Nervous System

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 Functions
1. Sensory input
sensory receptors respond to stimuli

2. Integration
brain and spinal cord process stimuli

3. Control of muscles and glands

Controls the major movement of the body

4. Homeostasis
Respond to the changes in external and internal conditions

5. Mental activity
brain 2
Main Divisions of Nervous System
1. Central Nervous System (CNS)
brain and spinal cord

2. Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)

all neurons outside CNS
carries information from the different tissues of the
body to the CNS
carries the commands from the CNS that alter the
body activities.

4
 Divisions of PNS
Sensory Division (Afferent division)
Detects the stimuli and conducts action potential
towards the CNS
Sensory neurons

Motor Division (Efferent division)

Initiates and conduct action potentials that produces
the response
Motor neurons

1. Somatic Nervous System (SNS)

CNS to Skeletal muscle -
2. Autonomic Nervous System (ANS)
CNS to smooth, cardiac muscles, and glands
 Division of ANS
1. Parasympathetic
Control the body's response while at rest.
Control homeostasis and the body's rest-and-digest
response.
Ex. sexual arousal, salivation, lacrimation, urination,
digestion, and defecation.

2. Sympathetic
Control the body's response during perceived threat.
Mobilize the body's fight-or-flight response.
Ex. Stress response
 Enteric Nervous System (ENS)
Unique subdivision of the
PNS

Contains both sensory

and motor neurons

Embedded in the lining of

the gut

Consists of a mesh-
like system of neurons
that governs the function
of the
gastrointestinal system.
 Neuron Characteristics
Nerve cells

Require oxygen and glucose

Receive input, process input, produce a response

8
Neuron Structures
Dendrite
receives stimulus from
other neurons or sensory
receptors
transmit it to cell body

Cell body
processes stimulus
contains a nucleus

Axon
transmits stimulus to a
gland, muscle, organ, or
other neuron
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 Myelin Sheath
fatty, protective wrapping around axons
excellent insulator
Myelinated axons

Schwann cells
cells in the peripheral nervous system that produce the
myelin sheath around neuronal axons.

Nodes of Ranvier
gaps in myelin sheath where action potentials develop

10
 Myelinated axons conduct action potentials more
quickly (3-15 meters/sec) than unmyelinated due to
Nodes of Ranvier.

Saltatory conduction
propagation of action potentials along myelinated axons
from one node of Ranvier to the next node, increasing
the conduction velocity of action potentials.

Multiple sclerosis
disease of myelin sheath that causes loss of muscle function
Saltatory Conduction

14
 Types of Neurons
1. Multipolar
many dendrites and a single axon
Ex. CNS and most motor neurons

2. Bipolar
one dendrite and one axon
Ex. Sensory organs
Retina eye and nasal cavity

3. Pseudo-unipolar
one axon and no dendrites
Ex. Sensory neurons 15
 Glial cells / Neuroglia Characteristics
Supporting cells for neurons
Do not conduct action potentials

More numerous than neurons

Can divide to produce more cells

5 types

16
 Types of Neuroglia

Astrocytes Ependymal Cells

star-shaped produce and circulate
most abundant cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)
form blood-brain barrier
Limit damage to neural
tissue 17
 Types of Neuroglia

Microglia Oligodendrocytes
help remove bacteria and produce myelin sheath
cell debris from CNS in CNS

18
 Types of Neuroglia

Schwann cells
produce myelin
sheath in PNS

19
 Organization of Nervous Tissue
Gray matter
collection of dendrites and cell bodies with little myelin
CNS
Cortex surface of the brain
Nuclei deeper within the brain
PNS
Ganglia clusters of neuron cell bodies

White matter
collection of axons and their myelin sheath
CNS
Nerve tracts/ Conduction pathways propagates action potentials in
the CNS

PNS
Nerves bundle of axons associated with connective tissues
20
 CNS PNS
Produce myelin
Oligodendrocytes Schwann cells
sheath
Collection of
Nerve tracts Nerves
axons
Collection of cell
Cortex/ Nuclei Ganglion
bodies
 Electrical Signals and Neural Pathways
Resting Membrane Potential
Outside of cell is more + (Na+)
Inside of cell is more (K+)

