V4:208 fire-line water meters, 2005 V2:6869
Legionella control, 2005 V2:122 fire mains, 2007 V3:6
membrane filtration and separation, 2005 V2:221223 fire-protection engineers, 2007 V3:29
microorganisms, 2005 V2:224 fire pumps, 2004 V1:12, 24, 2007 V3:2122, 209
nanofiltration, 2008 V4:220 firefighting equipment, 2004 V1:13
oil spills, 2005 V2:255, 256 firefighting water drainage, 2005 V2:253254
organic removal filters, 2008 V4:214 flow tests, 2007 V3:36
pressure filters, 2008 V4:202203 hydrants
pure water systems, 2005 V2:231232 public hydrants, 2004 V1:12
rainwater, 2008 V4:260261 valves, 2004 V1:24
small drinking water systems, 2005 V2:228 other trades and, 2007 V3:29
swimming pools overview, 2007 V3:1
diatomaceous earth filters, 2007 V3:116119 references, 2007 V3:2930
filter media rate, 2007 V3:109 sanitary systems and, 2005 V2:16
high-rate sand filters, 2007 V3:115116 seismic protection, 2004 V1:183184
return piping, 2007 V3:110111 special extinguishing systems, 2007 V3:2329
types, 2007 V3:112113 carbon-dioxide systems, 2007 V3:2526
vacuum sand filters, 2007 V3:116 dry-chemical extinguishing systems, 2007 V3:23
turbidity and, 2008 V4:196, 200 dry-powder extinguishing systems, 2007 V3:23
utility water, 2005 V2:225 elevator shaft protection systems, 2007 V3:29
vacuum systems, 2005 V2:188189 foam extinguishing systems, 2007 V3:2426
water quality and, 2005 V2:167168 gaseous fire-suppression systems, 2007 V3:2628
water treatment, 2005 V2:211215, 214, 2008 V4:187, water mist extinguishing systems, 2007 V3:24
201205 water spray fixed extinguishing systems, 2007
fin efficiency (FEFF), 2004 V1:14 V3:24
FINA (Fdration Internationale de Nataton Amateur), wet chemical extinguishing systems, 2007 V3:24
2007 V3:105 sprinkler systems. See sprinkler systems (fire
final checklists, 2004 V1:103 protection)
fine sands standpipe systems, 2007 V3:2021
graywater irrigation systems and, 2005 V2:29 symbols, 2004 V1:1213
irrigating, 2007 V3:91 terminology, 2004 V1:1731
fine vacuum, 2005 V2:175 water lines, 2008 V4:3031
finish coats, 2004 V1:147 water supply for
finish inspection, 2004 V1:103 building water supply, 2007 V3:210212
Finnemore, E. John, 2005 V2:19 codes and standards, 2007 V3:210
fire areas, 2007 V3:12 fire risers, 2007 V3:12
fire departments, 2007 V3:197 flow rates, 2007 V3:214217
fire hydrants. See hydrants graphs, 2007 V3:4, 5
fire loads, 2007 V3:2 guard posts, 2007 V3:212213
fire marshals, 2007 V3:197 hydrants, 2007 V3:212213
Fire Protection Handbook, 2007 V3:29 hydraulic calculations, 2007 V3:13
fire-protection systems. See also sprinkler systems (fire joint restrainers, 2007 V3:213
protection) overview, 2007 V3:210212
alarms piping system layout, 2007 V3:6
electric gongs, 2007 V3:8 post indicator valves, 2007 V3:212213
fire alarm control panels, 2004 V1:12, 2007 V3:27 preliminary information, 2007 V3:197198
28 quantity and availability, 2007 V3:26
fire alarm systems, 2004 V1:2324 reliability, 2007 V3:6
codes and standards, 2004 V1:4243 sizing system, 2007 V3:213217
detection, 2007 V3:9, 27 standpipe systems, 2007 V3:21, 2008 V4:184
extinguishers, 2004 V1:12, 13, 2007 V3:28 symbols for water supply (F), 2004 V1:8
fire department connections, 2004 V1:24, 2007 V3:8 tank capacity, 2007 V3:217
fire-department connections, 2004 V1:12 valves, 2008 V4:8990
fire extinguishers, 2007 V3:28 water demands, 2005 V2:167, 170
fire hazards fire-rated sealants, 2004 V1:193
defined, 2004 V1:24 fire resistance, insulation and, 2008 V4:106, 107
evaluation, 2007 V3:2 Fire Resistance (UL 2085), 2007 V3:134
fire loads and resistance ratings, 2007 V3:2 fire-retardant jackets for pipes, 2008 V4:60

fire sprinklers. See sprinkler systems (fire protection) fixed suspended equipment, 2004 V1:164
fire suppression pumps, 2008 V4:99, 101 fixture batteries
fire suppression, underground tank systems, 2007 V3:143 circuit and loop venting, 2005 V2:4445
fires defined, 2005 V2:39
classes of, 2007 V3:2 fixture branches, 2004 V1:24
growth rate, 2007 V3:2 fixture carrier fittings, 2004 V1:24
firm gas services, 2007 V3:235 fixture carriers, 2004 V1:24
first aid kit, 2007 V3:131 fixture drains
first-degree burns, 2005 V2:122 defined, 2004 V1:24
fissures in filter beds, 2008 V4:203204 discharge characteristics, 2005 V2:3
fittings. See also specific types of fittings flow in, 2005 V2:2
ABS pipe, 2008 V4:54 flow rate in, 2004 V1:3
acoustic ratings, 2004 V1:194195 simultaneous use of fixtures, 2005 V2:3, 4
codes and standards, 2004 V1:44 fixture supplies, 2004 V1:24
compressed air, 2007 V3:176, 177 fixture units and unit values
compression, 2004 V1:24 cold-water system demand, 2005 V2:92
copper and bronze, 2008 V4:32, 3940 conversion to gpm, 2005 V2:93, 2007 V3:201, 218
copper drainage tubes, 2008 V4:40, 42 drainage fixture units (dfu), 2004 V1:24, 2005 V2:39
copper pipe, 2008 V4:3940 fixture units (fu) defined, 2005 V2:39
cross-linked polyethylene, 2008 V4:52 forms for charting, 2005 V2:94
defined, 2004 V1:24 governing fixtures, 2005 V2:9597
dielectric unions or flanges, 2008 V4:6465 maximum for vertical stacks, 2005 V2:4
domestic pressure drops and, 2007 V3:206 minimum sizes of pipes for fixtures, 2005 V2:94
ductile iron water and sewer pipe, 2008 V4:2829 pipe sizing and, 2005 V2:91
duriron pipe, 2008 V4:59 sanitary drainage system loads, 2005 V2:3
earthquake damage, 2004 V1:162 sizing bioremediation pretreatment systems, 2008
earthquake protection, 2004 V1:166 V4:251
equivalent lengths for natural gas, 2005 V2:135 slope of drains, 2005 V2:6, 78
erosion, 2007 V3:157 steady flow in horizontal drains, 2005 V2:8
flanged, 2004 V1:24 supply fixture units (sfu), 2004 V1:24
friction loss and, 2005 V2:99102 water hammer and, 2005 V2:82
glass pipe, 2008 V4:4243, 48 fixtures and fixture outlets. See also specific types of
grab bars, 2004 V1:121122 fixtures (water closets, showers, etc.)
hub and spigot, 2008 V4:2425 accessibility standards, 2008 V4:2
hubless pipe and fittings, 2008 V4:24 batteries of fixtures, 2004 V1:18
installing insulation, 2008 V4:108109 building requirement tables, 2008 V4:1821
medical gas tube, 2008 V4:42 codes and standards, 2004 V1:4344
natural gas pipes, 2007 V3:238 cold-water system demand, 2005 V2:92
plastic pipes, 2008 V4:49 defined, 2004 V1:27, 2008 V4:1
polypropylene pipe, 2008 V4:5455 domestic water supply and, 2007 V3:200
PVC piping, 2008 V4:5253, 56 fittings, 2008 V4:1
PVDF pipe, 2008 V4:55 fixture inventories, 2008 V4:251
radioactive waste systems, 2005 V2:250 fixture isolation, 2008 V4:178, 181
screwed fittings, 2004 V1:162 flow rates for water softeners, 2008 V4:207208
seamless copper water tube, 2008 V4:32, 39 health care facilities, 2007 V3:3542
stainless steel pipe, 2008 V4:60 selection, 2007 V3:35
standards, 2008 V4:2 inspection, 2004 V1:103
steel or galvanized piping, 2008 V4:48 installation productivity rates, 2004 V1:97
steel pipe, 2008 V4:48 laboratory acid-waste drainage systems, 2005 V2:244
tank manways, 2007 V3:136 LEED (Leadership in Energy and Environmental
thermal contraction and expansion failures, 2008 Design), 2008 V4:23
V4:228 materials, 2008 V4:12
types of, 2008 V4:1 minimum numbers of, 2008 V4:1821
vacuum cleaning systems, 2005 V2:189 per-fixture cost estimation, 2004 V1:97
weight of, 2008 V4:118119 plumbing cost estimation, 2004 V1:93
welded, 2004 V1:24, 2008 V4:63 plumbing fixtures, defined, 2004 V1:24
Fittings, 2008 V4:28 reduced water usage, 2004 V1:126127
Fitzgerald, 2004 V1:154 reducing flow rates, 2004 V1:134135
fixed compression ratio, defined, 2007 V3:167 resilient-mounting design, 2004 V1:206, 207
fixed costs, in plumbing cost estimation, 2004 V1:93 resiliently mounted plumbing fixtures, 2004 V1:207
fixed floor-mounted equipment, 2004 V1:163 sizing vents, 2005 V2:4344
fixed shower heads, 2004 V1:120 soft water for, 2008 V4:205

Index 313
standards, 2008 V4:2 flexural modulus of elasticity, 2008 V4:228

types of, 2008 V4:1 flexural offsets or loops, 2008 V4:228
vibration of, 2004 V1:205 flexural strength of plastic pipe, 2008 V4:50
water fixture unit values, 2007 V3:198 float-operated main drain butterfly valves, 2007 V3:127
water-saving fixtures, 2004 V1:126 128
flame arresters, 2007 V3:137 float traps, 2007 V3:158
flame-retardant pipe (FRPP), 2008 V4:55 float-type level controls, 2005 V2:171
Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code (NFPA 30), float valves, 2004 V1:25, 2005 V2:73, 2008 V4:214
2005 V2:127, 2007 V3:88, 151 floatation devices for oil spills, 2005 V2:256
dike construction, 2007 V3:146 floatation of oil in spills, 2005 V2:255
liquid fuel system codes, 2007 V3:134 floatation vibration isolation, 2004 V1:164
liquid fuel system definitions, 2007 V3:133 floating ball devices in tanks, 2007 V3:137
tank construction, 2007 V3:144 floating floors, soundproofing, 2004 V1:196
flammable gases, 2007 V3:77 floating velocity, 2008 V4:154
flammable or volatile liquids, 2005 V2:12, 254256, 2007 floc, 2005 V2:209, 2008 V4:222
V3:133 flocculation, 2005 V2:209, 2008 V4:157
flanged ells, 2005 V2:101 flood hazard cross-connection controls, 2008 V4:176
flanged end connections, 2004 V1:23 flood level rims, 2004 V1:25, 2008 V4:178
Flanged Pipe, 2008 V4:28 flood levels, vents and, 2005 V2:37
flanged tees, 2005 V2:101 flooded, defined, 2004 V1:25
flanges flooding factors
assembling flanged joints, 2008 V4:62 clean agent gas fire suppression, 2007 V3:27
bonnets, 2004 V1:25 combined sewers and, 2005 V2:49
defined, 2004 V1:25 rainfall, 2007 V3:230
dielectric unions or flanges, 2008 V4:6465 underground storage tanks and, 2007 V3:135
fittings, 2004 V1:25 floor cleanouts (FCO), 2004 V1:11
flange ends, 2004 V1:25 floor drains (FD)
flange faces, 2004 V1:25 acid-resistant floor drains, 2005 V2:15
flanged bonnets, 2008 V4:74 blood-type, 2007 V3:38
flanged connections, 2008 V4:67 chemical-waste systems, 2005 V2:253
flanged end connections, 2008 V4:80 components, 2005 V2:10
gaskets, 2008 V4:65 fire-suppression drainage and, 2005 V2:254
problems in seismic protection, 2004 V1:190 fixture-unit loads, 2005 V2:3
flap valves, 2004 V1:25 floor leveling around, 2005 V2:16
flared ends on valves, 2008 V4:80 food-preparation areas, 2007 V3:39
flared fittings, 2008 V4:39 grate open areas, 2005 V2:10
flash attacks, 2004 V1:146, 153 grease interceptors and, 2008 V4:162
flash fires, 2007 V3:12 health care facilities, 2007 V3:36, 40
flash points infectious and biological waste systems, 2005 V2:252
defined, 2004 V1:25, 2007 V3:77, 133 kitchen areas, 2005 V2:15
foam extinguishing systems and, 2007 V3:24 with p-traps (FD), 2004 V1:11
liquid fuels, 2007 V3:133 public areas in health care facilities, 2007 V3:37
flash steam, 2007 V3:153155, 162 radioactive waste systems, 2005 V2:250
flash tanks, 2007 V3:162 rated discharge, 2008 V4:251
flashing flanges, 2005 V2:16 sanitary drainage systems, 2005 V2:10
flashing L flanges, 2005 V2:16 standards, 2008 V4:2
flashing rings, 2005 V2:11, 16, 55 submerged inlet hazards, 2008 V4:184
flat-plate collectors, 2007 V3:183, 186188 swimming pool bathhouses, 2007 V3:108
flat roof drains, 2005 V2:54 types, 2008 V4:1617
flat-spray irrigation sprinklers, 2007 V3:94 waterproofing, 2005 V2:1516
flexibility floor inlets, swimming pools, 2007 V3:131
couplings, 2008 V4:6465 floor-mounted back-outlet water closets, 2008 V4:4
hangers and supports, 2008 V4:119 floor-mounted bidets, 2008 V4:16
vibration control and, 2008 V4:151 floor-mounted pumps, 2004 V1:205
flexible bubblers, 2008 V4:240 floor mounted urinals, 2008 V4:10
flexible connectors (FC) floor-mounted vibration-isolated equipment, 2004 V1:164
acoustics and, 2004 V1:200 166
illustrated, 2004 V1:204, 210 floor-mounted water closets, 2008 V4:4, 6
symbols for, 2004 V1:10 floor sinks, 2005 V2:10, 15, 2008 V4:251
vibration control devices, 2004 V1:203, 205 floors
flexible hose connections, 2008 V4:13 bathhouses, 2007 V3:108
flexible plastic piping, 2007 V3:147, 2008 V4:230

design considerations in seismic protection, 2004 filtration and, 2008 V4:202

V1:186 fire-protection demand, 2007 V3:214217
floor penetrations of pipes, 2004 V1:201 fixture drains, 2004 V1:3
leveling, 2005 V2:16 fixture rate averages, 2008 V4:207208
motions in earthquakes, 2004 V1:160 fluctuating flows in horizontal drains, 2005 V2:5
shaking in earthquakes, 2004 V1:161 fluid (QFL), 2004 V1:14
flotation fountain systems, 2007 V3:101
in automatic grease skimming devices, 2008 V4:159 freezing points and, 2008 V4:114115
custom-made grease interceptors, 2008 V4:161 fuel product dispensers, 2007 V3:143
density and particle size, 2008 V4:155 gas boosters, 2005 V2:131, 133
factors in, 2008 V4:155156 gas flow rates (QGA, QGAS), 2004 V1:14
forced flotation, 2008 V4:158 grease interceptor capacity, 2008 V4:158
grease separation, 2008 V4:155156 high-rate dispensers, 2007 V3:148
turbulence and, 2008 V4:157 hydrants, 2007 V3:202
flotation basins, 2008 V4:155156 kitchen sinks, 2008 V4:11
flow. See also flow rates lavatories, 2008 V4:10
at outlet, 2004 V1:3 liquid fuel piping, 2007 V3:147148
building drains, 2005 V2:2 measurements, 2004 V1:33, 2005 V2:175177
critical flows, defined, 2004 V1:2 medical air, 2007 V3:69
equalization in graywater treatment, 2005 V2:30 medical gas, 2007 V3:51
fixture drains, 2004 V1:3, 2005 V2:2 medical oxygen, 2007 V3:69
flow pressure, 2004 V1:25, 2005 V2:67 medical vacuum, 2007 V3:69, 73
flow pressure drop, 2005 V2:67 natural gas systems, 2005 V2:134, 2007 V3:238
hydraulic jumps in, 2005 V2:2, 6 nitrogen, 2007 V3:64, 69
open-channel flow, 2004 V1:1, 2005 V2:6 nitrous oxide, 2007 V3:69
outlet velocity, 2004 V1:6 pump capacity, 2004 V1:6
rate of flow, calculating, 2004 V1:1 pump head/capacity curves, 2008 V4:9698
stacks, 2005 V2:12 rate of flow, calculating, 2004 V1:1
steady flow, 2005 V2:6 reducing for fixtures, 2004 V1:134135
surging flows, 2005 V2:5 resin bead regeneration, 2005 V2:217
symbols for, 2004 V1:11 retention periods and, 2008 V4:154155
velocity and water hammer, 2004 V1:198 RPZ discharge, 2005 V2:70
velocity of uniform flow, 2004 V1:1 sand filters, 2008 V4:202
water flow in pipes, calculating, 2004 V1:2 showers, 2008 V4:14
flow control special-waste drainage systems, 2005 V2:238
bioremediation pretreatment systems, 2008 V4:251 sprinkler hydraulic calculations, 2007 V3:12
devices, swimming pools, 2007 V3:121122 steam, 2007 V3:155157
grease interceptors, 2008 V4:163 submersible fuel pumps, 2007 V3:148149
swimming pools, 2007 V3:113 swimming pool, 2007 V3:109
flow hydrants, 2007 V3:4 tables, 2007 V3:1417
flow rates urinals, 2008 V4:10
acoustic ratings and, 2004 V1:194, 200 vacuum cleaning systems, 2005 V2:190, 191
air flow in vacuum pressure, 2005 V2:175 vacuum exhauster sizing, 2005 V2:193194
air flow rates (QAR, QAIR), 2004 V1:14 vacuum systems, 2005 V2:176178, 184
altitude and, 2005 V2:178 valves and fittings, 2005 V2:102
at outlets, 2004 V1:5 water closets, 2008 V4:78
capacity, 2004 V1:20, 33 water coolers, 2008 V4:238
coagulation and, 2008 V4:202 water fountains, 2004 V1:109
cold-water systems, 2005 V2:78, 83 water heater types and, 2005 V2:111
compressed air systems, 2007 V3:177 water-pressure regulators, 2008 V4:81
air compressors, 2007 V3:173 water softeners, 2008 V4:205206, 207208
air-consuming devices, 2007 V3:174 weirs and waterfalls, 2007 V3:101
measurements, 2007 V3:169 wells, 2005 V2:172
tools and equipment, 2007 V3:175 flow regulators, 2008 V4:222
conserving energy, 2004 V1:126127 flow restrictors, 2004 V1:126
conversion factors, 2004 V1:37 flow sensors, swimming pools, 2007 V3:113, 120121
defined, 2008 V4:222 flow switches (FS), 2004 V1:10
domestic water supply, 2007 V3:198 flow tests
drinking fountains, 2008 V4:244 equations, 2007 V3:4
emergency showers and eyewashes, 2008 V4:17 fire-protection systems, 2007 V3:36
Energy Policy Act requirements, 2004 V1:264 hydrants, 2007 V3:202206
faucets, 2008 V4:13 medical gas systems, 2007 V3:7475

Index 315
flow-through periods for grease interceptors, 2008 V4:155 Foam-water Sprinkler Systems and Foam-water Spray
flowing pressure. See residual pressure Systems (NFPA 16), 2007 V3:30
fluctuating flows in horizontal drains, 2005 V2:5 foamed elastomer insulation, 2008 V4:111
flue gases, 2005 V2:143 foamed plastic insulation, 2008 V4:107, 114
flues, 2004 V1:25 foaming agents in drinking water, 2008 V4:186
fluid flow rates, 2004 V1:14 foaming in gray water, 2005 V2:31
Fluid Mechanics with Engineering Applications, 2005 FOG (fats, oil, and grease). See fats, oils, and grease (FOG)
V2:19 fog nozzles, 2005 V2:240
flumes, 2007 V3:130 fogging in swimming pools, 2007 V3:107
fluoride, 2005 V2:168, 200, 2008 V4:186, 187 Follow-up phase in value engineering, 2004 V1:213
fluorine, 2005 V2:199 Fontana, Mars G., 2004 V1:154
fluoroprotein-mixed chemical concentrates, 2007 V3:25 Food and Drug Administration (FDA), 2005 V2:197, 231,
flush controls 234, 237
urinals, 2004 V1:116 food courts, numbers of fixtures for, 2008 V4:18
water closet and toilet accessibility, 2004 V1:114 food dyes in gray water, 2005 V2:35
water closet requirements, 2004 V1:116 food-processing areas and kitchens
flush sprinklers, 2004 V1:29 backflow prevention, 2008 V4:185
flush tanks drains, 2005 V2:15
acoustic design, 2004 V1:195 fixture pipe sizes and demand, 2005 V2:94
fixtures units and, 2005 V2:92 gas demands for appliances, 2005 V2:128
flush valves. See also flushometer valves gas efficiency, 2005 V2:127
fixture units and, 2005 V2:92 health care facility fixtures, 2007 V3:39
vacuum breakers, 2008 V4:175 medical gas piping and, 2007 V3:68
wasted water and, 2004 V1:136 numbers of fixtures for, 2008 V4:18
water closet acoustic design, 2004 V1:200 rates of sewage flows, 2005 V2:159
flushing sanitation, 2005 V2:15
acoustic ratings of toilets, 2004 V1:194 sewage estimates, 2005 V2:159
acoustic ratings of urinals, 2004 V1:194 typical graywater demand, 2005 V2:29
cold-water systems, 2005 V2:103 water fixture-unit values, 2007 V3:198
Energy Policy Act requirements, 2004 V1:264 water temperatures, 2007 V3:47
gray water use, 2004 V1:267 food-processing plants, 2005 V2:228, 2008 V4:185
performance testing, 2008 V4:56 food solids removal in bioremediation systems, 2008
resin beds, 2005 V2:218 V4:250
in reverse osmosis, 2008 V4:217 food waste grinders
urinal tests, 2008 V4:9 acoustic ratings of, 2004 V1:195
water closet system types, 2008 V4:78 bioremediation systems and, 2008 V4:250
water conservation and toilets, 2008 V4:3 defined, 2004 V1:22
water systems, 2005 V2:172 fixture-unit loads, 2005 V2:3
flushing rim sinks, 2005 V2:94 grease interceptors and, 2008 V4:162, 165
flushing rims, 2005 V2:15 sink outlets and, 2008 V4:11
flushing-type floor drains, 2004 V1:25 foot basins, 2005 V2:109
flushometer tanks, 2008 V4:34, 8 foot controls on faucets, 2007 V3:35
flushometer valves foot or feet. See feet
defined, 2004 V1:25, 2008 V4:34, 8, 178 foot pedals
sanitation and, 2005 V2:15 nitrogen systems, 2007 V3:64
urinals, 2008 V4:10 water coolers, 2008 V4:240
flushometer water closets, 2008 V4:34, 8 foot-pounds (ft-lb, FT LB), 2004 V1:14
flux (filtration) foot valves, 2004 V1:25, 2005 V2:100
defined, 2008 V4:223 footing drains (subsoil drains, SSD), 2004 V1:8, 30
membrane productivity, 2005 V2:231 footings of buildings
natural osmosis, 2005 V2:221 defined, 2004 V1:25
reverse osmosis, 2008 V4:217 FOR (fuel oil return), 2004 V1:8
flux (soldering), 2008 V4:62 force
in joints, 2004 V1:266 conversion factors, 2004 V1:35
standards, 2008 V4:32 factors in seismic force calculations, 2004 V1:183
fly ash, 2008 V4:252 measurements, 2004 V1:33
FM. See Factory Mutual Research Corporation (FM) in seismic design, 2004 V1:188
FMRC (Factory Mutual). See Factory Mutual Research in vibration transmission, 2008 V4:146
Corporation (FM) force mains, 2007 V3:217, 220221, 226227
FO (film coefficients), 2004 V1:14 forced-air-cooled compressors, 2008 V4:242
foam extinguishing systems, 2007 V3:2426, 28 forced-air vaporizers, 2007 V3:59
foam-water sprinkler heads, 2007 V3:25 forced convection, defined, 2007 V3:184

forced distortions of piping, 2004 V1:161 freestanding sprinklers in irrigation, 2007 V3:94
forced drainage (corrosion), defined, 2004 V1:153 freezing points (fp, FP), 2004 V1:14, 2008 V4:51
forced flotation, 2008 V4:158 insulation and, 2008 V4:114115
forcing functions in earthquakes, 2004 V1:160 prevention calculations, 2008 V4:114115
forcing pipes, 2008 V4:23 freezing, preventing in cleanouts, 2005 V2:9
forged clevises, 2008 V4:136 freezing temperatures
formazin turbidity unit, 2005 V2:203204 calculations for, 2008 V4:114115
forms. See checklists and forms chilled drinking-water systems, 2008 V4:243
formula rooms, 2007 V3:36 dry-pipe sprinkler systems and, 2007 V3:7, 8
formulas. See equations frost lines, 2007 V3:210212
forward approaches and reaches ice and oxygen storage, 2007 V3:59
approaches for wheelchairs, 2004 V1:110 ice as part of total load, 2008 V4:119
drinking fountains and water coolers, 2004 V1:109 ice inside water storage tanks, 2005 V2:170
reach for wheelchairs, 2004 V1:109, 111 insulation and, 2008 V4:114115
FOS (fuel oil supply), 2004 V1:8 irrigation system valves and, 2007 V3:95
fossil fuel use, 2007 V3:181 testing of cold-water systems, 2005 V2:103
fouling of water, 2005 V2:205, 227, 2007 V3:158 water meters and, 2005 V2:68
Foundation for Cross-Connection Control and Hydraulic well heads and, 2005 V2:166167
Research, 2007 V3:208 Freije, M., 2005 V2:118
foundations of pumps, 2005 V2:166, 169 french drains, 2004 V1:25
fountains frequencies (Hz, HZ)
direct connections, 2008 V4:184 defined, 2008 V4:145
drinking. See drinking fountains disturbing vibrations, 2008 V4:146
equipment location, 2007 V3:99101 frequency ratios in vibration control, 2008 V4:146149
gray water in, 2005 V2:25 measurements, 2004 V1:33
overview, 2007 V3:99 natural frequency of resilient mounted systems, 2008
pool design, 2007 V3:99 V4:146
pumps, 2007 V3:100101 symbols for, 2004 V1:15
safety, 2007 V3:101 frequency of ion regeneration cycles, 2005 V2:218219
sump pumps, 2007 V3:102 fresh-air inlets, 2004 V1:25
surface skimmer, 2007 V3:103 fresh water makeup, swimming pools, 2007 V3:113114,
four-way braces, 2008 V4:136 127128
FOV (fuel oil vents), 2004 V1:8 friction clamps, 2007 V3:213
fp, FP (freezing points), 2004 V1:14 friction connectors, 2004 V1:189
fpm, FPM (feet per minute), 2004 V1:14, 2007 V3:30 friction factors, 2004 V1:14
fps, FPS (feet per second), 2004 V1:14 friction head
FR (Federal Register), 2007 V3:81 calculating, 2004 V1:6
fracture rooms, 2007 V3:36, 39 centralized drinking-water cooler systems, 2008 V4:246
framing drawings for facilities, 2007 V3:35 friction loads, 2008 V4:137
framing steel, 2008 V4:136 friction losses in flow
Frankel, Michael, 2005 V2:64, 104, 196, 234, 256, 2007 bends in pipe and, 2008 V4:63
V3:151, 179, 2008 V4:116 calculating friction head loss, 2004 V1:2
Franzini, Joseph B., 2005 V2:19 compressed air, 2007 V3:7273, 177, 178
fraternities and sororities, numbers of fixtures for, 2008 examples for pipe sizing, 2005 V2:9799
V4:19 fuel dispensers, 2007 V3:148
Frederick, Ralph H., 2005 V2:64 Hazen-Williams formula, 2004 V1:2, 2005 V2:83
free air liquid fuel piping, 2007 V3:148
defined, 2004 V1:18, 2007 V3:167 medical air, 2007 V3:64, 69, 7273
properties, 2007 V3:165 medical gas piping, 2007 V3:68
water vapor in, 2007 V3:169170 medical vacuum systems, 2007 V3:69, 73
free board, 2008 V4:223 natural gas systems, 2005 V2:134, 2007 V3:238
free convection, defined, 2007 V3:184 nitrogen systems, 2007 V3:69, 71
free-floating oils, 2007 V3:87 nitrous oxide, 2007 V3:69, 71
free oil, 2005 V2:254 oxygen, 2007 V3:69, 71
free residuals, 2008 V4:200 pipe pressure and, 2005 V2:86, 92
free-standing surge vessels, 2007 V3:114 pressure and, 2005 V2:98
free-standing water coolers, 2008 V4:240 reduced pressure zones, 2005 V2:71
free vibration, 2004 V1:160 sizing pipes and, 2005 V2:9296
free water surface, 2008 V4:178 standpipe systems, 2007 V3:21
freeboard in ditches, 2007 V3:234 submersible fuel pumps, 2007 V3:148149
freestanding siamese fire-department connections, 2004 vacuum cleaning systems, 2005 V2:191193, 194
V1:12 vacuum exhauster sizing, 2005 V2:193194

Index 317
valves and threaded fittings, 2005 V2:99102 comparing in evaluation phase, 2004 V1:243
vent systems, 2005 V2:37 cost-to-function relationship, 2004 V1:225
water in pipes, tables, 2008 V4:246 defined, 2004 V1:224
water mains, 2007 V3:6 evaluation checklists, 2004 V1:237241
well pumps, 2005 V2:170 in evaluation phase, 2004 V1:235
front-end documents, 2004 V1:63, 65 in FAST approach, 2004 V1:230
frost. See freezing temperatures interrelationships, 2004 V1:227
frost lines, 2007 V3:210212 levels of importance, 2004 V1:225
frostproof closets, 2004 V1:25 ranking and comparing, 2004 V1:243
FRP. See fiberglass-reinforced plastic sketches of, 2004 V1:237, 239240
FRPP (flame-retardant pipe), 2008 V4:55 specific and dependent, 2004 V1:225
FS (federal specifications), 2004 V1:25, 58 two-word expressions, 2004 V1:225
FS (flow switches), 2004 V1:10 fundamental corrosion cells, defined, 2004 V1:139
FSK (fiberglass cloth, skrim and kraft paper), 2008 V4:108 Fundamentals Handbook, 2007 V3:162, 194
ft, FT (feet). See feet Fundamentals of Underground Corrosion Control, 2004
ft-lb, FT LB (foot-pounds), 2004 V1:14 V1:154
ft3 (cubic feet), 2004 V1:14 fungi, 2005 V2:199, 205
FTUs (formazin turbidity units), 2005 V2:203204 funnel-type drains, 2005 V2:253, 2007 V3:42
fu values. See fixture units and unit values furring-out requirements for roofs, 2005 V2:52
fuel double containment systems, 2008 V4:49 fusible link sprinklers, 2007 V3:6
fuel gas codes, list of agencies, 2004 V1:42 Fusion-Bonded Epoxy Coating, 2008 V4:28
Fuel Gas Piping, 2005 V2:144 fusion-joint plastic piping systems, 2007 V3:46
fuel-gas piping systems. See also diesel-oil systems; future construction, planning impacts of, 2008 V4:120
gasoline systems future expansion of compressed air systems, 2007 V3:176
fuel gas, defined, 2005 V2:143 FV (face velocity), 2004 V1:14
glossary, 2005 V2:142144 fvel, FVEL (face velocity), 2004 V1:14
liquefied petroleum gas, 2005 V2:137, 142
methane, 2004 V1:130
natural gas systems, 2005 V2:125137, 2008 V4:3031
G
G (giga) prefix, 2004 V1:34
fuel island, 2007 V3:143 G (low-pressure gas), 2004 V1:8
fuel loads (fire hazards), 2007 V3:2 g, G (gravitational constants), 2004 V1:15
fuel oil G pipes, 2008 V4:31
calculation, solar energy and, 2007 V3:185186 ga, GA (gauges). See gauges
copper pipe, 2008 V4:3031 GACs (granulated carbon filters), 2005 V2:228, 231232.
fuel oil return (FOR), 2004 V1:8 See also activated carbon filtration
fuel oil supply (FOS), 2004 V1:8 GAGE (gages). See gages
fuel oil vents (FOV), 2004 V1:8 gages (ga, GA, GAGE). See also gauges
pipe bracing, 2004 V1:166, 167 Boyles law, 2008 V4:233234
full-flow conditions (FF), 2004 V1:1 defined, 2004 V1:15
full port (100% area), 2008 V4:74, 84, 91 pressure, 2007 V3:169
full-port ball valves, 2007 V3:67 gal, GAL (gallons). See gallons (gal, GAL)
fully recessed water coolers, 2008 V4:239240, 241 galleries, numbers of fixtures for, 2008 V4:18
fully-sprinklered spaces, 2004 V1:12 gallons (gal, GAL)
fume hoods, 2005 V2:250 converting to metric units, 2007 V3:30
fumes, hazardous. See also gases converting to SI units, 2004 V1:39
acid-waste drainage systems, 2007 V3:42 gallons per day (gpd, GPD), 2004 V1:15
acids, 2005 V2:239, 241 gallons per hour (gph, GPH), 2004 V1:15, 39, 2005
in soil profiles, 2007 V3:141 V2:108109
vent piping, 2007 V3:46 gallons per minute (gpm), 2005 V2:93, 164
VOCs, 2005 V2:201 converting to fixture units, 2007 V3:201, 218
fuming grade sulfuric acid, 2005 V2:240 converting to metric units, 2007 V3:30
Function Analysis phase in value engineering estimating demand, 2005 V2:92
defined, 2004 V1:224 pressure and, 2005 V2:83, 84
FAST approach, 2004 V1:227231 grains per gallon (gpg), 2005 V2:201
function definitions forms, 2004 V1:225227, 228 standard gallons per hour (std gph, SGPH), 2004 V1:15
in process, 2004 V1:213 symbols for, 2004 V1:15
rules, 2004 V1:225 galvanic action, 2004 V1:25, 2008 V4:67. See also
Function phase in value engineering, 2004 V1:213 electrolysis
Functional Analysis System Technique (FAST), 2004 galvanic anodes, 2004 V1:147150
V1:227231 galvanic cells, defined, 2004 V1:153
functions galvanic corrosion, 2004 V1:141, 153, 2005 V2:205
basic or secondary, 2004 V1:225 galvanic series of metals

defined, 2004 V1:153 as fluids, 2007 V3:165

dielectric insulation and, 2004 V1:146 combustion properties, 2005 V2:126
listing, 2004 V1:141 contamination in compressed air, 2007 V3:170
galvanized coatings for corrosion prevention, 2004 V1:147 dissolved gases in water, 2005 V2:200
galvanized-iron piping, 2005 V2:13, 86 forcing upward through terminal stack, 2005 V2:47
galvanized-steel piping hazardous, 2005 V2:239
aboveground piping, 2005 V2:13, 50 nitrous fumes, 2005 V2:242
fuel product dispensing and, 2007 V3:147 sulfuric acid, 2005 V2:242
vacuum systems, 2005 V2:183 volatile organic compounds, 2005 V2:201
galvanizing, defined, 2004 V1:25, 2008 V4:137 gaskets
galvomag alloy, 2004 V1:144 defined, 2008 V4:65
gamma ray radiation, 2005 V2:246, 247 fire-protection water supply, 2007 V3:213
gang hangers, 2008 V4:137 fuel piping, 2007 V3:147
garbage can washers, 2008 V4:184 special-waste systems, 2005 V2:238
garbage disposers. See food waste grinders gasoline, 2005 V2:12, 2007 V3:133, 146
garnet in filters, 2005 V2:211 gasoline blends, 2007 V3:133, 146
gas. See gases; medical gas systems; natural gas systems; gasoline systems
specific types of gases aboveground tank systems, 2007 V3:144147
gas boosters, 2005 V2:130134 connections and access, 2007 V3:145
gas chlorinators, 2008 V4:215 construction, 2007 V3:144145
gas expansion and contraction, 2008 V4:233234 corrosion protection, 2007 V3:145
gas-fired water heaters filling and spills, 2007 V3:145
conserving energy, 2004 V1:129 leak prevention and monitoring, 2007 V3:145146
defined, 2004 V1:129130 materials, 2007 V3:144
efficiency, 2005 V2:107 overfill prevention, 2007 V3:145
instantaneous heaters, 2004 V1:265 product dispensing systems, 2007 V3:146
net efficiency of, 2004 V1:130 tank protection, 2007 V3:146
gas flow rates, 2004 V1:14 vapor recovery, 2007 V3:146
gas horsepower, defined, 2007 V3:167 venting, 2007 V3:145
gas laws, 2005 V2:131 codes and standards, 2007 V3:134
gas logs, defined, 2005 V2:143 components, 2007 V3:135
gas meters, 2005 V2:127 definitions and classifications, 2007 V3:133134
gas piping codes, 2004 V1:42 designing
gas piping systems. See also fuel-gas piping systems; installation considerations, 2007 V3:150151
gasoline systems; liquefied petroleum gas; natural piping materials, 2007 V3:146147
gas systems piping sizing, 2007 V3:147148
bracing, 2004 V1:167 submersible pump sizing, 2007 V3:148149
defined, 2004 V1:191 testing, 2007 V3:149150
gas cocks, 2004 V1:9 overview, 2007 V3:133
gas line earthquake-sensitive valves, 2004 V1:162 references, 2007 V3:151
gas main inspection checklist, 2004 V1:103 resources, 2007 V3:151
gas pressure regulators, 2005 V2:144, 2007 V3:237238 underground tank systems, 2007 V3:135144
gas stops (gas cocks), 2004 V1:9 leak detection and system monitoring, 2007
gas trains, 2005 V2:143, 2007 V3:237 V3:138141
gas vents (GV), 2004 V1:8 product dispensing systems, 2007 V3:142143
high-pressure (HG), 2004 V1:8 storage tanks, 2007 V3:135138
line filters, 2007 V3:236 vapor recovery systems, 2007 V3:141142
low-pressure (G), 2004 V1:8 valves, 2008 V4:89
medium-pressure (MG), 2004 V1:8 gate valves (GV), 2004 V1:9, 2005 V2:100, 102, 240
plastic pipes, 2008 V4:51 defined, 2008 V4:74
services at laboratory outlets, 2007 V3:4142 design details, 2008 V4:8283
Spitzglass formula, 2004 V1:7, 2005 V2:137 fire-protection systems, 2008 V4:8990
Weymouth formula, 2005 V2:137 high-pressure steam service, 2008 V4:8889
gas-shielded welding, 2008 V4:6263 high-rise service, 2008 V4:90
gas stations, 2007 V3:144, 2008 V4:19 hot and cold water supply service, 2008 V4:85
gas stripping, 2005 V2:204 illustrated, 2008 V4:75
gas-transfer vacuum pumps, 2005 V2:180 low-pressure steam systems, 2008 V4:87
Gas Utilization Equipment for Large Boilers, 2005 V2:127 medium-pressure steam service, 2008 V4:88
gas water heating, 2007 V3:122 stems, 2008 V4:79
gaseous fire suppression systems, 2007 V3:2628 gauges (ga, GA, GAGE). See also gages (ga, GA, GAGE)
gases. See also fuel-gas piping systems; liquefied petroleum fuel product level gauging, 2007 V3:145, 146
gas; natural gas systems gauge pressure, 2005 V2:175, 2007 V3:167, 169

Index 319
hazardous materials, 2007 V3:84 design details, 2008 V4:83

medical gas systems, 2007 V3:67 high-pressure steam service, 2008 V4:89
symbols for, 2004 V1:15 hot and cold water supply service, 2008 V4:86
vacuum systems, 2005 V2:132 low-pressure steam systems, 2008 V4:8788
gear journals, 2004 V1:196 medium-pressure steam service, 2008 V4:88
gear pumps, 2005 V2:170 stems, 2008 V4:79
gearbox silencing enclosures, 2004 V1:197 glossaries
gears, acoustic problems, 2004 V1:196 acoustics in plumbing systems, 2004 V1:206210
Geiger-Mueller counters, 2005 V2:247 cold water systems, 2005 V2:67
gel-coated plastic fixtures, 2008 V4:2 compressed air systems, 2007 V3:165169
general conditions in contract documents, 2004 V1:62 conserving energy, 2004 V1:136137
General Conditions of the Contract for Construction, 2004 corrosion, 2004 V1:151154
V1:62 cross connections, 2008 V4:177179
General Conference of Weights and Measures (CGPM), fuel-gas systems, 2005 V2:142144
2004 V1:32 hangers and supports, 2008 V4:134142
general corrosion, 2004 V1:153, 2005 V2:205206 health care facilities, 2007 V3:7678
General Electric Company, 2004 V1:211 industrial wastewater, 2007 V3:82
general laboratory-grade water, 2005 V2:229 insulation, 2008 V4:105
General phase in value engineering, 2004 V1:213 measurement units, 2004 V1:32
General section in specifications, 2004 V1:68 plumbing terminology, 2004 V1:1731
general service system valves, 2008 V4:8788 pumps, 2008 V4:98
General Services Administration (GSA), 2004 V1:263 references for, 2004 V1:40
generalized total costs, 2004 V1:223 seismic protection, 2004 V1:191
generally-accepted standards, defined, 2004 V1:25 solar energy, 2007 V3:183185
Geogehegan, R.F., 2005 V2:256 valve terminology, 2008 V4:7375
geography vents and venting, 2005 V2:3843
cost estimates and, 2004 V1:98 vibration and vibration isolation, 2008 V4:145146
in plumbing cost estimation, 2004 V1:94 water conditioning, 2008 V4:220224
geological stability of sites, 2005 V2:29 glove boxes, 2005 V2:250, 251
geothermal energy, 2004 V1:131 GLSP (good large-scale production), 2005 V2:251
Get Your Process Water to Come Clean, 2005 V2:234 glues, 2005 V2:201, 2008 V4:56
GFCI (government furnished, contractor installed), 2004 GLV (globe valves). See globe valves (GLV)
V1:71 gold, 2004 V1:141
giardia, 2008 V4:187 Gold-level LEED certification, 2004 V1:263
giga prefix, 2004 V1:34 good engineering practice, 2005 V2:238
gland bushing, 2008 V4:74 good large-scale production (GLSP), 2005 V2:251
glass borosilicate piping, 2005 V2:13, 14, 83 good value, defined, 2004 V1:213
glass-bulb sprinklers, 2007 V3:6 goods, costs of, 2004 V1:222
glass china fixtures, 2008 V4:1 gooseneck spouts, 2008 V4:13, 185
glass-foam insulation, 2008 V4:107 Gorry, M., 2005 V2:234
glass-lined pipes, 2007 V3:49 governing fixtures, 2005 V2:9597
glass piping government furnished, contractor installed (GFCI), 2004
characteristics, 2008 V4:48 V1:71
expansion, 2008 V4:48 gpd, GPD (gallons per day), 2004 V1:15
fittings, 2008 V4:4243, 48 gpg (grains per gallon). See grains per gallon (gpg)
hangers, 2008 V4:132 gph, GPH (gallons per hour), 2004 V1:15
joints, 2008 V4:63 gph, standard (std gph, SGPH), 2004 V1:15
roughness, 2005 V2:86 gpm (gallons per minute)
special wastes, 2005 V2:244, 249 converting to fixture units, 2005 V2:93, 2007 V3:201,
glass washers 218
demineralized water, 2007 V3:48 converting to metric units, 2007 V3:30
health care facilities, 2007 V3:36, 39 orifice size and, 2007 V3:5
heat recovery systems, 2004 V1:266 wells, 2005 V2:164
laboratory rooms, 2007 V3:41 gr, GR (grains). See grains
pure water systems for, 2007 V3:48 grab bars
glaubers soda, 2008 V4:193 ambulatory accessible toilet compartments, 2004
glazed fixture surfaces, 2008 V4:1 V1:115
Glidden, R., 2005 V2:196 bathtub accessibility, 2004 V1:117
global issues, green plumbing, 2008 V4:255256 clearance, 2004 V1:122
globe lift or stop valves, 2008 V4:83 health care facilities, 2007 V3:37
globe valves (GLV), 2004 V1:9, 2005 V2:100, 102 shower stalls, 2004 V1:121122
defined, 2008 V4:74, 7576 standards for, 2004 V1:114122

water closet and toilet accessibility, 2004 V1:114 Gray-water Systems, 2005 V2:35
grab rings, 2008 V4:60 graywater systems
grades amount of generated gray water, 2005 V2:25
defined, 2004 V1:25 benefits of water reuse, 2004 V1:135
maintaining for piping, 2008 V4:23 codes and standards, 2005 V2:2526
grains capacity contents, 2008 V4:262
defined, 2008 V4:223 cross connections, 2008 V4:169
water softeners, 2008 V4:206 designing for supply and consumption, 2005 V2:2830
grains (gr, GR) economic analysis of, 3234
converting to SI units, 2004 V1:39 green uses of gray water, 2004 V1:264
grains per gallon, 2005 V2:201 health care facilities, 2007 V3:46, 47
symbols for, 2004 V1:15 introduction, 2005 V2:25
grains per gallon (gpg), 2005 V2:201 overview, 2004 V1:267
converting parts per million to, 2008 V4:222 precautions, 2005 V2:35
defined, 2008 V4:223 public concerns and acceptance, 2005 V2:35
water softener capacity, 2008 V4:206 reasons for using, 2005 V2:25
grandstands, numbers of fixtures for, 2008 V4:18 reclaimed water, 2004 V1:135
granulated carbon filters, 2005 V2:228, 231232. See also references, 2005 V2:3536
activated carbon filtration sources of, 2008 V4:261
granule tests, 2008 V4:5 system description and components, 2005 V2:26
graphic annunciators, 2007 V3:2728 treatment systems, 2005 V2:3032, 2008 V4:259260
graphic conventions in plumbing drawings, 2004 V1:108 GRD (grease/oil recovery devices), 2008 V4:159160, 185
graphite, 2004 V1:141, 2008 V4:62, 69, 193 grease. See fats, oils, and grease (FOG)
graphite anodes, 2004 V1:150 grease-extracting hoods, 2008 V4:162, 163
graphitic corrosion, 2004 V1:153 grease interceptors
graphitization applications, 2008 V4:162
cast iron, 2004 V1:141 bioremediation, 2008 V4:160
defined, 2004 V1:153 bioremediation systems and, 2008 V4:249
graphs, water supply, 2007 V3:4, 5 codes, 2004 V1:43
grates codes and standards, 2008 V4:162, 164165
buffing, 2005 V2:11 commercial kitchen sinks and, 2008 V4:12
grate open areas for floor drains, 2005 V2:1011 custom-made, 2008 V4:161
main drain piping, swimming pools, 2007 V3:110 defined, 2004 V1:25
materials for, 2005 V2:13 design characteristics
sanitary drainage systems, 2005 V2:1011 flotation factors, 2008 V4:155156
gravels, 2005 V2:29 flow-through periods, 2008 V4:155
gravimetric measurement of solids, 2005 V2:204 practical design, 2008 V4:158
gravitational acceleration units, 2004 V1:1 retention periods, 2008 V4:154155
gravitational constants (g, G), 2004 V1:1, 15, 2008 V4:154 economic concerns, 2008 V4:166
gravity field-formed concrete, 2008 V4:161
acceleration of water, 2005 V2:12 flow control, 2008 V4:163
forces in earthquakes, 2004 V1:186 FOG disposal systems, 2008 V4:160
loads, 2004 V1:155 formulas for operation, 2008 V4:154156, 163164
gravity circulation, 2004 V1:5 gravity (GGIs), 2008 V4:153, 160161
gravity drainage, 2005 V2:238 hydromechanical (HGIs), 2008 V4:153, 158159, 165
gravity drops, 2007 V3:136 operation and maintenance, 2008 V4:165166
gravity-film heat exchangers, 2004 V1:266 overview, 2008 V4:153
gravity filters, 2008 V4:202 removing grease, 2008 V4:165166
gravity flotation, 2008 V4:250 single- and multiple-fixture design, 2008 V4:163164
gravity-flow systems, 2008 V4:57, 215 sizing, 2008 V4:163164
gravity flushes, 2004 V1:195, 2008 V4:78 types of
gravity grease interceptors (GGIs), 2008 V4:153, 160161 automatic computer-controlled units, 2008 V4:159
gravity separators in oil spills, 2005 V2:256 160
Gravity Sewer Pipe, 2008 V4:28 automatic power-operated units, 2008 V4:159160
gravity sewers, 2005 V2:152 custom-made units, 2008 V4:161
gravity tank systems manually operated units, 2008 V4:159
fire-protection connections, 2007 V3:209, 211 semiautomatic units, 2008 V4:159
fire-protection water supply, 2007 V3:217 grease/oil recovery devices (GRD), 2008 V4:159160
operation of, 2005 V2:7476 Grease Removal Devices, 2008 V4:166
suction piping and, 2005 V2:171 grease traps
gravity water filters, 2005 V2:167168 bioremediation systems and, 2008 V4:249
Gray, G.D., 2005 V2:35 codes, 2004 V1:43

Index 321
commercial kitchen sinks and, 2008 V4:12 Guard against Freezing in Water Lines, 2008 V4:116
greatest temperature difference (GTD), 2004 V1:15 guard posts for hydrants, 2007 V3:212213
green building A Guide to Airborne, Impact and Structure-Borne Noise
green design, 2004 V1:263267 Control in Multifamily Dwellings, 2004 V1:199
green roof designs, 2004 V1:266267 guide-vane tips, acoustic modifications, 2004 V1:197
LEED (Leadership in Energy and Environmental Guidelines Establishing Test Procedures for the Analysis
Design), 2008 V4:23, 255 of Oil and Grease and Non-polar Material, 2008
Green Building Council, 2004 V1:263 V4:252
Green Building Rating System (LEED), 2004 V1:263265 Guidelines for Seismic Restraints of Mechanical Systems,
green plumbing 2004 V1:191
biosolids, 2008 V4:261264 guides (pipe), 2008 V4:137
disease, 2008 V4:256 Gut Feel Index, 2004 V1:254
economic benefits, 2008 V4:258 gutters, 2007 V3:111112, 114
economic growth, 2008 V4:256 gutters (roofs), 2005 V2:63
energy efficiency, 2008 V4:264 GV (gas vents), 2004 V1:8
global issues, 2008 V4:255256 GV (gate valves), 2004 V1:9, 2005 V2:240
irrigation, 2008 V4:258 gymnasiums, 2005 V2:109, 2008 V4:18
LEED (Leadership in Energy and Environmental gypsum, 2008 V4:193
Design), 2008 V4:255, 257258, 265 gypsum board, lining with lead, 2005 V2:248
objections to, 2008 V4:258
references, 2008 V4:265
sanitation, 2008 V4:255256
H
H (enthalpy), 2004 V1:14
sustainable design, 2008 V4:256 h (hecto) prefix, 2004 V1:34
vacuum-operated waste transport system, 2008 V4:259 H (henrys), 2004 V1:33
wastewater management, 2008 V4:259264 h (hours), 2004 V1:15, 34
water use, 2008 V4:255 h (velocity head), 2004 V1:5
green sands, 2005 V2:215 H-I alloy, 2004 V1:144
Greene, Norbert D., 2004 V1:154 H/m (henrys per meter), 2004 V1:33
Greening Federal Facilities, 2004 V1:134, 137 ha (hectares), 2004 V1:34
gridded systems, 2007 V3:6 hair strainers, 2007 V3:113, 120
grinder pumps, 2008 V4:99100 HALAR piping, 2007 V3:4950
defined, 2004 V1:25 half-circle rotary sprinklers, 2007 V3:94
in sewage tanks, 2005 V2:152 half-dome ends on tanks, 2007 V3:135
groove butterfly valves, 2008 V4:84 half-full conditions (HF), 2004 V1:1
grooved wheel and bar benders, 2008 V4:63 half lives, defined, 2005 V2:248
Grossel, S.F., 2005 V2:256 halogenated agents, 2007 V3:26, 28, 66, 76
ground failure, 2004 V1:158 halogens, 2005 V2:120
ground floor space. See clear floor space halon 1211, 2007 V3:26
ground-motion time history, 2004 V1:160 halon 1301, 2004 V1:25, 2007 V3:26
ground-mounted water storage tanks, 2005 V2:170 Halon 1301 Fire Extinguishing Systems (NFPA 12A), 2007
ground ruptures, 2004 V1:158 V3:26, 29
ground shaking, 2004 V1:158159, 161 halon system types, 2004 V1:2526
ground water halothane, 2007 V3:66
carbon dioxide in, 2008 V4:197 hammer. See water hammer
defined, 2005 V2:198 hand-held extinguishers, 2007 V3:23
feed water for pure water systems, 2005 V2:230 hand-held shower heads, 2004 V1:120
graywater irrigation systems and, 2005 V2:25 hand tools for vacuum cleaning systems, 2005 V2:190
monitoring, 2007 V3:140141 hand trenching, labor productivity rates, 2004 V1:9597
need for treatment, 2008 V4:193194 hand wheels, 2008 V4:74
private water systems, 2005 V2:163 Handbook for Mechanical Engineers, 2004 V1:2, 3, 5, 40
storage tanks and, 2007 V3:149 Handbook of Applied Hydraulics, 2008 V4:166
swimming pool locations and, 2007 V3:106 Handbook of Chlorination, 2005 V2:104
underground tanks and, 2007 V3:135 Handbook of Corrosion Resistant Pipeline, 2007 V3:89
groundspace for wheelchairs. See clear floor space Handbook of Fundamentals, 2004 V1:2, 5, 6, 40
group washups, 2008 V4:11 Handbooks (ASHRAE), 2005 V2:144
grouts in wells, 2005 V2:166 handicapped individuals. See people with disabilities
growth rate of fires, 2007 V3:2 handle extensions, 2008 V4:84, 87
GSA (General Services Administration), 2004 V1:263 handling section in specifications, 2004 V1:70, 8990
GSA Guide Specification Number 3-1515-71 (Public hands-free controls on sinks, 2007 V3:3537, 37
Building Service), 2004 V1:199 hands-free water coolers, 2008 V4:240
GTD (greatest temperature difference), 2004 V1:15 handwashing lavatories, 2007 V3:36, 39, 47
guaranty bonds, 2004 V1:62 hanger assemblies, 2008 V4:137

hanger drawings, 2008 V4:135 pipe sizing and, 2005 V2:83

hanger loads. See pipe loads; support and hanger loads HB (hose bibbs), 2004 V1:10
hanger rod fixtures, 2008 V4:126 HCFCs (hydrochlorofluorocarbons), 2007 V3:26
hanger rods, 2008 V4:137 hd, HD (head). See pressure (PRESS, PRES, P)
hangers. See supports and hangers HDPE (high density polyethylene), 2007 V3:238, 239, 2008
hanging rolls, 2008 V4:126 V4:51
hard conversions, 2004 V1:32 head (hd, HD). See pressure (PRESS, PRES, P)
hard-temper tubing, 2005 V2:13, 50, 2007 V3:68 head loss. See pressure drops or differences (PD, DELTP)
Hardenberg, W. A., 2008 V4:166 headroom around pipes, 2008 V4:23
hardness ions, 2008 V4:196 headwall gas systems, 2007 V3:55
hardness of water health care facilities
boiler feed water, 2005 V2:226 defined, 2007 V3:3334, 77
defined, 2008 V4:223 drainage systems, 2007 V3:4246
degrees of hardness, 2005 V2:199200 fixtures and equipment, 2007 V3:3542
grains exchange capacity, 2008 V4:206 selection process, 2007 V3:35
hardness leakage, 2008 V4:207, 223 glossary, 2007 V3:7678
ion exchange treatment, 2005 V2:215 Legionella control in, 2005 V2:117122
maximum levels of, 2008 V4:205 medical gas and vacuum systems, 2007 V3:5076
pH and alkalinity, 2005 V2:207 plumbing overview, 2007 V3:36
private water systems, 2005 V2:168 references, 2007 V3:7879
scaling and, 2008 V4:194 resources, 2007 V3:79
temporary and permanent hardness, 2008 V4:196 water-supply systems, 2007 V3:4650
water softener treatments, 2005 V2:220, 2008 V4:187, Health-Care Facilities (NFPA 99), 2007 V3:51, 63, 64, 69
196 health hazards. See hazards
Harris, Nigel, 2005 V2:196 hearing disabilities, 2004 V1:107
Hastelloy B, 2005 V2:242 heart-and-lung machines, 2007 V3:42
Hastelloy C, 2004 V1:141, 144 heat (HT)
Haws, Luther, 2008 V4:237 compression, 2007 V3:172
hazardous materials, emergency fixtures and, 2008 V4:17 conversion factors, 2004 V1:36
hazardous wastes defined, 2007 V3:167, 2008 V4:105
defined, 2007 V3:82 distillation and, 2008 V4:213
permits, 2007 V3:8283 grease interceptors, 2008 V4:162
hazards heat detectors, 2007 V3:29
accidental acid spills, 2005 V2:239240 latent, 2004 V1:15, 137, 2007 V3:153, 158
chemical material safety data sheets, 2007 V3:83 measurements, 2004 V1:33
classes of hazard occupancies, 2004 V1:29, 2007 V3:13 protecting against, 2005 V2:16
closed hot-water systems, 2008 V4:231 sensible, 2004 V1:16, 137, 2007 V3:153, 158
cold-water systems, 2005 V2:68 symbols for, 2004 V1:15
controlled substance spills, 2005 V2:195196 thermal, defined, 2007 V3:181182
degree of, defining, 2008 V4:182 water-heater heat recovery, 2005 V2:110
direct connections, 2008 V4:184 heat-activated air dryers, 2007 V3:172
exposed piping and accessibility, 2004 V1:117 heat and flush method, 2005 V2:120
fire hazards, 2004 V1:24, 2007 V3:2 heat distortion of plastic pipe, 2008 V4:50
flammable and volatile liquids, 2005 V2:254256 heat drying biosolids, 2008 V4:263
gas boosters, 2005 V2:131 Heat Exchange Institute, 2005 V2:186
gases in septic tanks, 2005 V2:155 heat exchanger, solar, defined, 2007 V3:184
graywater systems, 2005 V2:35 heat exchangers and exchange systems
hazardous gases, 2005 V2:239 air dryers, 2007 V3:172
hazardous materials, defined, 2007 V3:82 backflow prevention, 2008 V4:185
hazardous substances, defined, 2007 V3:82 corrosion inhibitors, 2004 V1:151
hazardous wastes, defined, 2007 V3:82 geothermal energy, 2004 V1:131
hot-water systems, 2005 V2:107, 117124 in green building, 2004 V1:266
insulation, 2008 V4:114115 heat exchanger loop gas booster systems, 2005 V2:132,
plumbing systems and, 2004 V1:266 133
radiation, 2005 V2:246247 for vacuum pumps, 2005 V2:181
radioactive waste-drainage systems, 2005 V2:248249 vibration isolation, 2004 V1:205
sanitary precautions for wells, 2005 V2:166167 waste heat usage, 2004 V1:131134
types of acids, 2005 V2:240242 heat expansion. See expansion
vacuum cleaning system issues, 2005 V2:195 heat fusion joints
water distribution, cross-connections, 2008 V4:171172 defined, 2008 V4:63
Hazen-Williams formula heat-fused socket joints, 2005 V2:242
defined, 2004 V1:2, 2005 V2:6 PEX piping, 2008 V4:52

