Proceedings of National Symposium for Post Graduate Students (NSPGS 2010), 24 25 April, 2010: Vol 4 Civil, Materials &

p; Metallurgy

Advanced Processing Techniques of Functionally Graded Materials for

Engineering Applications
* # #
S.L.Pramod , J.Anburaj , T.P.D.Rajan , B.C.Pai
Department of Metallurgical Engineering, PSG College of Technology, Coimbatore, India
E mail: *slpramod@gmail.com
# Materials and Minerals division, National Institute for Interdisciplinary Science and Technology (NIIST), CSIR,
Trivandrum, India

Abstract components by most fabrication methods. In addition,

Functionally graded materials (FGMs) are new
advanced multifunctional composites, which exhibits
gradual transitions in the microstructure and/or the
composition in a specific direction leading to variation in
the functional performance of a component. Functionally
graded material (FGM) may be characterized by the
variation in composition and structure gradually over
volume, resulting in corresponding changes in the
properties of the material. This is achieved by using
reinforcements with different properties, sizes, and shapes,
as well as by interchanging the functions of the
reinforcement and matrix phases in a continuous manner.
The result is a microstructure bearing continuous changes
in thermal and mechanical properties at the macroscopic
or continuum scale. Many processing methods have been
proposed to fabricate FGMs, such as chemical vapor
deposition, the plasma spray technique and various
powder metallurgy techniques. The centrifugal method
was introduced recently and has attracted a lot of attention
due to its unique merits. In particular, Al based FGMs
fabricated by the centrifugal method showed interesting
properties that are not obtained in conventional monolithic
materials, such as gradual changes in hardness, wear
resistance, Youngs modulus, etc.
those methods require relatively new techniques and
expensive fabrication equipment [2].
This new concept of materials engineering
hinges on materials science and mechanics due to the
integration of the material and structural considerations
into the final design of structural components. Because
of the many variables that control the design of
functionally graded microstructures, full utilization of
the FGMs potential requires the development of
appropriate modeling strategies for their response to
combined thermo mechanical loads. FGMs are ideal
candidates for applications involving severe thermal
gradients, varying from thermal structures in advanced
aircraft and aerospace engines to computer circuit
boards. These materials were introduced to take
advantage of ideal behavior of its constituents, e.g. heat
and corrosion resistance of ceramics together with
mechanical strength and toughness of metals [3]. This
paper gives an overview of the various processing roots
of FGM and the details of work carried out in the
processing of FGM by centrifugal casting process.

1. Introduction
Functionally graded advanced composite
materials contain reinforcement particles whose volume
fraction varies continuously thereby bearing a non-
uniform microstructure with continuously changing
properties. In other words FGM is usually a combination
of two materials or phases that show a gradual transition
of properties from one side of sample to the other[1].
This gradual transition allows the creation of superior
and multiple properties without any mechanically weak
interface. Moreover, the gradual change of properties
can be tailored to different applications and service
environments. In general, Several FGM fabrication
methods have been proposed. However, thus far, it has
been difficult to produce relatively large FGM
2. Processing of FGM
There are various processing methods
available for fabricating functionally graded composite
materials. Mortensen and Suresh have classified the
processing methods as constructive and transport based
processes (Mortensen and Suresh 1995). In particular,
one can distinguish two principle classes of methods for
the production for FGMs containing a metallic phase. In
the first class of processes, the FGM is constructed layer
by layer, in a manner that starts with an appropriate
distribution of constituents of the FGM, often in a
precursor of the component, these techniques
constructive processes because the gradients are
literally constructed in space. Constructive processes are
thus ones which are amenable to computer control of the
gradients produced. And represent largely an outgrowth