Leak ion channels

always open
K+ channels

Gated ion channels

closed until opened by specific
signal
Na+ channels
22
 Action Potentials
Electricity that cause depolarization and repolarization

Change resting membrane potential by activating gated

ion channels

Local Current
movement of Na+ which causes inside of cell to be more
positive (depolarize)
Results to local potential

24
 If enough Na+ enters then threshold is reached and
more voltage gated Na+ channels open

Once threshold is reached all or none law applies

Action potentials continue until Na+ channels close, K+

channels open, and repolarization occurs

Sodium/potassium pump restores

Hyperpolarization
Charge on the cell membrane becomes more negative than
the resting membrane potential

25
 Synapse
Junction where an axon attaches or interacts to an
effector organ such as muscle, gland, organ, or other
neuron

involved with release of neurotransmitters

- Ex. Neuromuscular junction

28
 Reflexes
involuntary response to a stimulus
Allow the person to react to the stimuli quickly

Reflex arc
Neuronal pathway which reflex travels
Basic functional unit of the nervous system
Capable of receiving a stimulus and yielding a response.

31
 Components of Reflex Arc
1. Sensory receptors:
- pick up stimulus
- in skin

2. Sensory (afferent) neurons:

send stimulus to interneurons in spinal cord

3. Interneurons (Association) neuron:

- located in CNS and connect to motor neurons
- process stimulus
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4. Efferent (motor) neurons:
send response to effector

5. Effector:
muscle, gland, or organ

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Figure 8.14
 Neuronal Pathways
Converging

two or more neurons

synapse same neuron

allows info. to be
transmitted in more than
one neuronal pathway to
converge into a single
pathway

35
 Diverging

axon from one neuron

divides and synapses
with more than one
neuron

allows info. to be
transmitted in one
neuronal pathway to
diverge into 2 or more
pathways
Central Nervous System
Consists of brain and spinal cord
Brain in brain case: Spinal cord in vertebral column:

37
 Spinal Cord
Extends from foramen
magnum to 2nd lumbar
vertebra
Protected by vertebral
column
Spinal nerves allow
movement
If damaged paralysis can
occur
Cauda equina
Inferior end, where the
nerves exit.
Resembles a horses tail 38
Gray and White Matter in Spinal Cord

Gray Matter
center of spinal cord
looks like letter H or a butterfly
Contains neuron cell bodies

White Matter
outside of spinal cord
contains myelinated fibers

39
 White Matter in Spinal Cord
Contains 3 columns dorsal, ventral, lateral columns

Ascending tracts:
axons that conduct action potentials toward brain

Descending tracts:
axons that conduct action potentials away from brain

40
 Gray Matter in Spinal Cord
Posterior horns
contain axons which synapse with interneurons

Anterior horns
contain somatic neurons

Lateral horns
contain autonomic neurons

Central canal
fluid filled space in center of cord

42
 Spinal Nerves
Arise along the spinal cord from union of dorsal roots
and ventral roots

Contain axons sensory and somatic neurons

Located between vertebra

Categorized by region of vertebral column from which

it emerges (C for cervical)
31 pairs
Organized in 3 plexuses
44
 SPINAL CORD REFLEXES

Knee-Jerk Reflex
Patellar reflex

Classic example of stretch

reflex.

Muscle contracts in
response to a stretching
force applied
 Withdrawal Reflex
Flexor reflex
Removes a body part from a painful stimulus
SPINAL NERVES
Contains both sensory
and motor neurons

Some may contain the

sympathetic and
parasympathetic
neurons
 Cervical Plexus

Spinal nerves C1-4

Innervates muscles attached to hyoid bone and neck

Contains phrenic nerve which innervates diaphragm

49
 Brachial Plexus
Originates from spinal nerves C5-T1

Supply nerves to upper limb, shoulder, hand.