Index 323
special wastes and, 2007 V3:42 toilet seats, 2004 V1:114

heat gain (HG, HEATG) helium, 2007 V3:55
latent (LHG, HGL), 2004 V1:15 hemodialysis. See dialysis machines
sensible (SHG, HGS), 2004 V1:15, 16 Henriques, F.C., Jr., 2005 V2:122, 124
storage tanks, 2008 V4:247 henrys, 2004 V1:33
symbols for, 2004 V1:15 Henrys law, 2005 V2:81
water systems, 2008 V4:245 henrys per meter, 2004 V1:33
heat loss (HL, HEATL) HEPA filters, 2005 V2:188189, 252
calculating, 2008 V4:113115 heptachlor, 2008 V4:186
defined, 2004 V1:15 heptachlor epoxide, 2008 V4:186
fiberglass insulation and, 2008 V4:106 heptafluorocarbons (HFCs), 2007 V3:26
insulation thickness, 2008 V4:109113 heptafluoropropane, 2007 V3:26
water heater energy savings and, 2004 V1:265 herbicides, 2005 V2:156
water heater location and, 2004 V1:129 safe levels in drinking water, 2008 V4:186
heat pumps treating in water, 2008 V4:187
backflow prevention, 2008 V4:185 Hershey Meters Co., 2005 V2:104
solar, defined, 2007 V3:184 hertz, 2004 V1:33, 206
waste heat usage, 2004 V1:134 Hesser, Henry H., 2005 V2:196
heat recovery systems, 2004 V1:134, 266, 2007 V3:123 hexachlorobenzene, 2008 V4:186
heat-trace systems, 2005 V2:115 hexametaphosphate, 2005 V2:168
heat transfer (Q) hexavalent chromium, 2008 V4:189
coefficients, 2008 V4:106 HF (half-full conditions), 2004 V1:1
efficiency, 2007 V3:158 HFCs (heptafluorocarbons), 2007 V3:26
heat transfer coefficients (U, U), 2004 V1:15 HG (heat gain). See heat gain
medium, 2007 V3:184 Hg, HG (mercury), 2004 V1:15
scaling and, 2008 V4:194 HG (high-pressure gas), 2004 V1:8
symbols for, 2004 V1:15 HGL (latent heat gain), 2004 V1:15
heat-up method, condensate drainage, 2007 V3:160 HGS (sensible heat gain), 2004 V1:15, 16
heated water. See hot-water systems hgt, HGT (height). See height
heaters (HTR), 2004 V1:15. See also water heaters HHWR (heating hot water return), 2004 V1:9
HEATG (heat gain). See heat gain HHWS (heating hot water supply), 2004 V1:9
heating and cooling systems, solar, 2007 V3:184 HI (film coefficients), 2004 V1:14
heating engineers, 2007 V3:29 Hicks, Tyler G., 2005 V2:64
heating feed water high-backflow hazard, 2007 V3:207
for microbial control, 2005 V2:224 high-capacity resins, 2008 V4:223
for pure water systems, 2005 V2:231 high-capacity wells, 2005 V2:164
heating hot water return (HHWR), 2004 V1:9 high-demand classifications, 2005 V2:109, 110
heating hot water supply (HHWS), 2004 V1:9 high-density polyethylene (HDPE), 2007 V3:238, 239
heating system, solar, defined, 2007 V3:184 high-efficiency water heaters, 2004 V1:265, 267
heating systems. See HVAC systems high-energy beta radiation, 2005 V2:246
heating, ventilation, and air-conditioning systems. See high-expansion foam extinguishers, 2007 V3:25
HVAC systems high-grade water, 2008 V4:195196
heating water. See water heaters high-hazard fires, 2007 V3:12
HEATL (heat loss), 2004 V1:15 high-hose retrievers, 2007 V3:143
heavy brackets, 2008 V4:137 high-level water tank alarms, 2007 V3:84
heavy clay loams, 2007 V3:91 high-piled storage, 2007 V3:217
heavy equipment earthquake recommendations, 2004 high-pressure carbon dioxide systems, 2007 V3:26
V1:163 high-pressure condensate (HPC), 2004 V1:9
heavy metals, 2007 V3:87, 2008 V4:218. See also names of high-pressure cutouts, 2008 V4:243244
specific metals high-pressure cylinders, 2007 V3:50
heavy process gas service, 2007 V3:235 high-pressure gas (HG), 2004 V1:8
heavy process service gas, 2005 V2:126 high-pressure liquid chromatography, 2008 V4:218
hectares, 2004 V1:34 high-pressure nitrogen systems, 2007 V3:64
hecto prefix, 2004 V1:34 high-pressure relief devices, 2008 V4:218
heel inlets on traps, 2005 V2:15 high-pressure steam (hps, HPS), 2004 V1:9, 15, 2008
heel-proof grates, 2005 V2:10 V4:8889
heel-proof strainers, 2005 V2:54 high-pressurization air drying, 2007 V3:172
height (hgt, HGT, HT) high-purity water. See water purification
grab bars for accessibility, 2004 V1:114 high-radiation areas, 2005 V2:247, 249
laundry equipment, 2004 V1:123 high-rate dispensers, 2007 V3:148
sinks, 2004 V1:117 high-rate sand filters, 2007 V3:115116
symbols for, 2004 V1:15 high-rise buildings. See large buildings

High-rise Plumbing, 2005 V2:64 horizontal velocity, 2008 V4:155

high-silicon cast iron piping, 2005 V2:13, 14, 2007 V3:42, horsepower (hp, HP)
46 air horsepower (ahp, AHP), 2004 V1:14
high-silicon iron anodes, 2004 V1:150 brake horsepower (bhp, BHP), 2004 V1:6, 14
high-suds detergents, 2005 V2:4546 converting to SI units, 2004 V1:39
high-temperature hot water (hthw, HTHW), 2004 V1:15, defined, 2007 V3:167
2008 V4:89 indicated horsepower (ihp, IHP), 2004 V1:15
high-to-low pressure loss in vacuum systems, 2005 shaft horsepower (sft hp, SFT HP, SHP), 2004 V1:16
V2:184185 symbols for, 2004 V1:15
high vacuum, 2005 V2:182, 186 hose bibb vacuum breakers
high-velocity fixtures, acoustic design and, 2004 V1:195 applications, 2008 V4:185
high-velocity jetted well digging, 2005 V2:165 defined, 2008 V4:180
high-volume sprinklers in irrigation, 2007 V3:92 hose bibbs (HB), 2004 V1:10, 2007 V3:39, 2008 V4:185,
high winds, 2008 V4:119 223
highest order functions, 2004 V1:227 hose connection vacuum breakers, 2008 V4:175
Hillman, 2004 V1:191 hose demand, 2007 V3:13
hinge pins, 2008 V4:74 hose outlets, 2004 V1:12
hinged pipe clamps, 2008 V4:137 hose sprays, 2008 V4:185
hip baths, 2007 V3:38 hose stations, dry, 2004 V1:13, 2007 V3:28
history hose streams in firefighting, 2007 V3:217
of earthquake damage, 2004 V1:161163 hose thread outlets, 2008 V4:13
of fire-protection systems, 2007 V3:12 hose valves, 2007 V3:20
HL (heat loss), 2004 V1:15 hoses
HO (film coefficients), 2004 V1:14 bed pans, 2007 V3:40
Hodnott, Robert M., 2004 V1:191 compressed air pipe sizing, 2007 V3:178
Hoffman Industries, 2005 V2:196 fuel dispensers, 2007 V3:143
hoists for immersion baths, 2007 V3:38 medical gas tubing, 2007 V3:69
hold-down straps on storage tanks, 2007 V3:150 retrievers, 2007 V3:143
holding rooms, 2007 V3:56 vacuum cleaning hose capacity, 2005 V2:190
holes vacuum cleaning systems. See tubing
in coatings, 2004 V1:147 hospitals, 2005 V2:15, 109, 118, 2007 V3:33. See also
for perc tests, 2005 V2:149 health care facilities
holidays backflow prevention, 2008 V4:185
in coatings, 2004 V1:147, 2007 V3:150 distilled water use, 2008 V4:212
in labor costs, 2004 V1:94 drinking fountain usage, 2008 V4:245
hollow-fiber modules fixtures, 2008 V4:19, 20
in cross-flow filtration, 2005 V2:223 water consumption, 2008 V4:208
in reverse osmosis, 2005 V2:205, 221, 222 hot dip galvanization, 2008 V4:137
homogeneity in rate of corrosion, 2004 V1:145 hot elevations, 2008 V4:137
horizontal branch hangers and supports, 2008 V4:67 hot fluids
horizontal drains glass piping and, 2008 V4:48
cross-sections of, 2005 V2:2 hangers and supports for, 2008 V4:126
fixture loads, 2005 V2:6, 89 piping for, 2008 V4:125
flow in, 2005 V2:2 hot hanger locations, 2008 V4:137
hydraulic jumps in, 2005 V2:6 hot loads, 2008 V4:137
minimum slope of piping, 2005 V2:67 hot settings, 2008 V4:137
sloping drains in sanitary drainage systems, 2005 hot shoes, 2008 V4:137
V2:58 hot tubs, 2007 V3:109, 2008 V4:185
steady flow in, 2005 V2:6 hot-vapor atmospheric vents, 2004 V1:9
horizontal end-suction centrifugal pumps, 2007 V3:119 hot water recirculating (HWR), 2004 V1:8, 265
horizontal high-rate sand filters, 2007 V3:115 hot-water returns, 2004 V1:8
horizontal loads of piping, 2004 V1:184, 185186 hot-water supply (HW)
horizontal movement of pipes, 2008 V4:124 heating hot water supply, 2004 V1:8
horizontal natural frequencies, 2008 V4:146 high-temperature hot-water service, 2008 V4:89
horizontal pipe attachments, 2008 V4:126 potable water, 2007 V3:47
horizontal pressure-media filters, 2005 V2:211, 2008 symbols for, 2004 V1:8
V4:202 temperature ranges for expansion or contraction, 2008
horizontal pumps V4:227
defined, 2004 V1:24 hot-water systems
split-case pumps, 2004 V1:24, 2007 V3:21 avoiding standby losses, 2004 V1:127
horizontal travelers, 2008 V4:124, 137 circulation systems, 2005 V2:115
horizontal turbine meters, 2005 V2:95, 96 codes and standards, 2005 V2:124

Index 325
conserving energy, 2004 V1:124125, 127, 128 How to Design Spencer Central Vacuum Cleaners, 2005
corrosion rates, 2004 V1:145 V2:196
earthquake damage, 2004 V1:162 hp, HP (horsepower). See horsepower
equations, 2005 V2:109110 HPC (high-pressure condensate), 2004 V1:9
exposed piping and accessibility, 2004 V1:117 hps, HPS (high-pressure steam), 2004 V1:9, 15
heat loss, 2008 V4:112113 HR (hours), 2004 V1:15, 34
high-temperature systems, 2008 V4:89 HT (heat). See heat
hot-water properties, 2005 V2:117 HT (height). See height
hot-water temperatures, 2004 V1:120, 2005 V2:111, hthw, HTHW (high-temperature hot water), 2004 V1:15.
112114, 2007 V3:39, 47 See also hot-water temperatures
introduction, 2005 V2:107 HTR (heaters), 2004 V1:15. See also water heaters
Legionella pneumophila, 2005 V2:117122 hub-and-spigot piping and joints. See also bell-and-spigot
maintaining temperatures, 2005 V2:115 joints and piping
mixed-water temperatures, 2005 V2:111 acid wastes and, 2007 V3:46
pipe codes, 2004 V1:45 as compression joints, 2008 V4:60
pipe vibration isolation, 2004 V1:205 cast-iron soil pipe, 2008 V4:2325, 2527
relief valves, 2005 V2:115116 defined, 2004 V1:26
safety and health concerns, 2005 V2:117124 sanitary piping, 2005 V2:13
scalding water, 2005 V2:122124 hub ends on valves, 2008 V4:80
sizing water heaters, 2005 V2:108109 Hubbard baths, 2005 V2:109
solar, 2007 V3:189192 hubless piping
temperature ranges for expansion or contraction, 2008 bracing cast-iron pipe, 2004 V1:177
V4:227 cast-iron soil pipe, 2008 V4:2325, 24, 27
thermal efficiency, 2005 V2:116117 hubless, defined, 2004 V1:26
thermal expansion, 2005 V2:116, 2008 V4:227 riser bracing for hubless pipes, 2004 V1:178
types of domestic systems, 2004 V1:129134 sanitary piping, 2005 V2:13
valves for, 2008 V4:8586, 89 shielded hubless coupling, 2008 V4:61
waste heat usage, 2004 V1:131134 HUD (Housing and Urban Development), 2004 V1:105,
water heater heat recovery, 2005 V2:110 106
water heaters, 2005 V2:111114 human blood in drinking water case, 2008 V4:187
hot-water temperatures human body, need for water, 2008 V4:237
accessible shower compartments, 2004 V1:120 humidity
charts, 2005 V2:112114 defined, 2007 V3:167
health care facilities, 2007 V3:39, 47 humidity ratios (W, W), 2004 V1:15
high-temperature hot water, 2004 V1:15, 2008 V4:89 relative (rh, RH), 2004 V1:15
maintaining temperatures, 2005 V2:115 hungry water. See distilled water (DL)
mixed-water temperatures, 2005 V2:111 Hunter, Roy B., 2005 V2:3, 4, 48, 104
ranges for expansion or contraction, 2008 V4:227 Hunters Curve, 2005 V2:92
scalding water, 2005 V2:122124 Hurricane filters, 2005 V2:211
hotels hurricanes, 2008 V4:119
acoustic plumbing design for, 2004 V1:196 hutene, 2005 V2:126
drinking fountain usage, 2008 V4:245 HVAC engineers, 2007 V3:29, 179
grease interceptors, 2008 V4:153 HVAC systems
hot water demand, 2005 V2:109 backflow prevention, 2008 V4:185
numbers of fixtures for, 2008 V4:19 copper pipes, 2008 V4:3031
septic tanks, 2005 V2:156157 defined, 2008 V4:137
vacuum calculations for, 2005 V2:190 exhaust ducts, 2005 V2:193
water consumption, 2008 V4:208 glass pipes, 2008 V4:48
hourly data in sizing water heaters, 2005 V2:108109 steel pipe, 2008 V4:48
hours (h, HR), 2004 V1:15, 34 HW. See hot-water supply (HW)
house drains. See building drains HWR (hot water recirculating), 2004 V1:8, 265
house pumps, 2005 V2:74, 76 hybrid vaporizers, 2007 V3:59
house tanks, 2005 V2:7476 hydrant wrenches, 2007 V3:3
house traps. See building traps hydrants
housed-spring mountings, 2004 V1:204 butt caps, 2007 V3:3, 202
houses. See buildings coefficients of discharge, 2007 V3:3, 4
housing project sewers, 2005 V2:156157 cross connections, 2008 V4:185
housings fire-protection water supply, 2007 V3:212213
for gas boosters, 2005 V2:130 flow tests, 2007 V3:36, 4, 202206
for gas filters, 2007 V3:236 guards, 2007 V3:212213
HOW logic path, 2004 V1:230, 231 outlets, 2007 V3:4
public hydrants, 2004 V1:12

valves, 2004 V1:24 hydrostatic test loads, 2008 V4:137

wall hydrants, 2004 V1:10, 12 hydrostatic tests, 2007 V3:149, 2008 V4:137
hydraulic design of sprinkler systems, 2007 V3:1117 hydrotherapeutic showers, 2005 V2:109
hydraulic equipment direct connection hazards, 2008 hydrotherapy immersion baths, 2007 V3:38
V4:184 hydroxide salts, 2008 V4:198
Hydraulic Institute, 2005 V2:104 hydroxides, 2005 V2:199, 2007 V3:84
Hydraulic Institute Standards for Centrifugal, Rotary, and hydroxyl, 2005 V2:215, 225, 239
Reciprocating Pumps, 2007 V3:120 hygienic insulation jackets, 2008 V4:108
hydraulic irrigation valves, 2007 V3:94 hyperbaric pressures, 2007 V3:77, 78
hydraulic jumps in flow, 2005 V2:2, 6, 47 hyperchlorination, 2005 V2:122
hydraulic mean depth of flow, 2004 V1:1 hypobaric pressures, 2007 V3:77
hydraulic pipe benders, 2008 V4:63 hypochlorite solutions, 2008 V4:200
hydraulic pressure differential switches, 2008 V4:203 hypochlorous acid, 2008 V4:200
hydraulic radii (R), 2004 V1:1 Hz (hertz), 2004 V1:33, 206
hydraulic shock. See water hammer Hz, HZ (frequencies), 2004 V1:15, 33
hydraulic shock, calculating, 2004 V1:6
hydraulic snubbers, 2008 V4:137
hydraulic sway braces, 2008 V4:137
I
I-beams, 2008 V4:68
hydraulics of wells, 2005 V2:165166 IAPMO. See International Association of Plumbing and
hydrazine, 2005 V2:226 Mechanical Officials (IAPMO)
Hydro 35 (National Weather Service), 2007 V3:229 ICBO (International Conference of Building Officials),
hydrobromic acid, 2005 V2:242 2004 V1:191
hydrocarbons ICC (International Code Council), 2004 V1:55, 59, 60
classifications, 2007 V3:133134 ice. See freezing temperatures
contamination in compressed air, 2007 V3:170 ice dispensers, 2008 V4:240
medical gas system tests, 2007 V3:76 ice makers, 2007 V3:36, 2008 V4:184, 185
hydrochloric acid icfm (inlet cubic feet per minute)
cation regenerants, 2008 V4:197 dynamic air compressors, 2007 V3:63
formation and removal, 2008 V4:199200 medical air compressors, 2007 V3:62
formula, 2008 V4:193 vacuum piping systems, 2005 V2:177
from cation exchange, 2008 V4:198 ID (inside diameters), 2004 V1:14
in laboratory wastes, 2005 V2:242 idea evaluation checklists, 2004 V1:237241
in regeneration, 2005 V2:210, 217 idea generators, 2004 V1:232
in water chemistry, 2005 V2:199 ideal gas law, 2005 V2:73
hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs), 2007 V3:26 identifying parts of graywater systems, 2005 V2:2628, 35
hydrodynamic noise generation, 2004 V1:197 ignition (torch) testing, 2008 V4:2
hydrodynamics, 2008 V4:169170 ihp, IHP (indicated horsepower), 2004 V1:15
hydrogen, 2005 V2:126, 199, 215, 239, 2007 V3:84, 2008 illegal connections to water meters, 2005 V2:68
V4:193 Illinois Plumbing Code, 2005 V2:118
hydrogen embrittlement, 2004 V1:153 illuminance
hydrogen film buildup, 2004 V1:139 conversion factors, 2004 V1:36
hydrogen fluoride, 2007 V3:26 measurements, 2004 V1:33
hydrogen ions, 2008 V4:193 Illustrated National Plumbing Code Design Manual, 2005
hydrogen overvoltage, 2004 V1:153 V2:64
hydrogen peroxide, 2005 V2:223, 2007 V3:49 imaginary costs, 2004 V1:223
hydrogen-sodium ion exchange plants, 2008 V4:199 imaging-science facilities, 2005 V2:248
hydrogen sulfide, 2005 V2:200, 208, 209 immersion baths, 2007 V3:36, 38, 40
defined, 2008 V4:223 immersion heaters, 2008 V4:159
formula, 2008 V4:193 immersion-type vacuum separators, 2005 V2:188
hydromechanical grease interceptors (HGIs), 2008 V4:153, immiscible liquids, 2005 V2:198
158159, 165 impact applications, neoprene and, 2008 V4:149
hydrophilic air filters, 2008 V4:213214 impact heads in sprinkler systems, 2007 V3:9394
hydrophobic air filters, 2008 V4:213214 impact type flow sensors, 2007 V3:120121
hydropneumatic-tank systems, 2005 V2:72, 7374, 170 impaired individuals. See people with disabilities
hydroquinone, 2005 V2:226 impellers
hydrostatic design stress table, 2008 V4:228 acoustic modifications for blades, 2004 V1:197
hydrostatic fundamentals, 2008 V4:169170 pump impeller diameters, 2004 V1:6
hydrostatic loads, 2008 V4:137 sources of noise in pumps, 2004 V1:197
hydrostatic locks, 2008 V4:137 imperviousness factor, 2007 V3:229230
hydrostatic monitoring systems, 2007 V3:139140 impingement attack corrosion, 2004 V1:141, 153
hydrostatic pressure, 2005 V2:4 Implementation Follow-up phase in value engineering,
hydrostatic relief valves, 2007 V3:110 2004 V1:213

Index 327
Implementation Presentation phase in value engineering, hot water demand, 2005 V2:109
2004 V1:213 numbers of fixtures for, 2008 V4:18, 20
importance piping systems, 2008 V4:137
assigning in function analysis, 2004 V1:225 radiation in, 2005 V2:248
of equipment or systems in seismic force calculations, water content in wastes, 2007 V3:91
2004 V1:183 industrial laundries, 2008 V4:205
impoundment basins, 2007 V3:146 Industrial Risk Insurers (IRI), 2005 V2:127, 2007 V3:12
impressed current systems, 2004 V1:147, 150 industrial service gas, 2005 V2:126
impurities in water. See water impurities industrial waste
in-ground vapor monitoring, 2007 V3:141 defined, 2004 V1:26
in. Hg (inches of mercury), 2005 V2:175, 178 pretreatment of, 2008 V4:249
in-line filters, 2007 V3:63 industrial wastewater treatment
in-line life check valves, 2008 V4:83 codes and standards, 2007 V3:88
in-line pumps, 2004 V1:24 definitions, 2007 V3:82
in-wall piping, acoustic design and, 2004 V1:195 designing systems, 2007 V3:8384
in3 (cubic inches), 2004 V1:14 government publications, 2007 V3:8889
inch-pound units (IP) industry and technical handbooks, 2007 V3:89
converting, 2005 V2:176, 2007 V3:30 overview, 2007 V3:81
flow rates and pressure measurements, 2007 V3:169 permits, 2007 V3:81
use of, 2005 V2:175 references, 2007 V3:8889
inches regulatory framework, 2007 V3:8183
converting to metric units, 2007 V3:30 resources, 2007 V3:89
converting to SI units, 2004 V1:39 system elements, 2007 V3:8488
of mercury (in. Hg), 2004 V1:39, 2005 V2:175, 178 inert gases, 2007 V3:26
per hour (in./h), 2007 V3:91 Inert Gases:Argon, Nitrogen and Helium (CGA P-9), 2007
incident angles (INANG), 2004 V1:15 V3:75, 76, 79
incineration systems, 2004 V1:130131 inert materials, 2007 V3:48
incinerator toilets, 2004 V1:265 inertia
income, in hot water demand classifications, 2005 V2:109 conversion factors, 2004 V1:36
inconel, 2004 V1:141, 144, 2008 V4:108 measurements, 2004 V1:33
independent functions in FAST approach, 2004 V1:230 inerting atmospheres, 2007 V3:26
indicated horsepower, defined, 2007 V3:167 infant bathtubs, 2007 V3:36, 38
indicated horsepower (ihp, IHP), 2004 V1:15 infectious and biological waste systems. See also
indirect discharges, 2007 V3:83, 2008 V4:249 disinfecting; microorganisms
indirect drains (D), 2004 V1:8 biosafety levels, 2005 V2:251
indirect waste pipes, 2004 V1:26, 2008 V4:12, 178 codes and standards, 2005 V2:251
indirect waste receptors, 2005 V2:15, 2008 V4:16. See also components, 2005 V2:252
floor sinks introduction, 2005 V2:250251
indirect water heating, 2007 V3:122 liquid-waste decontamination systems, 2005 V2:252
individual aerobic waste treatment plants, 2005 V2:157 infectious disease rooms, 2007 V3:47
158 inflexibility, creativity and, 2004 V1:231
Individual Home Wastewater Characterization and influents, 2008 V4:223
Treatment, 2005 V2:161 Information phase in value engineering, 2004 V1:213,
individual vents, 2004 V1:26. See also revent pipes 214222
air admittance valves, 2005 V2:46 information sources in value engineering, 2004 V1:214,
defined, 2005 V2:40 221
indoor gas boosters, 2005 V2:133 infrared controls on faucets and fixtures, 2004 V1:135, 264
indoor swimming pools, 2007 V3:107108. See also infrared radiation, defined, 2007 V3:184
swimming pools Ingersoll-Rand Company, 2005 V2:144, 2007 V3:179
induced siphonage, 2004 V1:26 inhibitors (corrosion), 2004 V1:151, 153
industrial acid-waste drainage systems initial pressure in water-pressure regulators, 2008 V4:81
acid-waste treatment, 2005 V2:244245 initial system volumes, 2008 V4:232
continuous acid-waste treatment systems, 2005 V2:246 initial vacuum pressure, 2005 V2:193
defined, 2005 V2:239 injectable pharmaceuticals, 2008 V4:218, 219
health and safety concerns, 2005 V2:239240 ink tests, 2008 V4:5, 9
large facilities, 2005 V2:244, 245 inlet cubic feet per minute (icfm), 2005 V2:177, 2007 V3:62
types of acids, 2005 V2:240242 inlet pressure, defined, 2007 V3:167
industrial chemical-waste systems, 2005 V2:253 inlet temperature, defined, 2007 V3:167
industrial facilities inlet valves, 2008 V4:223
distilled water use, 2008 V4:212 inlets. See also outlets; stations
firefighting demand flow rates, 2007 V3:216 gas or vacuum. See stations
firefighting water drainage, 2005 V2:253254 inlet filters in pools, 2007 V3:171, 178

inlet filters on vacuum systems, 2005 V2:181 Installation of Private Fire Service Mains and Their
inlet inverts on septic tanks, 2005 V2:154 Appurtenances (NFPA 24), 2007 V3:30, 210
inlet pressure in cold-water systems, 2005 V2:78 Installation of Sprinkler Systems (NFPA 13), 2007 V3:2,
inlet pressure in gas boosters, 2005 V2:134 11, 12, 29, 217
inlet times, 2007 V3:231, 232 Installation of Standpipe and Hose Systems (NFPA 14),
louver velocity, 2007 V3:178 2007 V3:20, 29
number of in vacuum systems, 2005 V2:184 Installation of Stationary Pumps for Fire Protection (NFPA
for storage tanks, 2005 V2:171 20), 2007 V3:29
submerged, 2008 V4:184 Installation of Underground Gasoline Tanks and Piping at
swimming pools, 2007 V3:131 Service Stations (API 1615), 2007 V3:151
for vacuum cleaning systems, 2005 V2:189, 190, 191, instantaneous water heaters, 2005 V2:111
193 institutional facilities
in vacuum sizing calculations, 2005 V2:184, 186 estimating sewage quantities, 2005 V2:159
inline shutoff valves, 2007 V3:67 grease interceptors, 2008 V4:153
Innovation & Design Process (LEED), 2004 V1:263 numbers of fixtures for, 2008 V4:19, 20
innovation in green building, 2004 V1:266 piping systems, 2008 V4:137138
Innovative Wastewater Technologies, 2004 V1:264 septic tank systems for, 2005 V2:156157
inorganic salts, 2008 V4:220 instructions to bidders, 2004 V1:62
input motion of earthquakes, 2004 V1:160 instrument sterilizers, 2007 V3:39, 40
insanitary, defined, 2004 V1:26 instruments, nitrogen-pressure-driven, 2007 V3:64
insert boxes, 2008 V4:137 insulated handle extensions, 2008 V4:84
insert nuts, 2008 V4:127, 137 insulated pipe supports, 2008 V4:138
inserts, 2008 V4:6465, 126, 137 insulating cement, 2008 V4:107
inside-caulk drains, 2005 V2:13 insulation
inside-caulk outlets, 2005 V2:13 airborne sound, 2004 V1:193
inside diameters (ID), 2004 V1:14, 2007 V3:136 chilled drinking-water systems, 2008 V4:244
inside film coefficients, 2004 V1:14 confined spaces, 2008 V4:116
insolation, defined, 2007 V3:184 dielectric insulation, 2004 V1:146
inspecting. See also cleanouts economic issues, 2008 V4:113115
checklists, 2004 V1:102103 energy savings and, 2004 V1:265
hazardous waste systems, 2007 V3:84 in geothermal energy systems, 2004 V1:131
sewage-disposal systems, 2005 V2:160161 hangers and supports and, 2008 V4:120, 126
installation hot-water systems, 2004 V1:127
anchor bolts, seismic problems, 2004 V1:190 insulation protection saddles, 2008 V4:138
bioremediation pretreatment systems, 2008 V4:253 noise insulation, 2005 V2:14
cross-connection controls, 2008 V4:175176 pipe. See pipe insulation
estimating productivity rates, 2004 V1:97 pure water systems, 2005 V2:233
flow sensors, 2007 V3:121 short-circuiting installations, 2004 V1:151
grab bars, 2004 V1:121122 storage and handling, 2008 V4:114115
installation costs, 2004 V1:223 tanks, 2008 V4:109
installation sequence in water treatment, 2008 V4:223 thickness and energy conservation, 2004 V1:127
insulation on valves and fittings, 2008 V4:108109 for valves and fittings, 2008 V4:108109
lavatories, 2008 V4:1011 insurance
liquid fuel storage systems, 2007 V3:150151 carriers, 2007 V3:1, 26, 197
medical gas piping, 2007 V3:68 certificates, 2004 V1:62
pressure-regulated valves, 2005 V2:7879 in labor costs, 2004 V1:94
pumps, 2008 V4:101102 intake silencers on compressors, 2007 V3:171
section in specifications, 2004 V1:91 intake sump acoustic problems, 2004 V1:197
showers, 2008 V4:14 integral attachments, 2008 V4:138
storage tank checklist, 2007 V3:150151 intensity-duration-frequency curves, 2007 V3:229
tank insulation, 2008 V4:109 intensity (luminous), 2004 V1:33
urinals, 2008 V4:910 intensive-care rooms
water closets, 2008 V4:67 fixtures, 2007 V3:38
water coolers, 2008 V4:247 health care facilities, 2007 V3:36
water-pressure regulators, 2008 V4:82 medical gas stations, 2007 V3:52, 56
Installation, 2008 V4:28 interceptors, 2004 V1:26. See also specific kinds of
Installation of Centrifugal Fire Pumps (NFPA 20), 2007 interceptors
V3:21 intercooling, defined, 2007 V3:168
Installation of Closed-head Foam-water Sprinkler Systems interface controls for medical gas systems, 2007 V3:68
(NFPA 16A), 2007 V3:30 intergranular corrosion, 2005 V2:205
Installation of Private Fire Mains (FM 3-10), 2007 V3:210 interlocking, gas boosters and, 2005 V2:133
interlocks for gas shutoffs, 2005 V2:127128

Index 329
intermediate chambers in dry-pipe systems, 2007 V3:8 iodine 131, 2005 V2:248
intermediate coats, 2004 V1:147 ion-exchange and removal systems, 2005 V2:215221
intermediate gas regulators, 2007 V3:237 cartridges, 2008 V4:214
intermediate hangers, 2008 V4:68 continuous deionization, 2005 V2:219220
intermediate-level sprinklers, 2004 V1:29 defined, 2008 V4:223
intermittent flow in fixtures, 2008 V4:207 design considerations, 2005 V2:220221
intermittent sand filters, 2005 V2:157 internal structure, 2008 V4:198
internal energy, defined, 2007 V3:167 ion exchange with acid addition, 2008 V4:199
Internal Revenue Service (IRS) web site, 2007 V3:194 ion exchange with chloride dealkalizer, 2008 V4:199
internal water treatments, 2008 V4:194 regenerable ion exchange, 2005 V2:215
International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC), 2007 regeneration cycle, 2005 V2:216219
V3:116 resins, 2005 V2:215216, 2008 V4:197199
International Association of Plumbing and Mechanical service deionization, 2005 V2:219
Officials, 2004 V1:54, 58, 2005 V2:36 small drinking water systems, 2005 V2:228
International Association of Plumbing and Mechanical sodium cycle, 2008 V4:196
Officials (IAPMO), 2004 V1:54, 58, 2005 V2:36 total dissolved solids and, 2005 V2:204
PS 1 Tank Risers, 2008 V4:252 water softening, 2005 V2:220, 2008 V4:197199,
Uniform Plumbing Code. See Uniform Plumbing Code 198199
Z1001 Prefabricated Gravity Grease Interceptors, 2008 ionization, copper-silver, 2005 V2:120, 122, 2008 V4:220
V4:153 ionized salts (NaCI), 2007 V3:47, 2008 V4:195
International Building Code, 2004 V1:183 ions
International Code Council (ICC), 2004 V1:55, 59, 2005 defined, 2004 V1:153, 2008 V4:197, 223
V2:104 in electromotive force series, 2004 V1:144
International Conference of Building Officials (ICBO), in pH values, 2005 V2:239
2004 V1:191 Iowa Institute of Hydraulic Research, 2005 V2:80
International Organization for Standardization (ISO), IP units, 2005 V2:175, 176, 2007 V3:169
2004 V1:194 IPS. See International Pipe Standard (IPS); iron pipe size
International Pipe Standard (IPS), 2004 V1:15 (IPS)
International Plumbing Code, 2008 V4:1719, 164, 165 IPS outlets, 2005 V2:14
International Safety Equipment Association (ISEA), 2004 iron
V1:59 corrosion, 2004 V1:139, 2008 V4:196
international swimming meets, 2007 V3:106 defined, 2008 V4:223
International System of Units (SI) in electromotive force series, 2004 V1:144
conversion factors, 2004 V1:3940 ferric ion formula, 2008 V4:193
converting, 2004 V1:39, 2005 V2:176, 2007 V3:30 ferrous ion formula, 2008 V4:193
equations, 2004 V1:1 in galvanic series, 2004 V1:141
listing, 2004 V1:3240 removing, 2005 V2:208
non-SI units, 2004 V1:34 sludge and, 2005 V2:205
prefixes and symbols, 2004 V1:34 in soils, 2005 V2:149
pressure and flow rate measurements, 2007 V3:169 in water, 2005 V2:168, 199, 200, 2008 V4:186, 187
style and use, 2004 V1:34, 2005 V2:175 iron bacteria, 2005 V2:199
interrelationships of functions, 2004 V1:227, 230 iron coagulants, 2005 V2:209
interruptible fuel-gas service, 2005 V2:125 iron filters, 2008 V4:208
interruptible gas services, 2007 V3:235 iron oxide, 2004 V1:139
interstitial monitoring, 2007 V3:139140 iron oxide films, 2004 V1:145
interstitial spaces in tanks, 2007 V3:136, 144 iron pipe size (IPS), 2004 V1:15, 2008 V4:51, 54
intravenous injections, 2008 V4:213 iron piping
inventory control in storage tanks, 2007 V3:139 corrosion, 2004 V1:139, 2008 V4:196
invertebrates, 2005 V2:199 ductile iron water and sewer pipe, 2008 V4:2529
inverted, defined, 2008 V4:138 iron seats for valves, 2008 V4:83
inverted bucket traps, 2007 V3:158159 iron valves, 2008 V4:7879
inverts irradiation (insolation), instantaneous, 2007 V3:184
defined, 2004 V1:26 irradiation treatment of water, 2005 V2:168, 223224, 228,
on septic tanks, 2005 V2:154 232, 233
An Investigation of the Adequacy of Performance of irregularity of shapes in velocity, 2008 V4:154
Reduced-size Vents Installed on a Ten-Story Drain, Irrigation Association, 2007 V3:96
Waste and Vent System, 2005 V2:48 irrigation systems
Investigation phase in value engineering, 2004 V1:213, backflow prevention, 2008 V4:185
235, 243, 254 design information, 2007 V3:96
inward projecting pipes graywater systems and, 2005 V2:2930, 35
resistance coefficients, 2005 V2:101 green plumbing, 2008 V4:258
iodine, 2005 V2:120 green roof designs, 2004 V1:266

lawn sprinkler submerged inlet hazards, 2008 V4:184 jam packing, 2008 V4:74
methods, 2007 V3:9293 janitors closets, 2007 V3:36, 2008 V4:12
overview, 2007 V3:91 Janoschek, R., 2005 V2:234
rainwater harvesting, 2004 V1:135, 267 Jayawardena, N., 2005 V2:234
references, 2007 V3:96 JCAHO (Joint Commission for the Accreditation of
resources, 2007 V3:96 Hospitals Organization), 2005 V2:118, 122, 2007
sample information sheet, 2007 V3:97 V3:35, 51
soil considerations, 2007 V3:9192 jet pumps, 2005 V2:165
system components, 2007 V3:9296 jetted wells, 2005 V2:165
water conservation and, 2004 V1:264 job preparation checklists, 2004 V1:99
water quality and requirements, 2007 V3:91 jockey pumps, 2004 V1:24, 2007 V3:22
water supply, 2007 V3:96 Joint Commission for the Accreditation of Hospitals
ischoric processes, 2007 V3:165 Organization (JCAHO), 2005 V2:118, 122, 2007
ISEA (International Safety Equipment Association), 2004 V3:35, 51, 2008 V4:224
V1:59 joint responsibilities for drinking water purity, 2008
island venting, 2007 V3:46 V4:178
ISO 3822/1 (Laboratory Tests on Noise Emission by joints
Appliances and Equipment Used in Water Supply acid-waste systems, 2005 V2:242
Installations), 2004 V1:194 chemical-waste systems, 2005 V2:253
ISO (International Organization for Standardization), defined, 2004 V1:21
2004 V1:194 deflection, 2008 V4:61
isoascorbic acid, 2005 V2:226 earthquake damage to, 2004 V1:162
isobaric processes, 2007 V3:165 earthquake protection and, 2004 V1:167
isolating medical gas zones, 2007 V3:67 inspection, 2007 V3:74
isolation rooms, 2007 V3:36, 47, 52 labor productivity rates, 2004 V1:96
isolation valves, 2007 V3:50 materials, 2004 V1:43
isolation, vibration ABS pipe, 2008 V4:54
dishwasher isolation mounts, 2004 V1:195 aluminum pipe, 2008 V4:59
flexibility and, 2004 V1:199 bronze joints and fittings, 2008 V4:32, 3940
isolation hangers, 2004 V1:203, 204 cast-iron hubless pipes, 2008 V4:24
isolation springs, 2004 V1:166 cast-iron soil pipes, 2008 V4:2425
isolators within hangers, 2004 V1:166 copper drainage tubes, 2008 V4:40, 42
in piping systems, 2004 V1:202206 copper joints, 2008 V4:32, 3940
problems in seismic protection, 2004 V1:188191, 189, copper water tube, 2008 V4:3241, 6162
206 CPVC piping, 2008 V4:5354
types of vibration control devices, 2004 V1:203206 cross-linked polyethylene, 2008 V4:52
washing machine isolation mounts, 2004 V1:195 cross-linked polyethylene/aluminum/cross-linked
isolators, 2007 V3:179, 2008 V4:149150 polyethylene (PEX-AL-PEX), 2008 V4:52
isosceles triangles, calculating area, 2004 V1:4 ductile iron water and sewer pipe, 2008 V4:2829
isothermal processes, 2007 V3:165 duriron pipe, 2008 V4:59
isotopes, 2005 V2:246, 248 fiberglass pipe, 2008 V4:56
Izod impact, 2008 V4:50 glass pipe, 2008 V4:41, 4243, 48, 63
lead and oakum joints, 2008 V4:61
J plastic joints, 2008 V4:62
plastic pipe, 2008 V4:49
J (joules), 2004 V1:33
J/K (joules per kelvin), 2004 V1:33 polypropylene pipe, 2008 V4:5455
J/kg K (joules per kg per kelvin), 2004 V1:33 PVC pipe, 2008 V4:56
jacketing PVC piping, 2008 V4:5253
coverings for insulation, 2008 V4:107108 PVDF pipe, 2008 V4:55
defined, 2008 V4:138 reinforced concrete pipe, 2008 V4:32
insulation, 2008 V4:106 seamless copper pipe, 2008 V4:39
on pipe insulation, 2008 V4:106 stainless steel pipe, 2008 V4:60
pipe insulation, 2008 V4:107108 steel pipe, 2008 V4:48
preformed plastic jackets for valves and fittings, 2008 medical gas tubing, 2007 V3:69, 2008 V4:42
V4:108109 natural gas systems, 2005 V2:130, 2007 V3:239
types of pure-water systems, 2007 V3:4850
all-service jackets, 2008 V4:108 radioactive waste systems, 2005 V2:249
aluminum jackets, 2008 V4:108 resistance coefficients, 2005 V2:100
stainless steel, 2008 V4:108 restrainers, 2007 V3:213
vapor barriers, 2008 V4:113 sanitary drainage systems, 2005 V2:1314
Jackson, T., 2005 V2:48 special-waste drainage systems, 2005 V2:238
Jackson turbidity units (JTUs), 2005 V2:204 thermal expansion and, 2008 V4:228229

Index 331
types of kill tanks, 2005 V2:252

ball joints, 2008 V4:64 kilo prefix, 2004 V1:34
bonded joints and cathodic protection, 2004 V1:150 kilocalories
brazing, 2008 V4:62 converting to SI units, 2004 V1:39
caulked joints, 2005 V2:15, 2008 V4:61 defined, 2008 V4:105
compression joints, 2008 V4:60 kilograms (kg)
dielectric unions or flanges, 2008 V4:6465 defined, 2004 V1:33
electrofusion joining, 2008 V4:63 kilograms per cubic meter, 2004 V1:33
expansion joints, 2005 V2:16, 54, 2008 V4:6466, kilograms per meter, 2004 V1:33
228229 kilograms per meter squared, 2004 V1:33
fill and pipe joints, 2005 V2:14 kilograms per second, 2004 V1:33
flanged joints, 2008 V4:62, 67 kilometers (km)
flexible couplings, 2008 V4:6465 converting to SI units, 2004 V1:39
glass pipe joints, 2008 V4:63 kilometers per hour, 2004 V1:34
heat-fused socket joints, 2005 V2:242 kilopascals (kPa)
lead and oakum joints, 2008 V4:61 converting meters of head loss to, 2004 V1:2
mechanical couplings, 2008 V4:65, 67 converting to psi, 2007 V3:30
mechanical joints, 2008 V4:60, 6162 in SI units, 2007 V3:169
nonrigid couplings, 2004 V1:186 vacuum pump ratings, 2005 V2:178
o-ring gaskets, 2004 V1:266 vacuum work forces, 2005 V2:176
plastic pipe joints, 2008 V4:62 kiloponds, converting to SI units, 2004 V1:39
sanitary, 2007 V3:4850 kilowatt hours (kWh, KWH), 2004 V1:15, 34
screwed mechanical joints, 2005 V2:242 kilowatts (kW, KW), 2004 V1:15
shielded hubless coupling, 2008 V4:61 kinematic viscosity
soldered, 2008 V4:62 converting to SI units, 2004 V1:39
thread cutting, 2008 V4:62 measurements, 2004 V1:33
threaded, 2008 V4:62 water temperature variations, 2005 V2:83, 85
welded, 2008 V4:6263 Kinematic Viscosity Centistokes, 2007 V3:134
welded joints in radioactive waste systems, 2005 V2:249 kinetic energy (KE)
joist hangers, 2008 V4:129 calculating, 2004 V1:2
Joukowskys formula, 2005 V2:7980 defined, 2007 V3:167
joules, 2004 V1:33 velocity head and, 2004 V1:5
joules per kelvin, 2004 V1:33 kinetically-operated aerobic bioremediation systems, 2008
joules per kg per kelvin, 2004 V1:33 V4:250
journeyman plumbers, 2004 V1:26 kip ft, KIP FT (thousand foot-pounds), 2004 V1:16
JTUs (Jackson turbidity units), 2005 V2:204 kip, KIP (thousand pounds), 2004 V1:16
judgementalism, 2004 V1:232235 KIPFT (thousand foot-pounds), 2004 V1:16
Judgment phase in value engineering, 2004 V1:213 Kirk-Othmer Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology, 2007
juveniles. See children, fixtures and V3:89
kitchen sinks
K faucets, 2008 V4:13
grease interceptors, 2008 V4:153
k, K (conductivity), 2004 V1:14, 16, 33, 2008 V4:105
K (dynamic response to ground shaking), 2004 V1:159, 161 hot water demand, 2005 V2:109
K (kelvin), 2004 V1:15, 34 types, 2008 V4:1112
k (kilo) prefix, 2004 V1:34 kitchens. See food-processing areas and kitchens
K factor (coefficient of permeability), 2005 V2:166 Klein, S.A., 2007 V3:194
K factor (conductivity), 2008 V4:105 km/h (kilometers per hour), 2004 V1:34
K factor (sprinkler heads), 2007 V3:13 knee braces, 2008 V4:138
K piping. See Type K copper knee space for wheelchairs, 2004 V1:109
Kalinske, A.A., 2005 V2:19, 80 knockout pots in vacuum systems, 2005 V2:181
Kaminsky, G., 2005 V2:256 Konen, Thomas K., 2005 V2:36, 48
KE (kinetic energy), 2004 V1:2, 5 Kortright Centre for Conservation web site, 2007 V3:194
kelvin (K), 2004 V1:15, 33, 2007 V3:166 kPa (kilopascals). See kilopascals
kerosene, 2005 V2:12, 2007 V3:133 Kreider, J.F., 2007 V3:194
keyboards, inflexible thinking and, 2004 V1:231 Kreith, J., 2007 V3:194
kg (kilograms). See kilograms Kullen, Howard P., 2004 V1:154
kg/m (kilograms per meter), 2004 V1:33 kW, KW (kilowatts), 2004 V1:15
kg/m2 (kilograms per meter squared), 2004 V1:33 kWh, KWH (kilowatt hours), 2004 V1:15, 34, 2007 V3:185
3
kg/m (kilograms per meter cubed), 2004 V1:33 186
kg/ms (kilogram-meters per second), 2004 V1:33 KYNAR piping, 2007 V3:4950
kg/s (kilograms per second), 2004 V1:33
kidney dialysis. See dialysis machines

L plastic pipes, 2008 V4:48

pure water systems for, 2005 V2:228234, 2007 V3:48
L Cast Iron Gate Valves, Flanged and Threaded Ends,
2008 V4:87 radioactive isotopes in, 2005 V2:245
L (length). See length sinks as submerged inlet hazards, 2008 V4:184
L (liters). See liters vacuum systems
L/min (liters per minute), 2007 V3:6465, 169 codes and standards, 2005 V2:182
L piping. See Type L copper diversity factor calculations for vacuums, 2005
L/s (liters per second), 2007 V3:5, 169 V2:184185
L-shaped bath seats, 2004 V1:122 leakage, 2005 V2:186, 187
LA (laboratory compressed air), 2004 V1:8 piping, 2005 V2:183
labels pump assemblies, 2005 V2:182
labeled, defined, 2004 V1:26 sizing, 2005 V2:184187
labeled fire pumps, 2007 V3:21 vacuum-pump systems, 2007 V3:66
medical gas tubing, 2007 V3:69, 74 water systems filtration, 2005 V2:211
medical gas valves, 2007 V3:67 laboratory compressed air (LA), 2004 V1:8
parts of graywater systems, 2005 V2:35 laboratory grade water, 2008 V4:218, 219
labor and materials payment bonds, 2004 V1:62 Laboratory Studies of the Hydraulic Performance of
labor costs One-story and Split-level Residential Plumbing
defined, 2004 V1:222 Systems with Reduced-size Vents, 2005 V2:48
factors in, 2004 V1:94 Laboratory Testing on the Noise Emitted by Valves,
ongoing and one-time, 2004 V1:223 Fittings, and Appliances Used in Water Supply
overtime, 2004 V1:94 Installations, 2004 V1:194
in plumbing cost estimation, 2004 V1:93 Laboratory Tests on Noise Emission by Appliances and
productivity rates, 2004 V1:9597 Equipment Used in Water Supply Installations,
in take-off estimating method, 2004 V1:94 2004 V1:194
in value engineering, 2004 V1:212 laboratory vacuum (LV), 2004 V1:9, 2005 V2:180181
labor rooms ladders
fixtures, 2007 V3:39 aboveground storage tanks, 2007 V3:144
health care facilities, 2007 V3:36 swimming pools, 2007 V3:130
medical gas stations, 2007 V3:52, 56 lagging (pipe wrappings), 2004 V1:196, 201202, 2005
laboratories V2:50, 2008 V4:108
acid-waste drainage systems, 2005 V2:239, 2007 lagoons, 2005 V2:157
V3:4246 lakes, 2005 V2:29
acid-waste treatment, 2005 V2:244245, 2007 LAL test, 2005 V2:199
V3:4345 laminar flow devices, 2007 V3:35
continuous acid-waste treatment systems, 2005 laminar flow in pipes, 2004 V1:2, 2005 V2:84
V2:246 landscaping
discharge to sewers, 2007 V3:43 irrigation. See irrigation systems
health and safety concerns, 2005 V2:239240 water efficient, 2004 V1:263264
large facilities, 2005 V2:244, 245 landslides, 2004 V1:158
metering, 2007 V3:45 lanes in swimming pools, 2007 V3:106
piping and joint material, 2005 V2:242244 Langelier saturation index (LSI), 2005 V2:206207, 2007
sink traps, 2007 V3:4546 V3:123
solids interceptors, 2007 V3:4445 Langelier, W.F., 2005 V2:206
system design considerations, 2005 V2:244 lap joint welds, 2008 V4:61
types of acids, 2005 V2:240242 Laque, F.L., 2004 V1:154
waste and vent piping, 2007 V3:4546 large buildings
backflow prevention, 2008 V4:185 acid-waste systems, 2005 V2:244, 245
classroom water demand, 2007 V3:46 fixture drainage loads, 2005 V2:3
compressed air use factors, 2007 V3:175176 high-rise buildings, 2005 V2:133
defined, 2007 V3:77 large private sewage-disposal systems, 2005 V2:156
direct connection hazards, 2008 V4:184 157
distilled water use, 2008 V4:212 pipe expansion and contraction, 2008 V4:227, 229
emergency eyewash and showers, 2007 V3:35, 41 sovent single-stack plumbing systems, 2005 V2:17
fixtures and pipe sizing, 2005 V2:238 valves in systems, 2008 V4:90
gas service outlets, 2007 V3:4142 large-drop sprinklers, 2004 V1:29
grades of water for, 2008 V4:219 large-scale biohazard facilities, 2005 V2:251
in health care facilities, 2007 V3:36, 4142 Large Welded Petroleum Tanks (API 12D), 2007 V3:88
infectious waste systems, 2005 V2:250251 laser machines, 2008 V4:189
lab animals, 2005 V2:251 lat, LAT (leaving air temperature), 2004 V1:15
medical gas stations, 2007 V3:52 latent heat (LH, LHEAT), 2004 V1:15, 137, 2007 V3:153,
natural gas systems, 2005 V2:128129 158