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 Proceedings of National Symposium for Post Graduate Students (NSPGS 2010), 24 25 April, 2010: Vol 4 Civil, Materials & Metallurgy
of the tremendous advances that have been made over
the past decades in automation of phase would otherwise
be prohibitively expensive.
Constructive processes are distinguished from a
second class of FGM processes, which rely on natural
transport phenomenon to create gradients with in a
component. These transport based processes use the
flow of fluid, the diffusion of atomic species, or the
conduction of heat to create gradients in local micro
structure and \or compositions. If these processes are
quantitatively understood and harnesses, gradients
produced can still be optimized, albeit within a narrower
window of possible structure. Both heat and mass
diffusion have been used for centuries to create
functional, micro structural, and\or compositional
gradients in steel. Fluid flow, interfacial segregation,
and slow solid state diffusion during solidification are
responsible for macro segregation in single crystals and
alloy castings. Although generally viewed as a problem
in processing of homogeneous materials, these are
naturally segregative phenomenon which can be used to
create tailored gradients within a component. Based on
the nature and state of processing, T.P.D.Rajan and B.C
Pai have classified the processing methods as solid state
processes, Liquid state processes and Deposition
processes.
Processing of FGM are classified in to Solid
state process, Liquid state process and Vapour state
process. The table shows the various technique for
fabricating the FGM.
2.1 Solid State Processes
2.1.1 Powder Metallurgy
Powder metallurgy is one of the simple method
for fabricating the functionally graded materials. In
powder metallurgy a preform of powder containing the
desired gradient of metal matrix is first fabricated
followed by hot pressing in closed die, hot isostatic
pressing, cold pressing and pressureless sintering. All
considerations of solid-liquid phase changes can be
ignored, so powder processes are more flexible than
casting, extrusion, or forging techniques. Controllable
characteristics of products prepared using various
powder technologies include mechanical, magnetic, and
other unconventional properties of such materials as
porous solids, aggregates, and intermetallic compounds.
2.1.2 Sintering
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Sintering is a method for making objects from
powder, by heating the material in a sintering
furnace below its melting point (solid state sintering)
until its particles adhere to each other. There are many
sintering techniques like pressureless sintering, hot
isostatic pressing which are used for the fabrication of
graded composites and ceramics. Sintering is
traditionally used for manufacturing ceramic objects,
and has also found uses in such
fields as powder metallurgy. There are two types of
sintering: with pressure (also known as hot pressing),
and without pressure. Pressureless sintering is possible
with graded metal-ceramic composites, with a
nanoparticle sintering aid and bulk molding technology.
2.1.3 Powder Stacking
The fabrication of graded composites can be
done using the powder stacking technique. The complex
interdependence of many processing variables makes
production of graded composites challenging. The tools
available to make adjustments are particle size
distribution, additives, compaction pressure, and
consolidation method. The approach is based on the
fundamental sintering behavior concepts.
2.1.4 Powder Infiltration
A method of fabricating the machine tools and
ultrasonic welding tool includes compacting a powder
metal material and sintering the powder metal material
at about ambient pressure which is not under a vacuum.
In this method the two powders of different properties
are compacted and sintered by using the additives. The
method can alternatively include compacting a first
powder material to form a welding tip and compacting a
second powder material to form a body of the tool
separately from the welding tip. The welding tip and the
body are joined and sintered.
 Proceedings of National Symposium for Post Graduate Students (NSPGS 2010), 24 25 April, 2010: Vol 4 Civil, Materials & Metallurgy
Solid State processes Liquid State Processes
Powder Metallurgy Infiltration
Sintering Settling
Powder Stacking Centrifugal Cassting
Powder Infiltration Directional Soldification
Slurry Technique Sol-Gel Method
Plasma Activated Sintering Electro Deposition
Diffusion Bonding Electro Less Plating
Table 1 FGM Processing techniques
2.1.5 Slurry Technique
Powder impregnation techniques have been
developed to increase design and manufacturing
flexibility with thermoplastic composites. This is simple
and economical method for producing functionally
graded thermal barrier coatings using the Wet Powder
(Slurry) and Sintering method showed promising results.
This method is relatively undeveloped and under utilised
compared to more expensive techniques such as
chemical vapours deposition, physical vapour
deposition, plasma spraying and powder metallurgy. It
utilizes a pressurized spray gun to spray a slurry mixture
of the powdered coating material suspended in a liquid
solution directly onto a substrate surface followed by
sintering using an oxyacetylene torch.
2.1.6 Plasma Activated sintering
Spark plasma sintering (SPS) is a relatively
new sintering method. In the SPS process, the powder is
pressed between two dyes and a pulsed direct current
(dc) is applied to the sintering powders and the
activation of powder particles is thought to be achieved
by the application of electrical discharges. At the onset
of the sintering process, the compact is a highly porous
body. The initial pressure applied by the lower and
upper graphite punches proceeds with particle contact.
As the particle contacts grow, the local pressure is
substantially reduced. At this stage the pulsed current is
applied and a current path is established through
graphite die set and the powder is heated up. For
conductive powders, heating up is mainly due to the