Index 333
latent heat gain, 2004 V1:15 layer-type dezincification, 2004 V1:142

lateral and longitudinal motion, 2008 V4:119, 124 layers of effluent in septic tanks, 2005 V2:153
lateral and longitudinal sway bracing, 2004 V1:181182, layers of fill, 2005 V2:14
184186, 2008 V4:138 lb, LBS (pounds). See pounds
lateral force leaching trenches. See soil-absorption sewage systems
calculating for seismic protection, 2004 V1:183 leaching wells, 2004 V1:26. See also dry wells
defined, 2004 V1:191 lead
problems in seismic protection, 2004 V1:189 corrosion, 2004 V1:139
lateral lines, 2007 V3:78 in electromotive force series, 2004 V1:144
lateral sewers, 2004 V1:26 in galvanic series, 2004 V1:141
lateral stability joint seals, 2008 V4:24, 25
defined, 2008 V4:138 levels in drinking water, 2008 V4:186
of suspended equipment, 2004 V1:164 in older plumbing system solder, 2008 V4:242243
laundry machines. See laundry systems and washers treating in water, 2008 V4:187
laundry sinks or trays, 2008 V4:13 lead-absorbant filters, 2008 V4:243
laundry systems and washers lead and oakum joints, 2008 V4:61
accessibility, 2004 V1:123 lead-free solders, 2008 V4:62
acoustic ratings of machines, 2004 V1:195 lead-lined concrete blocks, 2005 V2:248
backflow prevention, 2008 V4:185 lead-lined lath for plaster, 2005 V2:248
clothes washer fixture-unit loads, 2005 V2:3 lead piping, 2004 V1:266, 2005 V2:50, 83
fixture pipe sizes and demand, 2005 V2:94 lead shielding on radioactive drainage systems, 2005
gray water use, 2004 V1:135, 267, 2005 V2:25 V2:247248
health care facilities, 2007 V3:36, 39 lead-tin solders, 2004 V1:141
heat recovery systems, 2004 V1:266 leaders. See downspouts and leaders; vertical stacks
hot water demand, 2005 V2:109 Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED),
laundry sinks and clothes washers, 2008 V4:13 2004 V1:263265
laundry tray fixture-unit loads, 2005 V2:3 leaf design filters, 2008 V4:204
rates of sewage flows, 2005 V2:160 leakage
sound damping materials, 2004 V1:196 clean agent gas fire suppression, 2007 V3:27
submerged inlet hazards, 2008 V4:184 compressed air systems, 2007 V3:176, 178
suds problems, 2005 V2:4546 electrical leakage, 2008 V4:120
waste heat usage, 2004 V1:131134 eliminating, 2004 V1:134
water fixture unit values, 2007 V3:198 leaking oil into water, 2005 V2:254256
water softening, 2008 V4:205 waste anesthetic gas management, 2007 V3:67
water temperatures, 2007 V3:47 water conservation and, 2004 V1:124
lavatories. See also sinks and wash basins leakage detection
accessibility, 2004 V1:117 aboveground tank systems, 2007 V3:145146
backflow prevention, 2008 V4:185 chemical wastes, 2005 V2:253
chase size, 2008 V4:11 connectors, 2007 V3:145
faucets and overflows, 2008 V4:10, 13 industrial waste, 2007 V3:84
fixture pipe sizes and demand, 2005 V2:94 infectious waste drainage systems, 2005 V2:251
fixture-unit loads, 2005 V2:3 ion exchange systems, 2005 V2:220221
flow rates, 2008 V4:10 special-waste drainage systems, 2005 V2:237
graywater systems, 2004 V1:135, 2005 V2:28 underground liquid fuel storage tanks, 2007 V3:138
health care facilities, 2007 V3:35, 36, 40 141
hot water demand, 2005 V2:109 leakage detection cables, 2008 V4:60
installation requirements, 2008 V4:1011 leakage tests
minimum numbers of, 2008 V4:1821 cold-water systems, 2005 V2:103
patient rooms, 2007 V3:37 private water systems, 2005 V2:172
recovery rooms, 2007 V3:39 storage tanks, 2007 V3:149
reduced water usage, 2004 V1:126127 vacuum systems, 2005 V2:186, 187
shapes and sizes, 2008 V4:10 least mean temperature difference (LMTD), 2004 V1:15
standards, 2008 V4:2 least temperature difference (LTD), 2004 V1:15
submerged inlet hazards, 2008 V4:184 leaving air temperature (lat, LAT), 2004 V1:15
temperatures, 2007 V3:47 leaving water temperature (lwt, LWT), 2004 V1:15
typical graywater supply, 2005 V2:28 lecture halls, numbers of fixtures for, 2008 V4:18
typical use, 2005 V2:28 LEED (Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design),
Law of Inverse Proportions, 2004 V1:224 2004 V1:263265, 2008 V4:23, 255, 257258, 265
lawn imperviousness factors, 2007 V3:229 leg baths, 2005 V2:109, 2007 V3:36, 38, 40
lawn sprinkler supply (LS), 2004 V1:8 leg clearances
lawn sprinklers. See irrigation systems; sprinkler systems drinking fountains and water coolers, 2004 V1:112
(irrigation) toilet and bathing rooms, 2004 V1:113

Legionella pneumophila, 2005 V2:107, 117122, 2007 defined, 2008 V4:223

V3:189, 2008 V4:220 limestone chips, 2005 V2:244
Legionellae Control in Health Care Facilities, 2005 V2:118 limit stops, 2008 V4:138
legislation regarding people with disabilities, 2004 V1:106 limited-care facilities, 2007 V3:34, 77
107 limited-discharge roof drains, 2007 V3:233
legs in piping systems, 2007 V3:48 limiting conditions in seismic protection, 2004 V1:189, 190
legs on tanks limulus amoebocyte lysate test, 2005 V2:199
cast-iron tank legs, 2004 V1:163 lin ft (linear feet), 2004 V1:15
problems in seismic protection, 2004 V1:188, 189 Lin, S.H., 2005 V2:234
Lehr, Valentine A., 2005 V2:36 lindane
length (lg, LG, L) levels in drinking water, 2008 V4:186
conversion factors, 2004 V1:36 treating in water, 2008 V4:187
in measurements, 2004 V1:33 line-pressure sensors, 2007 V3:67
of stacks, 2004 V1:3 line regulators, 2007 V3:237
symbols for, 2004 V1:15 linear acceleration
total developed length in pipes, 2008 V4:229 conversion factors, 2004 V1:35
of vent piping, 2004 V1:3 measurements, 2004 V1:33
Level 1, 2, and 3 gas and vacuum systems, 2007 V3:3435 linear expansion
level control systems, 2007 V3:127128 in ABS pipe, 2008 V4:54
level control valves, 2008 V4:82 in fiberglass pipe, 2008 V4:56
Level I vacuum systems, 2007 V3:78 linear coefficients of thermal expansion, 2008 V4:227
Level III alarm systems, 2007 V3:76 of materials, 2008 V4:232233
Level III vacuum systems, 2007 V3:78 in PVC pipe, 2008 V4:53
level-sensing systems, 2007 V3:127128 linear feet (lin ft, LF), 2004 V1:15
level sensors linear velocity measurements, 2004 V1:33
hazardous materials, 2007 V3:84 lined steel
tank gauges, 2007 V3:137 storage tanks and hazardous wastes, 2007 V3:84
leveling bolts, 2008 V4:150 sulfuric acid and, 2007 V3:85
levels in water tanks, 2005 V2:171 linen holding areas, 2007 V3:36
levels of radiation, 2005 V2:247 liners, defined, 2008 V4:138
Lewis, G.N., 2004 V1:153 lining materials for dug wells, 2005 V2:164
LF (linear feet), 2004 V1:15 Linstedt, K.C., 2005 V2:161
lg, LG (length). See length lint interceptors, 2007 V3:39
LH (latent heat), 2004 V1:15, 137 lint strainers, 2007 V3:113, 120
LHEAT (latent heat), 2004 V1:15, 137 liq, LIQ (liquid). See liquids
LHG (latent heat gain), 2004 V1:15 liquefaction, 2004 V1:158
libraries, numbers of fixtures for, 2008 V4:18 liquefied petroleum gas. See also fuel-gas piping systems
life-cycle costs, 2004 V1:137 codes and standards, 2004 V1:43
life hook, 2007 V3:131 defined, 2005 V2:144
life rings, 2007 V3:131 gas boosters, 2005 V2:130131
life safety in fire protection, 2007 V3:1 glossary, 2005 V2:142144
lift check valves, 2008 V4:74, 77, 83 overview, 2005 V2:137, 141
lift station pumps, 2008 V4:99 physical properties, 2005 V2:125
lifts of fill, 2005 V2:14 pipes, 2008 V4:3031
light brackets, 2008 V4:138 pressures, 2005 V2:127
light conversion factors, 2004 V1:36 sizing systems, 2005 V2:142
light energy, defined, 2007 V3:181182 storage, 2005 V2:142
light hazard occupancies valves for systems, 2008 V4:89
defined, 2004 V1:29 Liquefied Petroleum Gas Code (NFPA 58), 2005 V2:127,
firefighting hose streams, 2007 V3:217 2007 V3:35
portable fire extinguishers, 2007 V3:28, 29 liquid contamination in compressed air, 2007 V3:170
light heating oil, 2007 V3:133 liquid fuel systems. See diesel-oil systems; gasoline systems
light process gas service, 2007 V3:235 liquid monitoring, 2007 V3:139
light service gas, 2005 V2:126 liquid oxygen (LOX)
light wall pipe (Schedule 10), 2008 V4:48 defined, 2007 V3:78
lights, underwater, 2007 V3:130 fire hazards, 2007 V3:5759
lightwall pipes, 2007 V3:13 medical gas systems, 2007 V3:58
lime (calcium carbonate). See scale and scale formation symbol, 2004 V1:8
lime-soda method of water softening, 2005 V2:168, 220 liquid petroleum, 2007 V3:133
lime stabilization, biosolids, 2008 V4:264 liquid piston compressors, 2007 V3:170
limestone liquid ring compressors, 2007 V3:64, 170
calcium carbonate, 2008 V4:193 liquid ring pumps, 2005 V2:180, 181, 183

Index 335
liquid solar systems, 2007 V3:185 locations of hangers. See cold hanger location; hot hanger
liquid waste locations
decontamination systems, 2005 V2:252 lock-out regulators, 2007 V3:238
defined, 2004 V1:26 lock-up periods, 2008 V4:138
levels in septic tanks, 2005 V2:154 locker rooms, 2007 V3:36
liquids (liq, LIQ) Loeb, S., 2008 V4:224
symbols for, 2004 V1:15 Loevenguth, 2004 V1:191
vacuuming, 2005 V2:188 log, LOG (logarithm to base 10), 2004 V1:15
listed, defined, 2004 V1:26 logarithms
listing agencies, 2004 V1:26 logarithm to base 10 (log, LOG), 2004 V1:15
listings, product, cross-connection control, 2008 V4:176 natural (ln, LN), 2004 V1:15
liters long runs in vacuum cleaning systems, 2005 V2:194
converting to gallons units, 2007 V3:30 long-turn tee-wyes, 2005 V2:4
converting to SI units, 2004 V1:39 longitudinal bracing, 2008 V4:138
liters per minute (L/min, Lpm), 2005 V2:176, 2007 defined, 2004 V1:191
V3:6465, 169 longitudinal and transverse bracing, 2004 V1:180
liters per second (L/s), 2007 V3:5, 169 longitudinal brace points, 2004 V1:168
non-SI units, 2004 V1:34 longitudinal-only bracing, 2004 V1:180
litigious society, impact on engineers, 2008 V4:117 seismic protection, 2004 V1:172
live loads sway bracing, 2004 V1:184186
on roof, 2005 V2:53 longitudinal forces, 2004 V1:191
living roof designs, 2004 V1:266267 longitudinal motion
lm (lumens), 2004 V1:33 expansion and contraction, 2008 V4:228
LMTD (least mean temperature difference), 2004 V1:15 hangers and supports, 2008 V4:119, 124
ln, LN (logarithms, natural), 2004 V1:15 Lonsdale, H., 2008 V4:224
LO (lubricating oil), 2004 V1:8, 2005 V2:12 Looking to Treat Wastewater? Try Ozone, 2005 V2:234
load adjustment scales, 2008 V4:138 Loomis, A. W., 2005 V2:104
load bolts or pins, 2008 V4:138 loop systems
load couplings, 2008 V4:138 expansion loops, 2008 V4:228229
load indicators, 2008 V4:138 fire mains, 2007 V3:6
load ratings loop vents, 2004 V1:31, 2005 V2:39, 4445, 2007 V3:46
carbon steel threaded hanger rods, 2008 V4:132 louvers in air compression, 2007 V3:178
concrete inserts, 2008 V4:135 LOV (lubricating oil vents), 2004 V1:8
defined, 2008 V4:138 low-alkalinity water, 2008 V4:198
hangers and supports, 2008 V4:134 low backflow hazard, 2007 V3:207
load scales, 2008 V4:138 low-demand classifications, 2005 V2:109 110
load variations, 2008 V4:138 low-expansion borosilicate glass, 2008 V4:48
loading influences for bioremediation, 2008 V4:251 Low-expansion Foam (NFPA 11), 2007 V3:25, 29
loading tables low-expansion foams, 2007 V3:25
fixture-unit values in drainage systems, 2005 V2:3 low-extractable PVC piping, 2008 V4:56
vertical stacks, 2005 V2:4 low-flow fixtures
loads. See also pipe loads; support and hanger loads green building and, 2004 V1:264
computer analysis of loads, 2004 V1:186 low-flow control valves, 2007 V3:95
connected loads, defined, 2005 V2:144 low-flow shutdown systems, 2005 V2:73
design considerations in seismic protection, 2004 low-flush toilets and water closets
V1:186188 acoustic design, 2004 V1:195
horizontal loads of piping, 2004 V1:184 ultra-low-flow water closets, 2004 V1:134136, 264
live loads on roof, 2005 V2:53 low-pressure carbon dioxide systems, 2007 V3:26
load factors, defined, 2004 V1:26 low-pressure condensate (LPC), 2004 V1:9
settlement loads, 2004 V1:186 low-pressure cutouts, 2008 V4:243244
sway bracing, 2004 V1:185186 low-pressure gas cutoffs, 2005 V2:127
vertical seismic load, 2004 V1:184 low-pressure gas (G), 2004 V1:8
vibration control materials, 2004 V1:203 low-pressure natural gas systems, 2005 V2:125130
loams, 2007 V3:91 low-pressure steam (lps, LPS), 2004 V1:9, 15, 2008 V4:87
local alarms, 2007 V3:76. See also area alarms 88
local application systems (carbon dioxide), 2007 V3:26 low-pressure tanks, 2007 V3:133
local application systems (halon), 2004 V1:26 low-suction-pressure switches, 2005 V2:73
local authorities, 2005 V2:29, 237 low-temperature hot water (lthw, LTHW), 2004 V1:15
local barometric pressure in vacuums, 2005 V2:176 lower order functions, 2004 V1:230
local rainfall rate tables, 2005 V2:5357 Lowther plate units, 2005 V2:224
localized corrosion, 2005 V2:206 LOX (liquid oxygen), 2004 V1:8
location of piping, earthquake protection and, 2004 V1:167 LP-gases at Utility Gas Plants, 2005 V2:144

LPC (low-pressure condensate), 2004 V1:9 lifespan of anodes, 2004 V1:150

lpg. See liquefied petroleum gas nanofiltration, 2008 V4:220
Lpm (liters per minute). See liters sacrificial anodes, 2004 V1:147
lps, LPS (low-pressure steam), 2004 V1:9, 15, 2008 V4:87 in water, 2005 V2:199, 200
88 water hardness and, 2008 V4:196
LS (lawn sprinkler supply), 2004 V1:8 zeolite process and, 2005 V2:168
LSI (Langelier saturation index), 2005 V2:206207 magnesium alloys, 2004 V1:141
LTD (least temperature difference), 2004 V1:15 magnesium bicarbonate, 2005 V2:200, 2008 V4:193
lthw, LTHW (low-temperature hot water), 2004 V1:15 magnesium carbonate, 2005 V2:199, 200, 206, 2008 V4:193
lubricated plug cocks, 2008 V4:8485 magnesium chloride, 2005 V2:200
lubricating oil (LO), 2004 V1:8, 2005 V2:12, 2008 V4:62 magnesium hydroxide, 2005 V2:199
lubricating oil vents (LOV), 2004 V1:8 magnesium oxide, 2008 V4:193
lubrication, direct connection hazards and, 2008 V4:184 magnesium salts, 2008 V4:196
lubricators magnesium sulfate, 2005 V2:199, 2008 V4:193
in compressed air pipe sizing, 2007 V3:178 magnetic drive meters, 2005 V2:95, 96
in compressed air systems, 2007 V3:174 magnetic field pulsation, 2004 V1:196
lug plates, 2008 V4:128 magnetic field strength measurements, 2004 V1:33
lug-style valves, 2008 V4:84 magnetic flux density, 2004 V1:33
lugs, 2008 V4:128, 138 magnetic flux measurements, 2004 V1:33
lumens, 2004 V1:33 magnetism, conversion factors, 2004 V1:35
luminance measurements, 2004 V1:33 magnetostrictive tank gauging, 2007 V3:139
luminous flux, 2004 V1:33 main drain piping, swimming pools, 2007 V3:110, 127128
luminous measurements, 2004 V1:33 main relief valves, 2007 V3:22
lux, 2004 V1:33 main shut-off valves, 2007 V3:67
LV (laboratory vacuum), 2004 V1:9 main vents, 2004 V1:26
LWDS (liquid-waste decontamination systems), 2005 mains. See also water mains
V2:252 defined, 2004 V1:26, 2007 V3:78
LWT (leaving water temperature), 2004 V1:15 fire mains, 2007 V3:6
lx (lux), 2004 V1:33 force mains, 2007 V3:217, 220221, 226227
lye. See sodium hydroxide (lye or caustic soda) natural gas mains, 2007 V3:238
lysing, 2008 V4:215 pipe, 2004 V1:12
thermal expansion and contraction, 2008 V4:228
M maintenance
air compressors, 2007 V3:179
M alkalinity, 2005 V2:199
M (mega) prefix, 2004 V1:34 costs, 2004 V1:223
m (meters). See meters (measurements) fountains and pools, 2007 V3:99
m (milli) prefix, 2004 V1:34 grease interceptors, 2008 V4:165166
M piping. See Type M copper pumps, 2008 V4:100
m/s (meters per second), 2004 V1:33 section in specifications, 2004 V1:70, 90
m/s2 (meters per second squared), 2004 V1:33 stills, 2008 V4:212, 218
2
m (meters squared), 2004 V1:33 maintenance hot-water temperatures, 2005 V2:115
m2/s (meters squared per second), 2004 V1:33 major or prime costs, 2004 V1:222
m3 (cubic meters), 2004 V1:33 makeup
3
m /kg (cubic meters per kilogram), 2004 V1:33 defined, 2004 V1:137
m3/min (cubic meters per minute), 2007 V3:169 reducing use of, 2004 V1:264
3
m /s (cubic meters per second), 2004 V1:33 makeup water systems, 2004 V1:264, 267, 2008 V4:246
M (mega ohms), 2008 V4:212 malleable iron rings, 2008 V4:126
MA. See medical compressed air malleable iron valves, 2008 V4:79
Mach numbers (Mach, MACH), 2004 V1:15 malleable (mall), defined, 2004 V1:26
MacHatton, J.G., 2005 V2:161 malls, 2005 V2:2829, 2008 V4:19
machine trenching, labor productivity rates, 2004 V1:95 Management of Small Waste Flows, 2005 V2:36
97 Manas, Vincent T., 2005 V2:47, 64, 104
magnesia, 2008 V4:193 manganese, 2005 V2:168, 208, 2008 V4:186, 187, 193
magnesite, 2008 V4:193 manholes
magnesium acid, 2007 V3:223
corrosion, 2004 V1:139 acid-waste systems, 2005 V2:243, 244
defined, 2008 V4:223 bioremediation pretreatment systems, 2008 V4:252
dry-power extinguishing systems, 2007 V3:23 chemical-waste systems, 2005 V2:253
in electromotive force series, 2004 V1:144 cleanouts, 2007 V3:221, 226
in galvanic series, 2004 V1:141 drop manholes, 2007 V3:220, 224
in hardness, 2008 V4:198 grease interceptors, 2008 V4:161
laboratory grade water, 2008 V4:218 precast manholes, 2007 V3:220, 222

Index 337
sampling manholes, 2007 V3:45 SP-85:Cast Iron Globe and Angle Valves, 2008 V4:73
sanitary sewer systems, 2007 V3:220, 222 SP-85:Cast Iron Valves, 2008 V4:85, 88, 89
shallow manholes, 2007 V3:220, 224 SP-110:Ball Valves, 2008 V4:73, 86, 87, 90
spacing, 2007 V3:220, 225 valve approvals, 2008 V4:73
steps and covers, 2007 V3:220 Manufacturing, 2008 V4:28
venting, 2007 V3:220, 225 manufacturing facilities, 2007 V3:81, 2008 V4:245
waterproof, 2007 V3:220, 225 manways in tanks, 2007 V3:136, 141, 147, 2008 V4:252
manifolds maps
compressed air, 2007 V3:62 frost lines, 2007 V3:210212
nitrogen systems, 2007 V3:6465 seismic risk maps, 2004 V1:155157
nitrous oxide systems, 2007 V3:6061, 62 soils, 2005 V2:148
oxygen, 2007 V3:57, 5960, 61 marble acrylic fixtures, 2008 V4:2
manmade environmental conditions, 2008 V4:120 marble as calcium carbonate, 2008 V4:193
Manning formula marble fixtures, 2008 V4:2
alternative sewage-disposal systems, 2005 V2:152 mark-ups, in plumbing cost estimation, 2004 V1:9394, 94
circular pipes, 2007 V3:218 markets
ditches, 2007 V3:234 in creativity checklist, 2004 V1:234
open-channel flow, 2004 V1:1, 2005 V2:6, 7 sanitation in, 2005 V2:15
sloping drains, 2005 V2:7, 2007 V3:216 markings, corrosion and, 2004 V1:146
storm-drainage pipes, 2007 V3:232 Marks, Lionel S., 2004 V1:1, 2, 3, 5, 40, 2008 V4:69
manual butterfly valves, 2007 V3:121 martensitic stainless steel, 2008 V4:59
manual chlorinators, 2008 V4:201 mass
manual-control irrigation valves, 2007 V3:95 conversion factors, 2004 V1:36
manual controls on ion exchangers, 2008 V4:197 mass law in acoustics, 2004 V1:193
manual flushometer valves, 2008 V4:8 mass per unit area measurements, 2004 V1:33
manual grease interceptors, 2008 V4:159 mass per unit length measurements, 2004 V1:33
Manual of Practice in measurements, 2004 V1:33
introduction, 2004 V1:61 non-SI units, 2004 V1:34
section shell outline, 2004 V1:8892 mass flow, 2005 V2:176
Uniformat, 2004 V1:64 mass flow rates (mfr, MFR)
Manual of Septic Tank Practice, 2005 V2:160 measurements, 2004 V1:33
Manual on the Design and Construction of Sanitary and symbols for, 2004 V1:15
Storm Sewers, 2005 V2:64 massive soil structure, 2005 V2:148
manual overfill prevention, 2007 V3:145 master alarms
manual overrides, 2007 V3:9596 defined, 2007 V3:76
manual pull stations, 2007 V3:23 medical gas systems, 2007 V3:50, 67, 75
manual release stations, 2007 V3:2728 master plumbers, 2004 V1:26
manual tank gauging, 2007 V3:138 MasterFormat
manual trap primers, 2005 V2:10 defined, 2004 V1:64
manufacturers specifications sections, 2004 V1:6871
in specifications, 2004 V1:70, 90 MasterFormat 2004, 2004 V1:6465, 7788
Manufacturers Standardization Society of the Valve and MasterFormat expansion task team (MFETT), 2004 V1:64
Fittings Industry, Inc. (MSS), 2004 V1:26, 55, 59 MasterFormat Level Four (1995), 2004 V1:76
ANSI standards and, 2008 V4:73 MasterFormat Level One (1995), 2004 V1:73
SP-25:Standard Marking System for Valves, Fittings, MasterFormat Level Three (1995), 2004 V1:76
Flanges and Unions, 2008 V4:73 MasterFormat Level Two (1995), 2004 V1:7375
SP-42:Class 150 Corrosion Resistant Cast Flanged Masterspec, 2004 V1:71
Valves, 2008 V4:73 mastic, 2008 V4:107
SP-67:Butterfly Valves, 2008 V4:73, 86, 87, 90 mat zones in grease interceptors, 2008 V4:155
SP-70:Cast Iron Gate Valves, Flanged and Threaded material costs
Ends, 2008 V4:73, 85, 87, 88, 90 defined, 2004 V1:222
SP-71:Cast Iron Swing Check Valves, Flanged and in plumbing cost estimation, 2004 V1:93
Threaded Ends, 2008 V4:73, 86, 88, 90 in take-off estimating method, 2004 V1:94
SP-72:Ball Valves with Flanged or Butt-Welding Ends in value engineering, 2004 V1:212
for General Service, 2008 V4:73 material safety data sheets, 2007 V3:83
SP-73:Brazing Joints for Copper and Copper Alloy materials. See specific materials or system fixtures
Pressure Fittings, 2008 V4:42 detail/product/material specification checklist, 2004
SP-78:Cast Iron Plug Valves, 2008 V4:73 V1:220
SP-80:Bronze Gate, Globe, Angle and Check Valves, fixtures, 2008 V4:12
2008 V4:73, 85, 86, 87, 88, 89 ongoing and one-time costs, 2004 V1:223
SP-81:Stainless Steel, Bonnetless, Flanged, Wafer, Knife piping, sprinkler systems (fire protection), 2007 V3:20
Gate Valves, 2008 V4:73 in plumbing cost estimation, 2004 V1:93

storm-drainage systems, 2007 V3:227228 mechanical rotary-type vacuum pumps, 2005 V2:180
value engineering questions, 2004 V1:213214 mechanical snubbers, 2008 V4:138
Materials & Resources design (LEED), 2004 V1:263 mechanical steam traps, 2007 V3:158159
materials expansion, 2008 V4:232233 mechanical sway bracing, 2008 V4:138
materials section in specifications, 2004 V1:70, 9091 mechanical tank gauging, 2007 V3:138
maximum (max., MAX), 2004 V1:15 mechanically-dispersed oil, 2005 V2:255
maximum allowable stress and strain, 2008 V4:228229 Meckler, Milton, 2004 V1:40
maximum contaminant levels (MCL), 2008 V4:186 media (biofilms), 2008 V4:250251
maximum design flow, 2005 V2:133 media rate, filter, 2007 V3:109
maximum discharge pressure, defined, 2007 V3:168 medical air systems. See also medical compressed air (MA)
maximum discharge rates, 2004 V1:5 color coding, 2007 V3:55
maximum flow rates for fixtures, 2008 V4:207 concentrations, 2007 V3:76
maximum outlet pressure in gas boosters, 2005 V2:134 defined, 2007 V3:77
maximum resistance values, 2005 V2:203 medical compressed air (MA)
mbars (millibars), 2005 V2:176 altitude and, 2007 V3:63
mc (millicuries), 2005 V2:247 compressors, 2007 V3:50, 77
McAlister, Roy, 2007 V3:194 storage, 2007 V3:6164
McClelland, Nina I., 2005 V2:161 surgical use, 2007 V3:56
Mcf, MCF (thousand cubic feet), 2004 V1:16 symbol, 2004 V1:8
MCL (maximum contaminant levels), 2008 V4:186 system description, 2007 V3:62
Mcm, MCM (thousand circular mils), 2004 V1:16 peak demand, 2007 V3:53
McSweeney, D.P., 2005 V2:196 pipe sizing, 2007 V3:6869
MDPE (medium density) 2406 pipe, 2008 V4:51 stations, 2007 V3:51, 5253
MEA (New York City Materials and Equipment testing, 2007 V3:7576
Acceptance Division), 2008 V4:90 medical cabinets, 2004 V1:113
mean effective temperatures (MET), 2004 V1:15 medical compressed air (MA)
mean temperature difference (MTD), 2004 V1:15 altitude and, 2007 V3:63
measurable nouns in function analysis, 2004 V1:224, 225 compressors, 2007 V3:50, 77
measurement units storage, 2007 V3:6164
compressed air, 2007 V3:169 surgical use, 2007 V3:56
converting, 2007 V3:30 symbol, 2004 V1:8
earthquake measurement, 2004 V1:160161 system description, 2007 V3:62
flow rates, 2005 V2:176178 medical gas systems
International System of Units, 2004 V1:3240 certification, 2007 V3:6976
microorganisms, 2005 V2:199 codes and standards, 2007 V3:76
non-SI units, 2004 V1:34 color coding, 2007 V3:51, 55
pressure, 2007 V3:169 design checklist, 2007 V3:5051
pure water, 2007 V3:47 dispensing equipment, 2007 V3:5457
radiation, 2005 V2:247 diversity factors, 2007 V3:70
types of conversions, 2004 V1:32 earthquake bracing for, 2004 V1:166
units and symbols, 2004 V1:33 gas flow rates, 2007 V3:51
usage of, 2005 V2:175177 gas storage, 2007 V3:5764
vacuum pressure, 2005 V2:176178 health care facilities, 2007 V3:5076
water impurities, 2005 V2:201 levels, 2007 V3:3435
measuring tank leakage, 2007 V3:138141 number of stations, 2007 V3:51
Measuring Water Purity by Specific Resistance, 2005 piping, 2007 V3:6873
V2:234 system control valves, 2007 V3:67
mechanical aerators, 2005 V2:208 typical storage layout, 2007 V3:58
mechanical areas valves for, 2008 V4:87
fountain equipment location, 2007 V3:99100 warning systems, 2007 V3:6768
sediment buckets, 2005 V2:11 waste anesthetic gas management, 2007 V3:6667
trap primers in drains, 2005 V2:12 medical-gas tube, 2007 V3:69, 74, 2008 V4:42
mechanical clarifiers, 2008 V4:201, 202 medical-grade water, 2008 V4:56
mechanical code agencies, 2004 V1:42 medical laboratories. See health care facilities; laboratories
mechanical couplings, 2008 V4:65, 67 medical schools. See health care facilities
mechanical efficiency, defined, 2007 V3:168 medical vacuum (MV), 2004 V1:9
mechanical emulsions, 2007 V3:87 medical waste systems. See infectious and biological waste
Mechanical Engineering Reference Manual, 2005 V2:144 systems
mechanical foam extinguishers, 2007 V3:25 Medicare taxes, in labor costs, 2004 V1:94
mechanical joints, 2004 V1:168, 266, 2007 V3:42, 213, medicine sinks, 2007 V3:38
2008 V4:60, 62 Medium and High-expansion Foam Systems (NFPA 11A),
mechanical rooms, earthquake protection, 2004 V1:166 2007 V3:25, 29

Index 339
medium-backflow hazard, 2007 V3:207 meters (measurements)

medium brackets, 2008 V4:138 converting units, 2007 V3:30
medium-demand classifications, 2005 V2:109, 110 meters, 2004 V1:33
medium-expansion foams, 2007 V3:25 meters of head, 2004 V1:2
medium-pressure condensate (MPC), 2004 V1:9 meters per second, 2004 V1:33
medium-pressure gas (MG), 2004 V1:8, 2005 V2:125130 meters per second squared, 2004 V1:33
medium-pressure steam (mps, MPS), 2004 V1:9, 15, 2008 meters squared, 2004 V1:33
V4:88 meters squared per second, 2004 V1:33
medium-temperature hot water (mthw, MTHW), 2004 meters (water)
V1:15 domestic cold water systems, 2005 V2:6869
medium vacuum, 2005 V2:175 flow pressure loss tables, 2005 V2:69
mega-ohm-cm, 2008 V4:195 irrigation, 2007 V3:96
mega-ohms (M), 2008 V4:212 meter readings, 2008 V4:208
"mega" prefix, 2004 V1:34 pressure and, 2005 V2:95
megaohm-cm, 2005 V2:203 pressure losses, 2007 V3:208
membrane filtration methane, 2005 V2:126, 2008 V4:193. See also fuel-gas
cross-flow filters, 2005 V2:211, 223 piping systems
graywater systems, 2005 V2:30 Method for Measuring the Minimum Oxygen
in health care facilities, 2007 V3:48 Concentration to Support Candle-like Combustion
membrane flux, 2005 V2:221 of Plastics (ASTM D2863), 2007 V3:78
membrane productivity, 2005 V2:231 Methods of Estimating Loads in Plumbing Systems, 2005
membrane selection in reverse osmosis, 2005 V2:223 V2:104
nanofiltration, 2008 V4:196 Methods of Testing for Rating Drinking Water Coolers with
overview, 2005 V2:221223 Self-Contained Mechanical Refrigeration Systems,
pure water systems, 2005 V2:231 2008 V4:243
reverse osmosis, 2005 V2:221223, 2008 V4:216217 methoxychlor, 2008 V4:186, 187
tangential-flow filters, 2005 V2:211 methoxyflurane, 2007 V3:66
total dissolved solids and, 2005 V2:204 methyl orange alkalinity, 2005 V2:199
types of membranes, 2008 V4:219 Metric Conversion Act, 2004 V1:32
membrane flux, 2005 V2:221 metric hangers, 2008 V4:138
membrane productivity, 2005 V2:231 metric tons, 2004 V1:34
Membrane Technologies in the Power Industry, 2005 metric units. See International System of Units
V2:234 Meyers, Vance A., 2005 V2:64
membranes in waterproofing, 2005 V2:16 Meyrick, C.E., 2005 V2:234
memory metal couplings, 2007 V3:69 MFETT (MasterFormat expansion task team), 2004 V1:64
mercantile facilities mfr, MFR (mass flow rates), 2004 V1:15, 33
numbers of fixtures for, 2008 V4:19 mg/L (milligrams per liter), 2005 V2:201
single-occupant toilet rooms, 2008 V4:18 MG (medium-pressure gas), 2004 V1:8
mercury (Hg, HG), 2004 V1:15, 2008 V4:186, 187 MH (manholes). See manholes
mercury vapor lamps, 2005 V2:224, 2008 V4:216 mho (specific conductivity), 2005 V2:203
Mermel, H., 2005 V2:256 micro prefix, 2004 V1:34
Meslar, H.W., 2005 V2:256 microbial growth and control. See also bacteria;
MET (mean effective temperatures), 2004 V1:15 microorganisms; viruses
metal flashing on roof drains, 2005 V2:51 cooling towers, 2005 V2:227
metallic hose, 2008 V4:151 drinking water, 2005 V2:228
metallic inert gas (MIG), 2008 V4:63 feed water, 2005 V2:231
metallic pipes. See also specific metals pure water systems, 2005 V2:232
bedding, 2007 V3:217218, 219 utility water, 2005 V2:225
pure-water systems, 2007 V3:49 water softeners, 2005 V2:220, 221
metals. See also specific metals water treatments, 2005 V2:223225
corrosion losses, 2004 V1:139 microbiological fouling of water, 2005 V2:205, 227
galvanic series table, 2004 V1:141 microbiological laboratories, 2005 V2:251. See also
metallic coatings, 2004 V1:147 laboratories
removing in effluent, 2008 V4:249 micromhos, 2005 V2:203
safe levels in drinking water, 2008 V4:186 microns
Metcalf, 2005 V2:161 converting to SI units, 2004 V1:39
meter set assemblies, 2005 V2:144 vacuum units, 2005 V2:176
metered faucet requirements, 2004 V1:264 microorganisms. See also bacteria; microbial growth and
meters (general devices) control; viruses
acid wastes, 2007 V3:45 biofilms, 2008 V4:250251
fuel dispensers, 2007 V3:143 bioremediation systems, 2008 V4:250251
natural gas, 2005 V2:127, 2007 V3:235, 236 chlorination systems, 2008 V4:199201

infectious waste drainage systems, 2005 V2:250251 modulating valves, pneumatically operated main drain,
laboratory grade water, 2008 V4:218 2007 V3:127
pure water systems, 2005 V2:232, 2007 V3:49 Moffat, R., 2005 V2:196
safe levels in drinking water, 2008 V4:186 molded elastomer mounting, 2008 V4:150
ultraviolet light and, 2008 V4:216 mole (mol), 2004 V1:33
water analysis of, 2005 V2:198199 molecular weights of elements, 2005 V2:199
water treatments, 2005 V2:223225, 228 molybdenum-alloyed chromium-nickel steels, 2008 V4:59
microscopes, electron, 2007 V3:40, 42, 47, 52 moments of inertia
microsiemens (S), 2008 V4:212 calculating, 2008 V4:228
Midwest Insulation Contractors Association, 2008 V4:116 conversion factors, 2004 V1:36
MIG (metallic inert gas), 2008 V4:63 measurements, 2004 V1:33
miles momentum measurements, 2004 V1:33
converting to SI units, 2004 V1:39 monel, 2004 V1:141, 144, 2008 V4:108
miles per hour (mph, MPH), 2004 V1:15 monitor-type intermediate gas regulators, 2007 V3:237
mill galvanization, 2008 V4:138 monitoring
Millepore filters, 2005 V2:204 aboveground tank systems, 2007 V3:145146
milli prefix, 2004 V1:34 ground water, 2007 V3:140
millibars (mbar) underground liquid fuel storage tanks, 2007 V3:138
converting to SI units, 2004 V1:39 141
vacuum units, 2005 V2:176 monobed demineralizers, 2008 V4:197
millicuries (mc), 2005 V2:247 monochlorobenzene, 2008 V4:186
milligrams per liter (mg/L), 2005 V2:201 monovalent ions
millimeters laboratory grade water, 2008 V4:218
converting to inches, 2007 V3:30 nanofiltration, 2008 V4:196, 220
converting to SI units, 2004 V1:39 Montana State University Center for Biofilm Engineering,
millirems (mrem), 2005 V2:247 2008 V4:253
Mills, Lawrence E., 2004 V1:214 Montgomery, R.H., 2007 V3:194
min (minutes), 2004 V1:34 monthly inventory tank tightness testing, 2007 V3:139
min., MIN (minimum), 2004 V1:15 Montreal Protocol, 2007 V3:26
mineral beds in water treatment, 2008 V4:187 Moody, L. F., 2005 V2:8486
mineral fiber blankets, 2008 V4:111 mop basins, 2008 V4:12
mineral salts, 2005 V2:204, 206, 2008 V4:197 mop sinks, 2005 V2:28, 2007 V3:36, 37
mineral solids, 2005 V2:205 morgues and mortuaries, 2005 V2:15
mineral wool, 2004 V1:193 Moritz, A.R., 2005 V2:122, 124
minerals motels. See hotels
removing from water, 2008 V4:195 motion
in water, 2008 V4:197 in creativity checklist, 2004 V1:234
minimum (min., MIN), 2004 V1:15 in earthquakes, 2004 V1:158159
minimum design flow, 2005 V2:133 motor compressors, 2008 V4:242
minor backflow hazards, 2007 V3:207 Motor Fuel Dispensing Facilities and Repair Garages Code
minutes, 2004 V1:34 (NFPA 30A), 2007 V3:134
Mironer, Alan, 2005 V2:104 motor lubrication oil, 2007 V3:133
mirrors, 2004 V1:113 motor-operated filter bag shakers, 2005 V2:188
misaligned wells, pumps for, 2005 V2:169 motor-operated valves, 2004 V1:9
miscellaneous gases, 2007 V3:77 motors
mist eliminators, 2005 V2:210 earthquake protection, 2004 V1:164
MIUS Technology Evaluation:Collection, Treatment and fan acoustic problems, 2004 V1:197
Disposal of Liquid Wastes, 2005 V2:161 motor journals, 2004 V1:196
mixed-bed deionization (single-step), 2005 V2:215, 216, pump motor controls, 2005 V2:73
218, 2007 V3:48 in pumps, 2004 V1:196
mixed-flow pumps, 2008 V4:9396 rotor acoustic modifications, 2004 V1:197
mixes in specifications, 2004 V1:91 mounting. See also installation
mixing faucets, 2007 V3:37 elastomer-cork mountings, 2008 V4:150
mixing flows of water fire extinguishers, 2007 V3:28, 29
conserving energy, 2004 V1:126 resilient mounts. See resilient mounts
mixed-water temperatures, 2005 V2:111 water closets, 2008 V4:4
mixing stations, 2007 V3:39 mounting natural frequency, 2008 V4:149
mobile home courts, 2008 V4:208 MPC (medium-pressure condensate), 2004 V1:9
moderate backflow hazard, 2007 V3:207 mph, MPH (miles per hour), 2004 V1:15
Modern Vacuum Practice, 2005 V2:196 MPS (medium-pressure steam supply), 2004 V1:9
modifications section in project manual, 2004 V1:63 mps, MPS (medium-pressure steam), 2004 V1:15
mrem (millerems), 2005 V2:247

Index 341
MSDS (material safety data sheets), 2007 V3:83 NACE (National Association of Corrosion Engineers),
MSS. See Manufacturers Standardization Society of the 2004 V1:150, 154
Valve and Fittings Industry, Inc. (MSS) NACE Standard RP-01, 2004 V1:150
MTD (mean temperature difference), 2004 V1:15 NaCI (ionized salts), 2007 V3:47
mthw, MTHW (medium-temperature hot water), 2004 nails, protecting against, 2005 V2:16
V1:15 Nalco Chemical Co., 2005 V2:234
MU (viscosity), 2004 V1:2, 16, 33, 2007 V3:133134 Nalco Water Handbook, 2005 V2:234
mudballing in filters, 2008 V4:203204 nano prefix, 2004 V1:34
muds in feed water, 2005 V2:205 nanofilter membranes, 2005 V2:201, 211, 221223, 223
mufflers on vacuum systems, 2007 V3:65 nanofiltration (NF), 2008 V4:196, 220
multi-cell vertical high-rate sand filters, 2007 V3:115116 naphtha, 2005 V2:12
multi-effect distillation, 2005 V2:210211, 214, 2008 National Association of Corrosion Engineers (NACE),
V4:212 2004 V1:150, 154
multi-graded sand filtration, 2005 V2:211 National Association of Home Builders Research
multimedia depth filters, 2008 V4:202 Foundation, 2005 V2:47
multimedia filtration, 2005 V2:211, 231 National Association of Plumbing-Heating-Cooling
multiple. See also entries beginning with double-, multi-, Contractors. See Plumbing-Heating-Cooling
or two- ContractorsNational Association (PHCC-NA)
multiple-compartment septic tanks, 2005 V2:154155 National Board of Boiler and Pressure Vessel Inspectors
multiple-degree-of-freedom systems, 2004 V1:160, 161 (NBBPVI), 2005 V2:116
multiple-family dwellings. See apartment buildings National Bureau of Standards
multiple-gang-service outlets, 2007 V3:55 electromotive force series, 2004 V1:153
multiple pressure-regulated valve installation, 2005 V2:78 publications, 2005 V2:19, 48, 104
multiple-pump systems, 2005 V2:7273 stack capacities study, 2005 V2:4
multiple supports, 2008 V4:138 National Coarse of U.S. Thread, 2004 V1:17
multiple-tray waterfall aerators, 2005 V2:208 National Committee for Clinical Laboratory Standards,
multiplication in SI units, 2004 V1:34 Inc. (NCCLS), 2005 V2:197, 229, 230
multipurpose dry chemicals, 2007 V3:23, 28 National Easter Seal Society, 2004 V1:111
multistage pressure breakdown systems for pump plants, National Electrical Code (NEC), 2005 V2:124
2004 V1:197198 National Energy Conservation Policy Act, 2004 V1:124
multistage pumps, 2008 V4:9899 National Fire Alarm Code (NFPA 72), 2007 V3:27, 30
multistory buildings. See large buildings National Fire Protection Association, Inc.
multivalent ions, 2008 V4:218 address, 2004 V1:59
municipal sewers. See public sewers air compressors in dry-pipe systems, 2007 V3:9
municipal water supply defined, 2004 V1:26
cross connections and, 2008 V4:170 design density requirements, 2007 V3:12
fire-protection connections, 2007 V3:209 designing systems and, 2007 V3:1
irrigation usage, 2007 V3:96 firefighting water tanks, 2005 V2:170
model ordinances, 2008 V4:179183 gas approvals, 2005 V2:126
responsibilities, 2008 V4:181182 hot-water system standards, 2005 V2:124
sprinkler systems, 2007 V3:23 liquefied petroleum gas storage, 2005 V2:142
types of, 2007 V3:6 list of standards, 2004 V1:5556
water mains and pressure, 2007 V3:198 medical gas station guidelines, 2007 V3:51
muriatic acid, 2005 V2:217, 242, 2008 V4:193. See also publications, 2004 V1:40
hydrochloric acid NFPA Fire Protection Handbook, 2007 V3:29
museums, numbers of fixtures for, 2008 V4:18 NFPA Standard no. 10:Standard for Portable Fire
mussels, 2005 V2:199 Extinguishers, 2007 V3:28, 29
MV (medical vacuum), 2004 V1:9 NFPA Standard no. 11:Low-expansion Foam, 2007
V3:25, 29
N NFPA Standard no. 11A:Medium and High-
expansion Foam Systems, 2007 V3:25, 29
n (nano) prefix, 2004 V1:34
N (newtons), 2004 V1:33 NFPA Standard no. 12:Carbon Dioxide
N (nitrogen). See nitrogen Extinguishing Systems, 2007 V3:25, 29
N (numbers), 2004 V1:15 NFPA Standard no. 12A:Halon 1301 Fire
n c, N C (normally closed), 2004 V1:15 Extinguishing Systems, 2007 V3:26, 28, 29
n i c, N I C (not in contract), 2004 V1:15 NFPA Standard no. 13:Installation of Sprinkler
N m (newton-meters), 2004 V1:33 Systems, 2004 V1:191, 2007 V3:2, 11, 12,
n o, N O (normally open), 2004 V1:15 29, 217
N1.84 graph paper, 2007 V3:4 NFPA Standard no. 13D:Standard for the
N2O (nitrous oxide), 2004 V1:9 Installation of Sprinkler Systems in
na, N/A (not applicable), 2004 V1:15 One-and Two-Family Dwellings and
NACE Basic Corrosion Course, 2004 V1:154 Manufactured Homes, 2007 V3:18

NFPA Standard no. 13R:Standard for the NFPA Standard no. 750:Water Mist Fire Protection
Installation of Sprinkler Systems in Systems, 2007 V3:24, 30
Residential Occupancies up to and NFPA Standard no. 2001:Clean Agent
Including Four Stories in Height, 2007 Extinguishing Systems, 2007 V3:26, 28, 30
V3:18 sprinkler piping, 2004 V1:183184
NFPA Standard no. 14:Installation of Standpipe web site, 2007 V3:79, 89
and Hose Systems, 2007 V3:20, 29 National Fuel Gas Code (NFPA 54), 2005 V2:126127
NFPA Standard no. 15:Water Spray Fixed Systems natural gas system design, 2007 V3:35, 235
for Fire Protection, 2007 V3:24, 29 pipe materials, 2007 V3:239
NFPA Standard no. 16:Installation of Foam-water National Ground Water Association (NGWA), 2005 V2:172
Sprinkler and Foam-water Spray Systems, National Institutes of Health, 2005 V2:182, 251
2007 V3:25, 30 National Insulation Contractors Association (NICA), 2004
NFPA Standard no. 16A:Installation of Closed- V1:127
head Foam-water Sprinkler Systems, 2007 National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
V3:30 (NOAA), 2005 V2:5761, 2007 V3:228
NFPA Standard no. 17:Dry Chemical NOAA, National Weather Service 5-60 Minute
Extinguishing Systems, 2007 V3:23, 30 Precipitation Frequency for the Eastern and
NFPA Standard no. 17A:Standard for Wet Central United States, 2005 V2:64
Chemical Extinguishing Agents, 2007 National Plumbing Code, 2005 V2:47, 64, 104
V3:24 National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System
NFPA Standard no. 20:Installation of Stationary (NPDES), 2007 V3:81, 82
Fire Pumps for Fire Protection, 2007 V3:21, National Sanitation Foundation (NSF)
30, 2008 V4:32, 99 address, 2004 V1:59
NFPA Standard no. 24:Installation of Private Fire ANSI/NSF Standard no. 61, 2008 V4:23, 56
Service Mains and Their Appurtenances, hot-water system requirements, 2005 V2:124
2007 V3:6, 30, 210 list of standards, 2004 V1:56
NFPA Standard no. 30:Flammable and NSF Standard no. 14, 2008 V4:56
Combustible Liquids Code, 2007 V3:88, recycled wastewater quality, 2005 V2:26
133, 134, 144, 146, 151 website, 2008 V4:179
NFPA Standard no. 30A:Motor Fuel Dispensing National Sanitation Foundation Testing Laboratory
Facilities and Repair Garages, 2007 (NSFTL), 2004 V1:26
V3:134, 151 National Society of Professional Engineers (NSPE), 2004
NFPA Standard no. 50:Standard for Bulk Oxygen V1:62, 63
Systems at Consumer Sites, 2007 V3:57, 79 National Standard Plumbing Code, 2005 V2:47, 2008
NFPA Standard no. 54:National Fuel Gas Code, V4:164
2005 V2:126127, 2007 V3:35, 235, 239 National Standards Bureau, 2005 V2:1819
NFPA Standard no. 58:Liquefied Petroleum Gas National Swimming Pool Foundation (NSPF), 2007 V3:105
Code, 2005 V2:127, 2007 V3:35 National Technical Information Service (NTIS), 2007
NFPA Standard no. 72:National Fire Alarm Code, V3:89
2007 V3:27, 29 National Weather Service Hydro 35, 2007 V3:229
NFPA Standard no. 88A:Standard for Parking National Weather Service (NWS), 2005 V2:50
Structures, 2005 V2:127 natural drainage (corrosion), 2004 V1:153
NFPA Standard no. 99:Standard for Health-care natural frequency (fn), defined, 2008 V4:146
Facilities, 2007 V3:51, 63, 64, 69, 79 natural frequency of vibration control materials, 2004
NFPA Standard no. 99C:Gas and Vacuum Systems, V1:202, 2008 V4:146, 147148
2008 V4:32 natural gas. See fuel-gas piping systems; natural gas
NFPA Standard no. 255:Standard Method of systems
Test of Surface Burning Characteristics natural gas systems, 2007 V3:235241
of Building Materials, 2007 V3:69, 2008 altitude factors, 2005 V2:129
V4:106 appliance demand table, 2005 V2:128
NFPA Standard no. 291:Recommended Practice appliances, 2005 V2:128
for Fire Flow Testing and Marking of approvals, 2005 V2:126
Hydrants, 2007 V3:3, 30 codes and standards, 2005 V2:127, 2007 V3:35, 235
NFPA Standard no. 329:Recommended Practice compressed gas fires, 2007 V3:25
for Handling Releases of Flammable and compressed gases, defined, 2007 V3:165
Combustible Liquids and Gases, 2007 demand in multiple family dwellings, 2005 V2:135, 136
V3:134 design considerations, 2005 V2:130
NFPA Standard no. 385:Standard for Tank efficiency, 2005 V2:127
Vehicles for Flammable and Combustible equivalent lengths for valves and fittings, 2005 V2:135
Liquids, 2007 V3:134 gas expansion and contraction, 2008 V4:233234
NFPA Standard no. 484:Combustible Metals, Metal glossary, 2005 V2:142144
Powders, and Metal, 2007 V3:30 high-rise buildings and, 2005 V2:133

Index 343
laboratory usage, 2005 V2:128129 net positive suction head (NPSH), 2004 V1:199, 206, 2005
liquefied petroleum gas, 2005 V2:137, 142 V2:170, 2008 V4:98
low and medium pressure systems, 2005 V2:125130 neutralizing acid, 2008 V4:196
meters, 2005 V2:127, 2007 V3:236 neutralizing acid in waste water
operating pressures, 2005 V2:126127 discharge from laboratories, 2007 V3:4244
overview, 2007 V3:235 health care facility systems, 2007 V3:4244
physical properties of gas and propane, 2005 V2:125 laboratories, 2007 V3:4345
pipe sizing, 2005 V2:134137, 2007 V3:238241 methods of treatment, 2005 V2:244245
preliminary information, 2007 V3:197198 sizing tanks, 2007 V3:4446
pressure, 2005 V2:128 solids interceptors, 2007 V3:4445
sample gas utility letter, 2007 V3:236, 245 tank and pipe materials, 2007 V3:8485
specific gravity, 2005 V2:137, 141 types of acids, 2005 V2:239245
storage tanks, 2005 V2:142 neutralizing tanks, 2007 V3:4446
system components, 2007 V3:236238 neutrons, 2005 V2:246
drip pots, 2007 V3:238 New York City Materials and Equipment Acceptance
gas boosters, 2005 V2:130131, 130134 Division (MEA), 2008 V4:90
gas line filters, 2007 V3:236 New York City, ultra-low-flow toilets in, 2004 V1:134135
gas meters, 2007 V3:236 New York State Department of Environmental
gas pressure regulators, 2007 V3:237238 Conservation
natural gas pipes, 2008 V4:3031 Technology for the Storage of Hazardous Liquids, 2007
piping and fittings materials, 2005 V2:129130 V3:88
pressure control valves, 2005 V2:127 web site, 2007 V3:89
pressure regulating valves, 2005 V2:127 newer buildings, 2008 V4:145
regulator relief vents, 2005 V2:129 newton-meters, 2004 V1:33
testing and purging, 2007 V3:241 newtons, 2004 V1:33
types of services, 2007 V3:235 Newtons equation, 2008 V4:154
natural gas water heaters. See gas-fired water heaters NF. See nanofiltration
natural logarithms, 2004 V1:15 NF nomographs, 2005 V2:229
natural osmosis, 2005 V2:221 NFPA. See National Fire Protection Association, Inc.
natural period of vibration, 2004 V1:160 NFPP (nonflame pipe), 2008 V4:55
Natural Resources Canada, 2007 V3:194 NGWA (National Ground Water Association), 2005 V2:172
Natural Resources Defense Council, 2007 V3:82 ni-resist cast iron, 2004 V1:144
natural water, 2005 V2:197, 230, 2008 V4:223. See also ni-resist ions, 2004 V1:141
feed water Nibco Inc., 2005 V2:104
naturally-vented multiple tray aerators, 2005 V2:208 NICA (National Insulation Contractors Association), 2004
naval rolled brass, 2004 V1:144 V1:127
NBBPVI (National Board of Boiler and Pressure Vessel niche lights, swimming pools, 2007 V3:130
Inspectors), 2005 V2:116 nickel
NBR (acrylonitrile butadiene rubber), 2007 V3:147 corrosion, 2004 V1:139
NBS (National Bureau of Standards). See National Bureau electromotive force series, 2004 V1:144
of Standards galvanic series, 2004 V1:141
NC (noise criteria), 2004 V1:15, 206, 2008 V4:145 in stainless steel, 2008 V4:12
NC (number of circuits), 2004 V1:15 nickel-bronze grates, 2005 V2:13, 15
NCCLS (National Committee for Clinical Laboratory nightclubs, numbers of fixtures for, 2008 V4:18
Standards, Inc.), 2005 V2:197, 229, 230 Nine Dots exercise, 2004 V1:232, 261
NEC (National Electrical Code), 2005 V2:124 nippled-up sprinklers, 2004 V1:13
negative gauge pressure, 2005 V2:176 nitrates, 2005 V2:199, 200
negative pressure. See vacuum defined, 2008 V4:223224
negativity in value engineering presentations, 2004 V1:258 levels in drinking water, 2008 V4:186
negligent acts, 2008 V4:178 treating in water, 2008 V4:187
negligible movement, 2008 V4:138 water hardness and, 2008 V4:196
NEMA 4 listing, 2005 V2:131 nitric acid, 2004 V1:146, 2005 V2:242
NEMA 4X listing, 2005 V2:116 nitrifying bacteria, 2005 V2:199
NEMA 12 listing, 2005 V2:131 nitrile butadiene (Buna-N), 2007 V3:147, 2008 V4:83, 86
NEMA Class 1, Division 1, Group D listing, 2005 V2:130 nitrile rubber. See nitrile butadiene
neoprene compression gaskets, 2008 V4:25 nitrogen (N)
neoprene floor and hanger mounts, 2004 V1:203, 204, 205 color coding outlets, 2007 V3:55
neoprene gaskets, 2007 V3:46, 2008 V4:60, 61 control cabinets, 2007 V3:56
neoprene vibration control, 2008 V4:146, 149 cylinder supplies, 2007 V3:58
nephelometric test, 2005 V2:203 defined, 2007 V3:77
nephelometric turbidity units (NTUs), 2005 V2:203 dry nitrogen, 2007 V3:241
formula, 2008 V4:193

gas blankets in water tanks, 2005 V2:233 non-electrolytes, 2005 V2:197

high-pressure dispensing equipment, 2007 V3:57 non-ferrous metals, 2008 V4:63
laboratory outlets, 2007 V3:4142 non-flammable medical gas, 2007 V3:50
medical gas pipe sizing, 2007 V3:69, 70, 71 Non-flammable Medical Gas Piping Systems (CSA
medical gas stations, 2007 V3:5253 Z305.1), 2007 V3:78
medical gas storage, 2007 V3:64 non-flammable pipe, 2008 V4:55, 59
oil-free, 2008 V4:42 non-impact applications, 2008 V4:149
purging vacuum pumps, 2005 V2:182 non-integral attachment, 2008 V4:138
in raw water, 2005 V2:200 non-looped piping systems, 2007 V3:12
surgical use, 2007 V3:56 non-lubricated plug valves, 2008 V4:89
symbol, 2004 V1:9 non-measurable nouns in function analysis, 2004 V1:224
testing concentrations, 2007 V3:76 non-metallic coatings, 2004 V1:147
in water chemistry, 2005 V2:199 non-metals in drinking water, 2008 V4:186
nitrogen NF, 2007 V3:62, 77 non-oxidizing chemicals in microbial control, 2005 V2:223
nitrous fumes, 2005 V2:242 non-oxidizing piping, 2005 V2:249
nitrous oxide (N2O) non-pathogenic organisms, 2008 V4:199
color coding outlets, 2007 V3:55 non-porous piping, 2005 V2:249
cylinder supplies, 2007 V3:58 non-porous soils, 2007 V3:96
defined, 2007 V3:77 non-potable cold water (NPCW), 2004 V1:9
medical gas pipe sizing, 2007 V3:69, 71 non-potable hot water (NPHW), 2004 V1:9
medical gas storage, 2007 V3:6061 non-potable hot water return (NPHWR), 2004 V1:9
surgical use, 2007 V3:56 non-potable water systems. See graywater systems
symbol, 2004 V1:9 non-pumping wells, 2005 V2:165166
testing concentrations, 2007 V3:76 non-puncturing membrane flashing, 2005 V2:16
waste anesthetic gas management, 2007 V3:66 non-reactive silica, 2005 V2:200
nL/min (normal liters per minute), 2007 V3:169 non-reinforced concrete pipe, 2008 V4:28
nm3/min (normal cubic meters per minute), 2007 V3:169 non-residential owners, responsibilities, 2008 V4:182
no-flow pressure in pressure-regulated valves, 2005 V2:67 non-rigid couplings, 2004 V1:186
no-hub joints, earthquake protection and, 2004 V1:168 non-rising stems on valves (NRS), 2008 V4:79
no-hub outlets, 2005 V2:14 non-SI units, 2004 V1:34
no., NO (numbers), 2004 V1:15 non-sprinklered spaces, 2004 V1:12
no observed adverse effect level, 2007 V3:26 Non-structural Damage to Buildings, 2004 V1:191
NOAA (National Oceanic and Atmospheric non-tilting grates, 2005 V2:11
Administration), 2005 V2:5761 non-vitreous china fixtures
NOAA, National Weather Service 5-60 Minute defined, 2008 V4:1
Precipitation Frequency for the Eastern and standards, 2008 V4:2
Central United States, 2005 V2:64 non-volatile substances, 2008 V4:211
rainfall records, 2007 V3:228 normal air, defined, 2007 V3:168
NOAEL (no observed adverse effect level), 2007 V3:26 normal, compared to standard, 2007 V3:169
3
Noble, Duncan, 2007 V3:194 normal cubic meters per minute (nm /min), 2007 V3:169
noble potential, defined, 2004 V1:153 normal liters per minute (nL/min), 2007 V3:169
noise. See acoustics in plumbing systems normally closed (n c, N C), 2004 V1:15
noise criteria (NC), 2004 V1:15, 206, 2008 V4:145. See also normally open (n o, N O), 2004 V1:15
preferred noise criteria (PNC) curves not applicable (na, N/A), 2004 V1:15
nominal diameter (DN), 2005 V2:175 not in contract (n i c, N I C), 2004 V1:15
nominal pipe size (NPS), 2005 V2:175, 2008 V4:52 not to scale (NTS), 2004 V1:15
nominal size, defined, 2008 V4:138 nouns in function analysis, 2004 V1:224, 225, 231
nominal values, 2004 V1:32 nourishment stations in health care facilities, 2007 V3:36
nominal volume of piping, 2008 V4:233 nozzles
nomographs, 2005 V2:34 defined, 2004 V1:29
non-agreement states, 2005 V2:248 dry-chemical systems, 2007 V3:23
non-ambulatory disabilities, 2004 V1:107 fountains, 2007 V3:101
non-aqueous liquid wastes, 2007 V3:81 fuel dispensers, 2007 V3:143
non-carbonic salts, 2008 V4:196 irrigation sprinklers, 2007 V3:94
non-circular grab bars, 2004 V1:121 pressure, 2007 V3:21, 202
non-circulating water systems, 2004 V1:127 pressure flow tables, 2007 V3:3, 5
non-clog pumps, 2008 V4:99 sprinklers, 2007 V3:6
non-continuous joints, 2004 V1:150 standpipe systems, 2007 V3:21
non-depletable energy sources, 2004 V1:137 NPCW (non-potable cold water), 2004 V1:9
Nondiscrimination on the Basis of Disability by Public NPDES (National Pollutant Discharge Elimination
Accommodations and in Commercial Facilities, System), 2007 V3:81, 82
2004 V1:106 NPHW (non-potable hot water), 2004 V1:9

Index 345
NPHWR (non-potable hot water return), 2004 V1:9 odor control in drinking water, 2005 V2:168, 227
NPS (nominal pipe size), 2005 V2:175 OFCI (owner furnished, contractor installed), 2004 V1:71
NPSH (net positive suction head), 2004 V1:199, 206, 2005 off-peak power usage, 2004 V1:128129
V2:73, 170, 2008 V4:98 office buildings
NRC (Nuclear Regulatory Commission), 2005 V2:247, 248 drinking fountain usage, 2008 V4:244245, 245
NSF. See National Sanitation Foundation (NSF) hot water demand, 2005 V2:109
NSPE (National Society of Professional Engineers), 2004 numbers of fixtures for, 2008 V4:18, 20
V1:62, 63 Office of Statewide Health Planning and Development
NT (number of tubes), 2004 V1:15 (OSHPD), 2004 V1:191
NTIS (National Technical Information Service), 2007 offset connection strainers, 2007 V3:120
V3:89 offset stack thermal expansion or contraction, 2008 V4:229
NTS (not to scale), 2004 V1:15 offset stacks, 2005 V2:5
NTUs (nephelometric turbidity units), 2005 V2:203 offsets, 2004 V1:26
nuclear power plants defined, 2008 V4:138
regulatory requirements, 2005 V2:245 expansion offsets, 2008 V4:228229
seismic protection, 2004 V1:156 use of, 2008 V4:69
Nuclear Regulatory Commission, 2005 V2:247, 248 offshore facilities, 2004 V1:150
numbers (no., NO, N) ohm-centimeter units (-cm), 2007 V3:47, 2008 V4:195
of circuits (NC), 2004 V1:15 ohm-meters, 2004 V1:33
in CSI format, 2004 V1:65 Ohm's Law, 2004 V1:144
in measurements, 2004 V1:32 OHMS (resistance or resistors), 2004 V1:15, 33, 2008
of swimmers, 2007 V3:105106 V4:224
symbol, 2004 V1:15 oil. See also fats, oils, and grease (FOG)
of tubes (NT), 2004 V1:15 as seal liquid in liquid ring pumps, 2005 V2:181
numerical weights in value engineering, 2004 V1:243 contamination in compressed air, 2007 V3:170
nurse stations, 2007 V3:36 intercepting in acid-waste systems, 2005 V2:245
nurseries intercepting in sanitary drainage systems, 2005 V2:12
fixtures for, 2007 V3:38 neoprene and, 2008 V4:149
health care facilities, 2007 V3:36 oil-water separation, 2007 V3:87
medical gas stations, 2007 V3:52, 56 separating with ultrafiltration, 2008 V4:220
sinks, 2007 V3:40 skimming, 2007 V3:87
nursing homes. See also health care facilities spills and containment, 2005 V2:254256
defined, 2007 V3:3334 storm-drainage systems and, 2005 V2:49
Nussbaum, O.J., 2005 V2:234 vegetable oil, 2005 V2:10
nuts. See insert nuts Oil- and Gas-Fired Single-Burner Boilers, 2005 V2:129
NWS (National Weather Service), 2005 V2:50 oil-free compressors, 2007 V3:64, 170
oil interceptors, 2005 V2:12, 254
O oil-mist filters in vacuums, 2005 V2:181
oil of vitriol. See sulfuric acid
O-rings, 2008 V4:41
o-ring gaskets, 2004 V1:266 oil-removal filters, 2007 V3:171172
O2. See oxygen (O2, OX) oil systems. See diesel-oil systems; gasoline systems
oa, OA (outside air), 2004 V1:15 oil-wet solids, 2005 V2:255
oakum seals, 2008 V4:24, 25, 61 oilless compressors, 2007 V3:64
objectives in FAST approach, 2004 V1:230 oilless pumps, 2005 V2:180
obstructions to wheelchairs, 2004 V1:111, 112 OKeefe, W., 2008 V4:116
occupancy classification (sprinkler systems), 2004 V1:29, older buildings, 2008 V4:145
2007 V3:2, 13 oleums, 2005 V2:240, 241
occupancy of pools, 2007 V3:105106 on-site facility treatment systems. See special-waste
occupants drainage systems
in hot water demand classifications, 2005 V2:109 On Site Wastewater Facilities for Small Communities and
loads of buildings, 2008 V4:1718 Subdivisions, 2005 V2:161
Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA), on-site water reclamation. See graywater systems
2005 V2:242, 2007 V3:133, 136 once-thru-oil pumps, 2005 V2:181
occupied domestic spaces, acoustic plumbing design for, one-compartment sinks, 2008 V4:11
2004 V1:196 one-family dwellings, numbers of fixtures for, 2008 V4:19,
ocean water, irrigation systems and, 2005 V2:30 20
octave-band sound levels, 2004 V1:194 one-occupant toilet rooms, 2008 V4:1718
octaves, 2004 V1:206 one-pass cooling for equipment, 2004 V1:264
OD (outside diameters), 2004 V1:14 one-piece water closets, 2008 V4:3
odor one-stage distillation, 2005 V2:210
levels in drinking water, 2008 V4:186 one-time costs, 2004 V1:223
treating in water, 2008 V4:187 one-wall tanks, 2007 V3:135

ongoing costs, 2004 V1:223 outdoor gas booster installation, 2005 V2:133
open-channel flow, 2004 V1:1, 2005 V2:6 outdoor swimming pools, 2007 V3:107108. See also
open-circuit potential, defined, 2004 V1:153 swimming pools
open proprietary specifications, 2004 V1:67, 68 outfall sewers, 2004 V1:26
open solar systems, 2007 V3:185 outlet pressures
open-spring floor and hanger mounts, 2004 V1:203, 204 outlet pressure regulators, 2007 V3:10
open sprinklers, 2004 V1:29 standpipe systems, 2007 V3:21
open-type base pumps, 2005 V2:166 outlet valves, 2008 V4:223
open-web steel joists in pipe bracing, 2004 V1:176 outlets. See also inlets; stations
openings for tool access. See access; cleanouts flow rates at outlets, 2004 V1:3, 5
operating costs, 2004 V1:223 gas or vacuum. See stations
operating efficiency of water softeners, 2008 V4:209 pressure in cold-water systems, 2005 V2:78
operating loads on pipes, 2008 V4:138 septic tanks, 2005 V2:154
operating rooms symbols for, 2004 V1:11
articulated ceiling medical gas systems, 2007 V3:57 velocity of flow from outlets, 2004 V1:6
fixtures, 2007 V3:3839 outpatient-services rooms, 2007 V3:36, 46
medical gas stations, 2007 V3:52, 56 outside air (oa, OA), 2004 V1:15
medical vacuum, 2007 V3:54 outside diameters (OD), 2004 V1:14
water demand, 2007 V3:46 outside film coefficients, 2004 V1:14
operational pressure tests, 2007 V3:7576 outside screw and yoke (OS&Y), 2008 V4:74, 85
operators of vacuum systems, 2005 V2:190 outside the box thinking, 2004 V1:232
oral surgery equipment, 2007 V3:42, 52 outstanding value, defined, 2004 V1:213
orbital welding process, 2005 V2:249 overall system thermal efficiency, 2004 V1:136
orders in creativity checklist, 2004 V1:234 overengineering, perception of, 2004 V1:260
ordinary hazard occupancies overestimating needs, 2004 V1:224
defined, 2004 V1:29 overfill prevention, 2007 V3:84, 145
firefighting hose streams, 2007 V3:217 overflow
portable fire extinguishers, 2007 V3:28, 29 for bathtubs, 2008 V4:15
ordinary lobe pumps, 2005 V2:180 for lavatories, 2008 V4:10
organic chemicals rates for grease interceptors, 2008 V4:158
laboratory grade water, 2008 V4:218 storm drains. See secondary storm-drainage systems
removal in effluent, 2008 V4:249 overflow fittings, fountains, 2007 V3:102103
safe levels in drinking water, 2008 V4:186 overhead
organic free water, 2005 V2:229 costs in value engineering, 2004 V1:212, 222
organic material vibration control, 2008 V4:146 in plumbing cost estimation, 2004 V1:93
organic materials in water, 2007 V3:47, 2008 V4:199 overheating vacuum exhausters, 2005 V2:189
organic polyelectrolytes, 2005 V2:209 overland flow rates for sites, 2007 V3:228229, 231
organic removal filters, 2008 V4:214 overlap in toilet accessibility, 2004 V1:114
organisms in water, 2005 V2:198199, 2008 V4:220. See overspray areas in irrigation, 2007 V3:96
also microorganisms overtime labor costs, in take-off estimating method, 2004
orifices V1:94
on hydrants, 2007 V3:5 overturning, preventing, 2004 V1:163, 189
on nozzles, 2007 V3:5 overvoltage, defined, 2004 V1:153
ornamental sprinklers, 2004 V1:29 owner furnished, contractor installed (OFCI), 2004 V1:71
orthotolidin tests, 2005 V2:103 owners
oscillation in pumps, 2004 V1:201 defined, 2008 V4:181
OSHA (Occupational Safety and Health Administration), perception of engineering, 2004 V1:260
2005 V2:242, 2007 V3:133, 136 responsibilities, 2008 V4:182
OSHPD (Office of Statewide Health Planning and value engineering and, 2004 V1:212
Development), 2004 V1:191, 2008 V4:138 OX (oxygen). See oxygen (O2, OX)
osmosis, defined, 2005 V2:221 oxidation
osmotic pressure, 2005 V2:221, 2008 V4:217 joints resistant to, 2008 V4:61
OS&Y (outside screw and yoke), 2008 V4:74, 85 ozone molecules and, 2008 V4:215216
Otis, Richard J., 2005 V2:161 oxidation, defined, 2004 V1:153
OTO pumps, 2005 V2:180, 181 oxidation reduction potential (ORP), 2007 V3:125
Otten, Gerald, 2005 V2:234 oxidized sewage, 2004 V1:27
Otto plate units, 2005 V2:224 oxidizing chemicals in microbial control, 2005 V2:223
ounces (oz, OZ) oxidizing gases, 2007 V3:77
converting to SI units, 2004 V1:40 OXY/ACR pipes, 2008 V4:31
symbols for, 2004 V1:15 OXY/MED pipes, 2008 V4:31
out-of-sequence work conditions, cost estimates for oxyacetylene welding, 2008 V4:6263
projects and, 2004 V1:98 oxygen concentration cells, 2004 V1:153

Index 347
oxygen-delivery equipment, 2007 V3:78 in vacuum deaerators, 2005 V2:209

oxygen-enriched atmospheres, 2007 V3:78 packing nuts, 2008 V4:74
Oxygen-fuel Gas Systems for Weldings and Cuttings, 2005 pad elastomer isolation, 2008 V4:149
V2:144 padding
oxygen index, 2007 V3:78 for glass pipe, 2008 V4:48
oxygen (O2, OX) for vibration control, 2004 V1:203, 204
bulk oxygen systems, 2007 V3:5759, 60 paddle wheel type flow sensors, 2007 V3:121
color coding outlets, 2007 V3:55 pain, thresholds of, 2005 V2:122
corrosion process, 2004 V1:145, 2005 V2:200 paints in septic tanks, 2005 V2:156
cylinder-manifold supply systems, 2007 V3:5960, 61 Pair, Claude H., 2007 V3:96
defined, 2007 V3:7778 panels, lining with lead, 2005 V2:248
formula, 2008 V4:193 paper diatomaceous earth filters, 2008 V4:204
high contents in water, 2008 V4:196 paper towel clogs, 2005 V2:11
medical gas pipe sizing, 2007 V3:69, 70, 71 paraffin, 2005 V2:12
medical gas stations, 2007 V3:51, 5253 paragraph numbering in CSI format, 2004 V1:65
medical gas storage, 2007 V3:5760 parallel approaches for wheelchairs, 2004 V1:109, 110
medical gas systems, 2007 V3:50 parallel installation of pressure-regulated valves, 2005
medical reserve supply, 2007 V3:58 V2:78, 2008 V4:82
oxygen USP, 2007 V3:62, 7778 parallel pump systems, 2008 V4:99
oxygenated water, 2005 V2:168 parallel-shaft gears, 2004 V1:196
reducing with carbon dioxide, 2007 V3:25 parapet wall scuppers, 2005 V2:51, 55
removing, 2005 V2:209, 2008 V4:197 Parekh, B.S., 2005 V2:234
saturation with, 2005 V2:208 Pareto principle, 2004 V1:224, 258
surgical use, 2007 V3:56 Pareto, Vilfredo, 2004 V1:224
symbols for, 2004 V1:8 Parmalee heads, 2007 V3:1
testing concentrations, 2007 V3:76 part-circle rotary sprinklers, 2007 V3:94
in water, 2005 V2:199 partial pressures law, 2005 V2:81
oxygen scavengers, 2005 V2:226 partially-sprinklered spaces, 2004 V1:12
oxygen toxicity, 2007 V3:78 participation in value engineering presentations, 2004
oz, OZ (ounces), 2004 V1:15, 40 V1:258
ozonation particle settling rates, 2008 V4:200
cooling tower water, 2005 V2:227 particulate radiation, 2005 V2:247
Legionella and, 2005 V2:122 particulate silica, 2005 V2:200
pure water systems, 2005 V2:232 particulates
small drinking water systems, 2005 V2:228 contamination in compressed air, 2007 V3:170
swimming pools, 2007 V3:129 treating, 2008 V4:187
water treatments, 2005 V2:168, 224225, 2008 V4:215 in water, 2005 V2:198, 203204
216 Partnership for Safe Water, 2008 V4:224
ozone parts per million (ppm, PPM), 2004 V1:15, 2005 V2:201,
generators, 2005 V2:224 2007 V3:47
layer, 2007 V3:26 converting to grains per gallon, 2008 V4:222
water treatments, 2008 V4:215216 defined, 2008 V4:224
Ozone, 2008 V4:224 water purity, 2008 V4:195
Ozone Technology, Inc., 2008 V4:224 pascal-seconds, 2004 V1:33
pascals, 2004 V1:33
P passenger terminals, numbers of fixtures for, 2008 V4:18
passivation, 2004 V1:146147
P alkalinity, 2005 V2:199
P (peta) prefix, 2004 V1:34 passive control, cross-connections, 2008 V4:172173
p (pico) prefix, 2004 V1:34 passive, defined, 2004 V1:153
P (pressure). See pressure passive solar systems, 2007 V3:185
p-traps passive solar systems, defined, 2007 V3:185
floor drains with, 2004 V1:11 passive verbs in function analysis, 2004 V1:224
laboratory sinks, 2007 V3:4546 pasteurizing biosolids, 2008 V4:263
Pa (pascals), 2004 V1:33 pathogenic organisms, 2008 V4:199
PA (pipe anchors), 2004 V1:10 pathogens, 2005 V2:147, 198
Pa s (pascal-seconds), 2004 V1:33 paths
packed-bed, activated-carbon filters, 2005 V2:211, 215 of acoustic problems, 2004 V1:199
packed tower aeration, 2005 V2:228 of discharge, 2007 V3:3
packing, defined, 2008 V4:74 patient rooms
packing glands, 2008 V4:74 bathing areas, 2007 V3:36
packing material fixtures for, 2007 V3:37
sound damping, 2004 V1:196 health care facilities, 2007 V3:36

medical gas stations, 2007 V3:53, 56 swimming pools and, 2007 V3:106, 130
medical vacuum, 2007 V3:54 urinal design, 2004 V1:116
patient head wall stations, 2007 V3:56 water closets and toilets, 2004 V1:113116, 2008 V4:5
patient vacuum (VAC), 2007 V3:78 water coolers for, 2008 V4:239240
paved areas per-area costs, 2004 V1:9798
imperviousness factors, 2007 V3:229 per-fixture estimations, cost estimations, 2004 V1:97
storm drainage, 2005 V2:49 percent transmissibility (T), defined, 2008 V4:145
PB (polybutylene). See polybutylene (PB) percentages (%, PCT), 2004 V1:15
PCBs (polychlorinated biphenyls) perception
levels in drinking water, 2008 V4:186 in creativity, 2004 V1:231
safe levels in drinking water, 2008 V4:186 of engineers, 2004 V1:260
treating in water, 2008 V4:187 perchloric acid, 2005 V2:242
PCT (percentages), 2004 V1:15 percolation
PCUs (platinum cobalt units), 2005 V2:204 defined, 2004 V1:27
PD (pressure drops or differences). See pressure drops or rates for soils, 2005 V2:147150
differences perfect vacuums, 2005 V2:175, 2007 V3:169
PD (pump discharge lines), 2004 V1:8 perfluorocarbons (PFCs), 2007 V3:26
PDI (Plumbing and Drainage Institute). See Plumbing and perfluorohexane, 2007 V3:26
Drainage Institute (PDI) perforated strap irons, 2008 V4:67
PE-AL-PE (polyethylene/aluminum/polyethylene), 2008 performance bonds, 2004 V1:62
V4:22 performance criteria in specifications, 2004 V1:69, 88
PE (polyethylene). See polyethylene (PE) performance factor efficiency, solar, 2007 V3:184
PE (potential energy), 2004 V1:2, 5 Performance of Reduced-size Venting in Residential Drain,
pea gravel backfill, 2007 V3:150 Waste and Vent System, 2005 V2:47
Peabody, A.W., 2004 V1:154 performance specifications, 2004 V1:66
peak consumption in gas boosters, 2005 V2:133 performance tests. See testing
peak demand perimeter diking, 2007 V3:84
flushometer valves and, 2008 V4:8 peristaltic pumps, 2007 V3:125126
medical air, 2007 V3:53, 63 perlite, 2007 V3:116
medical gas, 2007 V3:50 perlite insulation, 2008 V4:111
medical vacuum, 2007 V3:55 permanent hardness, 2008 V4:196
swimming pools, 2007 V3:105106 permanganate of potash, 2008 V4:193
urinals, 2008 V4:10 permeability
vacuum systems, 2007 V3:66 coefficient of (K factor), 2005 V2:166
water softeners, 2008 V4:206 converting to SI units, 2004 V1:40
peak horsepower, defined, 2007 V3:167 permeable strata in soils, 2005 V2:149
penal institutions. See prisons permeance, converting to SI units, 2004 V1:40
pendent sprinklers, 2004 V1:13, 29 permits
penetration of irrigation water, 2007 V3:91, 96 cross connection permits, 2008 V4:182183
penetrations of walls and floors, 2007 V3:29 defined, 2008 V4:181
pentachlorophenol, 2008 V4:186 industrial wastewater, 2007 V3:81
people with disabilities RCRA hazardous waste, 2007 V3:83
ambulatory-accessible toilet compartments, 2004 Perrys Chemical Engineers Handbook, 2007 V3:89
V1:114 personnel protection, insulation and, 2008 V4:105, 113,
ANSI 117.1-1998, 2004 V1:109123 114
bathing rooms, 2004 V1:112113 persons
bathtub and shower seats, 2004 V1:122123 defined, 2008 V4:181
bathtub design, 2004 V1:117119 persons with disabilities. See people with disabilities
design for, 2004 V1:107 pesticides
drinking fountains and water coolers, 2004 V1:109112 safe levels in drinking water, 2008 V4:186
exposed piping and accessibility, 2004 V1:117 treating in water, 2008 V4:187
fixture design standards and, 2008 V4:2 pesticides in septic tanks, 2005 V2:156
grab bars, 2004 V1:114122 peta prefix, 2004 V1:34
history of design and construction standards, 2004 petroleum-based fuel systems. See diesel-oil systems;
V1:105106 gasoline systems
introduction to plumbing for, 2004 V1:105 petroleum products, 2007 V3:133134
laundry equipment, 2004 V1:123 PEX-AL-PEX (cross-linked polyethylene/aluminum/cross-
lavatories and sinks, 2004 V1:117 linked polyethylene), 2008 V4:52
legislation, 2004 V1:106107 PEX (cross-linked polyethylene), 2008 V4:52
references, 2004 V1:122 PFCs (perfluorocarbons), 2007 V3:26
shower compartments, 2004 V1:119122 PG (pressure gauges with gauge cocks), 2004 V1:10
swimming pool bathhouses, 2007 V3:108 pH

Index 349
acid wastes, 2005 V2:244245 pipe anchors (PA), 2004 V1:10

adjustments to waste, 2005 V2:238, 2008 V4:249 pipe-applied vacuum breakers, 2008 V4:185
alkalinity and, 2005 V2:199 pipe attachments, 2008 V4:138
boiler feed water, 2005 V2:226 pipe braces. See bracing
in corrosion rates, 2004 V1:145 pipe channels, 2008 V4:139
defined, 2004 V1:153 pipe clamps, 2008 V4:121, 139
discharge from laboratories, 2007 V3:4244 pipe clips, 2008 V4:122, 139
feed water for pure water systems, 2005 V2:231 pipe-covering protection saddle, 2008 V4:139
industrial wastewater systems, 2007 V3:8485 pipe cutters, 2008 V4:62
levels in drinking water, 2008 V4:186 pipe dope, 2005 V2:201, 2008 V4:62
limits for sanitary drainage systems, 2007 V3:46 pipe elevations. See after cold pull elevation; design
measuring, 2005 V2:202203 elevations
pH values, defined, 2008 V4:224 pipe friction pressure drop, 2005 V2:67
predicting water deposits, 2005 V2:206208 pipe glue, 2005 V2:201
saturation, 2005 V2:207 pipe guides, 2004 V1:10
swimming pools, 2007 V3:123127 pipe hanger loads. See pipe loads; support and hanger
values in waste, 2005 V2:239 loads
pH Control of Chemical Waste, 2005 V2:256 pipe hanger locations. See cold hanger location; hot hanger
ph, PH (phases, electrical), 2004 V1:15 locations
pharmaceutical facilities, 2007 V3:81, 2008 V4:212 pipe hangers. See supports and hangers
pharmaceutical pure water, 2005 V2:228234, 2007 V3:48, pipe insulation
2008 V4:56 cleaning and sterilization, 2008 V4:106
Pharmaceutical Water, 2005 V2:234 damage, 2008 V4:116
pharmaceutical water pipe, 2008 V4:49 design considerations, 2008 V4:114115
pharmacies expansion of pipes and insulation, 2008 V4:116
fixtures, 2007 V3:38 glossary, 2008 V4:105
health care facilities, 2007 V3:36 high-density inserts, 2008 V4:109113
medical gas stations, 2007 V3:53 installing on valves and fittings, 2008 V4:108109
Phase 1 and 2 vapor recovery, 2007 V3:134, 141142, 145, insulation shields, 2008 V4:139
146 insulation thickness, 2008 V4:109113
phases, electrical (ph, PH), 2004 V1:15 jacketing, 2008 V4:107108
PHCC-NA. See Plumbing-Heating-Cooling Contractors noise, 2008 V4:115
National Association (PHCC-NA) purposes, 2008 V4:105
phenolics smoke and fire requirements, 2008 V4:106
as thermoset, 2008 V4:49 storage and handling, 2008 V4:115
ion exchange resins, 2008 V4:197 supports and hangers, 2008 V4:109112
phenolphthalein alkalinity, 2005 V2:199 types of, 2008 V4:106107
phenols, 2008 V4:186 calcium silicate, 2008 V4:107
Philadelphia systems, 2005 V2:18 cellular glass, 2008 V4:107
phosphates, 2004 V1:151, 2005 V2:199 elastomeric, 2008 V4:106107
phosphoric acid, 2005 V2:199, 242 fiberglass, 2008 V4:106
phosphorus, 2005 V2:199 foamed plastic, 2008 V4:107
phosphorus 32, 2005 V2:248 insulating cement, 2008 V4:107
photo laboratories lagging, 2008 V4:108
backflow prevention, 2008 V4:185 plastic jackets, 2008 V4:108
submerged inlet hazards, 2008 V4:184 wire mesh, 2008 V4:108
photographic badges for radiation levels, 2005 V2:247 water vapor and, 2008 V4:105106
photolytic oxidation, 2005 V2:204 weight of, 2008 V4:118119
photostat equipment, 2008 V4:184 pipe joints
photovoltaic water heaters, 2004 V1:265 acid-waste systems, 2005 V2:242
photovoltaics, defined, 2007 V3:181182 chemical-waste systems, 2005 V2:253
physical characteristics of drinking water, 2005 V2:227, fill and, 2005 V2:14
228 heat-fused socket joints, 2005 V2:242
physical therapy rooms, 2007 V3:36, 38 inspection, 2007 V3:74
physically challenged people. See people with disabilities material codes and standards, 2004 V1:43
physics laboratories, 2005 V2:182. See also laboratories natural gas systems, 2007 V3:239
pico prefix, 2004 V1:34 pure-water systems, 2007 V3:4850
pilot-operated gas regulators, 2007 V3:227, 237 radioactive waste systems, 2005 V2:249
pilot-operated pressure-regulated valves, 2005 V2:78 restrainers, 2007 V3:213
pilot-operated valves, 2008 V4:81 sanitary, 2007 V3:4850
pilot-valve discs, 2007 V3:6 screwed mechanical joints, 2005 V2:242
pints, converting to SI units, 2004 V1:40 special-waste drainage systems, 2005 V2:238

thermal expansion and, 2005 V2:16 swimming pools, 2007 V3:110111

welded joints, 2005 V2:249 vacuum piping, 2005 V2:184
pipe loads bedding, 2007 V3:217218, 219
cold loads, 2008 V4:135 bending, 2008 V4:63
deadweight loads, 2008 V4:136 calculating water capacity per foot, 2007 V3:9
design loads, 2008 V4:136 cleaning and covering exposed ends, 2008 V4:23
dynamic loads, 2008 V4:136 codes and standards, 2004 V1:4245
friction loads, 2008 V4:137 compressed air systems, 2007 V3:174179
hot loads, 2008 V4:137 computer analysis of piping systems, 2004 V1:186
hydrostatic loads, 2008 V4:137 corrosive wastes, 2007 V3:46
operating loads, 2008 V4:139 cost estimation, 2004 V1:93
seismic loads, 2008 V4:140 damage to pipes, 2008 V4:23
thermal loads, 2008 V4:141 defined, 2007 V3:78
thrust loads, 2008 V4:142 double containment, 2008 V4:55, 60
trip-out loads, 2008 V4:142 draining, 2008 V4:23
water hammer loads, 2008 V4:142 erosion, 2007 V3:157
wind loads, 2008 V4:142 ferrous, 2007 V3:101
pipe nipple codes, 2004 V1:43 hazardous waste incompatibilities, 2007 V3:83, 84
pipe openings, 2008 V4:139 high-pressure condensate, 2007 V3:162
pipe racks, 2008 V4:139 installation requirements, 2008 V4:23
pipe rollers, 2008 V4:123 insulation. See pipe insulation
pipe rolls, 2008 V4:139 joints. See joints
pipe saddle supports, 2008 V4:139 layout, condensate drainage, 2007 V3:161
pipe shafts, 2007 V3:68 leakage, 2004 V1:134
pipe shoes, 2008 V4:139 loads. See pipe loads
pipe sleeve hangers or supports, 2008 V4:139 materials expansion, 2008 V4:232233
pipe sleeves, 2004 V1:162, 201, 2008 V4:6770, 132, 139 monitoring leakage, 2007 V3:141
pipe slides, 2008 V4:123, 139 nominal volumes, 2008 V4:233
pipe solvents, 2005 V2:201 openings, 2008 V4:139
pipe straps, 2008 V4:139 pipe schedules, 2007 V3:12, 14
pipe supports. See supports and hangers piping symbols, 2004 V1:713
pipe system loads. See pipe loads pitch, 2007 V3:161
pipe unions, 2008 V4:67 resonance and vibration transmission, 2008 V4:151
pipe wrappings, 2004 V1:196, 201202, 2005 V2:50 roughness, 2005 V2:86
pipes and piping. See also sizing; specific kinds of piping or schemes, swimming pools, 2007 V3:111
piping functions size. See sizing
accessories snaking in trenches, 2008 V4:230, 231
anchors, 2008 V4:6365 specifications, 2008 V4:23
gaskets, 2008 V4:65 sustainable design and, 2004 V1:264
hangers and supports. See supports and hangers symbols (PIPE), 2004 V1:15
pipe sleeves, 2008 V4:6770 temperature classification, 2008 V4:125
pipe unions, 2008 V4:67 thermal expansion and contraction, 2008 V4:69
service connections for water piping, 2008 V4:69 aboveground piping, 2008 V4:227229
applications underground piping, 2008 V4:231
centralized drinking-water cooler systems, 2008 tightness testing, 2007 V3:149
V4:246 total developed length, 2008 V4:229
chilled drinking-water systems, 2008 V4:243244 total loads, 2008 V4:118119
distilled water, 2008 V4:212 types
exposed piping on storage tanks, 2007 V3:145 acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS), 2008 V4:54
fire-protection systems, 2007 V3:6, 27 aluminum, 2008 V4:59
fountains, 2007 V3:101102 brass (copper alloy) pipe, 2005 V2:13
laboratory waste and vent piping, 2007 V3:4546 cast-iron soil pipe, 2008 V4:2527
liquid fuel systems, 2007 V3:147148 chlorinated polyvinyl-chloride (CPVC), 2005
medical gas systems, 2007 V3:6873 V2:201, 2007 V3:49, 2008 V4:4950, 5354
natural gas, 2005 V2:129130, 134137, 138141, concrete pipe. See concrete piping
2007 V3:238241 copper drainage tube, 2008 V4:40, 4142, 61
propane, 2005 V2:142, 143 copper pipe. See copper piping
pure-water systems, 2007 V3:4850 copper water tube, 2008 V4:3042
roof drains and pipes, 2005 V2:50 cross-linked polyethylene/aluminum/cross-linked
seismic protection, 2004 V1:155, 166182 polyethylene (PEX-AL-PEX), 2008 V4:52
sprinkler systems, 2007 V3:9, 12, 13, 20 cross-linked polyethylene (PEX), 2008 V4:52
steam, 2007 V3:155157 ductile iron water and sewer pipe. See ductile iron

Index 351
piping standards, 2008 V4:2

duriron, 2008 V4:5759 types of, 2008 V4:2
fiberglass pipe (FRP), 2008 V4:56 plastic insulation, 2008 V4:107
glass pipe, 2005 V2:244, 249, 2008 V4:4143, 48 plastic jackets, 2008 V4:108
lead piping, 2004 V1:266, 2005 V2:50, 83 Plastic Pipes Institute (PPI), 2008 V4:235
low extractable PVC, 2008 V4:56 plastic piping
medical gas tubing, 2007 V3:69, 74, 2008 V4:42 bedding, 2007 V3:217218, 219
plastic. See plastic piping codes, 2004 V1:43
polybutylene pipes, 2008 V4:4951 compressed air systems, 2007 V3:176
polyethylene/aluminum/polyethylene (PE-AL-PE), corrosion, 2005 V2:172
2008 V4:52 electrofusion joints, 2008 V4:63
polypropylene (PP), 2008 V4:5455 fittings, 2008 V4:49
polyvinyl chloride (PVC), 2005 V2:50, 201, 2008 fuel product dispensing and, 2007 V3:147
V4:4950, 5253 gas piping, 2007 V3:239, 241
polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF), 2008 V4:55 hangers, 2008 V4:132
reinforced thermosetting resin pipe (RTRP), 2008 joints, 2008 V4:49, 62
V4:56 laboratory wastes, 2007 V3:4546
special purpose piping, 2008 V4:5960 Manning formula and, 2007 V3:232
stainless steel, 2008 V4:5960 polyolefin piping, 2008 V4:52
steel pipe. See steel piping porous surfaces, 2008 V4:213
Teflon, 2008 V4:5556 roughness, 2005 V2:86
vitrified clay piping, 2005 V2:83, 253, 2007 V3:232, sanitary drainage systems, 2005 V2:13
2008 V4:5657, 5758 storm-drainage systems, 2005 V2:50
unintended uses, 2008 V4:118 types, 2008 V4:4856
water flow tables, 2007 V3:1417 water hammer and, 2005 V2:80
Piping Handbook, 2005 V2:144 plastic pumps, 2007 V3:119
Piping Systems Fundamentals and Application, 2005 plastic wraps on toilet seats, 2008 V4:5
V2:104 plate and frame modules in reverse osmosis, 2005 V2:221,
piston displacement, defined, 2007 V3:168 222
piston reciprocating compressors, 2007 V3:170 plate lugs. See lugs
piston-style water hammer arresters, 2005 V2:81, 82 plate tectonics, 2004 V1:156158
pistons plates for anchoring, 2008 V4:128
balanced-piston valves, 2008 V4:81 platform diving, 2007 V3:106
in water-pressure regulators, 2008 V4:80 plating
pit-type fire-department connections, 2004 V1:12 defined, 2008 V4:139
pitch demineralized water and, 2008 V4:197
defined, 2004 V1:27 platinum, 2004 V1:141
pipe, 2007 V3:161 platinum cobalt units (PCUs), 2005 V2:204
pitch down or up, 2004 V1:11 Platinum-level LEED certification, 2004 V1:263
radioactive waste systems, 2005 V2:250 platy soils, 2005 V2:148
special-waste drainage systems, 2005 V2:238 plot plans, irrigation systems and, 2005 V2:29
vacuum cleaning systems, 2005 V2:195 plug angle valves, 2008 V4:76
pitcher fillers, 2008 V4:240 plug cocks, 2008 V4:8485
pitless adapters, 2005 V2:166, 167 plug disc valves, 2008 V4:76
pitot pressure, 2007 V3:4, 5, 203 plug-type dezincification, 2004 V1:142
pitot tubes, 2007 V3:34, 202 plug valves (PV), 2004 V1:9
pitting, defined, 2004 V1:153 defined, 2008 V4:77
pitting corrosion, 2004 V1:141, 2005 V2:206, 2008 V4:194 hot-water service, 2008 V4:89
PIV (post indicator valves), 2007 V3:212213 liquefied petroleum gas systems, 2008 V4:89
PL (Public Laws). See Public Laws plumbers friends, 2008 V4:184
places of worship, numbers of fixtures for, 2008 V4:18, 21 plumbing
plain air chamvers, 2005 V2:81 appliances, 2004 V1:27
plane angles, 2004 V1:33, 36 appurtenances, 2004 V1:27
plans. See construction contract documents; plumbing code agencies, 2004 V1:42
drawings cost estimation, 2004 V1:9398
plant noise, 2004 V1:197198 defined, 2004 V1:27
planting area drains, 2005 V2:55 designs, 2004 V1:100102
plantings, types of, 2007 V3:96 fittings. See fittings
plaster, lining with lead, 2005 V2:248 fixtures. See fixtures
plaster of paris, 2008 V4:193 plumbing systems defined, 2004 V1:27
plaster traps, 2007 V3:39 specifications. See specifications
plastic fixtures symbols, 2004 V1:713

terminology, 2004 V1:1731 polishing water in pure water systems, 2005 V2:231, 2008
Plumbing and Drainage Institute (PDI), 2005 V2:104 V4:219
abbreviation for, 2004 V1:27 pollution
address, 2004 V1:59 contamination in compressed air, 2007 V3:170
G-101:Testing and Rating Procedure for Grease dilution, 2007 V3:81
Interceptors with Appendix of Sizing and filtering air pollution, 2007 V3:63
Installation Data, 2008 V4:153, 166, 250, 252, pollutants defined, 2008 V4:181
253 priority pollutants, 2007 V3:82
list of standards, 2004 V1:5657 Safe Drinking Water Act levels, 2008 V4:186
PDI symbols for water hammer arresters, 2005 V2:82 sanitary precautions for wells, 2005 V2:166167
Plumbing and Piping Industry Council (PPIC), 2004 solar water heaters, 2007 V3:182
V1:170, 191 storm-drainage systems and, 2005 V2:49
plumbing codes, defined, 2008 V4:178. See also codes and treating in water, 2008 V4:187
standards polyamide membranes, 2005 V2:223, 2008 V4:219
Plumbing Design and Installation Reference Guide, 2005 polybutylene (PB), 2004 V1:27, 2008 V4:4950, 227
V2:64 polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs)
Plumbing Design Manual, 2005 V2:64 levels in drinking water, 2008 V4:186
plumbing drawings safe levels in drinking water, 2008 V4:186
abbreviations, 2004 V1:1416 treating in water, 2008 V4:187
checklists, 2004 V1:100102 polyelectrolytes, 2005 V2:209
costs analysis phase, 2004 V1:241 polyester fixtures, 2008 V4:2
defined, 2004 V1:61 polyethylene/aluminum/polyethylene (PE-AL-PE), 2008
function evaluation, 2004 V1:239240 V4:52
functional development, 2004 V1:254, 255 Polyethylene Encasement, 2008 V4:28
graphic conventions, 2004 V1:108 polyethylene (PE), 2004 V1:27, 2005 V2:92, 201, 2007
introduction, 2004 V1:61 V3:239, 2008 V4:5152
in specifications, 2004 V1:69 bioremediation pretreatment systems, 2008 V4:252
Plumbing Efficiency through Gray-water Recycling, 2005 insulation, 2008 V4:107
V2:35 stress and strain figures, 2008 V4:228229
plumbing engineering, 2004 V1:27, 2007 V3:29, 2008 thermal expansion or contraction, 2008 V4:227
V4:117 polyethylene storage tanks, 2005 V2:233
Plumbing Engineering Design Handbook, 2008 V4:2, 265 polymer membranes, 2005 V2:223
plumbing fittings. See fittings polymeric silica, 2005 V2:200
plumbing fixtures. See fixtures polymers, 2004 V1:27
Plumbing-Heating-Cooling ContractorsNational polyolefin piping, 2008 V4:52
Association (PHCC-NA), 2004 V1:57, 59, 95, 2005 polypropylene piping
V2:47 double containment, 2008 V4:55
plumbing inspectors, 2004 V1:27 laboratories, 2005 V2:242, 2007 V3:4243
Plumbing Manual, 2005 V2:104 pipe characteristics, 2008 V4:4950
Plumbing Noise, 2004 V1:194 pipe standards, 2008 V4:5455
plumbing specifications. See specifications pure-water systems, 2007 V3:49
PNC (preferred noise criteria curves), 2004 V1:206 soil and waste piping, 2005 V2:13
pneumatic control system, fresh water makeup, 2007 sulfuric acid and, 2007 V3:85
V3:128 USP water, 2005 V2:233
pneumatic pressure differential switches, 2008 V4:203 VOCs and, 2005 V2:201
pneumatic pressures, 2005 V2:23, 2007 V3:64 water hammer and, 2005 V2:80
pneumatic tank gauging, 2007 V3:138139 polypropylene storage tanks, 2005 V2:233, 2007 V3:84
pneumatically operated main drain modulating valves, polystyrene insulation, 2008 V4:107
2007 V3:127 polystyrene resins, 2008 V4:197
POC (points of connection), 2004 V1:11 polysulfone membranes, 2005 V2:223
Podall, T., 2008 V4:224 polytetrafluoroethylene. See Teflon
point loading, 2008 V4:139 polytropic processes, 2007 V3:165
point-of-use filters, 2007 V3:171, 178 polyurethane insulation, 2008 V4:107
point-of-use reverse osmosis, 2008 V4:219 polyvalent ions, 2008 V4:196, 220
point-of-use ultrafiltration, 2005 V2:211 polyvinyl acetate (PVA), 2008 V4:108
point-of-use water heating, 2004 V1:129, 2007 V3:47 polyvinyl chloride (PVC), 2005 V2:67, 80, 92, 2007 V3:102
points of connection (POC), 2004 V1:11 aboveground piping, 2005 V2:50
polar solvents, 2007 V3:25 defined, 2004 V1:28
polarization distilled water piping, 2008 V4:213
defined, 2004 V1:153 fixtures, 2008 V4:2
hydrogen film buildup, 2004 V1:139 insulation jackets, 2008 V4:108
polishing deionizers, 2005 V2:215, 220 low extractable PVC, 2008 V4:56

Index 353
noise, 2005 V2:14 converting to SI units, 2004 V1:40

pipe characteristics, 2008 V4:4950 pounds per square foot (psf, PSF), 2004 V1:15
piping, 2005 V2:201 pounds per square inch (psi, PSI), 2004 V1:2, 15, 2007
pure-water systems, 2007 V3:49 V3:30, 169
sanitary drainage, 2005 V2:13 pounds per square inch absolute (psia), 2004 V1:15,
shower pans, 2008 V4:14 2005 V2:176, 2007 V3:78, 169
storage tanks and hazardous wastes, 2007 V3:84 pounds per square inch gauge (psig), 2004 V1:15, 2005
stress and strain figures, 2008 V4:228229 V2:176, 2007 V3:64, 78, 169
sulfuric acid and, 2007 V3:85 symbols for, 2004 V1:15
thermal expansion or contraction, 2008 V4:227 power
types of piping, 2008 V4:5253 conversion factors, 2004 V1:36
volatile organic compounds, 2005 V2:201 converting to SI units, 2004 V1:39
polyvinyl-fluoride. See polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF) increased needs for plumbing, 2008 V4:145
polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF), 2004 V1:28, 2005 V2:13, measurements, 2004 V1:33
80 power/capacity characteristic curves, 2008 V4:9798
distilled water piping, 2008 V4:213 power company off-peak power savings, 2004 V1:128129
insulation jackets, 2008 V4:108 power plants, 2008 V4:205
piping, 2005 V2:233, 2007 V3:4950, 2008 V4:55 power steam, 2005 V2:210
ponding power usage, economizing on, 2004 V1:128129
on roofs, 2005 V2:53 Powered Industrial Trucks, 2005 V2:144
storm water ponds, 2005 V2:49 powered vaporizers, 2007 V3:59
ponds, stabilization, 2005 V2:157 POWTS. See private onsite wastewater treatment systems
pools, 2004 V1:27. See also reflecting pools; swimming pozzolan, 2008 V4:252
pools PP. See polypropylene piping
poor value, defined, 2004 V1:213 PPI (Plastic Pipes Institute), 2008 V4:235
pop-up sprinklers, 2007 V3:93, 94 PPI-TR 21:Thermal Expansion and Contraction of Plastic
population density, 2005 V2:109 Pipe, 2008 V4:235
porcelain enameled steel fixtures PPIC (Plumbing and Piping Industry Council), 2004
defined, 2008 V4:1 V1:170, 191
standards, 2008 V4:2 ppm, PPM (parts per million). See parts per million (ppm,
pore size in filter membranes, 2005 V2:223 PPM)
porous paper filters, 2008 V4:204 Practical Design of a High-purity Water System, 2005
porous soils, 2007 V3:9192 V2:234
porous stone tubes, 2008 V4:204 Practical Plumbing Design Guide, 2005 V2:64
port size in valves, 2008 V4:84 pre-action systems, 2004 V1:29, 2007 V3:9, 1011, 29
portable fire extinguishers, 2004 V1:13, 2007 V3:28 pre-action valves, 2004 V1:13
Portland cement, 2008 V4:252 pre-bid information, 2004 V1:62
positive attachments, defined, 2004 V1:191 pre-cast manholes, 2007 V3:220, 222
positive-displacement air compressors, 2007 V3:62, 170 pre-cast water storage tanks, 2005 V2:170
positive-displacement meters, 2005 V2:68, 95, 96 pre-compressed, glass-fiber pads, 2004 V1:204
positive-displacement pumps, 2008 V4:9398 pre-coolers, 2007 V3:168, 2008 V4:242
post indicator valves (PIV), 2007 V3:212213 pre-engineered cathodically protected steel tanks, 2007
pot and pan sinks, 2007 V3:39, 2008 V4:162, 163 V3:135
potable water. See drinking water; private water systems; pre-engineered dry-chemical systems, 2007 V3:23
wells pre-engineered fountains, 2007 V3:99
potash alum, 2005 V2:209 pre-engineered wet chemical systems, 2007 V3:24
potassium, 2005 V2:199, 200, 2008 V4:193, 218 pre-fabricated shower bases, 2008 V4:14
potassium bicarbonate, 2005 V2:200 pre-fabricated shower enclosures, 2008 V4:14
potassium carbonate, 2005 V2:200, 2007 V3:175 pre-fabricated water storage tanks, 2005 V2:170
potassium chloride, 2005 V2:200 pre-formed insulation for valves and fittings, 2008 V4:108
potassium hydroxide, 2005 V2:156 109
potassium permanganate, 2005 V2:168, 2008 V4:193 pre-heated feed water, 2008 V4:214
potential energy (PE) pre-heating input water, 2004 V1:266
calculating, 2004 V1:2 pre-plumbed vaults, fountain equipment, 2007 V3:101
defined, 2007 V3:167 pre-softening distillation feed water, 2008 V4:212
velocity head and, 2004 V1:5 pre-treatment in pure water systems, 2005 V2:231
potentiometric surfaces of aquifers, 2005 V2:165 pre-treatment ordinances, 2007 V3:83
POTW (Publicly Owned Treatment Works), 2007 V3:83, precipitates in water, 2005 V2:168, 207, 2008 V4:224
2008 V4:249 precipitation. See rainwater and precipitation
POU filtration, 2005 V2:211 precision in measurements, 2004 V1:32
pounding forces in water. See water hammer predicting water deposits and corrosion, 2005 V2:206208
pounds (lb, LBS) Prefabricated Gravity Grease Interceptors, 2008 V4:153

preferred noise criteria (PNC) curves, 2004 V1:206 in specific applications

prefilters booster pump systems, 2005 V2:7077
air compressors, 2007 V3:171 carbon dioxide extinguishing systems, 2007 V3:25
feed water, 2005 V2:205 centralized chilled water systems, 2008 V4:243,
prefixes in SI units, 2004 V1:34 246
premium grade PVC piping, 2007 V3:49 closed hot-water systems, 2008 V4:231
preparation condensate piping, 2007 V3:162
checklists, 2004 V1:99 distilled water distribution, 2008 V4:215
in plumbing cost estimation, 2004 V1:93 expansion tanks, 2005 V2:7677
section in specifications, 2004 V1:91 fire pumps, 2007 V3:2122
in value engineering presentations, 2004 V1:258 gas boosters, 2005 V2:130131
Preparation phase in value engineering, 2004 V1:213 gravity tank systems, 2005 V2:76
preparing for jobs, checklists, 2004 V1:99 heavy flow drains, 2005 V2:8
PRES (pressure). See pressure hot-water system pressures, 2005 V2:107
Presentation phase in value engineering, 2004 V1:213, natural gas systems, 2005 V2:128, 136, 138141
257258, 259 nitrogen surgical instruments, 2007 V3:57
presets, defined, 2008 V4:140 plastic piping systems, 2007 V3:50
Presidents Committee on Employment of the pneumatic pressures in sanitary drains, 2005
Handicapped, 2004 V1:105 V2:23
press-fitted ends on valves, 2008 V4:80 saturated steam, 2007 V3:155157
press joints, 2004 V1:266 sprinkler systems, 2007 V3:3, 13, 14
PRESS (pressure). See pressure storm-drainage stacks, 2005 V2:52
pressure (PRESS, PRES, P). See also pressure drops or submersible fuel pumps, 2007 V3:148
differences vacuum cleaning system requirements, 2005
acoustic design for water pipes, 2004 V1:195196 V2:190
air-consuming devices, 2007 V3:174 water mains, 2007 V3:198
barometric. See barometric pressure water softeners, 2008 V4:206
compressed air, 2007 V3:169, 172, 174 stack flow capacity and, 2005 V2:4
conversion factors, 2004 V1:36 static (sp, SP), 2004 V1:15, 16
critical (CRIP), 2004 V1:15 suds pressure zones, 2005 V2:4546
differential, trap, 2007 V3:161 symbols for, 2004 V1:15
domestic water supply, 2007 V3:202206 tests
dynamic (velocity) (vp, VP), 2004 V1:15 medical gas systems, 2007 V3:74, 7576
examples for pipe sizing, 2005 V2:9799 storage tanks, 2007 V3:149
fixture requirements, 2005 V2:98 water flow tests, 2005 V2:95
flow and air, 2005 V2:2 vacuum defined, 2005 V2:175
fluctuation warnings, 2007 V3:67 vacuum pressure measurement, 2005 V2:176178
fluctuations, 2008 V4:119 vapor (vap pr, VAP PR, VAP), 2004 V1:15
friction head, 2004 V1:2, 6, 2005 V2:71 velocity head (h), 2004 V1:5
friction loss and, 2004 V1:2, 2005 V2:98 velocity of water in pipes and, 2005 V2:86, 92
head coefficient, defined, 2008 V4:98 water hammer and, 2005 V2:80
head, defined, 2008 V4:98 water meters and, 2005 V2:96
hydraulic shock, 2004 V1:6 water vapor in air and, 2007 V3:169170
hydrostatic pressure, 2005 V2:4 pressure-assist water closets, 2004 V1:136
induced siphonage, 2005 V2:47 pressure-balancing fixtures. See pressure-regulating or
interstitial tank monitoring, 2007 V3:140 reducing valves (PRV)
measurements, 2004 V1:33, 2005 V2:4, 95, 175177 pressure classes, ductile iron cement-lined pipe, 2008
natural gas, 2005 V2:126127 V4:28
natural gas pressure, 2007 V3:236, 238239 pressure cookers, 2008 V4:185
nitrous oxide, 2007 V3:61 pressure deaerators, 2008 V4:197
nozzle pressure flow tables, 2007 V3:3 pressure diatomaceous earth filters, 2007 V3:117118
pressure-regulating valves, 2005 V2:7879 pressure differential flow sensors, 2007 V3:121
pressure sensors, 2005 V2:72 pressure differential switches, 2008 V4:203
pressure-volume relationships (gas laws), 2005 V2:131 pressure drops or differences (PD, DELTP)
pressure waves. See water hammer air filtration and, 2007 V3:175
pump affinity laws, 2004 V1:6 backflow preventers and, 2007 V3:207208
pump head, 2005 V2:71 calculating, 2004 V1:2
relationship, hydrostatic fluids, 2008 V4:169170 compressed air systems, 2007 V3:7273, 174, 177178
relative discharge curves, 2007 V3:203 defined, 2005 V2:144, 2008 V4:224
relief valves, 2005 V2:115116, 116 double-check valves and, 2007 V3:207208
sizing pipes and, 2005 V2:9296 examples for pipe sizing, 2005 V2:9799
soil pressures, 2007 V3:135 fittings, 2004 V1:194, 2007 V3:206