Joule effect. For non-conductive powders, heating
occurs through heat transfer from the die and punches.
2.1.7 Diffusion Bonding
Diffusion bonding, as a subdivision of both
solid-state and liquid-phase material joining process
wherein the principal mechanism is interdiffusion of
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Vapour State Processes
Chemical Vapour Deposition
Chemical Vapour Infiltration
Physical Vapour Deposition
Spray Deposition
Laser Deposition
atoms across the interface. Joining of dissimilar
materials with different thermo-physical characteristics,
which is not possible by other processes, may be
achieved by diffusion bonding. Diffusion bonding of
most metals is conducted in vacuum or in an inert
atmosphere (normally dry nitrogen, argon or helium) in
order to reduce detrimental oxidation of the faying
surfaces. Bonding of a few metals which have oxide
films that are thermodynamically unstable at the
bonding temperature may be achieved in air. Metals,
alloys, ceramics and powder metallurgy products have
been joined by diffusion bonding. Shear test results on
aluminium-based composites and alloys show shear
strengths up to parent metal values. It is anticipated that
this technique can be used for joining dissimilar metal
combinations, metal matrix composites and possibly
nickel based materials.
2.2 Vapour State Process
2.2.1 Chemical vapour Deposition
Chemical vapour deposition or CVD is a
generic name for a group of processes that involve
depositing a solid material from a gaseous phase. A
number of forms of CVD are in wide use and are
frequently referenced in the literature. These processes
differ in the means by which chemical reactions are
initiated and process conditions. A thin layer of coating
is made over the material surface which gives the graded
structure. Precursor gases are delivered into the reaction
chamber at approximately ambient temperatures. As
they pass over or come into contact with a heated
substrate, they react or decompose forming a solid phase
which and are deposited onto the substrate. The
substrate temperature is critical and can influence what
reactions will take place. CVD coatings are typically
Fine grained, Impervious, High purity and Harder than
similar materials produced using conventional ceramic
fabrication processes.
 Proceedings of National Symposium for Post Graduate Students (NSPGS 2010), 24 25 April, 2010: Vol 4 Civil, Materials & Metallurgy
2.2.2 Chemical Vapour Infiltration
Chemical Vapor Infiltration(CVI) method of
Ceramic Matrix Composites fabrication is a process, in
which reactant gases diffuse into an isothermal porous
preform, made of long continuous fibers, and form a
deposition. Deposited material is a result of chemical
reaction occurring on the fibers surface. The deposition
fills the space between the fibers, forming composite
material in which matrix is the deposited material and
dispersed phase is the fibers of the preform.(CVI) is a
variant on Chemical Vapor Deposition (CVD). CVD
implies deposition onto a surface, whereas CVI implies
deposition within a body. Chemical vapor infiltration is
widely used as a means of fabricating Ceramic Matrix
Composites (CMC) such as alumina-alumina, in which a
chemical vapor consisting of AlCl3-H2-CO2 is
deposited onto porous alumina fibers or preforms. This
process was designed and first experimented by
Professor Roger Naslain from the University of
Bordeaux 1 on SiC composites for aerospace
applications.
2.2.3 Physical Vapour Deposition
Physical vapour deposition (PVD) is
fundamentally a vaporisation coating technique,
involving transfer of material on an atomic level. It is an
alternative process to electroplating. The coating method
involves purely physical processes such as high
temperature vacuum evaporation or plasma sputter
bombardment. PVD is used in the manufacture of items
including semiconductor devices, aluminized PET film,
and coated cutting tools for metalworking[11]. Besides
PVD tools for fabrication special graded tools mainly
for scientific purposes have been developed. They
mainly serve the purpose of extreme thin films like
atomic layers and are used mostly for small substrates.
2.2.4 Spray Deposition
Spray deposition is not a powder metallurgical
process within the strict definition of that term since
metal in actual powder form is not involved. Molten
metal is gas atomised in the normal way and the spray is
caused to impinge while still in the liquid or semi-solid
state on a solid former where a layer of dense solid
metal of a pre-determined shape is produced. The solid
thus produced has a structure similar to that of powder-
based material with all the attendant advantages of fine
grain, freedom from macro-segregation. Among the
materials that cannot be made conventionally, but can be
made by spray deposition, are rapidly solidified Al-Li
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alloys, Al-Sn alloys with high Zn content (11%), highly
alloyed Cu-Ni-Sn and Cu-Cr, as well as the some metal
matrix compositions. In this last case, the reinforcing
particles are injected into the metal stream during the
atomisation process and fabricate graded components.
Spray deposition seems destined to have a very
interesting future.
2.2.4 Laser Deposition
The laser system is one of several metal
deposition processes which have been incorporated into
Shape Deposition Manufacturing(SDM). It has a
number of advantages over previous SDM deposition
techniques including more robust deposition, more
accurate placement of the deposited material and the
ability to produce functional gradient materials by
simply mixing powders during deposition. The process
is very similar to laser cladding or laser welding in
which the laser forms a melt pool on the substrate into
which metal powder is injected. The injected powder
fuses onto the substrate as the laser scans over the part,
leaving a bead of deposited material in its wake,
explained by (see the detailed description on J.R.
Fessler, R. Merz, A.H Nickel and F.B. Prinz
et.al).Because material is deposited only where the laser
strikes the surface and the laser can be positioned
accurately, it is easy to selectively deposit material only