Index 355
fuel system checklist, 2007 V3:148 Pressure Sewer Demonstration at the Borough of
gas boosters, 2005 V2:133 Phoenixville, Pennsylvania, 2005 V2:161
gas line filters and, 2007 V3:236 pressure sewers, 2005 V2:152
gravity filters, 2008 V4:202 pressure swing air dryers, 2007 V3:175
installing taps, 2007 V3:206 pressure switches (PS), 2004 V1:10
measuring in water flow tests, 2005 V2:95 pressure tanks, 2007 V3:133
medical air, 2007 V3:6869 pressure vacuum breakers (PVBs), 2008 V4:175, 178, 180,
medical gas, 2007 V3:68 185
natural gas systems, 2005 V2:128 pressure-volume relationships (gas laws), 2005 V2:131
piping runs, 2007 V3:206 pressure water coolers, 2008 V4:238, 239, 242
pressure drop curves, 2008 V4:206, 247 pressure water filters, 2005 V2:167
sanitary drainage, 2005 V2:2 pressure waves. See water hammer
sprinkler hydraulic calculations, 2007 V3:14 pressurized fuel delivery systems, 2007 V3:141, 148149
steam, 2007 V3:155157 pretreated feed water, 2008 V4:214
strainers and, 2007 V3:208 pretreating effluent. See bioremediation pretreatment
symbols for, 2004 V1:15 systems
vacuum cleaning systems, 2005 V2:191193, 193194 pri, PRI (primary), 2004 V1:15
vacuum exhauster sizing, 2005 V2:193194 prices, 2004 V1:222. See also costs and economic concerns
vacuum piping, 2005 V2:184186 PRIM (primary), 2004 V1:15
vacuum pressures, 2005 V2:179, 184186 primary (pri, PRI, PRIM), 2004 V1:15
valve sizing, 2008 V4:85 primary barriers for infectious wastes, 2005 V2:251
valves and fittings, 2005 V2:99102, 2007 V3:206 primary tanks
water meters, 2005 V2:95, 2007 V3:208 aboveground types, 2007 V3:144, 145
water softeners and, 2008 V4:205206 construction, 2007 V3:135136
pressure filters interstitial monitoring, 2007 V3:139140
backwashing, 2008 V4:203 underground tanks, 2007 V3:135
compared to diatomaceous earth, 2008 V4:204 prime costs, 2004 V1:222
defined, 2008 V4:202203 primers, 2004 V1:147
horizontal pressure sand filters, 2008 V4:202 priming in dry-pipe systems, 2007 V3:9
multimedia depth filters, 2008 V4:202 priority pollutants, 2007 V3:82
vertical pressure sand filters, 2008 V4:203 prism-like soils, 2005 V2:148
pressure gauges prisons, numbers of fixtures for, 2008 V4:19, 20
backwashing, 2008 V4:203 private onsite wastewater treatment systems (POWTS)
with gauge cocks (PG), 2004 V1:10 aerobic wastewater treatment plants, 2005 V2:157
measurements, 2005 V2:176 collection and treatment alternatives, 2005 V2:152153
pressure loss. See pressure drops defined, 2004 V1:27
pressure maintenance (jockey) pumps, 2004 V1:24 distribution boxes, 2005 V2:156
pressure media filters, 2005 V2:211 estimating sewage quantities, 2005 V2:158160
pressure piping inspection, 2005 V2:160161
double containment, 2008 V4:60 introduction, 2005 V2:147
expansion and contraction, 2008 V4:227229 large systems, 2005 V2:156157
glass pipe, 2008 V4:48 primary collection and treatment systems, 2005 V2:147
pressure product-dispensing systems, 2007 V3:142143 private sewers, 2004 V1:27
pressure-regulating or reducing valves (PRV), 2005 V2:67 septic tanks, 2005 V2:153156
acoustic design and pressure, 2004 V1:200 soil-absorption systems, 2005 V2:147151
health care water supplies, 2007 V3:46 private unit weighting in fixture flow rate estimates, 2008
irrigation systems, 2007 V3:95 V4:207
natural gas systems, 2005 V2:127 private use
pressure-relief valves (RV), 2004 V1:10 defined, 2004 V1:27
shower valves, 2005 V2:7172, 2008 V4:1415 lavatories, 2008 V4:10
symbols for, 2004 V1:9 private water systems
tank size and, 2005 V2:74 codes and standards, 2005 V2:163
tub valves, 2008 V4:16 drinking water demand, 2005 V2:167
types of, 2005 V2:7879 initial operation and maintenance, 2005 V2:172
Pressure Regulating Values for LPG, 2005 V2:127 introduction, 2005 V2:163164
pressure regulators matching water storage to pump flow, 2005 V2:170171
compressed air systems, 2007 V3:174 performance specifications, 2005 V2:172
deluge valves, 2007 V3:10 sources of supply, 2005 V2:163164
flushometer tanks, 2008 V4:8 system equipment, 2005 V2:168172
natural gas systems, 2007 V3:237238 water quality, 2005 V2:167168
water storage tanks, 2005 V2:171172 wells, 2005 V2:164167

Proceedings of the Third National Conference on storage tanks, 2007 V3:146

Individual On Site Wastewater Systems, 2005 value engineering contract document clauses, 2004
V2:161 V1:258, 260
Procurement and Contracting Requirements Group, 2004 protection saddles, 2008 V4:140
V1:65, 77 protection shields
producer costs, 2004 V1:222 defined, 2008 V4:140
producer gas, 2005 V2:126 hangers and supports, 2008 V4:123
producers (vacuum) pipe hangers, 2008 V4:123
defined, 2005 V2:188 protective coatings, 2004 V1:147. See also coated metal
locating, 2005 V2:190 protective potential, defined, 2004 V1:153
sizing, 2005 V2:193194 protein-mixed chemical concentrates, 2007 V3:25
product costs, 2004 V1:222, 223 PRV (pressure-regulating or reducing valves). See
product dispensing systems pressure-regulating or reducing valves
aboveground tank systems, 2007 V3:146 prying actions in seismic protection, 2004 V1:188
underground tank systems, 2007 V3:142143 PS (pressure switches), 2004 V1:10
dispenser pans, 2007 V3:143 PS standards. See under International Association of
fire suppression, 2007 V3:143 Plumbing and Mechanical Officials (IAPMO)
fuel island, 2007 V3:143 pseudo-dynamic elastic analysis, 2004 V1:161
fuel transactions, 2007 V3:143144 Pseudo Value Engineers, 2004 V1:258
pressure dispensing, 2007 V3:143 psf, PSF (pounds per square foot)
product dispensers, 2007 V3:143 psf absolute (psfa, PSFA), 2004 V1:15
product level gauging, 2007 V3:145, 146 psf gage (psfg, PSFG), 2004 V1:15
product standards, 2004 V1:66, 2008 V4:176 symbols for, 2004 V1:15
product substitutions, 2004 V1:68 psfa, PSFA (psf absolute), 2004 V1:15
product water. See treated water psfg, PSFG (psf gage), 2004 V1:15
production wells in geothermal energy, 2004 V1:131 psi, PSI (pounds per square inch)
productivity rates, in cost estimation, 2004 V1:9597 converting to metric units, 2007 V3:30
products measurements, 2007 V3:169
costs, 2004 V1:222, 223 psi absolute (psia, PSIA), 2004 V1:15, 2005 V2:176,
detail/product/material specification checklist, 2004 2007 V3:78, 169
V1:220 psi gage (psig, PSIG), 2004 V1:15, 2005 V2:176, 2007
green building, 2004 V1:264265 V3:64, 78, 169
section in specifications, 2004 V1:69, 9091 symbols for, 2004 V1:15
in specifications, 2004 V1:70 psia, PSIA (psi absolute), 2004 V1:15, 2005 V2:176, 2007
value engineering questions, 2004 V1:213214 V3:78, 169
professionals, defined, 2008 V4:178 psig, PSIG (psi gage), 2004 V1:15, 2005 V2:176, 2007
profit markup in cost determinations, 2004 V1:222 V3:64, 78, 169
programmers, irrigation systems, 2007 V3:95 psychrometry, defined, 2007 V3:168
project conditions section in specifications, 2004 V1:70, 90 PTFE. See Teflon (PTFE)
project costs, 2004 V1:222 public, educating on graywater systems, 2005 V2:35
project manuals public areas
contents of, 2004 V1:6263 estimating sewage quantities, 2005 V2:159
defined, 2004 V1:61 fixtures for, 2007 V3:3537
promenade drains, 2005 V2:55 heel-proof grates, 2005 V2:10
propagation velocity, 2004 V1:6 sediment buckets, 2005 V2:11
propane, 2005 V2:126. See also fuel-gas piping systems Public Building Service, 2004 V1:199
laboratory use, 2005 V2:128129 public facilities, numbers of fixtures for, 2008 V4:20
physical properties, 2005 V2:125 public hydrants, 2004 V1:12
sizing systems, 2005 V2:142, 143 Public Law 90-480, 2004 V1:106
in water supply, 2008 V4:188 Public Law 93-112, 2004 V1:106
propeller water meters, 2005 V2:68 Public Law 98, 2007 V3:134
property protection in fire protection, 2007 V3:1 Public Law 616, 2007 V3:134
prophylactic additives to water, 2005 V2:168 public sewers
proportional solubility law, 2005 V2:81 availability of, 2007 V3:217
proportions of septic tanks, 2005 V2:154 defined, 2004 V1:27
proprietary names in specifications, 2004 V1:66, 67 discharging into, 2005 V2:238
proprietary specifications, 2004 V1:6768 neutralizing acid wastes for, 2005 V2:244245
propylene, 2005 V2:126 public storm sewer systems, 2005 V2:49, 2007 V3:233
protected end of galvanic series, 2004 V1:141 radioactive waste systems and, 2005 V2:250
protecting insulation, 2008 V4:107108 public swimming pools. See swimming pools
protection public unit weighting in fixture flow rate estimates, 2008
section in specifications, 2004 V1:92 V4:207

Index 357
public use gray water use, 2004 V1:267

defined, 2004 V1:28 impellers, 2004 V1:197
lavatories, 2008 V4:10 installation, 2008 V4:101102
public utilities, 2005 V2:125 matching water storage to pump flow, 2005 V2:170171
public water supply. See municipal water supply motor controls, 2005 V2:73
Publicly Owned Treatment Works (POTW), 2007 V3:83, overview, 2008 V4:9394
2008 V4:249 performance, 2008 V4:9798
pubs, 2008 V4:18, 20 plant noise, 2004 V1:197198
pull-out spray accessories, 2008 V4:12, 13 power/capacity characteristic curves, 2008 V4:9798
pulsation pulsation in, 2004 V1:197
air compressors, 2007 V3:178 pump affinity laws, 2004 V1:6
electric fans, 2004 V1:196 pump journals, 2004 V1:196
magnetic field pulsation, 2004 V1:196 pump speeds, 2004 V1:200201
pump discharge lines (PD), 2004 V1:8 purging vacuum pumps, 2005 V2:182
pumper connections, 2004 V1:12 repairing, 2008 V4:100
pumping seals, 2008 V4:94
defined, 2007 V3:168 secondary containment areas, 2007 V3:8384
septic tanks, 2005 V2:153 staging, 2008 V4:9899
wells, 2005 V2:165166 static deflection for vibration, 2004 V1:205
pumping head, 2005 V2:169 sulfuric acid and, 2005 V2:241
pumps systems for water supplies, 2005 V2:168170
acoustics, 2004 V1:196198, 200201, 2008 V4:145 temperature maintenance, 2008 V4:99
applications timers, 2005 V2:73
booster pump systems, 2005 V2:7077 types of
centralized drinking-water coolers, 2008 V4:245, acid feed, 2007 V3:125126
247 axial, 2008 V4:9397
chemical feed, 2007 V3:125126 centrifugal, 2008 V4:9398
chilled drinking-water systems, 2008 V4:243 ejector pumps, 2007 V3:220
circulation, swimming pools, 2007 V3:113, 119120 mixed-flow, 2008 V4:9396
cooling vacuum pumps, 2005 V2:181 multiple pump systems, 2005 V2:7273
distilled water systems, 2008 V4:212 multistage, 2008 V4:9899
domestic booster, 2008 V4:99 parallel pump systems, 2008 V4:99
drainage systems, 2008 V4:99100 positive-displacement, 2008 V4:9398
fire pumps, 2007 V3:2122 regenerative pumps, 2008 V4:9899
fire suppression, 2008 V4:99 submersible, 2005 V2:166, 2007 V3:148149
geothermal energy systems, 2004 V1:131 vertical, 2008 V4:94, 98
gravity tank systems, 2005 V2:7476 volute, 2008 V4:93, 9899
house pumps, 2005 V2:74, 76 vibration isolation, 2004 V1:205, 206, 2008 V4:145
hydropneumatic-tank systems, 2005 V2:72, 7374 Pumps and Pump Systems, 2004 V1:40
liquid fuel systems, 2007 V3:148149 purchasers in cost equation, 2004 V1:223
liquid-waste decontamination systems, 2005 pure tones, 2004 V1:208
V2:251 pure water, 2005 V2:229230, 2008 V4:195, 218, 223
solar, circulating system, 2007 V3:189192 pure-water systems. See also water purification
specialty, 2008 V4:99 defined, 2005 V2:197
storm drainage backup systems, 2005 V2:49 health care facilities, 2007 V3:46, 4750
sump pumps in sanitary drainage systems, 2005 piping materials, 2007 V3:4850
V2:8 types of pure water, 2007 V3:48
swimming pools, 2007 V3:108 purging
well pumps, 2005 V2:168170 medical gas zones, 2007 V3:67, 74, 75
automatic shutdown, 2007 V3:84 natural gas systems, 2007 V3:241
bases, 2005 V2:166, 169 vacuum pumps, 2005 V2:182
bearings, 2004 V1:197 purified water (PW), 2005 V2:81, 82, 229230, 2008
casings, 2008 V4:94 V4:48, 195. See also pure-water systems; water
characteristic curves, 2008 V4:9798 purification
circulating pump efficiency, 2004 V1:265 purity
controls, 2008 V4:101 compressed air, 2007 V3:175
design of, 2004 V1:200 monitors, 2008 V4:214
direct connection hazards, 2008 V4:184 testing medical gas systems, 2007 V3:76
earthquake protection, 2004 V1:164 push-on joints, 2007 V3:213
efficiency, 2004 V1:67, 2008 V4:9496 push-seal gasketed drains, 2005 V2:13
environmental concerns, 2008 V4:100101 push-seal gasketed outlets, 2005 V2:13
glossary, 2008 V4:98 putrefaction, 2004 V1:28

Putting Industrial Vacuum to Work, 2005 V2:196 ra, RA (return air), 2004 V1:15
puzzles rad, RAD (radians). See radians
Nine Dots exercise, 2004 V1:232, 261 RAD (radiating or radiators), 2004 V1:15
Six Sticks exercise, 2004 V1:232, 261 RAD (radiation). See radiation
PV (plug valves). See plug valves (PV) rad/s (radians per second), 2004 V1:33
PVA (polyvinyl acetate), 2008 V4:108 rad/s2 (radians per second squared), 2004 V1:33
PVBs. See pressure vacuum breakers (PVBs) radians (RAD)
PVC. See polyvinyl chloride (PVC) measurement unit conversions, 2004 V1:33
PVDF (polyvinyl-fluoridine). See polyvinylidene fluoride radians per second, 2004 V1:33
(PVDF) radians per second squared, 2004 V1:33
PVE (Pseudo Value Engineers), 2004 V1:258 symbols for, 2004 V1:15
PW (pure water). See pure-water systems; purified water; radiant emittance (exitance), 2007 V3:184
water purification radiant energy, 2008 V4:216
pyramids, calculating volume, 2004 V1:4 radiant flux, 2007 V3:184
pyrogens, 2005 V2:198, 223, 2007 V3:48 radiant intensity, 2007 V3:184
distilled water and, 2008 V4:195, 212 radiating (RAD), 2004 V1:15
intravenous injections and, 2008 V4:213 radiation (RADN, RAD)
laboratory grade water, 2008 V4:218 defined, 2007 V3:184185
nature of, 2005 V2:246247
Q radiation equivalent to man (rem), 2005 V2:247
rads (radioactive dosage), 2005 V2:247
Q (heat transfer), 2004 V1:15
QAIR (air flow rates), 2004 V1:14 symbols for, 2004 V1:15
QAR (air flow rates), 2004 V1:14 treatment facilities, 2005 V2:248
QFL (fluid flow rates), 2004 V1:14 radiators (RAD), 2004 V1:15
QGA, QGAS (gas flow rates), 2004 V1:14 radicals (ions), 2004 V1:144, 153, 2005 V2:239
qt, QT (quarts), 2004 V1:15, 40 radii (R), 2004 V1:15
quads, converting to SI units, 2004 V1:40 radioactive waste drainage and vents
quality allowable radiation levels, 2005 V2:247
in cost estimation, 2004 V1:98 approval process and applications, 2005 V2:248
quality assurance in specifications, 2004 V1:6970, 89 diluting radwaste, 2005 V2:250
quality control section in specifications, 2004 V1:71, 91 introduction, 2005 V2:245
of water, 2005 V2:35, 167168. See also water analysis; measuring radiation, 2005 V2:247
water purification nature of radiation, 2005 V2:246247
quantities. See also demand pipe selection, 2005 V2:249
clean gas agents, 2007 V3:27 radioactive materials, 2005 V2:248
in creativity checklist, 2004 V1:234 shielding systems, 2005 V2:247248
irrigation water, 2007 V3:91 system design criteria, 2005 V2:248250
water supplies, 2007 V3:26 radioactivity
quarter-circle rotary sprinklers, 2007 V3:94 defined, 2005 V2:245246
quarter-turn ball valves, 2008 V4:8384 levels in drinking water, 2008 V4:186
quarter-turn butterfly valves, 2008 V4:84 radioactive half lives, 2005 V2:248
quarter-turn valves, lubricated plug cocks, 2008 V4:8485 radioactive isotopes, 2005 V2:245246, 248
quarts (qt, QT) radiological characteristics of drinking water, 2005 V2:200,
converting to SI units, 2004 V1:40 228
symbols for, 2004 V1:15 Radiological Safety Officers, 2005 V2:248
questions in value engineering presentations, 2004 V1:258 radium, 2008 V4:187
quick-coupling method of irrigation, 2007 V3:92 radium 226, 2005 V2:248
quick-disconnect couplings, 2007 V3:178 radius screwed ells, 2005 V2:101
quick-opening devices, 2007 V3:9 RADN (radiation). See radiation
quick-response sprinklers, 2004 V1:29 radon gas, 2005 V2:168, 200, 228, 2008 V4:187
quick valve closure, 2005 V2:80 radwaste (waterborne radioactive waste), 2005 V2:245
quieting pipes, 2005 V2:14 Rainbird Company, 2007 V3:96
rainwater and precipitation, 2008 V4:118, 259261
capturing rainwater, 2004 V1:135, 264, 267
R cisterns, 2005 V2:170
R (hydraulic radii), 2004 V1:1 duration, 2007 V3:231
R, R- (refrigerants), 2004 V1:15, 151 flow rates, 2005 V2:56
R, R (rankines), 2004 V1:15 imperviousness factor, 2007 V3:229230
R, R (thermal resistance), 2004 V1:16, 2008 V4:105, inlet times, 2007 V3:231
106107 intensity-duration-frequency curves, 2007 V3:229
R (radii), 2004 V1:15 precipitation, 2004 V1:27
R-13 and R-13A fire-protection systems, 2008 V4:49 rainfall rates, 2005 V2:5357, 2007 V3:228229, 230
R-595 gas, 2007 V3:26

Index 359
rainwater drains (SD, ST). See storm-drainage systems receptors, 2004 V1:28
return periods, 2007 V3:230231 recessed-box hose bibbs, 2004 V1:10
storing in controlled flow systems, 2005 V2:5253 recessed grease interceptors, 2008 V4:162
storm-drainage systems, 2005 V2:4950 recessed sprinklers, 2004 V1:29
raised-floor areas, 2007 V3:27 recessed water coolers, 2008 V4:239240, 241
ramp-drain grates, 2005 V2:11 recharge basins, 2007 V3:233
ramps, swimming pools, 2007 V3:130 rechargeable air chambers, 2005 V2:81
random hangers, 2008 V4:140 recharging aquifers, 2005 V2:163164
rankines (R, R), 2004 V1:15, 2007 V3:166 rechlorination treatments, 2005 V2:122
ranking functions in value engineering, 2004 V1:243 reciprocating air compressors, 2007 V3:62, 63, 170, 173,
rapid sand/direct filtration package plants, 2005 V2:228 2008 V4:87
rate of corrosion reciprocating (rotary) piston pumps, 2005 V2:180
acidity, 2004 V1:145 recirculate (recirc., RECIRC, RCIR, RECIR), 2004 V1:15
Faradays Law, 2004 V1:144 recirculating hot-water systems, 2004 V1:265, 2005 V2:118
film formation, 2004 V1:145 recirculating sand filter sewage systems, 2005 V2:153
homogeneity in, 2004 V1:145 recirculation systems
oxygen content, 2004 V1:145 for high purity water, 2007 V3:48
temperature, 2004 V1:145 for hot water, 2005 V2:115
velocity in, 2004 V1:145 reclaimed water. See graywater systems
rate of flow. See flow rates reclamation, wastewater, 2008 V4:259260
rated vacuum levels, 2005 V2:178179 recombined FOG (fats, oil, and grease), 2008 V4:249
ratings Recommendation phase in value engineering, 2004
drinking water coolers, 2008 V4:238 V1:213, 254257
insulation smoke requirements and ratings, 2008 Recommendations for a New ADAAG, 2004 V1:123
V4:106 Recommended Minimum Requirements for Plumbing in
LEED, 2008 V4:257258 Dwellings and Similar Buildings, 2005 V2:48
load ratings. See load ratings Recommended Practice for Fire Flow Testing and Marking
portable fire extinguishers, 2007 V3:28 of Hydrants (NFPA 291), 2007 V3:30
saturated steam pressure valves, 2008 V4:79 Recommended Practice for Handling Releases of
valves (v, V, VLV), 2008 V4:79 Flammable and Combustible Liquids and Gases
water, oil, and gas (WOG) pressure rating, 2007 V3:177, (NFPA 329), 2007 V3:134
2008 V4:79, 86 records of cross connections, 2008 V4:183
ratio of specific heats, defined, 2007 V3:168 recovered energy, 2004 V1:137
Rational Method, 2004 V1:7, 2007 V3:228231 recovering heat from water heaters, 2005 V2:110
raw sewage, 2004 V1:28 recovery in reverse osmosis, 2005 V2:221
raw water, 2005 V2:197, 230 recovery pressure, defined, 2007 V3:168
RCIR (recirculate), 2004 V1:15 recovery rooms
RCP (reinforced concrete pipe), 2008 V4:28 fixtures, 2007 V3:39
RCRA (Resource Conservation and Recovery Act), 2005 health care facilities, 2007 V3:36
V2:252, 2007 V3:8182, 83, 134 medical gas stations, 2007 V3:53, 56
rcvr, RCVR (receivers), 2004 V1:15, 199, 2005 V2:180181, medical vacuum, 2007 V3:54
182 recreational establishments
re-flashing, 2007 V3:23 estimating sewage quantities, 2005 V2:159
reaction forces in earthquakes, 2004 V1:186 septic tank/soil-absorption systems for, 2005 V2:156
reactive silencers, 2007 V3:171 157
reactive silica, 2005 V2:200 recreational pools, 2007 V3:106
reactivity, hangers and supports and, 2008 V4:120 rectangles, calculating area, 2004 V1:3
ready mix concrete, 2008 V4:252 rectangular bath seats, 2004 V1:122
reagent grade water, 2005 V2:229230, 2008 V4:218, 219 rectangular gutters, 2005 V2:63
real costs, 2004 V1:223 rectangular leaders, 2005 V2:63
rear wall grab bars, 2004 V1:114 rectangular solids, calculating volume, 2004 V1:4
reasonable care, defined, 2008 V4:178 rectifiers, 2004 V1:150, 151
reasoning against value engineering, 2004 V1:232 recycled water in landscaping, 2004 V1:264
REC (receivers), 2004 V1:15, 199, 2005 V2:180181, 182 recycled water systems. See graywater systems
receiver tanks recycling systems, salt, 2008 V4:209211
medical air compressors, 2007 V3:63 red brass, 2004 V1:144
vacuum systems, 2007 V3:65 reduced noise transmission, 2005 V2:14
receivers (rcvr, RCVR, REC) reduced-port valves, 2008 V4:84
receivers of noise, 2004 V1:199 reduced pressure
symbols for, 2004 V1:15 conditions in water storage tanks, 2005 V2:171
in vacuum systems, 2005 V2:180181, 182 defined, 2007 V3:168
receiving costs, 2004 V1:223 fall-off, 2008 V4:80

in pressure-regulated valves, 2005 V2:67 waste heat usage, 2004 V1:131, 132
reduced-pressure backflow preventers, 2005 V2:68 water coolers, 2008 V4:242
reduced pressure zones (RPZ), 2005 V2:68, 70, 2007 refuse bins, 2004 V1:196
V3:207208, 212 refuse disposal installations, soundproofing, 2004 V1:196
reduced-pressure-principle backflow devices (RPBDs), regenerable ion exchange, 2005 V2:215
2005 V2:68 regenerants, dealkalizing and, 2005 V2:209210
applications, 2008 V4:185 regeneration controls on ion exchangers, 2008 V4:198
defined, 2008 V4:174, 178179, 180 regeneration cycle
reduced-size venting in dealkalizing, 2005 V2:209210
reduced size vents, defined, 2004 V1:28 defined, 2008 V4:224
sanitary drainage systems, 2005 V2:1819 in deionizing, 2005 V2:216219, 217
Reduced-size Venting Design, 2005 V2:47 in demineralizers, 2007 V3:48, 2008 V4:195
reduced temperature, defined, 2007 V3:168 in ion exchange, 2005 V2:218219, 2008 V4:198
reduced water-flow rates, 2004 V1:126127 salt recycling, 2008 V4:211
reduced water pressure differential, 2008 V4:81 service deionization, 2008 V4:195
reduced zone backflow preventers (RZBP), 2004 V1:10 sodium chloride usage, 2008 V4:199
reducers, defined, 2004 V1:28 in water softeners, 2005 V2:220, 2008 V4:206, 209
reducing bushings, 2005 V2:100 regenerative diatomaceous earth filters, 2007 V3:118119
redundancy in hazardous waste systems, 2007 V3:8384 regenerative pumps (turbines), 2008 V4:9899
reference standard specifications, 2004 V1:6667 regional authorities, 2005 V2:237
references registers in fuel dispensers, 2007 V3:143
bioremediation systems, 2008 V4:253 regulated substances, 2007 V3:133
cold water systems, 2005 V2:104 regulations. See codes and standards
compressed air systems, 2007 V3:179 regulator relief vents, 2005 V2:129
conserving energy, 2004 V1:137 regulators. See specific types of regulators
cross connections, 2008 V4:179 Rehabilitation Act of 1973 (93-112), 2004 V1:106
designing for people with disabilities, 2004 V1:123 Reid, D., 2008 V4:224
fire-protection systems, 2007 V3:2930 reinforced concrete pipe (RCP), 2008 V4:28
formulae, symbols, and terminology, 2004 V1:40 reinforced thermosetting resin pipe (RTRP), 2008 V4:56
gasoline and diesel-oil systems, 2007 V3:151 reinforcing ribs in tanks, 2007 V3:135
graywater systems, 2005 V2:3536 reject stream from reverse osmosis, 2005 V2:221
grease interceptors, 2008 V4:166 relative discharge curves, 2007 V3:203
green plumbing, 2008 V4:265 relative humidity (rh, RH), 2004 V1:15, 2007 V3:167, 170
health care facilities, 2007 V3:7879 Relative Importance of Time and Surface Temperature in
irrigation systems, 2007 V3:96 the Causation of Cutaneous Burns, 2005 V2:124
piping insulation, 2008 V4:116 Relative Resistance of Escherichin coli and Eberthella
sanitary drainage systems, 2005 V2:19 thyphosa to Chlorine and Chloramines, 2008
seismic protection, 2004 V1:191 V4:224
special-waste drainage systems, 2005 V2:256 relative velocity, 2008 V4:154
steam and condensate systems, 2007 V3:162 relay interface controls, 2007 V3:68
thermal expansion, 2008 V4:235 reliability of water supplies, 2007 V3:3, 6
vacuum systems, 2005 V2:196 relief valves
vents, 2005 V2:4748 centralized drinking-water systems, 2008 V4:246
water treatment and purification, 2005 V2:234, 2008 fire pumps, 2007 V3:22
V4:224 gas regulators, 2007 V3:237
references section in specifications, 2004 V1:69, 88 hot-water systems, 2005 V2:115116, 2008 V4:231
reflecting pools sizing, 2005 V2:116
defined, 2004 V1:28 water-pressure regulators and, 2008 V4:81
design, 2007 V3:99 relief vents
flow rates, 2007 V3:101 circuit and loop venting, 2005 V2:44
overview, 2007 V3:99 defined, 2004 V1:28
reformatories, numbers of fixtures for, 2008 V4:19 gas systems, 2005 V2:129
refrigerant after-coolers, 2007 V3:171 gas trains, 2007 V3:237
refrigerants (R, R-), 2004 V1:15, 151 requirements, 2005 V2:40
refrigerated air dryers, 2007 V3:172, 175 soil and waste stacks, 2005 V2:44
refrigeration loads, 2008 V4:245, 246 remote-control irrigation valves, 2007 V3:94
refrigeration mechanical rooms, 2004 V1:166 remote earth (remote electrodes), 2004 V1:153
refrigeration piping, 2008 V4:31, 32 remote electrodes, 2004 V1:153
refrigeration systems remote fill ports, 2007 V3:136, 145
centralized chilled water systems, 2008 V4:244245, remote leakage from tanks, 2007 V3:140141
246 remote portions of fire design areas, 2007 V3:12
heat reclamation, 2004 V1:131 remote-readout water meters, 2005 V2:69

Index 361
remote secondary-containment enclosures, 2007 V3:145 resilient wedges, 2008 V4:83

remote water coolers, 2008 V4:238 resin beads, 2005 V2:217
removal ratios for grease interceptors, 2008 V4:157 resins, ion-exchange
Remove Organics by Activated Carbon Adsorption, 2005 continuous deionization, 2005 V2:219220
V2:234 defined, 2005 V2:215, 2008 V4:197199, 224
rems (radiation equivalent to man), 2005 V2:247 in diluting compartments, 2005 V2:220
renovations, cost estimating and, 2004 V1:98 overview, 2005 V2:215216
repetition in value engineering presentations, 2004 V1:258 regenerating, 2005 V2:217
replacements for Halon gases, 2007 V3:26 strong-acid and weak-acid, 2005 V2:216
Report on Hydraulics and Pneumatics of Plumbing volatile organic compounds in, 2005 V2:201
Drainage Systems, 2005 V2:19 resistance ratings (fire loads), 2007 V3:2
reports on cross connections, 2008 V4:183 resistance (res, RES, OHMS), 2004 V1:15
required costs, 2004 V1:223 resistivity
res, RES (resistance or resistors), 2004 V1:16 defined, 2004 V1:154
research facilities, radiation in, 2005 V2:248 low extractable PVC, 2008 V4:56
reserves (connected standbys), 2007 V3:27 resistivity meters, 2008 V4:197, 214
reservoirs soil, 2004 V1:150
condensate drainage, 2007 V3:160 resistors (res, RES, OHMS), 2004 V1:15
defined, 2008 V4:140 resonance and ringing
municipal, 2007 V3:6 calculating, 2008 V4:149
storm drainage systems, 2005 V2:49 preventing, 2008 V4:120
residential care facilities, numbers of fixtures for, 2008 upper floor installations, 2008 V4:150
V4:19 vibration and, 2008 V4:145
residential dual-check valve assemblies resonant air compression systems, 2007 V3:178
defined, 2008 V4:180 resonant amplification, defined, 2008 V4:146
residential kitchen sinks resource conservation, 2004 V1:124
faucets, 2008 V4:13 Resource Conservation and Recovery Act, 2004 V1:124,
types and requirements, 2008 V4:1112 2005 V2:252, 2007 V3:8183, 88, 134
residential owners, responsibilities, 2008 V4:182 resources
residential sprinkler systems (fire protection), 2007 V3:18 gasoline and diesel-oil systems, 2007 V3:151
residential systems health care facilities, 2007 V3:79
cold-water systems. See cold-water systems industrial wastewater treatment, 2007 V3:89
estimating sewage quantities, 2005 V2:158160 irrigation systems, 2007 V3:96
firefighting demand flow rates, 2007 V3:216 solar energy, 2007 V3:194
fixture drainage loads, 2005 V2:3 respirators, 2005 V2:239, 241
hot-water systems. See hot-water systems response in pressure-regulated valves, 2005 V2:67
irrigation, 2007 V3:92 response spectrum in earthquakes, 2004 V1:160161, 186
lavatory flow rates, 2008 V4:10 responsibilities of owners and engineers, 2008 V4:184
numbers of fixtures, 2008 V4:19 rest homes, 2008 V4:208
sewage-disposal systems. See private onsite wastewater restaurants, 2005 V2:156157. See also food-processing
treatment systems (POWTS) areas and kitchens
sprinklers, 2004 V1:30 drinking fountain usage, 2008 V4:245
typical graywater supply and demand, 2005 V2:29 fixtures, 2008 V4:18, 20
water supply. See domestic water supply grease interceptors, 2008 V4:153
residual acids, 2008 V4:200 water consumption, 2008 V4:208
residual pressure restrained-spring mountings, 2004 V1:204
defined, 2004 V1:28, 2005 V2:67 restraint systems
domestic water supply, 2007 V3:202206 for earthquakes, 2004 V1:166, 189
fire hydrants, 2007 V3:3 for fire-protection joints, 2007 V3:213
sprinkler hydraulic calculations, 2007 V3:12 restraints and restraining control devices
residual radiation, 2005 V2:249 defined, 2008 V4:140
resilient mounts illustrated, 2008 V4:123
calculating vibration, 2008 V4:147148 restricted areas (facilities with radiation), 2005 V2:247
economic concerns, 2008 V4:151 restrooms. See water-closet compartments; water closets
illustrated, 2004 V1:207 retail stores, 2008 V4:19, 245
natural frequencies and, 2008 V4:146 retaining straps, 2008 V4:140
noise and vibration control, 2004 V1:199, 205 retard chambers, 2007 V3:7
pipe run installations, 2004 V1:209 retention basins, 2007 V3:233
seismic danger and, 2004 V1:206 bioremediation systems, 2008 V4:250
vibration calculator, 2008 V4:147148 FOG bioremediation systems, 2008 V4:250
resilient pipe supports, 2004 V1:199, 206, 2008 V4:140 retention periods for grease interceptors, 2008 V4:154155
resilient seat discs, 2008 V4:83 retention ratios in bioremediation, 2008 V4:253

retirement costs, in labor costs, 2004 V1:94 rigid cellular urethane, 2008 V4:111
retractable ceiling medical gas columns, 2007 V3:56 rigid hangers, 2008 V4:140
return air (ra, RA), 2004 V1:15 rigid pipes
return bends, 2005 V2:101 expansion of, 2008 V4:230
return circuits, 2004 V1:139 plastic piping, 2007 V3:147
return offsets, 2004 V1:28 rigid supports, 2008 V4:140
return periods in rainfall, 2005 V2:5357, 2007 V3:230 rim top test, 2008 V4:5
231 rims
reusing water. See graywater systems defined, 2004 V1:28
rev, REV (revolutions), 2004 V1:15 on urinals, 2004 V1:116117
revent pipes, 2004 V1:28. See also individual vents rim top test, 2008 V4:5
reverse flow water closets, 2008 V4:45
active control, 2008 V4:173175 ring bands, 2008 V4:140
air gaps, 2008 V4:172173, 176 ring buoys, 2007 V3:131
barometric loops, 2008 V4:172173 ring hangers and supports, 2008 V4:126
causes, 2008 V4:170171 ring-securing methods around drains, 2005 V2:16
passive control, 2008 V4:172173 ringing in pipes. See resonance and ringing
vacuum breakers, 2008 V4:173174, 175, 176 rinsing in regeneration cycle, 2005 V2:217, 218, 2008
water distribution hazards, 2008 V4:171172 V4:224
reverse osmosis (RO) riser clamps, 2008 V4:121, 123, 126, 140
applications, 2008 V4:219 riser hangers, 2008 V4:140
cartridges, 2005 V2:204205 riser-mounted sprinklers, 2007 V3:93
continuous deionization and, 2005 V2:220 risers
defined, 2005 V2:221223, 2008 V4:195196 bracing, 2004 V1:171, 178
drinking-water coolers, 2008 V4:243 checklists, 2004 V1:102
health care facilities, 2007 V3:48 defined, 2004 V1:28, 2007 V3:78, 2008 V4:140
history and current technology, 2008 V4:217 earthquake protection and joints, 2004 V1:168
laboratory grade water comparison, 2008 V4:218 hangers and supports, 2008 V4:67
membrane configurations, 2005 V2:221222 natural gas piping, 2005 V2:137
membrane selection, 2005 V2:223 riser clamps, 2008 V4:121, 123, 140
overview, 2008 V4:216217 riser down (elbows), 2004 V1:10
polishing systems, 2008 V4:219 riser hangers, 2008 V4:140
polymer membranes, 2005 V2:223 riser-mounted sprinklers, 2007 V3:93
silica and, 2005 V2:200 riser up (elbows), 2004 V1:10
small drinking water systems, 2005 V2:228 symbols for, 2004 V1:12
VOCs in membranes, 2005 V2:201 thermal expansion and contraction, 2008 V4:228
water problems, 2008 V4:187 rises or drops, 2004 V1:11
water quality, 2008 V4:217219 rising stems (RS), 2008 V4:74
water softening pretreatment, 2008 V4:206 with inside screws, 2008 V4:79
water supply (RO), 2004 V1:8 with outside screws, 2008 V4:79
Reverse Osmosis and Nanofiltration System Design, 2005 risk cabinets, 2005 V2:251
V2:234 Risk Guides in value engineering, 2004 V1:254, 257
Reverse Osmosis Membrane Research, 2008 V4:224 rivers
reverse-trap water closets, 2008 V4:3 cross contamination case, 2008 V4:189
reversible potential, defined, 2004 V1:153 piping systems near, 2008 V4:120
revolutions (rev, REV) riveted steel piping, 2005 V2:83, 86
revolutions per minute (rpm, RPM), 2004 V1:15 RNA materials, 2008 V4:215
revolutions per second (rps, RPS), 2004 V1:16 RO (reverse osmosis). See reverse osmosis
Reynolds number for turbulence, 2004 V1:2, 2005 V2:84, roadblocks to creativity, 2004 V1:231232
85, 2008 V4:154 rock salt, 2005 V2:220
RFP (fiberglass reinforced plastic), 2005 V2:68, 92 rod couplings, 2008 V4:140
rgh, RGH (roughness), 2004 V1:16. See also roughness rod hangers, 2008 V4:140
rh, RH (relative humidity). See relative humidity rod stiffeners, 2008 V4:127, 140
RHO (density). See density Rodie, E. R., 2008 V4:166
rhomboids, calculating area, 2004 V1:4 rods and anchors, 2008 V4:127, 140
rhombuses, calculating area, 2004 V1:4 Roentgens, 2005 V2:247
RI (Ryzner stability index), 2005 V2:207208 roll and plate devices, 2008 V4:140
Richardson, D.W., Sr., 2005 V2:234 roll hangers, 2008 V4:140
rigging, 2008 V4:140 roll-in shower compartments, 2004 V1:119120
right-angle triangles, calculating area, 2004 V1:4 roll plates, 2008 V4:140
rigid braces, 2008 V4:140 roll stands, 2008 V4:140
rigid ceiling medical gas columns, 2007 V3:56 roll trapezes, 2008 V4:140

Index 363
rollers, 2008 V4:67, 68, 123 rubber-in-shear isolators, 2004 V1:166

roof drainage, 2005 V2:4952 rubber insulation, 2008 V4:106107, 109
avoiding septic tank disposal, 2005 V2:156 rubber isolation devices
controlled flow systems, 2005 V2:5253 concrete bases and, 2004 V1:204205
green roof designs, 2004 V1:266 defined, 2004 V1:204
gutters and downspouts, 2005 V2:63 dishwashers, 2004 V1:195
limited-discharge roof drains, 2007 V3:233 reducing water hammer, 2004 V1:198
roof drain sizes, 2005 V2:6264 rubber insulation, 2008 V4:106107, 109
roof drains, defined, 2004 V1:28 with steel spring isolators, 2008 V4:149150
roofing vibration control, 2004 V1:203, 2008 V4:146, 151
design considerations in seismic protection, 2004 rubble drains (french drains), 2004 V1:25
V1:188 rules in Function Analysis, 2004 V1:225
green roofs, 2004 V1:266267 running loads, condensate drainage, 2007 V3:161
imperviousness factors, 2007 V3:229 running traps, 2007 V3:45
roof penetrations, 2005 V2:42 runoff
rotary lobe compressors, 2007 V3:170 imperviousness factor, 2007 V3:229230
rotary lobe (roots) pumps, 2005 V2:180 rational method and, 2007 V3:228
rotary piston pumps, 2005 V2:180 Rational method for calculating, 2004 V1:7
rotary pop-up sprinklers, 2007 V3:93 Russell SRTA (Stationary Reflector/Tracking Absorber)
rotary screw air compressors, 2007 V3:62, 63, 171 system, 2007 V3:188189
rotary vane, once-through-oil pumps, 2005 V2:180 rust
rotating filters, 2007 V3:88 formation in iron pipes, 2004 V1:139
rotational natural frequencies, 2008 V4:146 rusting, defined, 2004 V1:154
rotors RV (pressure-relief valves). See pressure-regulating or
in gas boosters, 2005 V2:130 reducing valves
in pump engines, 2004 V1:197 Ryzner stability index (RI), 2005 V2:207208
rotting cork, 2008 V4:149 RZBP (reduced zone backflow preventers), 2004 V1:10
rough-ins
checklist, 2004 V1:103
roughing in, defined, 2004 V1:28
S
S (entropy), 2004 V1:14, 33
water closets, 2008 V4:4 s, SEC (seconds), 2004 V1:16, 33
rough vacuum, 2005 V2:175 S (siemens), 2004 V1:33
roughness (rgh, RGH, E), 2004 V1:16 S (soil sewers), 2004 V1:8
roughness of pipes S (surfaces), 2004 V1:16
fairly rough pipe, 2005 V2:89 s traps (unvented traps), 2007 V3:45
fairly smooth pipe, 2005 V2:88 sa, SA (supply air), 2004 V1:16
laminar flow and, 2005 V2:84 sacrificial anodes, 2004 V1:147
pipe sizing and, 2005 V2:8790 saddles and rollers, 2008 V4:68, 123, 126, 140
pipe types and, 2005 V2:86 saddles for tanks, 2007 V3:150
rough pipe, 2005 V2:90 Safe Drinking Water Act of 1974, 2005 V2:163, 167, 197,
smooth pipe, 2005 V2:87 227, 2008 V4:179, 186
types of pipes and, 2005 V2:83 Safe Handling of Acids, 2005 V2:256
round bowls on water closets, 2008 V4:4 safety. See also hazards
round leaders, 2005 V2:63 controlled substance spills, 2005 V2:195196
round surfaces, heat loss and, 2008 V4:113 equipment, swimming pools, 2007 V3:131
routing hot-water pipes, 2004 V1:265 flammable and volatile liquids, 2005 V2:254256
RPBDs. See reduced-pressure-principle backflow devices fountains, 2007 V3:101
rpm, RPM (revolutions per minute), 2004 V1:15 gas boosters, 2005 V2:131
rps, RPS (revolutions per second), 2004 V1:16 gases in septic tanks, 2005 V2:155
RPZ (reduced pressure zones), 2005 V2:68, 70, 71, 2007 hot-water systems, 2005 V2:107, 122124
V3:207208, 212 life safety in fire protection, 2007 V3:1
RS. See rising stems (RS) radioactive waste-drainage systems, 2005 V2:248249
RSOs (Radiological Safety Officers), 2005 V2:248 Radiological Safety Officers, 2005 V2:248
RTRP-11AF1 standard, 2008 V4:56 reflecting pools and, 2007 V3:101
RTRP (reinforced thermosetting resin pipe), 2008 V4:56 safety factors, defined, 2008 V4:140
rubber safety factors (sf, SF), 2004 V1:16
vibration control, 2008 V4:146, 151 sanitary precautions for wells, 2005 V2:166167
vibration insulation, 2008 V4:149 types of acids, 2005 V2:240242
rubber compression gaskets, 2008 V4:25 vacuum cleaning system issues, 2005 V2:195
rubber facing in dry-pipe clappers, 2007 V3:8 water features, 2007 V3:130
Rubber-Gasket Joints, 2008 V4:28 safety cabinets, 2005 V2:251
rubber gaskets, 2008 V4:32 safety factors, defined, 2008 V4:140

safety shut-off devices, 2005 V2:144 fittings, 2004 V1:44

sal soda. See sodium carbonate (soda ash) fixture discharge characteristics, 2005 V2:3
sales tax, in plumbing cost estimation, 2004 V1:94 floor leveling around drains, 2005 V2:16
salesmanship in value engineering, 2004 V1:257 flow in, 2005 V2:12
salt-air dryers, 2007 V3:175 force mains
salt splitting, 2005 V2:209 connections, 2007 V3:226
salt water, 2008 V4:120 sizing, 2007 V3:221
salts. See also sodium chloride sizing ejector pumps and pits, 2007 V3:220221
defined, 2008 V4:224 graywater systems and, 2005 V2:35
in distilled water, 2008 V4:212 grease interceptors and, 2008 V4:162
ions in reverse osmosis, 2005 V2:198 health care facilities, 2007 V3:4246
in irrigation water, 2007 V3:91 joining methods, 2005 V2:1314
nanofiltration, 2008 V4:220 kitchen areas, 2005 V2:15
recycling systems, water softeners, 2008 V4:209211 laboratories, 2007 V3:4346
storage, 2008 V4:211 materials for, 2005 V2:13
water hardness and, 2008 V4:196 overview, 2007 V3:217
water purity and, 2008 V4:195 pipes, 2004 V1:44
water softener consumption, 2008 V4:206207, 209 pneumatic pressures in, 2005 V2:23
samples preliminary information, 2007 V3:197198
acid wastes, 2007 V3:45 protection from damage, 2005 V2:16
infectious waste systems, 2005 V2:252 public sewer availability, 2007 V3:217
radioactive waste effluent, 2005 V2:250 reduced-size venting, 2005 V2:1819
sampling manholes, 2007 V3:45 sample letters, 2007 V3:217
San Diego Gas & Electric Company, 2004 V1:137 sanitary sewers (SAN, SS), 2004 V1:8, 28
San Francisco Earthquake, 2004 V1:162 sanitation and cleaning, 2005 V2:15
SAN (sanitary sewers), 2004 V1:8, 28. See also sanitary self-cleansing velocities, 2005 V2:7
drainage systems single-stack systems, 2005 V2:18
sand filters, 2007 V3:112113, 115116 sizing, 2007 V3:216217
sand filtration sloping drain capacities, 2005 V2:58
drinking water, 2005 V2:167168, 228 sovent systems, 2005 V2:1718
earthquake damage to filters, 2004 V1:162 stack capacities, 2005 V2:35
horizontal pressure sand filters, 2008 V4:202 storm-drainage systems and, 2005 V2:49
laboratory water, 2005 V2:211 supports, 2005 V2:1213
pure water systems, 2005 V2:231 thermal expansion, 2005 V2:16
sand filters defined, 2004 V1:28 trenching and bedding, 2007 V3:217218, 219
sewage treatment, 2005 V2:153 vacuum drainage systems, 2005 V2:19
swimming pools, 2007 V3:108 waterproofing, 2005 V2:1516
vertical pressure sand filters, 2008 V4:203 sanitary joints, 2007 V3:4850
sand points, 2005 V2:165 sanitary sewer pipe codes, 2004 V1:44
sands sanitary sewer systems. See sanitary drainage systems
graywater irrigation systems and, 2005 V2:29 sanitary tees
imperviousness factors, 2007 V3:229 flow capacity and, 2005 V2:4
porous soils, 2007 V3:9192, 96 water closet installation, 2008 V4:6
in soil texture, 2005 V2:148 sanitaryware. See fixtures
sanistans, 2007 V3:40 sanitation. See also cleanouts
sanitary building drains. See also sanitary drainage feed water, 2005 V2:205
systems fixture materials and, 2008 V4:1
cast-iron soil pipe, 2008 V4:23 floor drains, 2008 V4:16
defined, 2004 V1:20 precautions for wells, 2005 V2:166167
sanitary drain system pumps, 2008 V4:100 sanitary seals on wells, 2005 V2:164
sanitary drainage fitting codes, 2004 V1:44 stainless steel piping, 2008 V4:59
sanitary drainage systems underdeveloped nations, 2008 V4:255256
alternative disposal methods, 2007 V3:221 water softeners, 2005 V2:221
alternative systems, 2005 V2:1619 sanitizer levels, swimming pools, 2007 V3:123
building sewers (house drains), 2005 V2:1415, 2008 sanitizers, 2007 V3:40
V4:23 sanitizers/oxidizers
codes and standards, 2005 V2:1 feed system, 2007 V3:126127
components, 2005 V2:813, 2007 V3:217220 ozone system, 2007 V3:129
connections, 2007 V3:218, 221 UV system, 2007 V3:129130
defined, 2005 V2:1 Sansone, John T., 2005 V2:64
drainage loads, 2005 V2:3 SARA Title III Act (Superfund Amendment and
drainage structures, 2007 V3:217220 Reauthorization Act of 1986), 2007 V3:134

Index 365
sasol, 2005 V2:126 Schedule 40 polyvinyl pipe, 2008 V4:53

sat., SAT (saturation). See saturation Schedule 40 PVC plastic, 2007 V3:13, 2008 V4:53
saturated air and vapor mixtures, 2007 V3:168 Schedule 40 PVDF pipe, 2008 V4:55
saturated steam Schedule 40 steel pipe, 2008 V4:4445
defined, 2007 V3:153154 Schedule 80 ABS pipe, 2008 V4:54
pressure, 2007 V3:155157 Schedule 80 plastic pipe, 2008 V4:62
valve ratings, 2008 V4:79 Schedule 80 polypropylene pipe, 2008 V4:54
saturated vapor pressure, 2007 V3:168 Schedule 80 polyvinyl pipe, 2008 V4:53
saturation pressure, 2007 V3:168 Schedule 80 PVC plastic, 2008 V4:53
saturation (sat., SAT) Schedule 80 PVC plastic pipe, 2008 V4:213
defined, 2007 V3:168 Schedule 80 PVDF pipe, 2008 V4:55
of soils, 2005 V2:149 Schedule 80 steel pipe, 2008 V4:4647
symbols for, 2004 V1:16 schedules (project)
of water with calcium carbonate, 2005 V2:206 checklist, 2004 V1:102
SAVE. See Society of American Value Engineering section in specifications, 2004 V1:70, 90, 92
sawcutting trenches, labor productivity rates, 2004 V1:96 school laboratories. See laboratories
Saybolt Seconds Furol (ssf, SSF), 2004 V1:16, 2007 V3:134 schools
Saybolt Seconds Universal (ssu, SSU), 2004 V1:16, 2007 hot water demand, 2005 V2:109
V3:134 numbers of fixtures for, 2008 V4:18, 21
SAZ (solar azimuth), 2004 V1:14 septic tank systems for, 2005 V2:156157
SBCCI (Southern Building Code Congress International, shower room grates, 2005 V2:11
Inc.), 2005 V2:64, 2007 V3:134 swimming pools and, 2007 V3:107
SC (shading coefficients), 2004 V1:16 vacuum calculations for, 2005 V2:190
scalars, defined, 2004 V1:93 water consumption, 2008 V4:208, 245
scalding water, 2005 V2:107, 122124, 2008 V4:113 scope lines, 2004 V1:227
scale and scale formation scoring pipes and equipment, 2008 V4:194
boilers, 2005 V2:225 screening
chlorides and sulfates, 2005 V2:200 in downspouts, 2005 V2:63
cooling towers, 2005 V2:227 in graywater treatment, 2005 V2:30
distilled water and, 2008 V4:212 vacuum exhaust piping, 2005 V2:194
fixtures and appliances, 2008 V4:205 screw compressors, 2007 V3:170, 173
hardness and, 2005 V2:200, 2008 V4:196 screw pumps, 2005 V2:180
impure water and, 2008 V4:194 screw threads, 2004 V1:17
Langelier saturation index, 2005 V2:206207 screwed bonnets, 2008 V4:74, 79
magnesium and, 2005 V2:200 screwed ells, 2005 V2:101
predicting water deposits and corrosion, 2005 V2:206 screwed ends of valves, 2008 V4:79
208 screwed fittings, 2004 V1:162
removing with water softening, 2005 V2:220 screwed-lug type valves, 2008 V4:77
Ryzner stability index, 2005 V2:207208 screwed mechanical joints, 2005 V2:242
in stills, 2008 V4:213 screwed tees, 2005 V2:101
temperature and, 2008 V4:205 screwed union-ring bonnets, 2008 V4:79
total dissolved solids and, 2005 V2:204 scrub-up sinks, 2007 V3:36, 3839, 40
water deposits and corrosion, 2005 V2:205206 scuff-buff grates, 2005 V2:11
water piping systems, 2005 V2:168 scum in septic tanks, 2005 V2:153
scale plates, 2008 V4:140 scuppers, 2005 V2:54, 56
scanning electron microscopy, 2005 V2:199. See also SCW (soft cold water), 2004 V1:8
electron microscopes SD (storm or rainwater drains). See storm-drainage
scavenging adapters, 2007 V3:6667 systems
scfh (standard cfh), 2005 V2:131 SDI (service deionization), 2008 V4:195
scfm, SCFM (standard cubic feet per minute) SDI (silt density index), 2005 V2:204205
abbreviation, 2004 V1:14 SDR (standard dimension ratio)
ambient free air and, 2005 V2:176178 HDPE pipe, 2008 V4:51
compressed air pipe sizing, 2007 V3:177 SDR21 PVC pipe, 2008 V4:53
compressed air tools, 2007 V3:175 SDR26 PVC pipe, 2008 V4:53
defined, 2007 V3:78, 169 SE (sea level). See sea level
medical air compressors, 2007 V3:62, 63 sea level (sl, SL, SE)
medical vacuum systems, 2007 V3:6465 atmospheric pressure, 2007 V3:169
scfs, SCFS (cubic feet per second), 2004 V1:33 symbols for, 2004 V1:16
Schedule 10 steel pipe, 2008 V4:48 vacuum ratings, 2005 V2:178
Schedule 40 ABS pipe, 2008 V4:54 sealed sprinklers, 2007 V3:8
Schedule 40 plastic pipe, 2008 V4:62 sealing grouts in wells, 2005 V2:166
Schedule 40 polypropylene pipe, 2008 V4:54 seals

acoustic pipe-penetration seals, 2004 V1:201 in graywater treatment, 2005 V2:30

butterfly valve seals, 2008 V4:86 turbidity and, 2008 V4:196
elastomeric seals or gaskets, 2008 V4:229 in water treatment, 2005 V2:208209
flashing rings, 2005 V2:11 Sedimentation and the Design of Settling Tanks, 2008
floor drains in infectious waste systems, 2005 V2:252 V4:166
pumps, 2008 V4:94 seepage beds. See soil-absorption sewage systems
seal liquids in vacuum pumps, 2005 V2:181 seepage flanges, 2005 V2:1516
sound insulation, 2004 V1:193 seepage pits, 2004 V1:28, 2005 V2:30, 2007 V3:221
trap seals in floor drains, 2005 V2:10 SEFF (surface efficiency), 2004 V1:14
water closets, 2008 V4:6 seiches, 2004 V1:158
well fixtures, 2005 V2:166 seismic, defined, 2004 V1:191
seamless copper pipe, 2008 V4:3032 seismic control devices, 2008 V4:140
seamless copper water tube, 2008 V4:3042 Seismic Design for Buildings, 2004 V1:183, 191
seamless steel piping, 2008 V4:48 seismic forces, hangers and supports, 2008 V4:67, 119
seasonal flow rates, 2008 V4:207 seismic joints, crossing, 2004 V1:162
seats seismic loads, 2008 V4:140
accessible shower compartments, 2004 V1:120 seismic pipe clamps, 2008 V4:121
bathtub and shower seats, 2004 V1:115, 117, 122123 seismic protection
seat fouling tests, 2008 V4:5 air compressors and, 2007 V3:179
water closets, 2008 V4:5 calculating seismic forces, 2004 V1:183186
seats (valves) causes and effects of earthquakes, 2004 V1:156158
gate valves, 2008 V4:83 codes and standards, 2004 V1:171184
globe/angle-globe valves, 2008 V4:83 computer analysis of piping systems, 2004 V1:186
seat erosion, 2008 V4:7576 damage from earthquakes, 2004 V1:158
seat tests, 2008 V4:89 design considerations, 2004 V1:186188
second-guessing designs, 2004 V1:213 earthquake measurement and seismic design, 2004
secondary containment V1:160161
of hazardous wastes, 2007 V3:8384 equipment protection, 2004 V1:163171
of infectious wastes, 2005 V2:251 glossary, 2004 V1:191
secondary containment tanks introduction, 2004 V1:155156
aboveground types, 2007 V3:144145 learning from past earthquakes, 2004 V1:161163
interstitial monitoring, 2007 V3:139140 pipe restraints, 2004 V1:166182, 2005 V2:13, 16, 2007
interstitial spaces, 2007 V3:136 V3:20
underground tanks, 2007 V3:135 potential problems, 2004 V1:188191, 189
secondary functions, 2004 V1:225, 227, 230 references, 2004 V1:191
secondary pipe liquid monitoring, 2007 V3:141 seismic loads, defined, 2004 V1:155
secondary pipe vapor monitoring, 2007 V3:141 seismic risk maps, 2004 V1:155157
secondary storm-drainage systems underground storage tanks and, 2007 V3:135
controlled-flow systems, 2005 V2:5253 vibration isolation and, 2004 V1:206
planning for in design, 2005 V2:5556 Seismic Restraint Manual Guidelines for Mechanical
scuppers, 2005 V2:56 Systems, 2004 V1:191
Seconds Redwood, 2007 V3:134 selective attack corrosion, 2004 V1:141
seconds (s, SEC), 2004 V1:16, 33 selective surfaces, 2007 V3:185
Seconds Saybolt Furol (SSF), 2007 V3:134 selectivity coefficients, 2005 V2:216
Seconds Saybolt Universal (SSU), 2007 V3:134 selenium, 2008 V4:186, 187
sectional modulus, 2008 V4:228 self-bracing problems in seismic protection, 2004 V1:190
Sectionformat, 2004 V1:65, 6871 self-cleansing velocities, 2005 V2:7
sections self-closing valves, 2007 V3:35
in Manual of Practice, 2004 V1:8892 self-contained breathing units, 2005 V2:239, 241
of pump equipment, 2005 V2:169 self-contained fountains, 2007 V3:99
in specifications, 2004 V1:63, 6871 Self-Contained Mechanically-Refrigerated Drinking Water
security of oxygen storage areas, 2007 V3:60 Coolers, 2008 V4:243
sediment self-jetting well points, 2005 V2:165
removing, 2005 V2:208209 self-metering faucets, 2008 V4:13
in water, 2005 V2:198 self-priming pumps, 2007 V3:108, 119
sediment buckets self-regulating heat-trace systems, 2005 V2:115
kitchen drains, 2005 V2:15 self-scouring velocity in sewers, 2007 V3:217
materials, 2005 V2:13 self-siphonage, 2005 V2:2, 47
in oil collectors, 2005 V2:12 self-venting in sovent systems, 2005 V2:1718
in sanitary drainage systems, 2005 V2:11 selling functions, 2004 V1:225
sedimentation SEMI (Semiconductor Equipment Manufacturers
bioremediation systems, 2008 V4:250 Institute), 2005 V2:197, 228

Index 367
semi-ambulatory individuals venting, 2005 V2:156

semi-ambulatory disabilities, 2004 V1:107 septum filters, 2005 V2:228
water closet requirements, 2004 V1:116 sequence
semi-automatic grease interceptors, 2008 V4:159 of project phases, cost estimates and, 2004 V1:98
semi-circular gutters, 2005 V2:63 section in specifications, 2004 V1:70, 90
semi-circular lavatories, 2008 V4:10 sequential functions in FAST approach, 2004 V1:230
semi-engineered drawings, 2008 V4:141 sequential functions in FAST approach, 2004 V1:230
semi-engineered hanger assemblies, 2008 V4:141 series of pumps, 2008 V4:9899
semi-instantaneous water heaters, 2005 V2:111 series water conditioning equipment, 2008 V4:208
semi-permeable membranes, 2007 V3:48, 2008 V4:217, 219 service cocks, 2005 V2:103
semi-plug disc assemblies, 2008 V4:83 service conditions, defined, 2008 V4:141
semi-recessed water coolers, 2008 V4:240, 241 service connections for water piping, 2008 V4:69
Semiconductor Equipment Manufacturers Institute, 2005 service deionization, 2005 V2:219
V2:197, 228 service deionization (SDI), 2008 V4:195
Sendelbach, M.G., 2005 V2:234 service flow rates for water softeners, 2008 V4:205206
seniors. See elderly service gaskets, 2008 V4:60
sensible heat (SH) service runs, defined, 2008 V4:224
defined, 2004 V1:137, 2007 V3:153 service sinks, 2005 V2:94, 109, 2008 V4:1213, 1821
heat transfer efficiency and, 2007 V3:158 Service Station Tankage Guide (API 1611), 2007 V3:151
sensible heat gain (SHG), 2004 V1:15, 16 service stations, 2007 V3:144, 2008 V4:19
sensible heat ratio (SHR), 2004 V1:16 Service Water Heating, 2005 V2:104
symbols for, 2004 V1:16 service water heating, solar, 2007 V3:189192
sensitivity in pressure-regulated valves, 2005 V2:68 service-weight cast-iron soil pipe, 2008 V4:23, 2627
sensors services
corrosive-waste systems, 2007 V3:43 costs, 2004 V1:222
faucet controls, 2004 V1:135 ongoing and one-time costs, 2004 V1:223
flow, swimming pools, 2007 V3:113, 120121 set pressure in pressure-regulated valves, 2005 V2:68, 116
grease removal devices, 2008 V4:159160 settlement. See bedding and settlement; creep;
hazardous material level sensors, 2007 V3:84 sedimentation
level-sensing, swimming pools, 2007 V3:127128 settling tanks, 2007 V3:87, 2008 V4:201
line-pressure sensors, 2007 V3:67 settling velocity, 2008 V4:154
liquid fuel leakage, 2007 V3:141 severe backflow hazards, 2007 V3:207
pH sensors, 2007 V3:44 sewage, defined, 2004 V1:28. See also effluent
pressure sensors, 2005 V2:72 sewage effluent. See effluent
separating systems sewage ejectors, 2004 V1:28, 2008 V4:99
for acid waste, 2005 V2:239, 244 sewage pumps, 2008 V4:99100
bioremediation pretreatment systems, 2008 V4:252 sewage systems. See sewer systems
FOG bioremediation systems, 2008 V4:250 sewage treatment plants, 2005 V2:35
grease interceptors, 2008 V4:154156 sewer gas, 2005 V2:126
for oil, 2005 V2:255256 sewer mains, 2008 V4:28
separator/filters in air compressors, 2007 V3:171172 sewer systems. See also building sewers; private onsite
separators in vacuum cleaning systems wastewater treatment systems (POWTS); public
kinds of materials, 2005 V2:194 sewers; soil-absorption sewage systems; specific
location, 2005 V2:190 types of sewers
pressure loss, 2005 V2:193 combined systems, 2007 V3:233
types of systems, 2005 V2:188 direct connection hazards, 2008 V4:184
septic tanks discharge from laboratories, 2007 V3:43
biological treatment of sewage in, 2005 V2:153 preliminary information, 2007 V3:197198
chemicals in, 2005 V2:155156 sample sewer services letter, 2007 V3:244
cleaning, 2005 V2:155 sanitary sewer systems, 2007 V3:217221. See also
clogging materials, 2005 V2:156 sanitary drainage systems
compartments, 2005 V2:154155 sewer manholes, 2008 V4:184
defined, 2004 V1:28 sewer video equipment, 2005 V2:9
estimating sewage quantities, 2005 V2:158160 storm sewers, 2007 V3:221234
grease interceptors, 2005 V2:155 sf, SF (safety factors), 2004 V1:16
institutional and recreational establishments, 2005 sft hp, SFT HP (shaft horsepower), 2004 V1:16
V2:156157 sfu (supply fixture units), 2004 V1:24
percolation rates and, 2005 V2:161 SGPH (standard gallons per hour), 2004 V1:15
sanitary sewers and, 2007 V3:221 SH (sensible heat), 2004 V1:15, 16, 137
sizing, 2005 V2:153 shading coefficients (SC), 2004 V1:16
solids removal, 2005 V2:153 shaft horsepower (sft hp, SFT HP, SHP), 2004 V1:16
specifications, 2005 V2:153155 shafts, piping and acoustic design for, 2004 V1:196

shaking vacuum filter bags, 2005 V2:188 grates in school shower rooms, 2005 V2:11
shallow-end depth of swimming pools, 2007 V3:106 graywater supply and demand, 2005 V2:29
shallow fill, building sewers and, 2005 V2:14 graywater systems, 2004 V1:135
shallow manholes, 2007 V3:220, 224 health care facilities, 2007 V3:36, 40
shallow wells, 2005 V2:163, 164, 170 heat recovery systems, 2004 V1:266
shapes of swimming pools, 2007 V3:107 hot water demand, 2005 V2:109
shear lugs, 2008 V4:141 hydrotherapy, 2007 V3:38
shear motions, preventing, 2004 V1:163, 189, 190 labor rooms, 2007 V3:39
sheet copper, 2008 V4:14 minimum numbers of, 2008 V4:1821
sheet flow, 2005 V2:47 patient rooms, 2007 V3:37
sheet flows, 2007 V3:231 pressure reducing balancing valves and, 2005 V2:7172
sheet lead, 2008 V4:14 public areas in health care facilities, 2007 V3:37
Sheet Metal and Air Conditioning Contractors National rates of sewage flows, 2005 V2:160
Association (SMACNA), 2004 V1:170, 191 reduced water usage, 2004 V1:126
Sheet Metal Industry Fund of Los Angeles, 2004 V1:191 reducing flow rates, 2004 V1:135
shell-and-coil compressors, 2008 V4:243 requirements, 2008 V4:1415
shell-and-tube condensers, 2008 V4:243 resilient-mounting design, 2004 V1:206
shell-and-tube heat exchangers, 2004 V1:131 seats, 2004 V1:122123
shell tests, 2008 V4:89 shower compartment accessibility, 2004 V1:119122
shelving showerhead acoustic ratings, 2004 V1:195
accessibility in toilet and bathing rooms, 2004 V1:113 sodium hydroxide cross contamination, 2008 V4:187
ambulatory accessible toilet compartments, 2004 188
V1:115116 spray units, 2004 V1:118, 120
Sherlin, G.C., 2005 V2:48 standards, 2008 V4:2
SHG (sensible heat gain), 2004 V1:15, 16 stop levers, 2004 V1:136
shielded hubless coupling, 2008 V4:61 swimming pool bathhouses, 2007 V3:108
shielding on radioactive drainage systems, 2005 V2:247 temperatures, 2007 V3:47
248 thresholds, 2004 V1:120
shields. See protection shields water fixture unit values, 2007 V3:198
shine. See radiation SHP (shaft horsepower), 2004 V1:16
shipping costs, 2004 V1:98, 223 SHR (sensible heat ratio), 2004 V1:16
shipyard cross contamination case, 2008 V4:189 Shreir, L.L., 2004 V1:154
shock absorbers. See water hammer arresters shrinkage of ceramic fixtures, 2008 V4:1
shock absorbers, cork as, 2008 V4:149 shrub sprinkler heads, 2007 V3:94
shock intensity of water hammer, 2005 V2:80 Shumann, Eugene R., 2005 V2:64
Sholes, Christopher, 2004 V1:231 shut-off devices
shopping centers, 2005 V2:2829, 2008 V4:19. See also defined, 2005 V2:144
retail stores fuel dispensers, 2007 V3:143
shops. See retail stores shut-off valves
short circuiting in grease interceptors, 2008 V4:158 design details, 2008 V4:83
short-circuiting installations, 2004 V1:151 earthquake-sensitive valves, 2004 V1:162
shot-in concrete anchors, 2004 V1:163, 190 medical gases, 2007 V3:67
shower pans, 2008 V4:14 shutdown pump features, 2005 V2:73
shower valves shutdown relays, 2007 V3:2728
flow rates, 2008 V4:15 Shweitzer, Philip A., 2007 V3:89
installation, 2008 V4:15 SI units. See International System of Units
types, 2008 V4:1415 siamese fire-department connections, 2004 V1:12, 28, 2007
showerheads V3:8. See also fire-protection systems
Energy Policy Act requirements, 2004 V1:264 side-beam brackets, 2008 V4:141
low flow, 2004 V1:136 side-beam clamps, 2008 V4:141
scaling, 2005 V2:122 side reach for wheelchairs, 2004 V1:109, 112
wasted water, 2004 V1:136 side spray accessories, 2008 V4:12, 1314
water usage reduction, 2008 V4:259 side vents, 2004 V1:28, 2005 V2:41
showers sidesway prevention, 2004 V1:189
acoustic ratings of, 2004 V1:194195 sidewalk fire-department connections, 2004 V1:12
body sprays, 2008 V4:15 sidewall grab bars, 2004 V1:114
emergency showers, 2005 V2:239, 241, 251, 2008 V4:17 sidewall sprinklers, 2004 V1:13, 30
enclosures, 2004 V1:120 Siegrist, R., 2005 V2:36
fixture pipe sizes and demand, 2005 V2:94 siemens, 2004 V1:33
fixture-unit loads, 2005 V2:3 sight disabilities, 2004 V1:107
flow rates, 2008 V4:14 signals for fire alarms, 2007 V3:6
grab bars, 2004 V1:121122 significant digits, 2004 V1:32

Index 369
significant movement, 2008 V4:141 infectious waste drainage, 2005 V2:251

silencers kitchen sinks, 2008 V4:1112
on air compressors, 2007 V3:171, 178 laboratory rooms, 2007 V3:41
on vacuum systems, 2005 V2:189 laboratory sink drainage rates, 2005 V2:245
silent check valves, 2008 V4:83 laundry sinks, 2008 V4:13
silfos, 2008 V4:80 neutralizing acid from, 2005 V2:245
silica, 2005 V2:200, 2008 V4:204 pharmacies and drug rooms, 2007 V3:38
silica gel, 2007 V3:172 public areas in health care facilities, 2007 V3:35
silicates, 2005 V2:199, 2008 V4:218 rates of sewage flows, 2005 V2:161
silicon, 2005 V2:199 service sinks, 2008 V4:1213
silicon iron piping, 2005 V2:14, 2008 V4:57 sound-damping materials, 2004 V1:196
sill cocks, 2008 V4:185 standards, 2008 V4:2
silt suds problems, 2005 V2:4546
content of water, 2007 V3:91 surgical scrub-up areas, 2007 V3:3839
loams, 2007 V3:91 traps and acid wastes, 2007 V3:4546
removing, 2005 V2:208209 water fixture unit values, 2007 V3:198
silt density index, 2005 V2:204205 siphon jet urinals, 2008 V4:9
in soil texture, 2005 V2:148 siphon jet water closets, 2008 V4:3
in water, 2005 V2:198 siphonage. See also back-siphonage
silt density index (SDI), 2005 V2:204205 factors in trap seal loss, 2005 V2:47
silver, 2004 V1:139, 141, 144, 2008 V4:187 induced siphonage, 2005 V2:47
Silver-level LEED certification, 2004 V1:263 siphons in secondary containment areas, 2007 V3:84
silver solder, 2004 V1:141, 2008 V4:80 site storm drainage, 2004 V1:7
silvex site utilities
levels in drinking water, 2008 V4:186 domestic water supply, 2007 V3:198210, 243
treating in water, 2008 V4:187 fire-protection water supply, 2007 V3:210217
A Simple Method for Retention Basin Design, 2005 V2:64 natural gas services, 2007 V3:35, 235241, 245
simplex air compressors, 2007 V3:179 off-peak power savings, 2004 V1:128129
simplex gas booster systems, 2005 V2:132 overview, 2007 V3:197
simultaneous operators of vacuum systems, 2005 V2:190, preliminary information, 2007 V3:197198
191 sample general notes, 2007 V3:242
simultaneous-use factors. See diversity factor sanitary sewer services, 2007 V3:216221, 244
sine wave configurations of pipe, 2008 V4:231 storm sewers, 2007 V3:221234, 244
single. See also headings beginning with one-, mono-, swimming pool locations and, 2007 V3:106
etc. sites
single-acting altitude valves, 2005 V2:172 geological stability of, 2005 V2:29
single-acting cylinders in compressors, 2007 V3:170 irrigation system plans, 2007 V3:96
single-acting devices, 2008 V4:141 obtaining plans, 2007 V3:197
single-compartment septic tanks, 2005 V2:154 sitz baths, 2005 V2:109, 2007 V3:36, 40
single-compartment sinks, 2008 V4:11 Six Sticks exercise, 2004 V1:232, 261
single-degree-of-freedom systems, 2004 V1:160, 161 sizing
single-effect stills, 2008 V4:212 acid-neutralization tanks, 2007 V3:44
single-family dwellings, 2008 V4:19, 20 acid-waste drainage system pipes, 2005 V2:244
single-occupant toilet rooms, 2008 V4:1718 air compressors, 2007 V3:64, 177179
single pipe rolls, 2008 V4:141 air receivers, 2007 V3:173174
single-seated pressure-regulated valves, 2005 V2:78 bioremediation pretreatment systems, 2008 V4:250,
single-stack systems, 2005 V2:18 251, 253
single-stage distillation, 2005 V2:210 centralized drinking-water coolers, 2008 V4:244245,
single-step deionization (mixed bed), 2005 V2:216, 218 246
single-wall tanks, 2007 V3:135 clean agent gas pipes, 2007 V3:27
sink-disposal units. See food waste grinders cleanouts, 2005 V2:9
sinks and wash basins. See also lavatories cold-water system pipes, 2005 V2:82103, 8790
accessibility, 2004 V1:117 cryogenic tanks, 2007 V3:59
backflow prevention, 2008 V4:185 distillation systems, 2008 V4:213
faucets, 2008 V4:13 domestic water heaters, 2005 V2:108109
fixture pipe sizes and demand, 2005 V2:94 elevated water tanks, 2005 V2:7576
fixture-unit loads, 2005 V2:3 expansion tanks, 2008 V4:231, 234
food-preparation, 2007 V3:39 fire extinguishers, 2007 V3:28, 29
general category of, 2008 V4:13 floor drains, 2005 V2:10
graywater and, 2005 V2:2829, 2008 V4:261 force mains, 2007 V3:221
health care facilities, 2007 V3:36, 40 gas boosters, 2005 V2:133134
hot water demand, 2005 V2:109 gas line filters, 2007 V3:236

gas meters, 2007 V3:236 velocity and, 2005 V2:92

gas piping, 2004 V1:7 vents, 2005 V2:39, 4344
gas regulators, 2007 V3:237238 vertical stacks, 2005 V2:5
grab bars, 2004 V1:121 water hammer arresters, 2005 V2:8182
grease interceptors, 2008 V4:163164 water mains, 2007 V3:6
high-pressure condensate piping, 2007 V3:162 water meters, 2005 V2:69
hot-water circulation systems, 2005 V2:115 water-pressure regulators, 2008 V4:81
hydropneumatic tanks, 2005 V2:7374 water softeners, 2008 V4:206, 209, 210
irrigation, 2007 V3:92 water storage tanks, 2005 V2:170171
liquefied petroleum gas systems, 2005 V2:142 wells, 2005 V2:164
liquid fuel piping, 2007 V3:147148 skating rinks, numbers of fixtures for, 2008 V4:18
medical air compressors, 2007 V3:64 sketches. See also plumbing drawings
medical air piping, 2007 V3:177178 costs analysis phase, 2004 V1:241
medical gas systems, 2007 V3:5051, 6869, 70, 71 function evaluation, 2004 V1:239240
medical vacuum systems, 2007 V3:6465, 70 functional development, 2004 V1:254, 255
natural gas piping, 2005 V2:134137, 138141, 2007 skimmers
V3:238241 FOG separation, 2008 V4:250
nitrogen gas systems, 2007 V3:6465, 70 fountains, 2007 V3:103
nitrous oxide systems, 2007 V3:61, 70, 71 grease interceptors, 2008 V4:159
nominal pipe size, 2005 V2:175 skimming trays, 2008 V4:159
oxygen systems, 2007 V3:60, 70, 71 surge capacity, 2007 V3:109110
pipe examples for cold-water systems, 2005 V2:9799 swimming pools, 2007 V3:112, 114115
pressure and, 2005 V2:9296 skimming oils, 2007 V3:87
pressure and temperature relief valves, 2005 V2:116 sl, SL (sea level), 2004 V1:16, 2005 V2:178
pressure-regulated valves, 2005 V2:7879 slabs, in radioactive waste systems, 2005 V2:250
pressurized fuel product piping, 2007 V3:149 slack cables in earthquake protection, 2004 V1:166
project size and cost estimates, 2004 V1:98 slaughterhouses, 2005 V2:15
propane systems, 2005 V2:143 sleepers, 2008 V4:141
review of pipe procedures, 2005 V2:97 sleeves, pipe, 2008 V4:132
roof drainage systems, 2005 V2:4959, 53, 5664 slide plates, 2008 V4:141
sanitary sewer systems, 2007 V3:216217 slides, 2007 V3:130
septic tanks, 2005 V2:153 sliding motions
soil absorption systems, 2005 V2:151 preventing for pipes or equipment, 2004 V1:163
solar energy, rules of thumb, 2007 V3:186 of seismic plates, 2004 V1:158
solar energy systems, 2007 V3:189192 sliding stems on valves, 2008 V4:79
special-waste system pipes, 2005 V2:238, 239, 240, 241 sliding supports, 2008 V4:141
sprinkler system pipes, 2007 V3:12, 14 sliding vane compressors, 2007 V3:170, 173
standpipe systems, 2007 V3:2021 sliding vane pumps, 2005 V2:183
steam distribution piping, 2007 V3:155157 slime, 2005 V2:205, 2008 V4:199
storm drainage systems, 2005 V2:5660, 6264 slime bacteria, 2005 V2:199
storm sewers, 2007 V3:232 slip, defined, 2007 V3:168
storm water ditches, 2007 V3:233234 slip expansion joints, 2008 V4:229
submersible pumps, 2007 V3:143, 148149 slip fittings, 2008 V4:141
sump pits for LSDS systems, 2005 V2:252 slip-resistant bases in baths, 2008 V4:15
in sustainable designs, 2004 V1:264 slip RPM, defined, 2007 V3:168
swimming pools, 2007 V3:105106 slip type couplings, 2008 V4:6465
toilet compartments, 2004 V1:113114 slop sinks, 2008 V4:184
vacuum system receivers, 2005 V2:180 slope
vacuum systems, 2005 V2:184187, 2007 V3:73 of ditches, 2007 V3:234
exhaust, 2007 V3:6566 of floors, 2007 V3:108
pumps, 2007 V3:6566 of sewers, 2007 V3:216
vacuum cleaning inlets, tools, and tubing, 2005 of sites, 2005 V2:50, 2007 V3:96, 231
V2:190 sloping drains
vacuum cleaning piping network, 2005 V2:190 fixture loads, 2005 V2:6, 8
193, 194 Manning formula, 2004 V1:1
vacuum cleaning system separators, 2005 V2:194 minimum slope of piping, 2005 V2:6
196 sanitary drainage systems, 2005 V2:58
vacuum exhaust pipes, 2005 V2:186 self-cleansing velocities, 2005 V2:7
vacuum piping, 2005 V2:184186 steady flow in, 2005 V2:6
vacuum producers (exhausters), 2005 V2:193194 ultra-low-flow fixtures and pipes, 2004 V1:264
vacuum pumps, 2005 V2:186 slow sand filtration, 2005 V2:228
valves, 2008 V4:85 sludge

Index 371
activated sludge systems, 2007 V3:88 sodium silicate, 2004 V1:151

defined, 2004 V1:28, 2005 V2:205 sodium sulfate, 2005 V2:199, 2008 V4:193
from water softeners, 2005 V2:168 sodium thiosulfate, 2005 V2:168
removal, 2007 V3:87 soft cold water (SCW), 2004 V1:8
in septic tanks, 2005 V2:153 soft conversions, 2004 V1:32
slugs of water, 2005 V2:2, 4, 37 soft soldered joints, 2008 V4:62
slurry feed system, diatomaceous earth, 2007 V3:117 soft water (SW), 2008 V4:195, 224. See also water
SMACNA (Sheet Metal and Air Conditioning Contractors softeners
National Association), 2004 V1:170, 191 softening membranes. See nanofiltration
small bore pipes, 2005 V2:249 softening water. See water softeners
small-diameter gravity sewers, 2005 V2:152 softness of vibration control materials, 2004 V1:202
Small Welded Petroleum Tanks (API 12F), 2007 V3:88 software. See computer programs
smoke soil-absorption sewage systems
requirements for insulation, 2008 V4:106 allowable rates of sewage application, 2005 V2:161
vacuum systems and, 2007 V3:66 alternative components, 2005 V2:152
smoke detectors, 2004 V1:22, 2007 V3:2728 choosing absorption systems, 2005 V2:150
smooth piping, 2005 V2:87 construction considerations, 2005 V2:151152
smothering fires, 2007 V3:23 drain fields defined, 2004 V1:23
snaking pipes, 2008 V4:230, 231 estimating sewage quantities, 2005 V2:158160
snow estimating soil absorption potential, 2005 V2:147150
as part of total load, 2008 V4:118 individual wastewater treatment plants, 2005 V2:157
snow melting piping, 2008 V4:3031 inspection, 2005 V2:160161
snubbers, 2008 V4:141 institutional and recreational establishments, 2005
snubbing devices for earthquake protection, 2004 V1:164 V2:156157
166, 165, 186 mound systems, 2005 V2:152
soaking combustibles in inerting atmosphere, 2007 V3:26 percolation rates for soils, 2005 V2:149150
soap dispensers, 2008 V4:12 selecting systems, 2005 V2:150
soaps. See also suds setbacks, 2005 V2:150
in gray water, 2005 V2:35 sizing, 2005 V2:151
in septic tanks, 2005 V2:156 Soil Conservation Service, 2005 V2:64
soapstone fixtures, 2008 V4:2, 13 soil-moisture monitors, 2007 V3:96
Social Security taxes, in labor costs, 2004 V1:94 soil pipes, 2004 V1:28
Society of American Value Engineering (SAVE), 2004 soil sewers (S, SS), 2004 V1:8
V1:211, 213 soil stacks, 2005 V2:1
socket-type joints, 2007 V3:239 soil vents. See stack vents
socket welding soils
defined, 2005 V2:249 color, 2005 V2:148
socket-end welding, 2008 V4:80 depth, 2005 V2:149
socket-joint welding, 2008 V4:63 graywater irrigation systems and, 2005 V2:29
socket-weld end connections, 2004 V1:23 irrigation and, 2007 V3:9192, 96
soda ash. See sodium carbonate (soda ash) maps of, 2005 V2:148
sodium, 2005 V2:199, 200 percolation tests, 2005 V2:149150
defined, 2008 V4:224 profiles, 2007 V3:9192, 197
formula, 2008 V4:193 resistivity, 2004 V1:150
laboratory grade water, 2008 V4:218 in seismic force calculations, 2004 V1:183
nanofiltration, 2008 V4:220 structure, 2005 V2:148
sodium aluminate, 2005 V2:209, 2008 V4:201 swelling characteristics, 2005 V2:149
sodium azide, 2005 V2:13 swimming pool locations and, 2007 V3:106
sodium bicarbonate, 2005 V2:200, 2008 V4:193 texture, 2005 V2:148149
sodium bisulfate, 2005 V2:168, 2007 V3:87 underground tanks and, 2007 V3:135
sodium carbonate (soda ash), 2005 V2:200, 2008 V4:193, SOL (solar), 2004 V1:16
197 solar (SOL), defined, 2004 V1:16
sodium chloride, 2005 V2:200, 2008 V4:193, 197 solar absorptance, defined, 2007 V3:185
sodium cycle ion exchange, 2005 V2:220, 2008 V4:196 solar azimuth (SAZ), 2004 V1:14
sodium hexametaphosphate, 2004 V1:151, 2005 V2:168 solar constants, 2007 V3:185
sodium hydroxide (lye), 2005 V2:155, 218, 2007 V3:87 The Solar Decision Book, 2007 V3:194
sodium hydroxide (lye or caustic soda) solar degradation, 2007 V3:185
case of in water supply, 2008 V4:187188 Solar Design Workbook, 2007 V3:194
formula, 2008 V4:193 solar energy
regeneration and, 2008 V4:197, 199 backflow prevention, 2008 V4:185
sodium hypochlorite, 2005 V2:168, 2007 V3:87 collecting methods, 2007 V3:186189
sodium ion exchange plants, 2008 V4:198, 199 commercial applications, 2007 V3:182183

Compound Parabolic Concentrator (CPC) system, 2007 solid wedge discs, 2008 V4:75, 83
V3:189 solid wedges, 2008 V4:74
concentrating collectors, 2007 V3:183, 186187 solids
copper pipe, 2008 V4:3031 rectangular, 2004 V1:4
costs, 2007 V3:182183, 186 solids interceptors, 2007 V3:4445
CPC equations, 2007 V3:189 in water, 2005 V2:204
definitions, 2007 V3:181182, 183185 solids-handling pumps, 2008 V4:99
estimating calculations, 2007 V3:185186 soluble silica, 2005 V2:200
f-chart sizing method, 2007 V3:189192 solute. See treated water
flat-plate collectors, 2007 V3:183, 186188 solution sinks, 2007 V3:38
glossary, 2007 V3:183185 Solution Source for Steam, Air, and Hot Water Systems,
home water heating, 2007 V3:182, 189192 2007 V3:162
light, defined, 2007 V3:181182 solutions to puzzles, 2004 V1:261
markets, 2007 V3:183 solvents
photovoltaics, 2007 V3:181182 PEX piping and, 2008 V4:52
resources, 2007 V3:194 in pure-water systems, 2007 V3:49
sizing, 2007 V3:186, 189192 sonic cleaners, 2007 V3:40
solar (SOL), defined, 2004 V1:16 sound power
solar energy sources, 2004 V1:137 defined, 2004 V1:208
solar system definitions, 2007 V3:185 levels, 2004 V1:194, 208
specifications, 2007 V3:192194 sound pressure, 2004 V1:209
SRTA equations, 2007 V3:188 sounds. See acoustics in plumbing systems
Stationary Reflector/Tracking Absorber (SRTA) sour gas, 2007 V3:236
system, 2007 V3:188189 source shut-off valves, 2007 V3:67
sun overview, 2007 V3:181 source water
tax credits, 2007 V3:183 defined, 2005 V2:197
thermal, defined, 2007 V3:181182 pure-water systems, 2005 V2:230
thermal efficiency equations, 2007 V3:187188 sources of acoustic problems, 2004 V1:199
vacuum tube collectors, 2007 V3:183, 186 sources of information in value engineering, 2004 V1:214,
water heaters, 2004 V1:130, 265, 2008 V4:264265 221
Solar Energy Industries Association web site, 2007 V3:194 sources, vacuum, 2005 V2:179182, 182183, 186
Solar Energy Research Institute, 2007 V3:194 Sourirajan, S., 2008 V4:224
Solar Energy Society of Canada web site, 2007 V3:194 Southern Building Code Congress International, Inc.
Solar Energy Systems Design, 2007 V3:194 (SBCCI), 2005 V2:64, 2007 V3:134
Solar Energy Thermal Processes, 2007 V3:194 sovent single-stack plumbing systems, 2005 V2:1718
Solar Heating and Cooling, 2007 V3:194 sp, SP (static pressure), 2004 V1:15, 16
Solar Heating Design by the f-Chart Method, 2007 V3:194 SP-25:Standard Marking System for Valves, Fittings,
The Solar Heating Design Process, 2007 V3:194 Flanges and Unions, 2008 V4:73
Solar Heating Systems, 2007 V3:194 SP-42:Class 150 Corrosion Resistant Cast Flanged Valves,
The Solar Hydrogen Civilization, 2007 V3:194 2008 V4:73
Solar Rating and Certification Corporation (SRCC) web SP-67:Butterfly Valves, 2008 V4:73
site, 2007 V3:194 SP-70:Gray Iron Gate Valves, Flanged and Threaded
solar water heaters, 2008 V4:264265 Ends, 2008 V4:73
Solar Water Heaters:A Buyers Guide, 2007 V3:194 SP-71:Gray Iron Swing Check Valves, Flanged and
soldering Threaded Ends, 2008 V4:73
clearance for, 2008 V4:23 SP-72:Ball Valves with Flanged or Butt-Welding Ends for
copper water tube, 2008 V4:3241 General Service, 2008 V4:73
corrosion and, 2004 V1:146 SP-78:Cast Iron Plug Valves, 2008 V4:73
defined, 2008 V4:62 SP-80:Bronze Gate, Globe, Angle and Check Valves, 2008
fluxes, 2008 V4:62 V4:73
lead-free solders, 2008 V4:62 SP-81:Stainless Steel, Bonnetless, Flanged, Wafer, Knife
lead in solder, 2008 V4:242 Gate Valves, 2008 V4:73
reducing, 2004 V1:266 SP-85:Cast Iron Globe and Angle Valves, 2008 V4:73
soldered joints and earthquake protection, 2004 V1:167 SP-110:Ball Valves, 2008 V4:73
valve ends, 2008 V4:80 sp ht, SP HT (specific heat)
solenoid valves, 2004 V1:9 measurements, 2004 V1:33
solid angles, 2004 V1:33 sp ht at constant pressure (cp, cp, CP), 2004 V1:16
solid toilet seats, 2008 V4:5 sp ht at constant volume (cv, cv, CV), 2004 V1:16
solid waste disposal symbols for, 2004 V1:16
as energy source, 2004 V1:130131 sp vol, SP VOL (specific volume). See specific volume
solid waste incineration systems, 2004 V1:130131 space, confined
solids removal in septic tanks, 2005 V2:153 insulation and, 2008 V4:116

Index 373
water softeners and, 2008 V4:207, 208209 saturated steam, 2007 V3:153154
space heating, solar, 2007 V3:189192 symbols for, 2004 V1:16
spacing Specification for Air Entraining Admixtures for Concrete,
around water closets, 2008 V4:6 2008 V4:252
drinking fountains, 2008 V4:14 Specification for Concrete Aggregates, 2008 V4:252
expansion joints, 2008 V4:229 Specification for Copper Alloy Sand Castings for General
grab bars for accessibility, 2004 V1:121122 Applications, 2008 V4:32
hangers and supports, 2008 V4:6768, 118, 125 Specification for Copper Drainage Tube (DWV), 2008 V4:32
lavatories, 2008 V4:10 Specification for Portland Cement, 2008 V4:252
manholes, 2007 V3:220, 225 Specification for Ready Mix Concrete, 2008 V4:252
urinals, 2008 V4:910 Specification for Seamless Copper Tube, 2008 V4:32
of vacuum inlets, 2005 V2:189 Specification for Seamless Copper Tube for Air-
spas, 2005 V2:122, 2008 V4:185 conditioning and Refrigeration Field Service, 2008
spec, SPEC (specifications). See specifications V4:32
special components, defined, 2008 V4:141 Specification for Seamless Copper Tube for Medical Gas
special sprinklers, 2004 V1:30 Systems, 2008 V4:32
special tools, defined, 2008 V4:179 Specification for Seamless Copper Tube for Natural
special-waste drainage systems Gas and Liquefied Petroleum (LP) Gas Fuel
acid-waste systems, 2005 V2:239245 Distribution Systems, 2008 V4:32
chemical-waste systems, 2005 V2:253 Specification for Seamless Copper Water Tube, 2008 V4:32
codes and standards, 2005 V2:237 specifications (spec, SPEC). See also construction contract
fire-suppression water drainage, 2005 V2:253254 documents; project manuals; names of specific
flammable and volatile liquids, 2005 V2:254256 listing agencies; names under publishing agencies
future growth of systems, 2005 V2:239 (American National Standards Institute, etc.);
general design considerations, 2005 V2:239 titles of specific documents
infectious and biological waste systems, 2005 V2:250 checklist, 2004 V1:102
252 computer production of, 2004 V1:7172
introduction, 2005 V2:237 contents of sections, 2004 V1:6871
pH values in waste, 2005 V2:239 costs associated with, 2004 V1:223
piping and joint selection, 2005 V2:238 in FAST approach, 2004 V1:230
planning for larger systems, 2005 V2:239 formats, 2004 V1:6364
radioactive waste drainage and vents, 2005 V2:248250 introduction, 2004 V1:61
references, 2005 V2:256 MasterFormat, 2004 V1:64
separating systems, 2005 V2:239 MasterFormat 2004, 2004 V1:7788
sizing piping, 2005 V2:238, 239241, 240, 241 MasterFormat Level Four (1995), 2004 V1:76
special wastes defined, 2004 V1:28 MasterFormat Level One (1995), 2004 V1:73
system approval requirements, 2005 V2:237238 MasterFormat Level Three (1995), 2004 V1:76
specialty pumps, 2008 V4:99 MasterFormat Level Two (1995), 2004 V1:7375
specialty water closets, 2004 V1:136 methods for creating, 2004 V1:6668
specific conductance, 2005 V2:203 problems with reuse, 2004 V1:63
specific energy, converting to SI units, 2004 V1:39 in project manuals, 2004 V1:62
specific functionality, defined, 2004 V1:225 questioning in value engineering, 2004 V1:212
specific gravity (SG) solar energy, 2007 V3:192194
defined, 2005 V2:144, 2007 V3:133, 168 specifications as incorrect term, 2004 V1:61
natural gas, 2005 V2:137, 141 symbols for, 2004 V1:16
plastic pipe, 2008 V4:50, 51 Uniformat, 2004 V1:64, 73
PVC pipe, 2008 V4:53 Specifications for Making Buildings and Facilities Usable
symbols for, 2004 V1:16 by the Physically Handicapped, 2004 V1:105
specific heat (sp ht, SP HT, C) Specifications Group, 2004 V1:65, 7788
defined, 2007 V3:168 specimen-type water closets, 2007 V3:38
measurements, 2004 V1:33 Spectext, 2004 V1:71
sp ht at constant pressure (cp, cp, CP), 2004 V1:16 speculation in creativity, 2004 V1:232
sp ht at constant volume (cv, cv, CV), 2004 V1:16 speed of pumps, 2004 V1:6
symbols for, 2004 V1:16 Speller, Frank N., 2004 V1:154
specific humidity, 2007 V3:167 Spencer Turbine Co., 2005 V2:196
specific resistance in water, 2005 V2:203, 2007 V3:47, 2008 spherical soil structure, 2005 V2:148
V4:195 spider guides, 2008 V4:141
specific speed, defined, 2008 V4:98 spigot outlets, 2005 V2:13
specific volume (sp vol, SP VOL, V, CVOL) Spill Containment Control and Countermeasure (40 CFR
defined, 2007 V3:168 112) (SCCC), 2007 V3:134
expansion and, 2008 V4:232 spill-proof indoor vacuum breakers, 2008 V4:185
measurements, 2004 V1:33 spill-resistant vacuum breakers, 2008 V4:175, 179

spills foam extinguishers, 2007 V3:25

aboveground tank systems, 2007 V3:145 fully-sprinklered spaces, 2004 V1:12
acids, 2005 V2:239 gaseous fire-suppression systems and, 2007 V3:26
controlled substances, 2005 V2:195196 heads, 2004 V1:13
industrial waste, 2007 V3:8384 history of, 2007 V3:12
oil, 2005 V2:254256 hydraulic design, 2007 V3:1117
underground liquid fuel tanks, 2007 V3:137 intermediate-level sprinklers, 2004 V1:29
spineboard, 2007 V3:131 large-drop sprinklers, 2004 V1:29
spiral wound modules nippled-up sprinklers, 2004 V1:13
in cross-flow filtration, 2005 V2:223 non-sprinklered spaces, 2004 V1:12
in reverse osmosis (SWRO), 2005 V2:205, 221222 numbers of sprinklers in operation, 2007 V3:12
Spitzglass formula, 2004 V1:7, 2005 V2:137 occupancy classification, 2004 V1:29
splashing, air gaps and, 2008 V4:176 open sprinklers, 2004 V1:29
split-case horizontal end-suction pumps, 2007 V3:21 ornamental sprinklers, 2004 V1:29
split rim toilet seats, 2008 V4:5 partially-sprinklered spaces, 2004 V1:12
split-ring hangers, 2008 V4:109 pendent sprinklers, 2004 V1:13, 29
split rings, 2008 V4:137 pipe materials, 2007 V3:20
split-wedge discs, 2008 V4:75 pre-action systems, 2007 V3:9
split wedges, 2008 V4:74, 83 quick-response sprinklers, 2004 V1:29
sply., SPLY (supplies), 2004 V1:16 recessed sprinklers, 2004 V1:29
sponge rubber isolators, 2004 V1:204 residential, 2004 V1:30, 2007 V3:18
sports facilities, numbers of fixtures for, 2008 V4:18 sediment buckets in drains, 2005 V2:11
spout location on water fountains, 2004 V1:109 seismic protection and, 2004 V1:183184
spray heads on irrigation sprinklers, 2007 V3:9394 sidewall sprinklers, 2004 V1:13, 30
spray nozzle waterfall aerators, 2005 V2:208 special sprinklers, 2004 V1:30
spray units sprinkler types, 2004 V1:29, 2007 V3:611
in bathtubs, 2004 V1:118 supports and hangers, 2007 V3:1819
in showers, 2004 V1:120 system design, 2007 V3:220
spring-actuated check valves, 2008 V4:83, 86 temperature rating, 2007 V3:18
spring cushion hangers or rolls, 2008 V4:123, 141 usage, 2007 V3:18
spring hangers, 2008 V4:124, 141 water demands, 2005 V2:167, 2007 V3:26
spring isolators sprinkler systems (irrigation), 2008 V4:185
concrete bases and, 2004 V1:205 concepts, 2007 V3:9293
problems in seismic protection, 2004 V1:188, 189 impact heads, 2007 V3:9394
pump isolation and, 2004 V1:205 lawn sprinklers, 2004 V1:8
stored energy in, 2004 V1:166 sample information sheet, 2007 V3:97
spring-loaded pressure regulators, 2008 V4:81 shrub heads, 2007 V3:94
spring supports, 2004 V1:186 spray heads, 2007 V3:9394
spring-sway braces, 2008 V4:141 trickle irrigation, 2007 V3:94
spring tube benders, 2008 V4:63 spurs, 2007 V3:218
springing pipes, 2008 V4:23 sq., SQ (squares). See squares
Sprinkler Irrigation, 2007 V3:96 square-edged inlets, 2005 V2:101
Sprinkler Irrigation Systems, 2007 V3:96 square feet, calculating, 2007 V3:30
2
sprinkler systems (fire protection) square foot [m ] method, defined, 2004 V1:9798
automatic sprinkler system types, 2004 V1:29 squares (sq., SQ)
backflow prevention, 2008 V4:185 calculating area, 2004 V1:3
combined dry-pipe and pre-action, 2007 V3:1011 converting to SI units, 2004 V1:40
concealed sprinklers, 2004 V1:29 symbols for, 2004 V1:16
corrosion-resistant sprinklers, 2004 V1:29 sr (steradians), 2004 V1:33
defined, 2004 V1:2837 SR (styrene rubber), 2008 V4:227
deluge systems, 2007 V3:911 SRTA (Stationary Reflector/Tracking Absorber) system,
design density, 2007 V3:1112 2007 V3:188189
direct connection hazards, 2008 V4:184 SS (sanitary sewers), 2004 V1:8, 28. See also sanitary
drop nipples on pendent sprinklers, 2004 V1:13 drainage systems
dry upright sprinklers, 2004 V1:29 SSD (subsoil or footing drains), 2004 V1:8, 30
earthquake damage to, 2004 V1:162 ssf, SSF (Saybolt Seconds Furol), 2004 V1:16, 2007 V3:134
in elevator shafts, 2007 V3:29 ssu, SSU (Saybolt Seconds Universal), 2004 V1:16, 2007
extended-coverage sidewall sprinklers, 2004 V1:29 V3:134
fire hazard evaluation, 2007 V3:2 ST (storm or rainwater drains). See storm-drainage
fire pumps for, 2007 V3:2122 systems
firefighting water drainage, 2005 V2:253254 stability index (Ryzner), 2005 V2:207208
flush sprinklers, 2004 V1:29 stabilization ponds, 2005 V2:157

Index 375
stabilized chlorines, 2007 V3:124 standard cubic feet per minute (scfm). See scfm, SCFM
stack groups, 2004 V1:30 (standard cubic feet per minute)
stack vents standard dimension ratio (SDR), 2008 V4:51
air in, 2005 V2:2 standard fire-protection symbols, 2004 V1:1213
defined, 2004 V1:30, 2005 V2:41 standard fire tests, 2007 V3:2
sizing, 2005 V2:4344 Standard for Bulk Oxygen Systems at Consumer Sites
stack venting defined, 2004 V1:30 (NFPA 50), 2007 V3:57, 79
stacks. See vertical stacks Standard for Color-marking of Compressed Gas Cylinders
stadiums, numbers of fixtures for, 2008 V4:18 Intended for Medical Use (CGA C-9), 2007 V3:79
staff areas (health care facilities), 2007 V3:3537 Standard for Energy Conservation in New Building
staff lounges, 2007 V3:36 Design, 2007 V3:194
staged evaporation, 2005 V2:210211 Standard for Health-care Facilities, 2005 V2:182, 2007
stages in pump equipment, 2005 V2:169 V3:79, 2008 V4:32
staging, pumps, 2008 V4:9899 Standard for Hypochlorites, 2005 V2:104
stagnant water, 2005 V2:81 Standard for Liquid Chlorine, 2005 V2:104
stain-resistance testing, 2008 V4:2 Standard for Parking Structures, 2005 V2:127
staining fixtures and appliances with hard water, 2008 Standard for Portable Fire Extinguishers (NFPA 10), 2007
V4:205 V3:28, 29
stainless steel Standard for Protective Epoxy Interior Coating for Valves,
bioremediation pretreatment systems, 2008 V4:252 2008 V4:85, 90
commercial sinks, 2008 V4:12 Standard for Resilient-Seated Gate Valves, 2008 V4:85, 90
drinking fountains, 2008 V4:244 Standard for Tank Vehicles for Flammable and
electromotive force series, 2004 V1:144 Combustible Liquids (NFPA 385), 2007 V3:134
fixtures, 2007 V3:35, 2008 V4:12 Standard for the Installation of Nitrous Oxide Systems at
glass pipe couplings, 2008 V4:48 Consumer Sites (CGA G-8.1), 2007 V3:79
gutters, 2007 V3:111 Standard for the Installation of Private Fire Service Mains
jackets, 2008 V4:108 and their Appurtenances, 2007 V3:6
mesh insulation jackets, 2008 V4:108 Standard for the Installation of Sprinkler Systems, 2004
nickel content, 2008 V4:12 V1:191
passivation, 2004 V1:146147 Standard for the Installation of Sprinkler Systems in One-
pumps, 2007 V3:119 and Two-Family Dwellings and Manufactured
reverse osmosis equipment, 2008 V4:218 Homes, 2007 V3:18
valve seats, 2008 V4:83 Standard for the Installation of Sprinkler Systems in
valves, 2008 V4:79 Residential Occupancies up to and Including Four
worm gear clamps, 2008 V4:61 Stories in Height, 2007 V3:18
stainless-steel drains, 2005 V2:250 Standard for Water Spray Systems for Fire Protection,
stainless-steel grates, 2005 V2:15 2007 V3:24
stainless-steel piping Standard for Wet Chemical Extinguishing Agents, 2007
compressed air systems, 2007 V3:176 V3:24
distilled water piping, 2008 V4:213 standard free air
exposed piping on storage tanks, 2007 V3:145 at atmospheric pressure (scfm). See scfm, SCFM
industrial waste pipe, 2005 V2:249 (standard cubic feet per minute)
pure-water system, 2007 V3:49 in vacuum sizing calculations, 2005 V2:185
soil and waste pipe, 2005 V2:13 standard gallons per hour, 2004 V1:15
special uses, 2008 V4:5960 Standard Handbook for Mechanical Engineers, 2004 V1:1,
USP water, 2005 V2:233 2008 V4:69
vacuum systems, 2005 V2:183 Standard Method of Test of Surface Burning
stainless-steel storage tanks, 2005 V2:233, 2007 V3:84 Characteristics of Building Materials, 2008 V4:106
stairs and stairwells Standard Method of Test of Surface Burning
aboveground storage tanks, 2007 V3:144, 145 Characteristics of Building Materials (NFPA 255),
standpipe systems, 2007 V3:20 2007 V3:69
stale sewage, 2004 V1:30 Standard of Testing to Determine the Performance of Solar
stall urinals, 2008 V4:9 Collections, 2007 V3:194
stanchions, 2008 V4:123, 126, 141 Standard on Flow Testing and Marking of Fire Hydrants
stand pipes, 2008 V4:128 (NFPA 291), 2007 V3:3
standard (std, STD), 2004 V1:16 Standard on Gas and Vacuum Systems, 2008 V4:32
standard air, 2004 V1:18, 2007 V3:167169 Standard on Water Mist Fire Protection Systems, 2007
standard atmospheric pressure V3:24
defined, 2007 V3:169 standard plumbing and piping symbols, 2004 V1:713
in vacuums, 2005 V2:175 Standard Plumbing Code, 2005 V2:64
standard cartridge depth filtration, 2005 V2:211 standard port valves, 2008 V4:84
standard cfh (scfh), 2005 V2:131 standard ports, 2008 V4:74

Standard Practice for Making Capillary Joints by symbols, 2004 V1:15, 16

Soldering of Copper and Copper Alloy Tube and water mains, 2007 V3:198
Fittings, 2008 V4:32, 62 static wells, 2005 V2:165166
standard pressure and temperature (SPT), defined, 2007 Stationary Reflector/Tracking Absorber (SRTA) system,
V3:169 2007 V3:188189
standard reference points (compressed air), 2007 V3:169 stations (medical gas and vacuum)
Standard Specification for Concrete Sewer, Storm Drain, ceiling outlets, 2007 V3:5556
and Culvert Pipe for Non-reinforced Concrete, estimating number, 2007 V3:51, 5253
2008 V4:28 inlets, 2007 V3:78
Standard Specification for Copper Drainage Tube (DWV), medical gas diversity factors, 2007 V3:70
2008 V4:41 medical vacuum, 2007 V3:54
Standard Specification for Joints for Concrete Pipe and order of gas outlets, 2007 V3:51
Manholes, Using Rubber Gasket, 2008 V4:32 outlets, 2007 V3:78
Standard Specification for Liquid and Paste Fluxes for patient headwall gas systems, 2007 V3:55
Soldering Applications of Copper and Copper Alloy surgical ceiling columns, 2007 V3:5657
Tube, 2008 V4:32, 62 terminals, 2007 V3:5455
Standard Specification for Reinforced Concrete Culverts, types of, 2007 V3:56
Storm Drain, and Sewer Pipe, 2008 V4:28 std, STD (standard), 2004 V1:16
Standard Specification for Reinforced Concrete D-Load std gph (standard gallons per hour), 2004 V1:15
Culvert Storm Drain and Sewer Pipe for steady flow
Reinforced Concrete Pipe, 2008 V4:28 continuous flow rates, 2008 V4:207
standard time meridian (STM), 2004 V1:16 drinking water coolers, 2008 V4:238
standard water closets, 2008 V4:4 in horizontal drains, 2005 V2:6, 8
standard-weight steel pipe, 2008 V4:48 water softeners, 2008 V4:206
standards. See codes and standards steady-state heat balance equations, 2005 V2:109110
standby losses steam and condensate systems
in circulating systems, 2004 V1:127 condensate drainage, 2007 V3:159162
water heaters, 2004 V1:265 condensate removal, 2007 V3:157158
standpipe systems distilling water from steam, 2005 V2:210211
classifications and characteristics, 2007 V3:2021 distribution piping, 2007 V3:155157
defined, 2004 V1:24, 30 flash, 2007 V3:153155, 162
fire pumps for, 2007 V3:21 fouling, 2007 V3:158
flat land storage tanks, 2005 V2:170 geothermal, 2004 V1:131
standpipe air chambers, 2005 V2:8081, 81 high-pressure steam, 2004 V1:9, 2008 V4:8889
standpipes, defined, 2008 V4:98 low-pressure steam, 2004 V1:9, 15, 2008 V4:8788
symbols for, 2004 V1:13 medium-pressure steam, 2004 V1:9, 15, 2008 V4:88
system classes of service, 2004 V1:30 overview, 2007 V3:153155
system types, 2004 V1:30 pressure drop, 2007 V3:155157
starting unloaders, 2007 V3:173 references, 2007 V3:162
startup loads, condensate drainage, 2007 V3:159160 saturated steam, 2007 V3:153154, 155157
state agencies, 2005 V2:237, 248, 2007 V3:82 steam atmospheric vents, 2004 V1:9
state frost lines, 2007 V3:210212 steam heat in distillation, 2008 V4:213
state, gas, 2007 V3:169 steam traps, 2004 V1:11
state rainfall rate tables, 2005 V2:5357 traps, 2007 V3:158159
states in creativity checklist, 2004 V1:234 velocity, 2007 V3:155156
static cake diatomaceous earth filters, 2007 V3:118 waste heat usage of condensate, 2004 V1:131134
static deflection (d) water hammer, 2007 V3:158
defined, 2008 V4:145 steam deaerators, 2005 V2:209
for pump vibration, 2004 V1:205, 2008 V4:146 steam-fired water heaters, 2004 V1:130
static head steam tables, 2008 V4:184
calculating, 2004 V1:2 steam traps, 2004 V1:11
defined, 2008 V4:98 steam vaporizers, 2007 V3:59
gallons per minute and, 2005 V2:83, 84 steam working pressure (SWP), 2008 V4:85
velocity head and, 2004 V1:5 steatite fixtures, 2008 V4:2
well pumps, 2005 V2:170 steel. See also stainless steel; steel piping
static pressure (SP) anchoring to, 2008 V4:125132
defined, 2005 V2:68 beam connections in pipe bracing, 2004 V1:175, 176
domestic water supply, 2007 V3:202206 in electromotive force series, 2004 V1:144
elevation and, 2005 V2:96 fixtures, 2008 V4:12
fire hydrants, 2007 V3:34 floor decks in earthquakes, 2004 V1:167
irrigation flow, 2007 V3:96 in galvanic series, 2004 V1:141
sprinkler hydraulic calculations, 2007 V3:12 roofing drains, 2005 V2:63