where necessary and reduce machining time in
subsequent processing operations. During deposition,
the area around the laser spot is flooded with inert gas to
shield the deposits from air and reduce oxidation.
2.3 Liquid State Process
2.3.1 Directional Soldification
Directional solidification (DS) is controlled
solidification of liquid metal in order to continually
supply the solidifying front of the casting with feed
metal. Between directional solidification methods,
Bridgman growth method involves heating crystalline
material above its melting point and its consequent
solidification at defined growth rate and temperature
gradient.
2.3.2 Infiltration
In this method the graded ceramic perform is
made and molten metal is infiltrated with or without the
applicaton of pressure. The light weight cermets having
improved porosity, strength, durability, toughness,
elasticity fabricated from presintered ceramic powder
infiltrated with a molten metal or metal alloy. A cermet
 Proceedings of National Symposium for Post Graduate Students (NSPGS 2010), 24 25 April, 2010: Vol 4 Civil, Materials & Metallurgy
is a porous ceramic matrix fabricated by presintering
ceramic powder of the same particle size limited to from
about 10 to about 50 , at a sintering temperature which
is higher than the melting point of the infiltrating metal
and during sintering does not result in shrinkage, grain
growth and a formation of voids, and by uniformly
infiltrating the presintered ceramic matrix with a molten
metal or a metal alloy. Graded preforms are difficult to
fabricate. There are various process available like
conventional binder ad slurry technique. The novel
cermets are useful for a wide range of applications such
as manufacture of surgical instruments, cutting tools,
engine parts, wear parts, etc. Their properties, such as
strength, durability, toughness, elasticity, etc. can be
designed according to their intended use.
2.3.3 Settling
In this method the metal matrix composites are
made by liquid metal stir casting process and the
reinforcements and the graded ceramic reinforced metals
are separated by holding the slurry in gravity.
Aluminium-Sic graded composites are fabricated by
using this method. Normally we get uniform volume
fraction of particles, By using a range of particle size we
can make gradation in the components. Sequential
pouring of slurries will results in the graded structure
and varying volume fractions (Lajoye and suery,1998).
2.3.4 Sol-Gel Method
The sol-gel process, also known as chemical
solution deposition, is a wet-chemical technique widely
used in the fields of materials science and ceramic
engineering. Such methods are used primarily for the
fabrication of materials (typically a metal oxide) starting
from a chemical solution which acts as the precursor for
an integrated network (or gel) of either discrete particles
or network polymers. The sol evolves towards the
formation of a gel-like diphasic system containing both
a liquid phase and solid phase whose morphologies
range from discrete particles to continuous polymer
networks. In the case of the colloid, the volume fraction
of particles (or particle density) may be so low that a
significant amount of fluid may need to be removed
initially for the gel-like properties to be recognized. This
can be accomplished in any number of ways. The most
simple method is to allow time for sedimentation to
occur, and then pour off the remaining liquid.
Centrifugation can also be used to accelerate the process
of phase separation.
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2.3.5 Electro Deposition
The process used in electroplating is called
electrodeposition.This is one of the FGM fabrication
technique in which we can coat the required layer of
material or ceramic to the metal. It is analogous to a
galvanic cell acting in reverse. The part to be plated is
the cathode of the circuit. In one technique, the anode is
made of the metal to be plated on the part. Both
components are immersed in a solution called an
electrolyte containing one or more dissolved metal salts
as well as other ions that permit the flow of electricity.
2.3.6 Electro-less Plating
Electroless plating, also known as chemical or
auto-catalytic plating, is a non-galvanic type of plating
method that involves several simultaneous reactions in
an aqueous solution, which occur without the use of
external electrical power. Using this process we can
fabricate the graded materials by coating one layer over
the other. The reaction is accomplished when hydrogen
is released by a reducing agent, normally sodium
hypophosphite, and oxidized thus producing a negative
charge on the surface of the part. The most common
electroless plating method is electroless nickel plating.
2.3.7 Centrifugal Casting
One of the promising FGM fabrication methods
is the centrifugal method. Functionally graded
composites can be formed by centrifugal casting
technique through segregation of particles due to
centrifugal force.Fukuiand colleagues [5-9] have studied
and optimized both the FGM fabrication method, as well
as possible systems that can form a FGM by centrifugal
method. The centrifugal casting is a pressure casting
method in which the force of gravity, when pouring
molten metal into the mould, is increased by rotating or
spinning the mould assembly [5-9].Figure 1shows the
vertical centrifugal casting machine. The main
advantages of centrifugal casting are good mould filling
combined with good microstructural control, which
usually give excellent mechanical properties. One is the
centrifugal solid-particle method where the processing
temperature is lower than the liquidus temperature of the
master alloy and the dispersed solid phase in the master
alloy remains in a liquid matrix. The mechanism to form
a graded composition is the same as the case of
metal/ceramic FGMs by the centrifugal method. The
other is the centrifugal in-situ method where the
processing temperature is higher than the liquidus
temperature of the master alloy.
 Proceedings of National Symposium for Post Graduate Students (NSPGS 2010), 24 25 April, 2010: Vol 4 Civil, Materials & Metallurgy

We have fabricated aluminium356 alloy with
15 % SiC by centrifugal casting technique. In this the
density of Sic is more than that of aluminium. The Sic
particles are pulled out by the centrifugal force. On the
outer periphery of the casted product we get more Sic
particles and the gradation can be seen by the optical
microstructure.
outer region and towards the inner region reduction in
the particles.
The presence of graded microstructures in
functionally graded material leads to variation in the
physical, mechanical and tribological properties within a
part or component. The major advantage of FGM is its
ability to give two conflicting properties in a single
component such as good thermal conductivity and good
thermal resistance[24]. We get good properties on the
outer region, proper characterization to be done,
hardness measurements, wear testing, tensile testing are
to be done and should vary from outer region to inner
region.

Fig 1 Photograph of Vertical Centrifugal casting Machine[19]

Fig 3 Photograph of Centrifugally casted Al LM25/356-

15%SiC Ring.

Fig 2 Photo Macrograph of the cut

section of Fabricated Centrifugal Ring

Figure 3 shows the Functionally Graded piston ring

and figure 2 shows the photomacrograph of the cut
section of the ring, in which we can see the gradation
clearly. The material used is aluminium 356 and is stir
casted with 15% SiC and then centrifugally casted and
form a ring. The outer region is the particle rich region
and the inner with less particles. The optical
microstructure taken from the cut section shows the
gradation clearly. The microstructure is taken from the
sample by 5mm intervals from the outer to the inner
periphery. We can see the particle rich region on the

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 Proceedings of National Symposium for Post Graduate Students (NSPGS 2010), 24 25 April, 2010: Vol 4 Civil, Materials & Metallurgy

Fig 4 Optical micrograph of the Al 356-15%SiC ring taken at different location 5mm interval from the outer to inner
periphery

3. Applications of FGM 4. Conclusion

During the past 20 years, the concept of FGMs
has spread into almost every traditional technological
and/or scientific field and many commercial applications
have been developed. FGMs offer great promise in
applications where the operating conditions are severe.
For example, wear-resistant linings for handling large
heavy abrasive ore particles, rocket heat shields, heat
exchanger tubes, thermoelectric generators, brake disks,
cylinder liners, heat-engine components, plasma facings
for fusion reactors, and electrically insulating
metal/ceramic joints. They are also ideal for minimising
thermomechanical mismatch in metal-ceramic bonding.
Processing of FGMs in the laboratory scale has
reached a considerable level of maturity. Since the
FGMs are produced to achieve the required properties in
particular position of the component, it is better to work
on the reverse design in developing FGM for the
specific applications. A range of processing methods is
available today for almost any material combination.
Which of these processing methods is the most
appropriate depends not only on the materials involved,
but also on the type and extension of the gradient, and
the geometry of the required component. Despite of all
these achievements, the authors believe that there will
be new challenges in the future when the applications
for FGMs are more.

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 Proceedings of National Symposium for Post Graduate Students (NSPGS 2010), 24 25 April, 2010: Vol 4 Civil, Materials & Metallurgy
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