Index 377
springs, 2004 V1:204, 208 baffle systems, 2008 V4:213

steel substrate roofing drains, 2005 V2:63 decentralized or centralized, 2008 V4:212
storage tanks, 2007 V3:135 distillation, 2008 V4:211215
stress and strain figures, 2008 V4:228229 heat sources for, 2008 V4:195
thermal expansion or contraction, 2008 V4:227 maintenance, 2008 V4:218
underground tanks, 2007 V3:150 multiple-effect, 2008 V4:212
water tanks, 2005 V2:170 scaling in, 2008 V4:213
Steel Above Ground Tanks for Flammable and Combustible single-effect stills, 2008 V4:212
Liquids (UL 142), 2007 V3:88, 134, 144 steam heating, 2008 V4:213
steel bands, 2008 V4:126 storage reservoirs, 2008 V4:213
steel clamps, 2008 V4:126 types of, 2008 V4:213
steel clips, 2008 V4:126 vapor-compression, 2008 V4:212
Steel, Ernest W., 2008 V4:166 STM (standard time meridian), 2004 V1:16
steel fixtures, 2008 V4:12 Stokes law, 2008 V4:156, 200
steel pipe sleeves, 2008 V4:69 stop levers in showers, 2004 V1:136
steel piping. See also galvanized-steel piping; stainless- stop plugs, 2008 V4:74
steel piping stop valves, 2004 V1:30, 2007 V3:35
dimensions, 2008 V4:4447 stops, 2008 V4:141
fittings, 2008 V4:48 storage
fuel-product dispensing, 2007 V3:146 costs, 2004 V1:223
hangers, 2008 V4:132 of distilled water, 2008 V4:213
Manning formula and, 2007 V3:232 fire hazard evaluation, 2007 V3:2
natural gas, 2007 V3:239 gravity filters and, 2008 V4:202
radioactive wastes, 2005 V2:249 of gray water, 2005 V2:28, 35
roughness, 2005 V2:86 of medical gases
surface roughness, 2005 V2:83 medical compressed air, 2007 V3:6164
Teflon lined, 2008 V4:5556 nitrogen, 2007 V3:64
types, 2008 V4:4447, 48 nitrous oxide, 2007 V3:6061
velocity and, 2005 V2:92 oxygen, 2007 V3:5760
welded joints, 2008 V4:63 of pure water, 2005 V2:233
steel protection saddles and shields, 2008 V4:126 of rainwater, 2005 V2:5253
steel riser clamps, 2008 V4:126 salt, 2008 V4:211
steel spring isolators, 2008 V4:149150 section in specifications, 2004 V1:70, 8990
steel stanchions, 2008 V4:126 of sewage in septic tanks, 2005 V2:154
steel strap hangers, 2008 V4:67 tanks, rainwater, 2008 V4:260262
Steel Tank Institute (STI), 2007 V3:134 storage devices (thermal), 2007 V3:185
Steel Tanks for Oil Storage (API 250), 2007 V3:88 storage media (thermal), 2007 V3:185
steel trapezes, 2008 V4:126 storage plants, 2008 V4:19
Steel Underground Tanks for Flammable and Combustible storage reservoirs, 2007 V3:8384
Liquids (UL 58), 2007 V3:88 storage rooms, 2007 V3:68
steel welded attachments, 2008 V4:126 storage subsystems, 2007 V3:185
Steele, Alfred, 2004 V1:40, 2005 V2:64, 104, 2008 V4:235 storage tanks. See tanks
stems stores. See retail stores
defined, 2008 V4:74 storm building drains. See storm-drainage systems
on valves, 2008 V4:7879 Storm Drainage Design and Detention using the Rational
Stenzel, Mark H., 2005 V2:234 Method, 2005 V2:64
steradians, 2004 V1:33 storm-drainage pipe codes, 2004 V1:42
sterilization storm-drainage systems, 2007 V3:221234. See also
feed water, 2005 V2:205 rainwater and precipitation
infectious waste systems, 2005 V2:252 building drainage systems, 2005 V2:5052
insulation on pipes, 2008 V4:106 calculations, 2005 V2:5664
pure water systems, 2005 V2:233 cast-iron soil-pipe building drains, 2008 V4:23
ultraviolet, 2007 V3:48, 2008 V4:216 codes, 2004 V1:4244, 2007 V3:227
sterilizers, 2007 V3:39, 40, 42, 2008 V4:184 codes and standards, 2005 V2:50
Stevens Building Technology Research Laboratory, 2005 controlled-flow systems, 2005 V2:5253
V2:19 design criteria, 2005 V2:5052
Stevens Institute of Technology, 2005 V2:48 design storms, 2007 V3:228229
Steward SRTA (Stationary Reflector/Tracking Absorber) disposal methods, 2007 V3:233
system, 2007 V3:188189 green roof designs, 2004 V1:266
STI (Steel Tank Institute), 2007 V3:134 green uses of, 2004 V1:264
sticking (manual tank gauging), 2007 V3:138 introduction, 2005 V2:4950
stills, 2005 V2:210211, 2007 V3:42, 48 materials, 2005 V2:50

overview, 2007 V3:221227 strut clamps, 2008 V4:141

pipe sizing and layout, 2005 V2:4959, 61 struts, 2008 V4:141
preliminary information, 2007 V3:197198 styrene, 2008 V4:186
Rational method, 2004 V1:7, 2007 V3:228231 styrene rubber (SR), 2008 V4:227
reinforced concrete pipe building drains, 2008 V4:28 styrofoam blocking on glass pipe, 2008 V4:48
roof drainage, 2005 V2:5356 sub-micron cartridge filtration, 2005 V2:211
sample utility letters, 2007 V3:227 sub-sterilizing rooms, 2007 V3:36, 39
secondary drainage systems, 2005 V2:5556 subdrains, building, 2004 V1:20
sizing, 2007 V3:232 submain sewers, 2004 V1:30
sizing ditches, 2007 V3:233234 submerged inlet hazards, 2008 V4:184
sizing sheet, 2005 V2:66 submersible pumps
storm drains (SD, ST), 2004 V1:8 design, 2008 V4:100
storm sewers defined, 2004 V1:30 mounting, 2008 V4:101102
system design procedure, 2007 V3:231233 protection of wells, 2005 V2:166
Storm Water Retention Methods, 2005 V2:64 shallow wells, 2005 V2:170
STPs (sewage treatment plants), 2005 V2:27, 35 sizing, 2007 V3:148149
straight lobe compressors, 2007 V3:170 underground storage tanks, 2007 V3:143
straight-reading volume meters, 2008 V4:198 well pumps, 2005 V2:168
strain submittals section in specifications, 2004 V1:69, 8889
defined, 2004 V1:30 subsidence
maximum allowable, 2008 V4:228229 basin design, 2008 V4:201
strainers turbidity and, 2008 V4:200
basket strainers, 2005 V2:100 subsoil drainage pipe, 2004 V1:44
cold water systems, 2005 V2:70 subsoil drains (SSD), 2004 V1:8, 30
distributors in water softeners, 2008 V4:222 substances, amount (moles), 2004 V1:33
downspouts, 2005 V2:63 substituting products
pressure losses, 2007 V3:208 in proprietary specifications, 2004 V1:68
roof drains, 2005 V2:53, 63 value engineering process and, 2004 V1:211
sanitary drainage systems, 2005 V2:1011 subsurface drip irrigation systems, 2005 V2:30
sediment buckets, 2005 V2:11 subsurface obstructions, swimming pool locations and,
swimming pools, 2007 V3:120 2007 V3:106
symbols for, 2004 V1:10 subsurface waste-disposal systems. See soil-absorption
strap hangers, 2008 V4:134 sewage systems
straps, 2008 V4:141 subsurface water. See ground water
stratification in water heaters, 2005 V2:114 subsystems, solar, 2007 V3:185
stray current corrosion, 2004 V1:141, 154 subterranean vaults, fountain equipment, 2007 V3:100
stream regulators for water coolers, 2008 V4:242, 244 101
stream-spray irrigation sprinklers, 2007 V3:94 subway vibration and resonance, 2008 V4:120
streamline fittings (avoiding suds formation), 2005 V2:45 SUC (suction), 2004 V1:16
streams, irrigation systems and, 2005 V2:30 suct., SUCT (suction), 2004 V1:16
stress suction (suct., SUCT, SUC), 2004 V1:16
conversion factors, 2004 V1:36 suction fuel-delivery systems, 2007 V3:141
maximum allowable, 2008 V4:228229 suction head, defined, 2008 V4:98
measurements, 2004 V1:33 suction inlets in storage tanks, 2005 V2:171
stress analysis, 2008 V4:141 suction lift, defined, 2008 V4:98
stress-accelerated corrosion, 2004 V1:154 suction piping, 2004 V1:202, 2005 V2:171
stress corrosion, 2004 V1:154 suction pressure
stress-corrosion cracking, 2004 V1:141, 154, 2005 V2:206 defined, 2007 V3:169
strip-chart recorder water meters, 2005 V2:69 fountains, 2007 V3:101
strong-base regeneration, 2005 V2:216, 218 suction sump pumps, 2007 V3:102
strongbacks, 2004 V1:163 suction-type pumps, 2005 V2:165
strontium 90, 2005 V2:248 sudden enlargements, 2005 V2:100
structural angle bracing, 2004 V1:171 suds
structural attachments, 2008 V4:141 pressure zones, 2005 V2:4546
structural channel bracing, 2004 V1:171 venting, 2005 V2:4546
structural strength sulfate-reducing bacteria, 2005 V2:199
bath and shower seats, 2004 V1:122123 sulfates, 2005 V2:199, 200, 216
grab bars, 2004 V1:122 defined, 2008 V4:224
structural stresses on piping systems, 2008 V4:119 levels in drinking water, 2008 V4:186
structure-borne sound, 2004 V1:196, 199 nanofiltration, 2008 V4:220
structured biofilms, 2008 V4:251 sulfate ions, 2008 V4:193
strut bracing, 2004 V1:173, 175 water hardness and, 2008 V4:196

Index 379
sulfides, 2004 V1:146 design considerations, 2008 V4:117118

sulfites, 2005 V2:199, 226 design loads, 2008 V4:136
sulfur, 2005 V2:199 dynamic loads, 2008 V4:136
sulfur dioxide, 2007 V3:87 friction loads, 2008 V4:137
sulfuric acid hot loads, 2008 V4:137
demineralizers, 2008 V4:197 hydrostatic loads, 2008 V4:137
formula, 2008 V4:193 load ratings, 2008 V4:132133
from cation exchange, 2008 V4:199 operating loads, 2008 V4:139
in regeneration, 2005 V2:218 seismic loads, 2008 V4:140
special wastes, 2005 V2:240242 thermal loads, 2008 V4:141
storage tanks, 2007 V3:8485 thrust loads, 2008 V4:142
in water chemistry, 2005 V2:199 trip-out loads, 2008 V4:142
sulfurous acid, 2005 V2:199 water hammer loads, 2008 V4:142
sulphate. See sulfates wind loads, 2008 V4:142
SUM (summary, summation), 2004 V1:16 support drawings, 2008 V4:134, 141
summary section in specifications, 2004 V1:69, 88 supporting rolls, 2008 V4:126
summary, summation (SUM), 2004 V1:16 supports and hangers. See also support and hanger loads
sumps and sump pumps allowing for expansion and contraction, 2008 V4:227
acoustic problems, 2004 V1:197 alternate attachment to hangers, 2004 V1:174
containment sumps, 2007 V3:136 anchoring and anchor types, 2008 V4:125132, 127131
duplex sump pump systems, 2005 V2:8 clean agent gas pipes, 2007 V3:27
elevation and, 2008 V4:99 codes, 2004 V1:43
fixture-unit values, 2005 V2:8 codes and standards, 2008 V4:117118
flexible pipe connectors, 2007 V3:147 defined, 2004 V1:30, 2008 V4:137, 139, 141
floor drains and, 2005 V2:10 design considerations, 2008 V4:117118
fountains, 2007 V3:102 acoustics, 2008 V4:120
liquid-waste decontamination systems, 2005 V2:251 loads, 2008 V4:118119
252 manmade environmental conditions, 2008 V4:120
roof drainage and, 2005 V2:54 natural environmental conditions, 2008 V4:119
sanitary drainage systems, 2005 V2:8, 9 pressure fluctuations, 2008 V4:119
sump pits, 2005 V2:252 structural stresses, 2008 V4:119
sump pumps defined, 2004 V1:30 thermal stresses, 2008 V4:119
sumps defined, 2004 V1:30 drawings and plans, 2008 V4:134, 139, 141
swimming pools, 2007 V3:110 engineering issues, 2008 V4:117120
vibration isolation, 2004 V1:208 glossary, 2008 V4:134142
Sun, T.Y., 2004 V1:191 hanger rod connections in bracing, 2004 V1:17l
sunlight hanger rod gravity forces in earthquakes, 2004 V1:186
overview, 2007 V3:181 illustrated, 2008 V4:123
protecting against, 2005 V2:16, 2007 V3:145 installation productivity rates, 2004 V1:96
solar energy. See solar energy insulation for, 2008 V4:109112
SUP (supplies), 2004 V1:16 isolation hangers, 2004 V1:203
super-compressibility, 2007 V3:166 load ratings, 2008 V4:132133
supercritical flow, 2005 V2:49. See also hydraulic jumps in materials, 2004 V1:43, 2008 V4:132134
flow medical gas piping, 2007 V3:68
Superfund Amendment and Reauthorization Act of 1986 plan locations, 2008 V4:139
(SARA Title III), 2007 V3:81, 134 reactivity and conductivity, 2008 V4:120
superheated air and vapor mixtures, 2007 V3:169 resilient pipe hangers, 2004 V1:199
superstrut bracing, 2004 V1:170 sanitary drainage systems, 2005 V2:1213
supervised heat-up method, condensate drainage, 2007 in sanitary drainage systems, 2005 V2:1213
V3:160 selection criteria, 2008 V4:124125
supervisory (tamper) switches, 2004 V1:30 spacing, 2008 V4:67, 118, 125
supplementary conditions, 2004 V1:62 sprinkler systems, 2007 V3:1819
supplementary units of measurement, 2004 V1:33 symbols for, 2004 V1:13
supplies (sply., SPLY, SUP) types of, 2008 V4:6768, 120124
abbreviations, 2004 V1:16 beam clamps, 2008 V4:122
ongoing and one-time costs, 2004 V1:223 brackets, 2008 V4:122
supply air (sa, SA), 2004 V1:16 concrete inserts, 2008 V4:121
supply fixture units, 2004 V1:24 hanger assemblies, 2008 V4:137, 139
support and hanger loads pipe clamps, 2008 V4:121
calculating for hangers and supports, 2008 V4:118119 pipe rollers, 2008 V4:123
cold loads, 2008 V4:135 pipe slides, supports, anchors, and shields, 2008
deadweight loads, 2008 V4:136 V4:123

spring hangers and constant supports, 2008 V4:124 sustainable design, 2004 V1:263267, 2008 V4:256
threaded products, 2008 V4:121 Sustainable Sites design (LEED), 2004 V1:263
vacuum cleaning tubing, 2005 V2:189 SV (service) cast-iron soil pipe, 2008 V4:23, 2627
SUR (surfaces), 2004 V1:16 SV (surgical vacuum), 2004 V1:9
SURD (surfaces, dry), 2004 V1:16 swamp gas, 2005 V2:201
surface abrasions Swartman, Robert K., 2007 V3:194
corrosion and, 2004 V1:146 sway bracing. See also lateral and longitudinal sway
grab bars, 2004 V1:122 bracing; restraints and restraining control devices
surface efficiency (SEFF), 2004 V1:14 acceptable types, 2004 V1:187
surface fault slips, 2004 V1:158 horizontal loads for, 2004 V1:185186
surface fires, 2007 V3:23 illustrated, 2008 V4:124, 130
surface-mounted pumps, 2005 V2:168 lateral and longitudinal, 2004 V1:181182, 185186
surface runoff. See runoff longitudinal and transverse, 2004 V1:179, 180
surface skimmers. See skimmers potential problems, illustrated, 2004 V1:189
surface temperature of insulation, 2008 V4:113 sway in piping, 2004 V1:162
surface-type sprinkler spray heads, 2007 V3:93 sweep fittings, 2008 V4:246
surface water swelling characteristics of soils, 2005 V2:149
as feed water for pure water systems, 2005 V2:230 swimming pools
carbon dioxide in, 2008 V4:196 backflow prevention, 2008 V4:185
defined, 2005 V2:198 bathhouses, toilets, and showers, 2007 V3:108
discharge permits for, 2007 V3:82 chemical controls, 2007 V3:123127
need for treatment, 2008 V4:193194 chemistry, 2007 V3:113114
Surface Water Treatment Rule, 2005 V2:227 circulation, 2007 V3:111114
surfaces (SUR, S) circulation pumps, 2007 V3:119120
dry (SURD), 2004 V1:16 defined, 2004 V1:30
fixture materials, 2008 V4:1 dehumidification, 2007 V3:123
symbols for, 2004 V1:16 design parameters, 2007 V3:105109
wet (SURW), 2004 V1:16 direct connection hazards, 2008 V4:184
surge capacity, swimming pools, 2007 V3:109110 feed systems, 2007 V3:123127
surge chambers, 2007 V3:178 filters
surge pressure. See water hammer diatomaceous earth, 2007 V3:116119
surge tanks, 2005 V2:30 overview, 2007 V3:112113
surge vessels (tanks), swimming pools, 2007 V3:111112, sand, 2007 V3:115116
113, 114 flow control devices, 2007 V3:121122
surges in horizontal drains, 2005 V2:5 flow sensors, 2007 V3:120121
surgical ceiling columns, 2007 V3:5657 fresh water makeup, 2007 V3:127128
surgical clean-up areas, 2007 V3:36 grate materials, 2005 V2:13
surgical gas track systems, 2007 V3:57 handicapped access, 2007 V3:130
surgical instruments, 2007 V3:57, 64 heat recovery, 2007 V3:123
surgical scrub areas, 2007 V3:36 inlets, 2007 V3:131
surgical supply areas, 2007 V3:36 ladders, 2007 V3:130
surgical vacuum (SV), 2004 V1:9 level control systems, 2007 V3:127128
surveys location, 2007 V3:106
cross connections, 2008 V4:179 main drains, 2007 V3:127128
plumbing cost estimation, 2004 V1:93 numbers of fixtures for, 2008 V4:18
water softener data, 2008 V4:209 numbers of swimmers, 2007 V3:105106
SURW (surfaces, wet), 2004 V1:16 operating systems, 2007 V3:109111
suspended equipment overview, 2007 V3:105
fixed suspended equipment, 2004 V1:164 ozone system, 2007 V3:129
vibration-isolated, suspended equipment, 2004 V1:166 physical characteristics, 2007 V3:106109
suspended metals in wastes, 2007 V3:8587 ramps, 2007 V3:130
suspended piping, earthquake recommendations, 2004 safety equipment, 2007 V3:131
V1:162 size and capacity, 2007 V3:105106
suspended solids. See also turbidity skimmers, 2007 V3:112, 114115
defined, 2005 V2:198 specialty systems, 2007 V3:114, 128130
filtration, 2005 V2:211 strainers, 2007 V3:120
removing, 2005 V2:209 surge vessels, 2007 V3:111112, 113, 114
total suspended solids, 2005 V2:203204 underwater lights, 2007 V3:130
turbidity, 2005 V2:198 UV system, 2007 V3:129130
suspended tanks, 2004 V1:162 water features, 2007 V3:130
suspension, defined, 2005 V2:198, 2008 V4:224 water heating, 2007 V3:122123
suspension hangers. See supports and hangers swing check valves, 2005 V2:100, 172, 2008 V4:74, 77, 86

Index 381
swing eyes, 2008 V4:126 aboveground tanks, 2007 V3:8384, 144147

swing loops, 2008 V4:229 break tanks, 2008 V4:176
swinging on pipes, 2008 V4:118 calculating volume, 2005 V2:7374
switch-gear rooms, 2007 V3:68 carbon dioxide extinguishing systems, 2007 V3:25, 26
swivel pipe rings, 2008 V4:140 chilled drinking-water systems, 2008 V4:243244, 246,
swivel turnbuckles, 2008 V4:141 247
SWP (steam working pressure), 2008 V4:85 connections and access, 2007 V3:136137, 145
SWRO (spiral wound modules), 2005 V2:205, 221222 construction, 2007 V3:135136
SYGEF piping, 2007 V3:4950 corrosion protection, 2007 V3:145
symbols cryogenic, 2007 V3:59
fire protection, 2004 V1:1213 distilled water systems, 2007 V3:48
references, 2004 V1:40 drinking water storage, 2005 V2:170171
standardized plumbing and piping symbols, 2004 earthquake damage, 2004 V1:161, 162
V1:713 earthquake protection, 2004 V1:163164, 188, 189
Synthesis phase in value engineering, 2004 V1:213 expansion tanks, 2005 V2:7677, 2008 V4:231235
synthetic fiber gas filters, 2007 V3:236 filling and spills, 2007 V3:136137, 145
synthetic resins, 2005 V2:215 fire-protection supplies, 2007 V3:212
SYS (systems), 2004 V1:16, 137 firefighting drainage, 2005 V2:254
system curve analysis for pumps, 2008 V4:9798 flow-through periods, 2008 V4:155
system descriptions in specifications, 2004 V1:69, 88 gauges, 2007 V3:145
system head curve, 2008 V4:97 gravity tank systems, 2005 V2:7476
system performance criteria in specifications, 2004 V1:69, hazardous waste incompatibilities, 2007 V3:83, 84
88 hydropneumatic-tank systems, 2005 V2:72, 7374
Systeme International and dUnites, 2004 V1:32 installation, 2007 V3:150151
Systems and Applications Handbook, ASHRAE, 2007 insulation, 2008 V4:109
V3:194 kill tanks, 2005 V2:252
systems (SYS) leak prevention and monitoring, 2007 V3:145146
defined, 2004 V1:137 Legionella growth in, 2005 V2:118, 120
diagramming, 2004 V1:231 liquefied petroleum gas, 2005 V2:142
symbols for, 2004 V1:16 liquid fuel tanks, 2007 V3:135137
value engineering questions, 2004 V1:213214 materials, 2007 V3:135, 144
natural gas systems, 2005 V2:142
T overfill prevention, 2007 V3:137138, 145
product dispensing systems, 2007 V3:146
t-joints, 2008 V4:61
t (metric tons), 2004 V1:34 protection, 2007 V3:146
T STAT (thermostats), 2004 V1:16 radioactive wastes, 2005 V2:250
)t, TD (temperature differences), 2004 V1:16, 136 rainwater, 2008 V4:260262
T (temperature). See temperature settling tanks, 2007 V3:87
T (tera) prefix, 2004 V1:34 storage tanks, defined, 2007 V3:133
T (teslas), 2004 V1:33 suspended, 2004 V1:164
T (time). See time tank end deflection, 2007 V3:150
T&P valves (temperature and pressure relief), 2005 tank farms, 2004 V1:150
V2:115116 tank protection, 2007 V3:146
tab, TAB (tabulation), 2004 V1:16 thermal expansion tanks, 2005 V2:116
tablespoons, converting to SI units, 2004 V1:40 tightness testing, 2007 V3:139, 149
tabular take-off sheets, in cost estimations, 2004 V1:94 underground tanks, 2007 V3:8384, 135138, 142
tabulation (tab, TAB), 2004 V1:16 vapor recovery, 2007 V3:146
take-off estimating method, cost estimating, 2004 V1:94 venting, 2007 V3:137, 145
95 vibration isolation, 2004 V1:205
Take the Guesswork out of Demineralizer Design, 2005 volume calculations, 2008 V4:154155
V2:234 water storage tanks, 2005 V2:233, 2007 V3:46
tamper switches, 2004 V1:30 tannic acid, 2008 V4:187
tamping fill, 2005 V2:15 tannin in water, 2008 V4:224
Tanaka, T., 2005 V2:234 tapping illegally into water lines, 2005 V2:68
tangential-flow filtration, 2005 V2:211, 221 tapping valves, 2008 V4:69
tank-mounted product dispensers, 2007 V3:146 taps
tank-refilling acoustics, 2004 V1:194 large wet tap excavations, 2007 V3:205
Tank Risers, 2008 V4:252 pressure loss and, 2007 V3:206
tank-type water closets, 2004 V1:135136 target areas in water closets, 2008 V4:4
tank-type water heaters, 2004 V1:129 taste of drinking water, 2005 V2:168, 227, 2008 V4:187
tankless water heaters, 2004 V1:129130 TAU (transmissivity), 2004 V1:16
tanks. See also septic tanks taverns and bars, numbers of fixtures for, 2008 V4:18, 20

tax credits, solar energy, 2007 V3:183 mixed-water temperatures, 2005 V2:111
Tax Incentives Assistance Project (TIAP) web site, 2007 natural gas, 2005 V2:131
V3:194 non-SI units, 2004 V1:34
taxes oxygen and corrosion implications, 2008 V4:197
in labor costs, 2004 V1:94 pipe classification, 2008 V4:125
in plumbing cost estimation, 2004 V1:94 pipe expansion and contraction, 2004 V1:3
Taylor, Halsey Willard, 2008 V4:237 PVC pipe and, 2008 V4:53
tc, TC (thermocouple), 2004 V1:16 rating, sprinkler systems (fire protection), 2007 V3:18
TCPL (thermocouple), 2004 V1:16 scalding water, 2005 V2:122124
TD (temperature differences), 2004 V1:16, 136 scaling and, 2008 V4:205
TD (turndown ratio), 2005 V2:133 settling velocity and, 2008 V4:154
TDIF (temperature differences), 2004 V1:16 shower compartments, 2004 V1:120, 2008 V4:1415
TDS (total dissolved solids). See total dissolved solids special-waste effluent, 2005 V2:238
(TDS) specific resistance and, 2005 V2:203
TE (temperature entering), 2004 V1:16 sprinkler head ratings, 2007 V3:13
teaspoons, converting to SI units, 2004 V1:40 storage tanks and piping, 2007 V3:149
technetium 99, 2005 V2:248 stratification, 2007 V3:149
technology advances, value engineering and, 2004 V1:212 surface temperature of insulation, 2008 V4:113
Technology for the Storage of Hazardous Liquids, 2007 symbols for, 2004 V1:16
V3:88 temperature differences (TD, t, TDIF), 2004 V1:16,
tectonic plates, 2004 V1:156158 136
tee-wyes, flow capacity and, 2005 V2:4 temperature differentials, 2004 V1:125126
tees (TEE), 2004 V1:10, 16 temperature entering (TE, TENT), 2004 V1:16
Teflon (PTFE), 2005 V2:249, 2007 V3:46 temperature leaving (TL, TLEA), 2004 V1:16
discs, 2008 V4:83 temperature stratification, 2007 V3:149
pipes, 2008 V4:5556 thermal expansion, 2008 V4:227
seats, 2008 V4:83 thermal support systems and earthquakes, 2004 V1:168
temp., TEMP (temperatures). See temperature water heaters, 2005 V2:107, 111
TEMP. HW (tempered hot water), 2004 V1:8 water vapor in air and, 2007 V3:169170
TEMP. HWR (tempered hot water recirculating), 2004 water volume and, 2005 V2:77
V1:8 Temperature Limits in Service Hot Water Systems, 2005
temperature (temp., TEMP, T) V2:124
acid wastes, 2007 V3:43 temperature-pressure-relief valves (TPV), 2004 V1:10,
bathtub water notes, 2004 V1:119 2005 V2:115116
compressed air systems and, 2007 V3:178 temperature stratification, 2007 V3:149
conversion factors, 2004 V1:37, 38 tempered water
cooling air compressors, 2007 V3:171 defined, 2004 V1:30
corrosion rates and, 2004 V1:145 tempered hot water (TEMP. HW, TW), 2004 V1:8
CPVC vs. PVC piping, 2008 V4:53 tempered hot water recirculating (TEMP. HWR, TWR),
deaeration water temperatures, 2005 V2:209 2004 V1:8
defined, 2007 V3:169 temporary hardness, 2008 V4:196
density and viscosity of water and, 2008 V4:200 tennis courts, numbers of fixtures for, 2008 V4:18
dew points, 2007 V3:170 tensile strength
in double containment systems, 2008 V4:55 plastic pipe, 2008 V4:50
drinking-water coolers and, 2008 V4:238 PVC pipe and, 2008 V4:53
drops in flowing water, 2008 V4:115 tensile stresses
elevated temperatures for removing Legionella, 2005 expansion and contraction, 2008 V4:69
V2:120 stacks, 2008 V4:229
expansion and contraction and, 2008 V4:69 with temperature change, 2008 V4:228
feed water temperature and deposits, 2005 V2:207, 224, Tension 360 bracing, 2004 V1:169
231 tension problems in seismic protection, 2004 V1:190
hangers and supports and, 2008 V4:126 TENT (temperature entering), 2004 V1:16
hot-water properties, 2005 V2:117 Tentative Provisions for the Development of Seismic
hot-water relief valves, 2005 V2:115116 Regulations for Buildings, 2004 V1:183, 191
hot-water temperatures, 2005 V2:111, 112114, 114, tera prefix, 2004 V1:34
2007 V3:39, 47 terminal elements, defined, 2004 V1:137
insulation and temperature loss, 2008 V4:105 terminal length, defined, 2005 V2:1
Legionella growth and, 2005 V2:118120 terminal velocity
maintenance hot-water temperatures, 2005 V2:115 defined, 2005 V2:1
maintenance, pumps, 2008 V4:99 stack capacities and, 2005 V2:4
measurements, 2004 V1:33 stack terminal velocity, 2004 V1:3
microbial control in water, 2005 V2:224 terminal vents, 2005 V2:42

Index 383
terminals, passenger, 2008 V4:18 Thermal Expansion and Contraction of Plastic Pipe, 2008
terra-cotta pipe sleeves, 2008 V4:69 V4:235
tertiary treatment of gray water, 2005 V2:31, 35 thermal-hydraulic irrigation valves, 2007 V3:94
teslas, 2004 V1:33 Thermal Insulation, 2008 V4:116
test block conditions in gas boosters, 2005 V2:134 thermal insulation thickness, 2004 V1:127
test headers, 2004 V1:12 thermal loads, 2008 V4:141
test-method standards, 2004 V1:66 thermal movement, sound insulation and, 2004 V1:193
test station cathodic protection, 2004 V1:151 thermal resistance (R, R, RES), 2004 V1:16, 2008 V4:105
testing thermal-shock protection, 2004 V1:120
acoustic ratings of fixtures and appliances, 2004 thermal shock treatments, 2005 V2:118
V1:194195 thermal storage devices and media, 2007 V3:185
backflow devices, 2008 V4:183 thermal stresses on piping systems, 2008 V4:119
cold-water systems, 2005 V2:103 thermal-support systems, earthquakes and, 2004 V1:168
gaseous fire-suppression systems, 2007 V3:27 thermal transmittance (U), 2008 V4:105
hot-water relief valves, 2005 V2:116 thermocompression distillation, 2005 V2:210
hydrants, 2007 V3:36 thermocouple (tc, TC, TCPL), 2004 V1:16
hydraulic soil conditions, 2005 V2:147150 thermodynamic disc traps, 2007 V3:159
insulation, 2008 V4:106 thermometers, 2004 V1:10
liquid fuel systems, 2007 V3:149150 thermoplastic pipes, 2008 V4:49
medical gas alarms, 2007 V3:75 thermoset plastic, 2007 V3:135, 2008 V4:49
medical gas systems, 2007 V3:6976 thermostatic bellows steam traps, 2007 V3:158
natural gas services, 2007 V3:241 thermostatic-mixing shower valves, 2008 V4:1415, 17
percolation rates for soils, 2005 V2:149150 thermostatic-mixing tub valves, 2008 V4:16
pipes for radioactive waste systems, 2005 V2:249 thermostatic steam traps, 2007 V3:158159
plastic fixtures, 2008 V4:2 thermostats (T STAT), 2004 V1:16
seat tests (valves), 2008 V4:89 chilled drinking-water systems, 2008 V4:243
shell tests (valves), 2008 V4:89 drinking water coolers, 2008 V4:242
tank tightness testing, 2007 V3:139, 149 thermosyphon in fluids, 2007 V3:185
urinal tests, 2008 V4:9 thermosyphon systems, 2007 V3:185, 190
water closet flushing, 2008 V4:56 thickness (thkns, THKNS, THK)
welders for radioactive pipe systems, 2005 V2:249 insulation, 2008 V4:109113
wells, 2005 V2:166 of soils, 2005 V2:149
Testing and Rating Procedure for Grease Interceptors with symbols for, 2004 V1:16
Appendix of Sizing and Installation Data, 2008 Thickness Design, 2008 V4:28
V4:153, 166, 250, 252, 253 thin skin membranes, 2008 V4:217
tetrachloroethylene, 2008 V4:186 thinking outside the box, 2004 V1:232
tetrafluoroethylene (TFE), 2008 V4:48, 86 THK (thickness), 2004 V1:16
Texas Manual on Rainwater Harvesting, 2008 V4:265 thkns, THKNS (thickness). See thickness
Texas Water Development Board, 2008 V4:265 thousand circular mils (Mcm, MCM), 2004 V1:16
text, abbreviations in, 2004 V1:1416 thousand cubic feet (Mcf, MCF), 2004 V1:16
texture of soils, 2005 V2:148149 thousand foot-pounds (kip ft, KIP FT, KIPFT), 2004 V1:16
TFE (tetrafluoroethylene), 2008 V4:48, 86 thousand pounds (kip, KIP), 2004 V1:16
theaters thread cutting, 2008 V4:62
drinking fountain usage, 2008 V4:245 thread lubricants, 2008 V4:62
numbers of fixtures for, 2008 V4:18, 20 threaded ball valves, 2008 V4:84
vacuum calculations for, 2005 V2:190 threaded end connections, 2004 V1:23
theoretical barometric pressure, 2007 V3:169 threaded hangers and supports, 2008 V4:121
theoretical horsepower, 2007 V3:167 threaded joints, 2004 V1:167
theoretical standard atmospheric pressure, 2007 V3:169 mechanical joints, 2008 V4:60
therapy pools, 2007 V3:106, 109 preparing, 2008 V4:62
therm, converting to SI units, 2004 V1:40 threaded outlets, 2005 V2:14
thermal compressors, 2007 V3:169 threaded rod couplings, 2008 V4:142
thermal conductivity (k, K), 2008 V4:105 threaded rods, 2008 V4:132, 141
measurements, 2004 V1:33 three-bolt pipe clamps, 2008 V4:142
plastic pipe, 2008 V4:50 three-compartment sinks, 2008 V4:11, 12
symbols for, 2004 V1:16 thresholds in shower compartments, 2004 V1:120
thermal efficiency throttling valves, 2008 V4:75, 83
defined, 2004 V1:30, 136 thrust bearings, 2004 V1:196
water heaters and, 2005 V2:116117 thrust blocks, 2007 V3:215
thermal energy, 2007 V3:181182 thrust loads, 2008 V4:142
thermal expansion. See expansion (exp, EXP, XPAN) tie-in tests, 2007 V3:75
tie rods, 2007 V3:213

TIG (tungsten inert gas), 2008 V4:63 torrs, 2005 V2:176

tight piping systems, 2004 V1:168 TOT HT (total heat), 2004 V1:16
tightness testing, 2007 V3:139, 149 total (TOT), 2004 V1:16
tiles in absorption systems, 2005 V2:151 total alkalinity, 2005 V2:199
time (T) total connected loads, 2007 V3:51, 235, 239
clean agent gas fire suppression, 2007 V3:27 total costs
of concentration in runoff, 2007 V3:231 defined, 2004 V1:222
in creativity checklist, 2004 V1:234 generalized, 2004 V1:223
intervals in hydraulic shock, 2004 V1:6 total developed lengths, 2008 V4:229
in measurements, 2004 V1:33 total discharge head, defined, 2008 V4:98
non-SI units, 2004 V1:34 total dissolved solids (TDS), 2005 V2:204, 227
symbols for, 2004 V1:16 defined, 2008 V4:224
time in pipes, 2007 V3:231 levels in drinking water, 2008 V4:186
time-temperature curves in fire tests, 2007 V3:23 treating in water, 2008 V4:187
time delays in clean gas extinguishing systems, 2007 total dynamic head (TDH), 2005 V2:169, 2007 V3:119
V3:2728 total fixture count weights, 2008 V4:207
time history total flooding systems
computer analysis, 2004 V1:186 carbon dioxide systems, 2007 V3:26
earthquakes, 2004 V1:159, 160 defined, 2004 V1:26
timers for pumps, 2005 V2:73 dry-chemical extinguishing systems, 2007 V3:23
tin total head, 2005 V2:169, 2008 V4:93, 9697, 98
coatings for distillers, 2008 V4:212 total head/capacity curves, 2008 V4:9697
corrosion, 2004 V1:139 total head curve, 2008 V4:9697
distillation systems, 2008 V4:195 total heat (tot ht, TOT HT), 2004 V1:16
galvanic series, 2004 V1:141 total organic carbon (TOC), 2005 V2:204
piping, 2005 V2:83 total oxidizable carbon (TOC), 2008 V4:56, 216
tin-lined copper pipes, 2007 V3:49 total pressure loss method, 2005 V2:68, 97, 98
tipping prevention, 2004 V1:189 total pumping head, 2005 V2:169
tissue-culture rooms, 2007 V3:47 total suspended solids, 2005 V2:203204
titanium, 2004 V1:141, 144, 2007 V3:23, 2008 V4:212 total trihalomethanes (TTHM), 2005 V2:120
titration, 2008 V4:224 total work force in vacuum systems, 2005 V2:179
TL (temperature leaving), 2004 V1:16 tower water. See air-conditioning cooling towers
TLEA (temperature leaving), 2004 V1:16 towers in standpipe systems, 2007 V3:20
TOC (total organic carbon), 2005 V2:204 toxaphene
TOC (total oxidizable carbon), 2008 V4:56 levels in drinking water, 2008 V4:186
toe clearance in toilet compartments, 2004 V1:113, 114 treating in water, 2008 V4:187
toilet compartments. See water-closet compartments TPV (temperature-pressure-relief valves), 2004 V1:10,
toilet paper 2005 V2:115116
dispensers, 2004 V1:114 trace elements in water, 2005 V2:200
in septic tanks, 2005 V2:156 Trace Level Analysis of High Purity Water, 2005 V2:234
toilets. See also water closets tractor-type grates, 2005 V2:11
composting, 2004 V1:265 traffic loads
incinerating, 2004 V1:265 automotive traffic and grates, 2005 V2:11
vacuum toilets, 2005 V2:19 bioremediation pretreatment systems, 2008 V4:252
tolerance, 2004 V1:32 cleanouts and, 2005 V2:9
toluene, 2008 V4:186 grates and strainers, 2005 V2:10
tons (TON) traffic vibration or resonance, 2008 V4:120
converting to SI units, 2004 V1:40 trailer parks
symbols for, 2004 V1:16 septic tank systems for, 2005 V2:156157
tons of refrigeration (tons, TONS), 2004 V1:16 sewers, 2004 V1:30
tools water consumption, 2008 V4:208
tool access in cleanouts, 2005 V2:9 transactions, fuel, 2007 V3:143144
for vacuum cleaning systems, 2005 V2:190 transfer fluid, heat, 2007 V3:185
top-beam clamps, 2008 V4:142 transfer-type showers, 2004 V1:121
top coats, 2004 V1:147 transferring hazardous wastes, 2007 V3:8384
top-spud water closets, 2008 V4:3 transition fittings, 2007 V3:238
torch testing, 2008 V4:2 transition joints, 2008 V4:60
Toro Company, 2007 V3:96 transmissibility of vibration
torque designing, 2008 V4:145
conversion factors, 2004 V1:35 upper floor installation, 2008 V4:150
converting to SI units, 2004 V1:39 varying frequency ratios and, 2008 V4:146149
measurements, 2004 V1:33 transmission loss (sound), 2004 V1:209

Index 385
transmission of noise, 2004 V1:199 Treatment of Organic Chemical Manufacturing

transmissivity (TAU), 2004 V1:16 Wastewater for Reuse (EPA 600), 2007 V3:88
transmittance, 2007 V3:185 treatment plants, 2008 V4:185. See also names of specific
transmitted forces, 2008 V4:146 treatment plants (chemical treatment, water
transport trucks, 2007 V3:57 treatment)
Transportation Department. See U.S. Department of treatment rooms
Transportation fixtures, 2007 V3:38
transportation gas service, 2005 V2:126 health care facilities, 2007 V3:36
transportation gas services, 2007 V3:235 medical gas stations, 2007 V3:52
transverse bracing, 2004 V1:167, 171, 191. See also lateral medical vacuum, 2007 V3:54
and longitudinal sway bracing water demand, 2007 V3:46
transverse sway bracing, 2004 V1:179 tree piping systems, 2007 V3:12
trap arms trench drains
defined, 2005 V2:41 in chemical plants, 2005 V2:253
length of, 2005 V2:47 defined, 2008 V4:16
trap seals trenches
controlling induced siphonage, 2005 V2:47 absorption trenches. See soil-absorption sewage
defined, 2004 V1:31 systems
factors in trap seal loss, 2005 V2:4647 labor productivity rates, 2004 V1:9597
floor drains, 2005 V2:10, 2008 V4:1617 sanitary sewer services, 2007 V3:217218, 219
introduction, 2005 V2:4647 storage tank piping, 2007 V3:150
primer devices, 2008 V4:1617 Tri-Services Manual, 2004 V1:183
reducing trap seal losses, 2005 V2:4647 triage rooms, 2007 V3:38
tests, 2008 V4:5 triangles
vents and, 2005 V2:47 calculating area, 2004 V1:45
trapeze hangers exercise, 2004 V1:232, 261
bracing pipes on trapeze, 2004 V1:175, 178 rule for sink location, 2008 V4:12
defined, 2008 V4:142 trichlor, 2007 V3:124
illustrated, 2008 V4:68, 124 trichloroethanes, 2008 V4:186
potential problems in bracing, 2004 V1:189 trichloroethylene, 2007 V3:66
preference for, 2008 V4:67 trickle collectors, 2007 V3:184
selecting, 2008 V4:126 trickle irrigation, 2007 V3:94
trapeziums, calculating area, 2004 V1:4 trickling filters, 2007 V3:88
trapezoids, calculating area, 2004 V1:4 triggering clean agent gas fire suppression, 2007 V3:2728
traps. See also trap seals trihalomethanes, 2005 V2:223, 2008 V4:186, 187, 215
building traps, defined, 2004 V1:19 trip-out loads, 2008 V4:142
condensate drainage, 2007 V3:161162 triplex air compressors, 2007 V3:179
defined, 2004 V1:31 triplex vacuum pump arrangements, 2005 V2:186
eliminating siphonage with vents, 2005 V2:47 trisodium phosphate, 2005 V2:12
fixture traps and vents, 2005 V2:47 TROs (tubular modules in reverse osmosis), 2005 V2:221,
grease interceptors, 2008 V4:153, 162 222
introduction, 2005 V2:4647 truss-type bracing, 2004 V1:190
roof drains, 2005 V2:64 tsunamis, 2004 V1:158
sink traps, 2007 V3:4546 TTHM (total trihalomethanes), 2005 V2:120
special-waste drainage systems, 2005 V2:238 TU (turbidity units), 2008 V4:196
steam, 2007 V3:158159 tub fillers, 2008 V4:16, 185
urinals, 2008 V4:9 tube ozone units, 2005 V2:224
travel devices, 2008 V4:142 tube washers, 2007 V3:41
travel indicators, 2008 V4:142 tuberculation, 2004 V1:154
travel scales, 2008 V4:142 tubing
travel stops, 2008 V4:142 vacuum cleaning hose capacity, 2005 V2:190
TRC (tubular modules in reverse osmosis), 2005 V2:221, vacuum cleaning systems, 2005 V2:190
222 tubular-bag separators, 2005 V2:188
treated water. See also water treatment tubular membranes, 2008 V4:219
defined, 2005 V2:197 tubular modules in reverse osmosis, 2005 V2:221, 222
from reverse osmosis, 2005 V2:221 Tully, G.F., 2007 V3:194
systems. See gray-water systems tungsten inert gas (TIG), 2008 V4:63
Treating Cooling Water, 2005 V2:234 tunnel tests, 2008 V4:106
treatment of biosolids, 2008 V4:262264 tunnels, vibration and resonance from, 2008 V4:120
treatment of black water, 2005 V2:31 turbidity
treatment of gray water, 2005 V2:3032, 31, 35 clarification of, 2005 V2:208209, 2008 V4:200
treatment of oil in water, 2005 V2:254256 defined, 2005 V2:198, 2008 V4:224

drinking water, 2005 V2:227 medical gas tube, 2007 V3:69, 2008 V4:42
filter beds and, 2008 V4:203 Type L copper
measuring, 2005 V2:203204 copper water tube, 2008 V4:32
removing, 2005 V2:168 dimensions and capacity, 2008 V4:3536
safe levels in drinking water, 2008 V4:186 lengths, standards, and applications, 2008 V4:30
treating in water, 2008 V4:187, 196 medical gas tube, 2007 V3:69, 2008 V4:42
turbidity units (TU), 2008 V4:196 natural gas, 2007 V3:239
turbine meters, 2005 V2:95 Type L gas vents, 2005 V2:144
turbine pumps, 2005 V2:168169, 170, 2007 V3:119120, Type L vent codes, 2004 V1:43
2008 V4:9899 Type M copper
turbine water meters, 2005 V2:68, 69 copper water tube, 2008 V4:32
turbo machines. See pumps dimensions and capacity, 2008 V4:3738
turbo pumps, 2005 V2:180 lengths, standards, and applications, 2008 V4:31
turbo-surgical instruments, 2007 V3:57 Type OXY/ACR pipes, 2008 V4:31
turbulence Type OXY, MED pipes, 2008 V4:31
defined, 2004 V1:31 Type OXY/MED pipes, 2008 V4:31
determining friction, 2005 V2:84 typhoid, 2008 V4:199
floatation and, 2008 V4:157 typhoons, 2008 V4:119
in grease interceptors, 2008 V4:154
in rate of corrosion, 2004 V1:145
turbulent flow in pipes, 2004 V1:2
U
U, U (heat transfer coefficients) (U factor), 2004 V1:15, 16,
turf imperviousness factors, 2007 V3:229 2008 V4:106
turnbuckles U-bends, 2008 V4:229
defined, 2008 V4:142 U-bolts, 2008 V4:68, 121, 142
illustrated, 2008 V4:68, 121, 126, 127 UF. See ultrafilters and ultrafiltration
use of, 2008 V4:67 UF membranes, 2005 V2:201
turndown ratio (TD), 2005 V2:134 UFAS (Uniform Federal Accessibility Standard), 2004
turnover rate, swimming pools, 2007 V3:109 V1:105106
TW (tempered hot water), 2004 V1:8 UFC (Uniform Fire Code), 2007 V3:134
twin-agent dry-chemical systems, 2007 V3:23 Uhlig, Herbert H., 2004 V1:154
twin-tower air dryers, 2007 V3:175 UL listings. See Underwriters Laboratories, Inc. (UL)
twisting motions, hangers and, 2008 V4:119 ULF. See ultra-low-flow water closets
two. See also entries beginning with double-, dual-, or ultra-high vacuum, 2005 V2:175
multiple- ultra-low-flow fixture green building credits, 2004 V1:264
two-bed deionizing units, 2007 V3:48 ultra-low-flow water closets
two-compartment septic tanks, 2005 V2:154155 operation, 2004 V1:135136
two-compartment sinks, 2008 V4:11, 12 water usage rates, 2004 V1:134135
two-family dwellings, numbers of fixtures for, 2008 V4:19 ultra-pure water systems, 2005 V2:228
two-pipe venturi suction pumps, 2005 V2:165 ultra-pure water (UPW), 2008 V4:56
two-point vapor recovery, 2007 V3:142 ultrafilters and ultrafiltration
two-stage reduction, 2005 V2:78 cross-flow filtration, 2005 V2:211, 223
two-step deionization (dual-bed), 2005 V2:216, 217 defined, 2008 V4:196, 220
two-valve parallel pressure-regulated valves, 2005 V2:78 membrane filters, 2005 V2:221223
two-way braces, 2008 V4:142 oil spills, 2005 V2:255
two-word expressions of functions, 2004 V1:225, 231 Ultraviolet Disinfection in Biotechnology:Myth vs. Practice,
TWR (tempered hot water recirculating), 2004 V1:8 2005 V2:234
TXPC (thermal expansion coefficients), 2004 V1:16 ultraviolet radiation, defined, 2007 V3:185
Type 1 air compressors, 2007 V3:62, 63 ultraviolet radiation treatment of water, 2005 V2:120122,
Type 2 air compressors, 2007 V3:62 168, 223224, 228, 232, 233, 2008 V4:213, 216
Type A gray-water systems, 2005 V2:3234 ultraviolet sterilization, 2007 V3:48
Type ACR/MED pipes, 2008 V4:31 U.N. World Commission on the Environment and
Type ACR pipes, 2008 V4:31 Development, 2008 V4:256
Type B gas vents, 2005 V2:144 unassisted creativity, 2004 V1:232
Type B gray-water systems, 2005 V2:3234 unbalanced forces, vibration and, 2008 V4:145, 146
Type B vent codes, 2004 V1:43 unbalanced motors in pumps, 2004 V1:196
Type B-W gas vents, 2005 V2:144 unconsolidated aquifers, 2005 V2:165
Type DWV pipes, 2008 V4:31, 4142 undamped mechanical systems, 2004 V1:160
Type G copper, 2008 V4:31 under-counter grease interceptors, 2008 V4:162
Type K copper under-counter mounted lavatories, 2008 V4:11
copper water tube, 2008 V4:32 under-counter mounted sinks, 2008 V4:12
dimensions and capacity, 2008 V4:3334 under-film corrosion, 2004 V1:154
lengths, standards, and applications, 2008 V4:30 under-floor areas, 2007 V3:27

Index 387
under-table waste and vent piping, 2007 V3:46 unemployment taxes, in labor costs, 2004 V1:94
underdeveloped nations, sanitation, 2008 V4:255256 ungravel upheaval, 2008 V4:203204
underground building sanitary pipe codes, 2004 V1:44 ungridded piping systems, 2007 V3:12
underground digging, planning impacts of, 2008 V4:120 uniform attack corrosion, 2004 V1:142
underground inspections, 2004 V1:102103 Uniform Building Code (UBC), 2004 V1:183, 191, 2008
underground piping V4:247
acid-waste piping, 2005 V2:242244 Uniform Federal Accessibility Standard (UFAS), 2004
cast-iron soil pipe, 2008 V4:2325 V1:105106
coatings, 2004 V1:147 Uniform Fire Code (UFC), 2007 V3:134
defined, 2004 V1:31 uniform flow
glass pipe, 2008 V4:48 in horizontal drains, 2005 V2:6
materials for, 2005 V2:13 Manning formula, 2004 V1:1
medical gas piping, 2007 V3:68 Uniform Plumbing Code, 2005 V2:44, 2008 V4:17, 2021,
storm-drainage systems, 2005 V2:50 164165, 253
thermal expansion and contraction, 2008 V4:231 uniform pressure loss method, 2005 V2:68, 97, 98
underground building sanitary pipe codes, 2004 V1:44 Uniformat specification system, 2004 V1:64, 73
valves, 2008 V4:90 unintended uses of piping, 2008 V4:118
underground pressurized fuel delivery systems, 2007 uninterrupted water supplies, 2007 V3:46
V3:141 uninterruptible gas services, 2007 V3:235
underground sprinklers, 2007 V3:92 unions (contractor unions), 2008 V4:116
underground storage tanks (USTs) unions (joins)
codes and standards, 2007 V3:134 flanged, 2004 V1:10
connections and access, 2007 V3:136137 screwed, 2004 V1:10
construction, 2007 V3:135136 unions (joints)
defined, 2007 V3:133 defined, 2008 V4:7475
dispenser pans, 2007 V3:143 union bonnets, 2008 V4:75
filling and spills, 2007 V3:136137 union rings, 2008 V4:75, 79
fire suppression, 2007 V3:143 union shoulder pieces, 2008 V4:75
fuel islands, 2007 V3:143 union threaded pieces, 2008 V4:75
fuel transactions, 2007 V3:143144 unions (labor), cost estimates and, 2004 V1:98
hazardous wastes, 2007 V3:8384 unisex toilet rooms, 2008 V4:1718
illustrated, 2007 V3:142 unit costs, in plumbing cost estimation, 2004 V1:93
leak detection and system monitoring, 2007 V3:138 United States agencies and departments. See U.S. agencies
141 and departments
liquid fuel storage tanks, 2007 V3:135141 United States Pharmacopoeia. See U.S. Pharmacopoeia
materials, 2007 V3:135 (USP)
overfill prevention, 2007 V3:137138 units (UNIT)
product dispensing systems, 2007 V3:142144 symbols for, 2004 V1:16
testing, 2007 V3:149 units of measurement. See measurement units
vapor recovery systems, 2007 V3:141142 universities. See also laboratories
venting, 2007 V3:137 diversity factor calculations for vacuums, 2005 V2:184
underground suction fuel delivery systems, 2007 V3:141 University of Southern California (USC) Foundations
underground valves, 2008 V4:90 for Cross-Connection Control and Hydraulic
underwater pool lights, 2007 V3:130 Research, 2008 V4:179
underwriters. See insurance unknowns in value engineering presentations, 2004
Underwriters Laboratories, Inc. (UL) V1:258
address, 2004 V1:59 unloading in air compressors, 2007 V3:173
fiberglass pipe, 2008 V4:56 unobstructed reach for wheelchairs, 2004 V1:111, 112
gas booster components, 2005 V2:131 unoccupied buildings, conserving energy in, 2004 V1:127
hot-water components, 2005 V2:115, 124 unrestricted areas (facilities with radiation), 2005 V2:247
list of standards, 2004 V1:57 untreated sewage, 2004 V1:28
pipe hangers, 2007 V3:18 untreated water. See water impurities
UL 58:Steel Underground Tanks for Flammable and up flow, defined, 2008 V4:224
Combustible Liquids, 2007 V3:88 upfeed risers, 2008 V4:243
UL 142:Steel Above Ground Tanks for Flammable and upper-floor installations, 2008 V4:150
Combustible Liquids, 2007 V3:88, 134, 144 upright sprinklers, 2004 V1:13, 29, 30
UL 723 standard, 2008 V4:106 upstream, defined, 2004 V1:31
UL 1585:Class 2 & Class 3 Transformers, 2008 V4:252 UPW (ultrapure water), 2008 V4:56
UL 2085:Insulated Aboveground Tanks for Flammable Urban Hydrology for Small Watersheds, 2005 V2:64
and Combustible Liquids, 2007 V3:134 urinals. See also water closets
valve fire protection approvals, 2008 V4:73, 90 accessibility design, 2004 V1:116117
web site, 2007 V3:89 acoustic ratings of, 2004 V1:194

chase size, 2008 V4:10 Hexavalent Chromium, 2007 V3:88

Energy Policy Act requirements, 2004 V1:264 EPA 600:Treatment of Organic Chemical
exclusion from gray-water systems, 2005 V2:25 Manufacturing Wastewater for Reuse, 2007
fixture pipe sizes and demand, 2005 V2:94 V3:88
flushing requirements, 2008 V4:10 EPA 1664:Guidelines Establishing Test Procedures
gray water use, 2004 V1:267, 2005 V2:28 for the Analysis of Oil and Grease and
health care facilities, 2007 V3:36, 37 Non-polar Material, 2008 V4:252
installation requirements, 2008 V4:910 regulations, 2007 V3:81
minimum number for buildings, 2008 V4:20 Safe Drinking Water Act and, 2005 V2:167
reducing flow rates, 2004 V1:134135 special waste drainage codes and, 2005 V2:237
specialty urinals, 2004 V1:136 storage tank regulations, 2007 V3:134
standards, 2008 V4:2 tank leak detection regulations, 2007 V3:138
submerged inlet hazards, 2008 V4:184 water consumption statistics, 2004 V1:135
testing, 2008 V4:9 Water Quality Standards, 2008 V4:224
traps, 2008 V4:9 website, 2007 V3:151, 2008 V4:224, 265
types, 2008 V4:89 U.S. Federal Housing Administration, 2004 V1:199
typical use, 2005 V2:28 U.S. Federal Specifications (FS), 2004 V1:25, 58, 2008
ultra low flow, 2004 V1:135136 V4:247
water fixture unit values, 2007 V3:198 U.S. Food and Drug Administration, 2005 V2:197, 231,
water usage reduction, 2008 V4:258 234, 237
waterless, 2004 V1:265, 2008 V4:9 U.S. General Services Administration, 2004 V1:191, 199,
U.S. Architectural and Transportation Barriers 263, 2005 V2:36
Compliance Board (ATBCB), 2004 V1:106, 107 U.S. Government Printing Office
U.S. Army Corps of Engineers web site, 2007 V3:89
specifications, 2004 V1:63 U.S. Green Building Council (USGBC), 2004 V1:263, 2008
U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Manual, 2005 V2:144 V4:23, 256, 265
value engineering, 2004 V1:211 U.S. Occupational Safety and Health Administration, 2005
U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2005 V2:242
V2:118 U.S. Pharmacopoeia (USP)
U.S. Department of Commerce, National Information USP nomographs, 2005 V2:229
Services, 2005 V2:36 USP purified water, 2005 V2:229230, 231
U.S. Department of Defense, 2004 V1:161, 185, 191, water treatment standards, 2005 V2:197
212213 U.S. Public Health Service (USPHS), 2005 V2:161
U.S. Department of Energy U.S. Safe Drinking Water Act, 2008 V4:171
Active Solar Energy System Design Practice Manual, U.S. Veterans Administration, 2004 V1:191
2007 V3:194 U.S. War Department, 2005 V2:64
Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy web site, USACOE. See U.S. Army Corps of Engineers
2007 V3:194 usage. See demand
Greening Federal Facilities, 2004 V1:134, 137 usages in swimming pools, 2007 V3:106
U.S. Department of Health and Environmental Control, USC Foundation for Cross-Connection Control and
2005 V2:124 Hydraulic Research, 2008 V4:179
U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, 2007 use factors
V3:35 air compressors, 2007 V3:174
U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development, compressed air systems, 2007 V3:175176
2004 V1:105, 106 USEPA. See U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
U.S. Department of the Army, 2005 V2:64, 2008 V4:116 users in cost equation, 2004 V1:223
U.S. Department of Transportation (DOTn), 2004 V1:54, USGBC (U.S. Green Building Council), 2004 V1:263
58, 2005 V2:142, 2007 V3:82 USP. See U.S. Pharmacopoeia (USP)
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency USPHS. See U.S. Public Health Service (USPHS)
aggressiveness index, 2005 V2:208 USTs. See underground storage tanks (USTs)
bioremediation standards, 2008 V4:249 utilities. See site utilities
chemical waste system codes and, 2005 V2:252 utility costs, lowering, 2004 V1:128
Effluent Guideline program, 2007 V3:8283 utility gas. See fuel-gas piping systems
industrial waste water defined, 2007 V3:81 utility sinks, 2007 V3:36
potable water treatment technologies, 2005 V2:197 utility water treatment, 2005 V2:225
private water wells, 2005 V2:163 UV (ultraviolet rays)
publications, 2005 V2:161, 162 Legionella control, 2005 V2:120122
Cross-connection Control Manual, 2008 V4:179 sterilization, 2007 V3:48
EPA 440:The EPA Effluent Guidelines Series, 2007 swimming pool sterilization, 2007 V3:129130
V3:88 UV treatment of water, 2005 V2:168, 223224, 228,
EPA 600/2-79-130:Activated Carbon Process for 232, 233
Treatment of Wastewater Containing

Index 389
V medical vacuum
design checklist, 2007 V3:5051
v, V (valves). See valves
V (specific volume). See specific volume diversity factors, 2007 V3:70
V (velocity of uniform flow), 2004 V1:1 laboratory outlets, 2007 V3:4142
V (velocity). See velocity number of stations, 2007 V3:51, 5253
V (vents). See vents and venting systems oral surgery equipment, 2007 V3:42
V (volts). See volts patient vacuum, 2007 V3:78
v/v (volume to volume), 2005 V2:201 peak demand, 2007 V3:55
VA (volt amperes), 2004 V1:16 piping systems, 2007 V3:54, 6466
vac, VAC (vacuum). See vacuum (vac, VAC) piping, 2005 V2:183, 2007 V3:69, 73
vacation pay, in labor costs, 2004 V1:94 pressure drop, 2005 V2:179
vacuum (vac, VAC) pressure measurement, 2005 V2:176178
defined, 2004 V1:31, 2005 V2:175, 2008 V4:179 pump curves, 2005 V2:179
perfect vacuum, 2007 V3:169 purchasing, 2005 V2:180
surgical use, 2007 V3:56 references, 2005 V2:196
symbols for, 2004 V1:8, 16 sizing, 2005 V2:184187, 2007 V3:69, 73
valves for systems, 2008 V4:87 time to reach rated vacuum, 2005 V2:178179
vacuum breakers, 2008 V4:173174, 175, 176, 179. See vacuum-pressure gauges, 2005 V2:181
also backflow preventers vacuum sources, 2005 V2:179182, 182183, 186
vacuum cleaning systems, 2005 V2:188196. See also velocity calculations, 2005 V2:179
vacuum systems work forces, 2005 V2:179
cleanouts, 2005 V2:195 vacuum tube collectors, 2007 V3:183, 186
codes and standards, 2005 V2:188 valence, 2005 V2:198, 199, 216
components, 2005 V2:188189 value, defined, 2004 V1:213214
friction losses, 2005 V2:191193, 193194 Value Engineering Change Proposals (VECP), 2004 V1:260
inlet locations and spacing, 2005 V2:189 Value Engineering Job Plan (VEJP), 2004 V1:214
piping, 2005 V2:189 value engineering (VE)
separators, 2005 V2:194196 arguments against, 2004 V1:232
simultaneous operators, 2005 V2:190 checklists
sizing exhausters, 2005 V2:193194 creativity worksheets, 2004 V1:233234
types, 2005 V2:188 detail/product/material specification checklists,
Vacuum Cleaning Systems, 2005 V2:196 2004 V1:220
vacuum deaerators, 2005 V2:209, 2008 V4:197 evaluation checklists, 2004 V1:237238
vacuum drainage systems, 2005 V2:19 function definitions forms, 2004 V1:225227, 228
vacuum levels functional evaluation worksheets, 2004 V1:243
defined, 2005 V2:175 251
in exhauster sizing, 2005 V2:193 idea development and estimated cost forms, 2004
vacuum-operated waste transport system, 2008 V4:259 V1:241242
vacuum producers (exhausters), 2005 V2:188, 190, 193 idea evaluation worksheets, 2004 V1:243, 253
194 project information checklists, 2004 V1:215220
vacuum product dispensers, 2007 V3:142143, 146 project information sources checklists, 2004 V1:221
vacuum pumps, 2005 V2:180, 186, 2007 V3:50, 6566 questions checklists, 2004 V1:213214
vacuum relief valves, 2004 V1:31 recommendation worksheets, 2004 V1:258, 259
vacuum sand filters, 2007 V3:116 compared to cost fitting, 2004 V1:258
Vacuum Sewage Collection, 2005 V2:161 contract document clauses, 2004 V1:258, 260
vacuum sewers, 2005 V2:152 cost information, 2004 V1:222225
vacuum sources, 2005 V2:179182, 182183, 184, 186 creativity process, 2004 V1:231235
Vacuum Sources, 2005 V2:196 defined, 2004 V1:211
vacuum systems, 2005 V2:188196. See also vacuum elements of, 2004 V1:214225
cleaning systems Evaluation phase, 2004 V1:235243
altitude adjustments, 2005 V2:178 Function Analysis phase, 2004 V1:224243
codes and standards, 2005 V2:182 Functional Development sketches, 2004 V1:237,
color coding, 2007 V3:55 239240
fundamentals, 2005 V2:175 Gut Feel Index, 2004 V1:254
general layout, 2005 V2:183184 Information phase, 2004 V1:214222
introduction, 2005 V2:175 job plan phases, 2004 V1:213
laboratory systems, 2005 V2:182187, 2007 V3:4142 overview, 2004 V1:211212
leakage, 2005 V2:186, 187 pre-recommendation questions, 2004 V1:254257
Level 1 defined, 2007 V3:78 purpose, 2004 V1:211212
Level 3 defined, 2007 V3:78 qualitative results, 2004 V1:212
levels, 2007 V3:3435 Recommendation/presentation phase, 2004 V1:257258
medical gas system switches, 2007 V3:67 results of, 2004 V1:261

Risk Guides, 2004 V1:254, 257 butterfly valves, 2008 V4:7677, 84, 90
salesmanship in, 2004 V1:257 check valves, 2008 V4:74, 83, 8687, 88, 89, 90
science of, 2004 V1:258260 deluge, 2007 V3:910
second creativity, cost, and evaluation analysis, 2004 diaphragm-actuated, 2007 V3:121122
V1:254 double-check valve assemblies, 2008 V4:174
teams, 2004 V1:212 float-operated main drain butterfly, 2007 V3:127
value changes, 2004 V1:212213 128
value defined, 2004 V1:213214 flush valve vacuum breakers, 2008 V4:175
valve-per-sprinkler irrigation, 2007 V3:9293 gate valves, 2008 V4:74, 75, 8283, 85, 87
valved zones in irrigation systems, 2005 V2:30 globe valves, 2008 V4:74, 7576, 83, 85, 89
valves (v, V, VLV). See also specific types of valves lift check valves, 2008 V4:77, 83
acoustic problems, 2004 V1:197 manual butterfly, 2007 V3:121
acoustic ratings, 2004 V1:194 nonlubricated plug valves, 2008 V4:89
applications plug valves, 2008 V4:77
compressed air systems, 2007 V3:176177, 2008 pneumatically operated main drain modulating,
V4:8687 2007 V3:127
equivalent lengths for natural gas, 2005 V2:135 quarter-turn valves, lubricated plug cocks, 2008
fire-protection systems, 2008 V4:8990 V4:8485
gasoline and LPG service, 2008 V4:89 swing check valves, 2008 V4:77, 83
high-pressure steam service, 2008 V4:8889 water-pressure regulators. See water-pressure
high-rise service, 2008 V4:90 regulators
high-temperature hot-water service, 2008 V4:89 valve flow coefficients, 2004 V1:14
hot and cold domestic water, 2008 V4:8586 weight of, 2008 V4:118
hydrostatic relief, swimming pools, 2007 V3:110 in yard boxes (YB), 2004 V1:10
infectious waste systems, 2005 V2:252 vandal-proof grates and strainers, 2005 V2:10
irrigation systems, 2007 V3:9495 vandalism
low-pressure steam and general service, 2008 dressing rooms, 2007 V3:108
V4:8788 fasteners on grates and strainers, 2005 V2:10
medical air compressors, 2007 V3:63 protecting against, 2005 V2:16
medical gas control valves, 2007 V3:67 vane-type water-flow indicators, 2007 V3:7
medical gas systems, 2008 V4:87 VAP (vapor pressure), 2004 V1:15
medium-pressure steam service, 2008 V4:88 vap pr, VAP PR (vapor pressure), 2004 V1:15
pure water systems, 2005 V2:233 vap prf, VAP PRF (vaporproof), 2004 V1:16
steam traps, 2007 V3:158159 vapor barriers
testing in medical gas systems, 2007 V3:75 defined, 2008 V4:142
vacuum systems, 2007 V3:65, 2008 V4:87 insulation, 2008 V4:107, 109112
closing quickly, 2005 V2:80 perm rating, 2008 V4:105106
codes and standards, 2004 V1:43, 2008 V4:73 types of, 2008 V4:113
components, 2008 V4:7980 vapor-compression distillation, 2005 V2:210, 2008 V4:212
design choices, 2008 V4:82 vapor pressure, 2004 V1:15, 2007 V3:169
design details, 2008 V4:8285 vapor recovery systems
domestic pressure drops and, 2007 V3:206 aboveground tank systems, 2007 V3:146
end connections, 2008 V4:80 classifications, 2007 V3:134
friction loss in, 2005 V2:99102 hazardous wastes, 2007 V3:84
functions, 2008 V4:73 testing, 2007 V3:149
glossary of terms, 2008 V4:7375 underground tank systems, 2007 V3:141142
installing insulation, 2008 V4:108109 vaporizers, 2007 V3:59
materials for, 2008 V4:7879 vaporproof (vap prf, VAP PRF), 2004 V1:16
pressure losses, 2008 V4:85 vapors, hazardous
ratings, 2008 V4:79 acid wastes and, 2005 V2:239, 241
in risers, 2004 V1:10 atmospheric tank venting and, 2007 V3:137
service considerations, 2008 V4:73 contamination in compressed air, 2007 V3:170
sizing, 2008 V4:85 hydrocarbons, 2007 V3:133134
stems, 2008 V4:7879 monitoring, 2007 V3:139, 141
sulfuric acid and, 2005 V2:240 vapor pockets, 2007 V3:149
symbols for, 2004 V1:16 VOCs, 2005 V2:201
types of, 2008 V4:7578 var, VAR (variables), 2004 V1:16
angle-globe valves, 2008 V4:83 variability, defined, 2008 V4:142
angle valves, 2008 V4:76 variable air volume (VAV), 2004 V1:16
automatic shutdown, 2007 V3:84 variable-frequency drives (VFD), 2007 V3:122
ball valves, 2008 V4:7677, 8384, 86, 87, 90 variable-speed drivers, 2007 V3:22
battery-controlled, 2004 V1:135 variable-speed pumps, 2005 V2:72

Index 391
variable spring hanger indicators, 2008 V4:142 ventilators, 2007 V3:69

variable spring hangers, 2008 V4:142 vents and venting systems (V, vent, VENT). See also vent
variables (var, VAR), 2004 V1:16 stack terminals; vent stacks
varnishes in septic tanks, 2005 V2:156 aboveground tank systems, 2007 V3:145
vaults, subterranean fountain, 2007 V3:100101 acid-waste systems, 2005 V2:239, 244, 2007 V3:42
VAV (variable air volume), 2004 V1:16 air admittance valves, 2005 V2:46
VECP (Value Engineering Change Proposals), 2004 V1:260 atmospheric tank venting, 2007 V3:145
vegetable oil, 2005 V2:9 chemical-waste systems, 2005 V2:253
vegetable peelers, 2008 V4:184 definitions, 2005 V2:3843
vehicular traffic, 2005 V2:11 duct seismic protection, 2004 V1:155
VEJP (Value Engineering Job Plan), 2004 V1:214 ducts in clean agent gas fire suppression, 2007 V3:27
vel., VEL (velocity). See velocity factors in trap seal loss, 2005 V2:4647, 47
velocity (vel., VEL, V). See also dynamic pressure fire-suppression drainage and, 2005 V2:254
acoustic pump problems, 2004 V1:197 force mains, 2007 V3:226227
air in vents and, 2005 V2:37 gas appliances, 2005 V2:128
centralized drinking-water cooler systems, 2008 V4:246 grease interceptors, 2008 V4:162, 163
cold-water systems, 2005 V2:86, 92 infectious waste systems, 2005 V2:252
conversion factors, 2004 V1:37 introduction, 2005 V2:37
defined, 2004 V1:31 laboratory waste and vent piping, 2007 V3:46
earthquakes, 2004 V1:159 loop venting, 2004 V1:31
floating velocity, 2008 V4:154 manholes, 2007 V3:220, 225
flow from outlets, 2004 V1:6 oil separators, 2005 V2:256
hydraulic shock, 2004 V1:6 purposes, 2005 V2:37
intake air in compression systems, 2007 V3:178 reduced-size venting
irregularity of shapes and, 2008 V4:154 sanitary drainage systems, 2005 V2:1819
Legionella growth in systems and, 2005 V2:120 references, 2005 V2:4748
liquid fuel piping, 2007 V3:148 septic tank vents, 2005 V2:156
measurements, 2004 V1:33 sizes and lengths, 2004 V1:3, 2005 V2:4344
non-SI units, 2004 V1:34 sizing, 2005 V2:46
open-channel flow, 2004 V1:1 special-waste drainage systems, 2005 V2:238
in rate of corrosion, 2004 V1:145 storm-drainage stacks, 2005 V2:52
self-scouring velocity in sewers, 2007 V3:217 suds venting, 2005 V2:4546
settling, 2008 V4:154 symbols for, 2004 V1:8, 16
sizing method for pipes, 2005 V2:80 testing, 2007 V3:149
steam, 2007 V3:155156 thermal expansion and contraction, 2008 V4:227229
storm water in ditches, 2007 V3:234 traps and trap seals, 2005 V2:4647
symbols for, 2004 V1:16 underground liquid fuel tanks, 2007 V3:137
terminal velocity, defined, 2005 V2:1 vent extensions, 2005 V2:47
types of piping and, 2005 V2:92 vented inlet tees in septic tanks, 2005 V2:154
vacuum cleaning systems, 2005 V2:190191 waste anesthetic gas management, 2007 V3:66
vacuum systems, 2005 V2:179 venturi-meters, 2004 V1:197
water hammer and, 2004 V1:198, 2005 V2:80, 81, 92 venturi suction pumps, 2005 V2:165
wind (w vel., W VEL), 2004 V1:16 verbs in function analysis, 2004 V1:224, 225, 231
velocity head (h), 2004 V1:5, 2008 V4:98 vert., VERT (vertical). See vertical
velocity-limited devices, 2008 V4:142 vertical (vert., VERT), 2004 V1:16
velocity pipe sizing method, 2005 V2:99 vertical forces, 2004 V1:189
vent connectors, defined, 2005 V2:144 vertical high-rate sand filters, 2007 V3:115
vent gases, defined, 2005 V2:144 vertical leaders, 2005 V2:5152
vent headers, 2005 V2:4142 vertical movement of hangers and supports, 2008 V4:124
vent pipes vertical natural frequencies, 2008 V4:146
cast-iron soil pipe, 2008 V4:23 vertical pipes, 2004 V1:31, 2008 V4:126
glass pipe, 2008 V4:48 vertical pressure media filters, 2005 V2:211
vent stack terminals, 2005 V2:42 vertical pressure sand filters, 2008 V4:203
vent stacks vertical pumps, 2008 V4:94, 98
air in, 2005 V2:2 vertical risers for vacuum systems, 2005 V2:189
defined, 2004 V1:31, 2005 V2:42 vertical seismic load, 2004 V1:184
sizing, 2005 V2:42 vertical shaft turbine pumps, 2004 V1:24
vent systems codes, 2004 V1:43 vertical stacks
ventilation anchors, 2008 V4:229
mechanical area, fountain equipment, 2007 V3:100 calculating terminal velocity and length, 2004 V1:3
oxygen storage areas, 2007 V3:60 defined, 2004 V1:31, 2005 V2:1
swimming pools, 2007 V3:107 fittings, 2005 V2:1

flow in, 2005 V2:12 viscosity, kinematic, 2005 V2:83, 85

hydraulic jumps and, 2005 V2:2 viscosity (visc, VISC, MU)
loading tables, 2005 V2:4 calculating values of, 2004 V1:2
maximum fixture-unit values, 2005 V2:4 defined, 2007 V3:133
multistory stacks, 2005 V2:5 measurements, 2004 V1:33
pneumatic pressure in, 2005 V2:23 settling velocity and, 2008 V4:200
sizing, 2005 V2:5 symbols for, 2004 V1:16
stack capacities, 2005 V2:35 visitors facilities, numbers of fixtures for, 2008 V4:19, 20
storm-drainage stacks, 2005 V2:52 visualization in function analysis, 2004 V1:227
thermal expansion or contraction, 2008 V4:229 vitreous china fixtures, 2007 V3:35, 2008 V4:1, 2, 244
weight of, 2005 V2:2 vitrified clay piping, 2005 V2:83, 253, 2007 V3:232, 2008
vertical turbine pumps, 2007 V3:119120 V4:5657, 5758
fire pumps, 2007 V3:21 vitrified sewer pipes, 2004 V1:31
illustrated, 2005 V2:169 VLV (valves). See valves
private water systems, 2005 V2:168169 VOCs (volatile organic compounds), 2005 V2:201, 208,
shallow wells, 2005 V2:170 2007 V3:134, 141
VFR (volumetric flow rates), 2004 V1:16 vol., VOL (volume). See volume
viable-count essays, 2005 V2:199 volatile liquids, 2005 V2:12, 254256
vibrating fill above sewers, 2005 V2:15 volatile organic compounds (VOCs), 2005 V2:201, 208,
vibration and vibration isolation 2007 V3:134, 141, 2008 V4:186, 187
applications, 2008 V4:150151 volatile substances in distillation, 2008 V4:211212
calculating, 2008 V4:147148 volcanoes, 2004 V1:156
compression joints, 2008 V4:60 volts (V, E, VOLTS)
critical problems with, 2008 V4:145 decomposition potential defined, 2004 V1:152
defined, 2004 V1:209, 2008 V4:145 measurement conversions, 2004 V1:33
earthquakes symbols for, 2004 V1:16
earthquake vibration periods, 2004 V1:160 volt amperes (VA), 2004 V1:16
floor-mounted equipment, 2004 V1:164166 volume (vol., VOL)
isolators and, 2004 V1:206 calculating, 2004 V1:35
piping and, 2004 V1:168 conversion factors, 2004 V1:37
suspended equipment, 2004 V1:166 flow rate measurements, 2004 V1:33, 2005 V2:176177
equipment vibration criteria, 2004 V1:202 formulas, 2008 V4:154155
fixtures, isolating, 2004 V1:205, 207 gas particles, 2007 V3:165
formulas for transmissability, 2008 V4:146149 initial and expanded water volume, 2008 V4:232
glossary, 2008 V4:145146 nominal volume, 2008 V4:233
hangers and supports and, 2008 V4:120 non-SI units, 2004 V1:34
natural or free vibration, 2004 V1:160 saturated steam, 2007 V3:153154
noise and vibration control, 2004 V1:199200 sink volume calculations, 2008 V4:163164
piping, 2004 V1:168, 2008 V4:151. See also water symbols for, 2004 V1:16
hammer volumetric expansion, 2008 V4:233
pumps, 2004 V1:205, 208, 2008 V4:100 water calculations, 2005 V2:77
speed and vibration control, 2008 V4:151 volume to volume (v/v), 2005 V2:201
static deflection for pump vibration, 2004 V1:205 volumetric expansion, 2008 V4:233
types of vibration control devices, 2004 V1:203206 volumetric flow rates (VFR), 2004 V1:16
cork, 2008 V4:149150 volute pumps, 2008 V4:93, 9899
defined, 2008 V4:142 vortexes
elastomers, 2008 V4:149150 from pumps, 2004 V1:197
neoprene rubber, 2008 V4:149 from sumps, 2004 V1:197
steel spring isolators, 2008 V4:149150 vp, VP (dynamic pressure or velocity), 2004 V1:15
vibration isolation mounts, 2004 V1:162, 163
vibration isolators, 2004 V1:199, 2008 V4:145
vibration isolation devices. See vibration and vibration
W
W, W (humidity ratios), 2004 V1:15
isolation W (walls). See walls
video equipment, 2005 V2:9 W (waste sewers), 2004 V1:8
vinyl chloride, 2008 V4:186 W (watts). See watts
vinyl coatings, 2004 V1:147 W/m K (watts per meter per kelvin), 2004 V1:33
viruses w vel., W VEL (velocity, wind), 2004 V1:16
defined, 2008 V4:224 w/w (weight to weight), 2005 V2:201
distilled water and, 2008 V4:212 wading areas, 2007 V3:106
in feed water, 2005 V2:199, 223225 wading pools, 2007 V3:109
ozone treatments and, 2008 V4:215 wafer butterfly valves, 2005 V2:189, 2008 V4:84
visc., VISC (viscosity). See viscosity (visc, VISC, MU) WAG (waste anesthetic gases), 2007 V3:6667

Index 393
WAGD (waste anesthetic gas disposal), 2007 V3:56 wastewater management. See also gray-water systems;
WAGD (waste anesthetic-gas disposal), 2007 V3:6667, 78 private onsite wastewater treatment systems
wages, in labor costs, 2004 V1:94 (POWTS)
waiting rooms, 2007 V3:36 biosolids, 2008 V4:261264
WAL (walls). See walls black water, 2008 V4:260, 261, 262
wall azimuth (WAZ), 2004 V1:14 energy requirements, 2008 V4:264
wall carriers, 2008 V4:6 graywater, 2008 V4:259260, 261, 262
wall cleanouts (WCO), 2004 V1:11 green building technologies, 2004 V1:264
wall-hung lavatories, 2008 V4:11 individual aerobic wastewater treatment, 2005 V2:157
wall-hung urinals, 2008 V4:9 158
wall-hung water closets, 2008 V4:4, 6 industrial wastewater treatment. See industrial
wall-hung water coolers, 2008 V4:240 wastewater treatment
wall hydrants (WH), 2004 V1:10, 12, 2005 V2:94 overview, 2008 V4:259260
wall inlets, swimming pools, 2007 V3:131 rainwater, 2008 V4:259261
wall-mounted medical gas stations, 2007 V3:56 reclaimed and gray water systems, 2004 V1:135, 2005
walls (W, WAL) V2:3032
piping and acoustic design, 2004 V1:195196 wastewater pumps, 2008 V4:100
symbols for, 2004 V1:16 WAT (watts). See watts
wall penetrations of pipes, 2004 V1:201 water (WTR). See also water analysis; water chemistry;
wander, 2004 V1:22, 190 water-distribution pipes and systems
ward rooms, 2007 V3:3738 as seal liquid in liquid ring pumps, 2005 V2:181
ware washers, 2008 V4:251 contamination in compressed air, 2007 V3:170
warehouses, numbers of fixtures for, 2008 V4:19, 20 distribution hazards, cross-connections, 2008 V4:171
warning systems (medical gas), 2007 V3:6768, 75 172
warping, joints resistant to, 2008 V4:61 economic growth, 2008 V4:256
warranty section in specifications, 2004 V1:70, 90 expansion formulas, 2008 V4:232235
Warren, Alan W., 2005 V2:64 formula, 2008 V4:193
wash basins. See sinks and wash basins freezing points (fp, FP), 2008 V4:114115
wash-down urinals, 2008 V4:9 human body, need for, 2008 V4:237
wash troughs, 2008 V4:202 kinematic viscosity, 2005 V2:83, 85
washdown racks, 2008 V4:185 mass and volume calculations, 2005 V2:77
washdown water closets, 2008 V4:3 methods for treatment, 2008 V4:195196
washing floors with gray water, 2005 V2:25 oil-water separation, 2007 V3:87
washing machines. See laundry systems and washers portable fire extinguishers, 2007 V3:28
Washington Suburban Sanitary Commission (WSSC), potable amounts present, 2004 V1:263
2008 V4:179 samples of, 2005 V2:104
washout urinals, 2008 V4:9 sanitation, global issues, 2008 V4:255256
washout water closets, 2008 V4:3 specific volumes, 2008 V4:233
washrooms. See water-closet compartments temperature drop, 2008 V4:115
waste, defined, 2004 V1:31 thermodynamic properties, 2008 V4:233
waste anesthetic-gas disposal, 2007 V3:56, 6667, 78 treatments for, 2008 V4:187
waste brines, 2005 V2:156, 220 types of
waste-disposal units. See food waste grinders deionized water, 2008 V4:195
waste fitting standards, 2008 V4:2 distilled water (DL), 2008 V4:195
waste grinders, 2007 V3:36. See also food waste grinders high purity water, 2008 V4:217219
waste-heat usage, 2004 V1:131134, 266 potable water, 2008 V4:194
waste-heat vaporizers, 2007 V3:59 purified water (PW), 2008 V4:195
waste oil (WO), 2004 V1:8, 2007 V3:133 raw water, 2008 V4:194
waste oil vents (WOV), 2004 V1:8 reagent and laboratory grades, 2008 V4:218
waste or soil vents. See stack vents soft water (SW), 2008 V4:195
waste pipes, 2004 V1:31, 2008 V4:23 tower water, 2008 V4:194
waste sewers (W), 2004 V1:8 usage, green plumbing, 2008 V4:255
waste stacks, 2005 V2:1 weight calculations, 2008 V4:232233
waste streams water absorption, plastic pipe and, 2008 V4:50
evaluation, 2007 V3:83 water analysis
segregating, 2007 V3:86 aggressiveness index, 2005 V2:208
waste transport, vacuum-operated, 2008 V4:259 codes and standards, 2005 V2:197
Wastewater Engineering:Treatment/Disposal/Reuse, 2005 example report, 2005 V2:202
V2:161 introduction, 2005 V2:201202
wastewater heat recovery, 2004 V1:133 pH, 2005 V2:202203, 207
predicting water deposits and corrosion, 2005 V2:206
208

references, 2005 V2:234 water conditioning. See also water purification; water
Ryzner stability index, 2005 V2:207208 softeners; water treatment
silt density index, 2005 V2:204205 defined, 2005 V2:197
specific conductance, 2005 V2:203 glossary, 2008 V4:220224
total dissolved solids, 2005 V2:204 water-conditioning or treating devices, 2004 V1:31
total organic carbon, 2005 V2:204 water conservation. See conserving water
total suspended solids, 2005 V2:203204 water consumption. See demand
water softeners and, 2008 V4:206 water consumption tests, 2008 V4:5, 9
water balance, 2007 V3:123124 water-cooled after-coolers, 2007 V3:171
water chemistry water-cooled condensers, 2008 V4:242
elements, acids, and radicals in water, 2005 V2:199 water coolers. See drinking-water coolers
introduction, 2005 V2:197198 water damage
water impurities, 2005 V2:198201 insulation and, 2008 V4:105, 107, 116
water chillers, 2008 V4:237 sprinkler systems, 2007 V3:2
water-closet compartments swimming pool bathhouses, 2007 V3:108
accessibility, 2004 V1:113116 water deposits, 2005 V2:205, 206208
ambulatory-accessible toilet compartments, 2004 Water Distributing Systems for Buildings, 2005 V2:104
V1:114 water-distribution pipes and systems. See also cold-water
kitchen areas, 2007 V3:39 systems; hot-water systems
patient rooms, 2007 V3:37 acoustic design, 2004 V1:195196
single-occupant unisex toilet rooms, 2008 V4:1718 codes, 2004 V1:45
spacing, 2008 V4:6 defined, 2004 V1:31, 2008 V4:179
swimming pool bathhouses, 2007 V3:108 hazardous connections, 2008 V4:184
water-closet flanges, 2008 V4:6 pipe codes, 2004 V1:45
water closets (WC). See also urinals service connections, 2008 V4:69
accessibility design, 2004 V1:113116 water supply and distribution symbols, 2004 V1:12
acoustic design, 2004 V1:200 water supply systems, 2004 V1:31
acoustic ratings of, 2004 V1:194 weight of water-filled pipes, 2004 V1:184
bariatric, 2008 V4:5, 7 Water Efficiency design (LEED), 2004 V1:263264, 2008
bolts, 2008 V4:6 V4:23
chase size, 2008 V4:7 water features, 2007 V3:130
composting toilets, 2004 V1:265 water-flow indicators, 2007 V3:7
conserving water in, 2005 V2:157 water flow tests, 2005 V2:95
dual flush, 2004 V1:265 water for injection (WFI), 2005 V2:229, 230, 231, 233, 2008
Energy Policy Act requirements, 2004 V1:264 V4:213, 218, 219
exclusion from gray-water systems, 2005 V2:25 Water for People, 2008 V4:256, 265
fixture pipe sizes and demand, 2005 V2:94 water gas, 2005 V2:126
fixture-unit loads, 2005 V2:3 water glass, 2004 V1:151
flushing performance testing, 2008 V4:56 water hammer
flushing systems, 2008 V4:78 acoustic control of, 2004 V1:201
gray water usage, 2004 V1:267, 2005 V2:2829 air locks, 2004 V1:201
in health care facilities, 2007 V3:35, 36, 37 condensates and, 2007 V3:158
incinerators, 2004 V1:265 controlling water hammer, 2005 V2:8082, 81
installation requirements, 2008 V4:67 defined, 2004 V1:31, 2005 V2:7982
minimum numbers of, 2008 V4:1821 flow velocity and, 2004 V1:198
mounting, 2008 V4:4 fuel dispensers, 2007 V3:148
rates of sewage flows, 2005 V2:161 hangers and supports and, 2008 V4:119
reducing flow rates, 2004 V1:134135 shock intensity, 2005 V2:80
seats, 2008 V4:5 sizing of arresters, 2005 V2:8182
shapes and sizes, 2008 V4:45 symbols on arresters, 2005 V2:82
specimen-type, 2007 V3:38 system protection and control, 2005 V2:8082
standards, 2008 V4:2, 6 velocity and, 2005 V2:92
submerged inlet hazards, 2008 V4:184 water hammer loads, 2008 V4:142
types of, 2004 V1:135136, 2008 V4:34 water hammer arresters (WHA)
typical use, 2005 V2:2829 acoustic design in water pipes, 2004 V1:195
ultra-low-flow, 2004 V1:135136 as protection and control, 2005 V2:8182
water conservation, 2004 V1:135136 codes, 2004 V1:43
water fixture unit values, 2007 V3:198 defined, 2004 V1:31
water usage reduction, 2008 V4:258 flow velocity and, 2004 V1:198
water column (wc), 2008 V4:5 shock absorbers, 2004 V1:198, 201
Water Conditional Manual, 2005 V2:234 sizing, 2005 V2:8082
symbols, 2004 V1:10, 2005 V2:82

Index 395
water heaters. See also hot-water systems loss of pressure, 2005 V2:95
avoiding standby losses, 2004 V1:127 pressure losses, 2007 V3:208
booster water heaters, 2004 V1:126, 129, 2005 V2:111 readings in consumption estimates, 2008 V4:208
codes, 2004 V1:43 water mist extinguishing systems, 2007 V3:24
condensation use, 2004 V1:267 Water Mist Fire Protection Systems (NFPA 750), 2007
conserving energy, 2004 V1:124125, 127 V3:30
copper-fin heaters, 2005 V2:111114 water motor gongs, 2007 V3:7
earthquake damage, 2004 V1:162 water, oil, and gas (WOG) pressure rating, 2007 V3:177,
earthquake protection, 2004 V1:162, 163 2008 V4:79, 86
efficiency, 2005 V2:107 water pipes. See cold-water systems; hot-water systems;
energy efficiency, 2008 V4:264 water-distribution pipes and systems
expansion tanks, 2005 V2:7677 water polishing, 2008 V4:219
explosions, 2005 V2:107 water pressure
gas efficiency, 2005 V2:127 excess water pressure, 2005 V2:7779
gas water heaters, 2004 V1:129 gravity-tank systems, 2005 V2:7476
hard water and, 2008 V4:205 hydropneumatic-tank systems, 2005 V2:72, 7374
heat recovery, 2005 V2:110 water hammer and, 2005 V2:81
high-efficiency, 2004 V1:265 water-pressure regulators
instantaneous, 2004 V1:265 installing, 2008 V4:82
locations of, 2004 V1:129 selection and sizing, 2008 V4:81
materials expansion, 2008 V4:232233 types of, 2008 V4:8182
overview, 2005 V2:111114 water pumps. See pumps
point-of-use booster heaters, 2007 V3:47 water purging, 2008 V4:188
relief valves, 2008 V4:231 water purification and quality
sizing, 2005 V2:108109 central purification equipment, 2005 V2:233234
solar, 2007 V3:182, 189192, 2008 V4:264265 Clean Water Act, 2007 V3:82
stratification in water heaters, 2005 V2:114 codes and standards, 2005 V2:197, 229
swimming pools, 2007 V3:122123 conductivity/resistivity meters, 2008 V4:198
temperature, 2005 V2:107, 111 glossary, 2008 V4:220224
thermal efficiency, 2005 V2:116117 gray-water systems, 2005 V2:35
types of systems, 2004 V1:129134 introduction, 2005 V2:167
water impurities, 2005 V2:198201 measuring, 2008 V4:195
alkalinity, 2005 V2:199 methods, 2007 V3:48
analysis and measurement, 2005 V2:201205 pharmaceutical systems, 2005 V2:229230
biological fouling, 2005 V2:205, 227 polishers and, 2005 V2:221
conditions and recommended treatments, 2008 V4:194, pure-water systems defined, 2005 V2:197
196197 references, 2005 V2:234
dissolved gases, 2005 V2:200 reverse osmosis and, 2008 V4:217219
hardness, 2005 V2:199200 specific resistance of pure water, 2005 V2:203
microorganisms, 2005 V2:198199 system design, 2005 V2:231233
need for treatment, 2008 V4:193194 types of water
specific resistance, 2005 V2:203 biopure water, 2008 V4:195
suspended solids, 2005 V2:198 deionized water, 2008 V4:195
treatment methods, 2005 V2:208225 distilled water (DL), 2008 V4:195
volatile organic compounds, 2005 V2:201 feed water, 2005 V2:230
water levels, fountains, 2007 V3:102103 grades of laboratory water, 2005 V2:229
water mains high-purity water, 2007 V3:47, 2008 V4:195, 217
age and size, 2007 V3:6 219, 218, 223
copper pipe, 2008 V4:3031, 32 potable water, 2008 V4:194
defined, 2004 V1:31 reagent and laboratory grades, 2008 V4:218
fire-protection connections, 2007 V3:209, 211 water impurities, 2005 V2:198201
inspection checklist, 2004 V1:103 water quality. See water purification and quality
pressure and, 2007 V3:198 water-resistivity meters, 2005 V2:203
sprinkler systems, 2007 V3:3 water-reuse systems. See gray-water systems
water makeup. See makeup water systems water rise tests, 2008 V4:5
Water Management:A Comprehensive Approach for Facility water risers, 2004 V1:31
Managers, 2005 V2:36 water saver devices in reverse osmosis, 2008 V4:219
water management plans, 2004 V1:134135 water service calculation worksheet, 2007 V3:199
water meters water service entrances, 2008 V4:181
domestic water meters, 2005 V2:6869 water-service pipes, defined, 2004 V1:31
flow-pressure loss averages, 2005 V2:69 water shock absorbers. See water hammer arresters
irrigation, 2007 V3:96 (WHA)

water slides, 2007 V3:106 scalding water, 2005 V2:122124

water softeners shower compartments, 2004 V1:120, 2008 V4:1415
as pretreatments, 2008 V4:206 swimming pools, 2007 V3:107
chemicals, 2008 V4:193, 194 water heaters, 2005 V2:107, 111
for distillation, 2008 V4:214 water toys, 2007 V3:106
earthquake damage, 2004 V1:162 water treatment
efficiency, 2008 V4:209 boiler feed water, 2005 V2:226
exchanging contaminants, 2008 V4:218 chemicals, 2008 V4:193
fixture flow rates for, 2008 V4:207208 codes and standards, 2005 V2:197
hardness exchange ability, 2008 V4:206 conditions and recommended treatments, 2008 V4:196
hardness of water, 2005 V2:199200 197
ion-exchange, 2005 V2:215, 2008 V4:197199, 198199 cooling towers, 2005 V2:227
leakage, 2005 V2:220221 corrosion inhibitors, 2004 V1:151
overview, 2008 V4:205 defined, 2005 V2:197
pure water systems, 2005 V2:232 drinking water, 2005 V2:228
regeneration, 2008 V4:197, 206 external and internal treatments, 2008 V4:194
salt recycling systems, 2008 V4:209211 fountains and pools, 2007 V3:99100
salt storage, 2008 V4:211 methods of producing, 2008 V4:195196
selection factors, 2008 V4:205 microbial control, 2005 V2:223225
single or multiple systems, 2008 V4:208 references, 2005 V2:234
sizing, 2008 V4:209, 210 series equipment, 2008 V4:208
space needs, 2008 V4:208209 for specific impurities, 2008 V4:194
survey data, 2008 V4:209 surface and groundwater needs, 2008 V4:193194
types of, 2005 V2:168, 220 swimming pools, 2007 V3:108
utility water, 2005 V2:225 types of
waste brines, 2005 V2:156 aeration, 2005 V2:208
water consumption guide, 2008 V4:208 chlorination, 2008 V4:199201, 215
water sports, 2007 V3:106 clarification, 2005 V2:208209, 2008 V4:200201
water spray fixed extinguishing systems, 2007 V3:24 copper-silver ionization, 2008 V4:220
Water Spray Fixed Systems for Fire Protection (NFPA 15), deaeration, 2005 V2:209
2007 V3:29 dealkalizing, 2005 V2:209210
water-storage tanks decarbonation, 2005 V2:210
earthquake damage, 2004 V1:162 demineralization, 2008 V4:195
fire-protection water supply, 2007 V3:217 distillation, 2005 V2:210211, 2008 V4:211215
pressure regulators, 2005 V2:171172 filtration, 2005 V2:211215, 2008 V4:196, 201205
types of, 2005 V2:170171 ion-exchange and removal, 2005 V2:215221, 2008
water levels in, 2005 V2:170171 V4:197199
water suppliers/purveyors, 2008 V4:184 membrane filtration and separation, 2005 V2:211,
Water Supply and Sewage, 2008 V4:166 221223
Water Supply and Waste Disposal, 2008 V4:166 nanofiltration, 2008 V4:196, 220
water supply fixture units (WSFU), 2005 V2:39, 92 ozonation, 2008 V4:215216
water-supply systems. See cold-water systems; domestic reverse osmosis, 2008 V4:195196, 216219
water supply; fire-protection systems; hot-water service deionized water, 2008 V4:195
systems; private water systems; water-distribution ultrafiltration, 2008 V4:196, 220
pipes and systems; wells ultraviolet light, 2008 V4:213
Water Systems for Pharmaceutical Facilities, 2005 V2:234 water purification, 2005 V2:228234
water tables water softening, 2005 V2:220, 2008 V4:204211
underground storage tanks and, 2007 V3:135 utility water treatment, 2005 V2:225
wells, 2005 V2:165166 water impurities, 2005 V2:198201
Water Tanks for Fire Protection, 2005 V2:170 Water Treatment for HVAC and Potable Water Systems,
water temperature. See also hot-water temperatures 2005 V2:234
bathtub water notes, 2004 V1:119 Water Use in Office Buildings, 2005 V2:36
chilled water systems, 2008 V4:243 Water:Use of Treated Sewage on Rise in State, 2005 V2:36
deaeration water temperatures, 2005 V2:209 Water-Use Reduction Credit, 2004 V1:264
feed water temperature and deposits, 2005 V2:207, 224, Water Uses Study, 2005 V2:35
231 water utility letters, 2007 V3:200
hot-water properties, 2005 V2:117 water vapor in air, 2007 V3:169170, 2008 V4:105106,
hot-water relief valves, 2005 V2:115116 113
hot-water temperatures, 2005 V2:111, 112114, 2007 water wells. See wells
V3:39, 47 water working pressure (WWP), 2008 V4:90
maintenance hot-water temperatures, 2005 V2:115 waterborne radioactive waste (radwaste), 2005 V2:245
mixed-water temperatures, 2005 V2:111 waterfall aerators, 2005 V2:208

Index 397
waterfalls, 2007 V3:101 fire-protection connections, 2007 V3:209

waterless urinals, 2004 V1:136, 265, 2008 V4:9 gray-water irrigation systems and, 2005 V2:29
waterproof manholes, 2007 V3:220, 225 hydraulics of, 2005 V2:165166
waterproofing drains, 2005 V2:1516, 53 initial operation and maintenance, 2005 V2:172
watt-hours (Wh, WH), 2004 V1:16 introduction, 2005 V2:164
watts (W, WAT) irrigation usage, 2007 V3:96
converting to SI units, 2004 V1:40 jetted wells, 2005 V2:165
measurement conversions, 2004 V1:33 matching water storage to pump flow, 2005 V2:170171
symbols for, 2004 V1:16 monitoring fumes, 2007 V3:141
W/m K (watts per meter per kelvin), 2004 V1:33 monitoring groundwater, 2007 V3:140141
wave actions in water (tsunamis), 2004 V1:158 performance specifications, 2005 V2:172
wave pools, 2007 V3:106 protection of, 2005 V2:166167
wax ring seals, 2008 V4:6 pumps, 2005 V2:168170
WAZ (wall azimuth), 2004 V1:14 system equipment, 2005 V2:168172
wb, WB (wet bulbs), 2004 V1:16 types of, 2005 V2:163
Wb (webers), 2004 V1:33 water demand and, 2005 V2:167
wbt, WBT (wet-bulb temperature), 2004 V1:16 water quality, 2005 V2:167168
wc (water column), 2008 V4:5 Westaway, C. R., 2005 V2:104
WCO (wall cleanouts), 2004 V1:11 wet-alarm valve risers, 2007 V3:6, 7
WD (wind). See wind wet-bulb temperature (wbt, WBT), 2004 V1:16, 2007
wdir, WDIR (wind direction), 2004 V1:16 V3:169
weak-base regeneration, 2005 V2:216, 218 wet bulbs (wb, WB), 2004 V1:16
weather conditions, 2004 V1:98, 2007 V3:91, 96, 145, 202, wet chemical extinguishing systems, 2007 V3:24
2008 V4:107, 118 wet floors in chemical plants, 2005 V2:253
webers, 2004 V1:33 wet gas, 2007 V3:169, 236
wedges wet helical-lobe units, 2007 V3:169
defined, 2008 V4:75 wet niche lights, 2007 V3:130
gate valves and, 2008 V4:83 wet-pipe systems, 2004 V1:29, 2007 V3:67
weep holes, 2005 V2:16, 2008 V4:14 wet standpipes, 2004 V1:30
weight (wt, WT) wet surfaces, 2004 V1:16
clean agent gas fire containers, 2007 V3:27 wet-tap excavations, 2007 V3:205
horizontal loads of piping, 2004 V1:184 wet vacuum-cleaning systems (WVC)
piping, earthquake protection and, 2004 V1:167 defined, 2005 V2:188
in seismic force calculations, 2004 V1:183 illustrated, 2005 V2:195
symbols for, 2004 V1:16 pitch, 2005 V2:195196
water, 2008 V4:232233 separators, 2005 V2:188
weight loss in corrosion, 2004 V1:144 symbols for, 2004 V1:9
weight to weight (w/w), 2005 V2:201 wet venting
weighted evaluations in value engineering, 2004 V1:243 bathroom groups, 2005 V2:42
weighting flow rates in fixture estimates, 2008 V4:207 defined, 2004 V1:31, 2005 V2:42
weirs, 2007 V3:101 Weymouth formula, 2004 V1:7, 2005 V2:137
welded attachments and supports, 2008 V4:122, 126 WFI (water for injection), 2005 V2:229, 230, 231, 233
welded beam attachments, 2008 V4:142 WH (wall hydrants), 2004 V1:10, 12
welded ends on valves, 2008 V4:80 Wh, WH (watt-hours), 2004 V1:16
welded joints, 2008 V4:6263, 63 WHA (water hammer arresters). See water hammer
welded pipe attachments, 2008 V4:142 arresters
welded steel piping, 2008 V4:48 What Future Role for Pressure Sewers?, 2005 V2:161
welding wheel loads, 2008 V4:252
clearance for, 2008 V4:23 wheelchairs
corrosion and, 2004 V1:146 adult-sized, dimensions, 2004 V1:108
earthquake protection techniques, 2004 V1:167 anthropometrics for wheelchairs, 2004 V1:109
problems in seismic protection, 2004 V1:190 approaches and reaches, 2004 V1:110
types of, 2008 V4:6263 clear space for, 2004 V1:109
weld decay defined, 2004 V1:154 toilet and bathing rooms, 2004 V1:112113
welded fittings, 2004 V1:24 water cooler accessibility, 2008 V4:239240
welded joints in radioactive waste systems, 2005 V2:249 wheeled fire extinguishers, 2007 V3:23, 29
weldless eye nuts, 2008 V4:142 WHEN relationship, 2004 V1:230
wells whirlpool bathtubs, 2005 V2:122, 2008 V4:15
bored wells, 2005 V2:164165 whirlpools, 2007 V3:109
driven wells, 2005 V2:165 White, George Clifford, 2005 V2:104
dug and augered wells, 2005 V2:164 Whitney, Eli, 2004 V1:231
equilibrium equations for wells, 2005 V2:165166 WHY logic path, 2004 V1:230, 231, 258

WI (width), 2004 V1:16 WVC (wet vacuum cleaning). See wet vacuum-cleaning
width (WI), 2004 V1:16 systems
wind (WD) WWP-541 federal standard, 2008 V4:247
direction (wdir, WDIR), 2004 V1:16 WWP (water working pressure), 2008 V4:90
effect on irrigation sprinklers, 2007 V3:94 wyes, 2008 V4:6
hangers and supports and, 2008 V4:119 Wyly, R.S., 2005 V2:4, 19, 48
velocity, 2004 V1:16
vent stack terminals and, 2005 V2:44
X
x-ray areas, 2007 V3:42, 52
wind loads, 2008 V4:142 x-rays, 2005 V2:246
wind pressure (wpr, WPR, WP, WPRES), 2004 V1:16 X#A (compressed air). See compressed air (A, X#, X#A)
wire drawing, 2008 V4:75, 81 XH (extra heavy) cast iron soil pipe, 2008 V4:2426
wire hooks, 2008 V4:142 XH (extra heavy) cast-iron soil pipe, 2008 V4:23
wire mesh insulation jackets, 2008 V4:108 XP explosion-proof construction, 2005 V2:130
wire ropes, 2008 V4:135 XP junction boxes, 2005 V2:130
wire screens for diatomaceous earth filters, 2008 V4:204 XPAN (expansion. See expansion
wire wound tubes for diatomaceous earth filters, 2008 xylenes, 2008 V4:186
V4:204
WO (waste oil), 2004 V1:8
WOG (water, oil, and gas pressure rating). See water, oil, Y
and gas (WOG) pressure rating Y-pattern valves, 2008 V4:83
wood, anchoring into, 2008 V4:131 y (years), 2004 V1:16, 34
wood shrinkage, protecting against, 2005 V2:16 yards (yd, YD)
wood stave piping, 2005 V2:83, 86 converting to SI units, 2004 V1:40
Woodcock, J.J., 2005 V2:31 symbols for, 2004 V1:16
word processing of specifications, 2004 V1:7172 yards and lawns
work lawn imperviousness factors, 2007 V3:229
conversion factors, 2004 V1:35 lawn sprinkler supply (LS), 2004 V1:8
converting to SI units, 2004 V1:39 storm-drainage systems and, 2005 V2:49
defined, 2004 V1:61, 2007 V3:169 yard cleanouts (CO), 2004 V1:11
measurements, 2004 V1:33 YB (valves in yard boxes), 2004 V1:10
work change directives, 2004 V1:63 yd, YD (yards), 2004 V1:16, 40
work functions in value engineering, 2004 V1:225, 243 year-round pools, 2007 V3:107
working deionizers, 2005 V2:215, 216 years (yr, YR), 2004 V1:16, 34
working hours, in cost estimation, 2004 V1:98 Yeh, K.L., 2005 V2:234
working occupants, 2005 V2:109 yellow brass, 2004 V1:144
working pressure YMCAs, 2005 V2:109
vacuum systems, 2005 V2:179 yoke vents, 2004 V1:31, 2005 V2:43
workmanship standards, 2004 V1:66 Young, Virgil E., 2007 V3:96
workmens compensation, in labor costs, 2004 V1:94 yr, YR (years), 2004 V1:16, 34
worksheets. See checklists and forms Yrjanainen, Glen, 2005 V2:64
worst case possibilities, radiation and, 2005 V2:249
worth, defined, 2004 V1:213 Z
WOV (waste oil vents), 2004 V1:8 z, Z (zones), 2004 V1:16, 183
WP (wind pressure), 2004 V1:16 Zelmanovich, Y., 2005 V2:234
wpr, WPR (wind pressure), 2004 V1:16 zeolite process, 2005 V2:168
WPRES (wind pressure), 2004 V1:16 zeolites, 2005 V2:215
wrapped piping zero-flow potential, 2004 V1:153
sound damping, 2004 V1:196, 201202 zero governors, 2007 V3:237
wrapped storm piping, 2005 V2:50 zeta potential, 2005 V2:209
wrist blades on faucets, 2007 V3:3537 zinc
written amendments, 2004 V1:63 anodes, 2004 V1:150
Wrought Copper and Copper Alloy Solder Joint Pressure brass and bronze, 2008 V4:78
Fittings (DWV), 2008 V4:32 corrosion, 2004 V1:139, 2008 V4:196
Wrought Copper and Wrought Copper Alloy Solder-Joint electromotive force series, 2004 V1:144
Drainage Fittings, 2008 V4:42 galvanic series, 2004 V1:141
Wrought Copper Braze Fittings, 2008 V4:42 levels in drinking water, 2008 V4:186
wrought iron piping, 2005 V2:83, 86 treating in water, 2008 V4:187
WSFU (water supply fixture units), 2005 V2:39, 92 ZN (zones), 2004 V1:16, 183
WSSC (Washington Suburban Sanitary Commission), zone valves, 2007 V3:50, 67
2008 V4:179 zones (z, Z, ZN)
wt, WT (weight). See weight in seismic force calculations, 2004 V1:183

Index 399


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American Society of Plumbing Engineers

American Society of Plumbing Engineers

2008 PEDH Data Book Vol 4.indd 1 10/16/2008 11:57:16 AM

American Society of Plumbing Engineers

Copyright 2008 by American Society of Plumbing Engineers

2008 PEDH Data Book Vol 4.indd 2 10/16/2008 11:57:17 AM

Chapter 1: Plumbing Fixtures Chapter 8: Grease Interceptors

2008 PEDH Data Book Vol 4.indd 3 10/16/2008 11:57:17 AM

2008 PEDH Data Book Vol 4.indd 4 10/16/2008 11:57:17 AM

Volume 1 Fundamentals of Plumbing Engineering (Revised 2004)

Volume 2 Plumbing Systems (Revised 2006)

Volume 3 Special Plumbing Systems (Revised 2007)

2008 PEDH Data Book Vol 4.indd 5 10/16/2008 11:57:17 AM

Chapter 1: Plumbing Fixtures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

2008 PEDH Data Book Vol 4.indd 1 10/16/2008 11:57:17 AM

Bathtub Fill Valve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

Chapter 2: Piping Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

2008 PEDH Data Book Vol 4.indd 2 10/16/2008 11:57:18 AM

Lead and Oakum Joints (Caulked Joints) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60

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2008 PEDH Data Book Vol 4.indd 4 10/16/2008 11:57:18 AM

Chapter 5: Piping Insulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105

2008 PEDH Data Book Vol 4.indd 5 10/16/2008 11:57:18 AM

Chapter 6: Hangers and Supports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117

Chapter 7: Vibration Isolation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145

Chapter 8: Grease Interceptors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153

2008 PEDH Data Book Vol 4.indd 6 10/16/2008 11:57:18 AM

FOG Disposal Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160

Chapter 9: Cross-connection Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169

2008 PEDH Data Book Vol 4.indd 7 10/16/2008 11:57:18 AM

Hexavalent Chromium in Water Supply . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189

Chapter 10: Water Treatment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193

Chapter 11: Thermal Expansion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227

2008 PEDH Data Book Vol 4.indd 8 10/16/2008 11:57:19 AM

Expansion of Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232

Chapter 13: Bioremediation Pretreatment Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249

2008 PEDH Data Book Vol 4.indd 9 10/16/2008 11:57:19 AM

Chapter 14: Green Plumbing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255

2008 PEDH Data Book Vol 4.indd 10 10/16/2008 11:57:19 AM

2008 PEDH Data Book Vol 4.indd 11 10/16/2008 11:57:19 AM

Figure 2-3 Hubless Cast Iron Soil Pipe and Fittings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24

2008 PEDH Data Book Vol 4.indd 12 10/16/2008 11:57:19 AM

Figure 7-1 Transmissibility vs. Frequency Ratio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146

2008 PEDH Data Book Vol 4.indd 13 10/16/2008 11:57:19 AM

Figure 10-23 Simplified Plan View . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216

2008 PEDH Data Book Vol 4.indd 14 10/16/2008 11:57:19 AM

Table 1-1 Plumbing Fixture Standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

2008 PEDH Data Book Vol 4.indd 15 10/16/2008 11:57:20 AM

2008 PEDH Data Book Vol 4.indd 16 10/16/2008 11:57:20 AM

Table 12-7 Friction of Water in Pipes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246

2008 PEDH Data Book Vol 4.indd 17 10/16/2008 11:57:20 AM

It has been said that without plumbing fixtures, there

Bidets Enameled cast iron: The base of enameled

2008 PEDH Data Book Vol 4.indd 2 10/16/2008 11:57:28 AM

(A) (B) (C)

2008 PEDH Data Book Vol 4.indd 3 10/16/2008 11:57:33 AM

Figure 1-3 A floor-mounted, back outlet water closet is

Figure 1-5 The standard rough-in dimension is 12 inches

interfere with the cleaning of the floor. (See

2008 PEDH Data Book Vol 4.indd 4 10/16/2008 11:57:50 AM

2008 PEDH Data Book Vol 4.indd 5 10/16/2008 11:57:50 AM

2008 PEDH Data Book Vol 4.indd 6 10/16/2008 11:57:52 AM

Figure 1-7 Minimum Chase Sizes for Carriers