Axillary nerve 2 shoulder muscles and skin

Radial nerve posterior arm and forearm
Musculocutaneous nerve- anterior arm muscle and
radial surface of forearm
Ulnar nerve- anterior forearm muscles and hand
Median nerve anterior forearm muscle and intrinsic
hand muscles
50
 Lumbosacral Plexus
Originates from spinal nerves L1 to S4

Supply nerves lower limbs

Obturator nerve- medial thigh

Femoral nerve anterior thigh muscle
Tibial nerve posterior thigh muscle, anterior and
posterior leg muscle, and most intrinsic foot muscle
Common fibular nerve lateral thigh and leg

Sciatic nerve
connective tissue sheath that bound the tibial and common
fibular nerve.
51
 Cerebrospinal Fluid
Fluid that bathes the brain and spinal cord

Provides a protective cushion around the CNS

Produced in choroid plexus of brain

54
BRAIN
 Brainstem
Connects the spinal cord to the
brain

Control of heart rate, Blood

pressure and breathing

Components:
Medulla oblongata
Pons
Midbrain
56
 Brainstem Components
Medulla oblongata
Location:
continuous with spinal cord; inferior portion of
brainstem

Function:
regulates heart rate, blood vessel diameter,
breathing, swallowing, vomiting, hiccupping,
coughing, sneezing, balance

Other:
pyramids: involved in conscious control of skeletal
muscle
57
 Pons
Location:
above medulla, bridge between cerebrum and cerebellum

Function:
breathing, chewing, salivation, swallowing

Midbrain
Location:
above pons
4 Colliculi : 2 superior visual reflexes, receive touch and
auditory input; 2 inferior relay centers for auditory nerve
pathways in CNS.
Substantia negra black nuclear mass regulating general body
movement

Function:
coordinated eye movement, pupil diameter, turning head toward
noise
58
 Reticular Formation
- Location:
scattered throughout brainstem

- Function:
regulates cyclical motor function, respiration,
walking, chewing, arousing and maintaining
consciousness, regulates sleep-wake cycle

Reticular activating system

Arousing and maintaining consciousness and regulating the
sleep-wake cycle

60
Cerebellum
Location:
below cerebrum
attached to brainstem via
Cerebellar peduncles

Characteristics:
- means little brain
- cortex is composed of gyri,
sulci, gray matter

Functions: controls balance,

muscle tone, coordination of fine
motor movement
61
 Diencephalon

Located between the brainstem and cerebrum

Components:
-Thalamus
-Epithalamus
-Hypothalamus 62
 Diencephalon Components
Thalamus
- Characteristics:
largest portion of diencephalon
2 large parts connected through Interthalamic adhesion
- Function:
influences moods and detects pain

Epithalamus:
- Location:
above thalamus
- Function:
emotional and visceral response to odors
Pineal gland
Endocrine gland which play role in controlling some long-
term cycles that are influenced by dark-light cycle 63
 Hypothalamus
- Location:
below thalamus

- Characteristics:
controls pituitary gland and is connected to it by infundibulum

- Function:
controls homeostasis, body temp, thirst, hunger, fear, rage,
sexual emotions
controls the secretion of the pituitary gland

MAMMILLARY BODIES
involved in emotional responses to odors and in memory.
64
Figure 8.24
Cerebrum Characteristics
Largest portion of brain
Divisions:
Right Hemisphere
Left Hemisphere
separated by
longitudinal fissure
Lobes: frontal, parietal,
occipital, temporal

66
 Cerebrum Components
Cerebral Cortex
- Location:
surface of cerebrum, composed of gray matter
- Function:
controls thinking, communicating, remembering,
understanding, and initiates involuntary movements

Gyri:
folds on cerebral cortex that increase surface area

Sulci:
shallow indentations

Fissure:
deep indentations
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 Left hemisphere
controls right side of body
responsible for math, analytic, and speech

Right hemisphere
controls left side of body
responsible for music, art, abstract ideas

Corpus callosum
connection between 2 hemispheres

69
70
 Lobes of Brain
Frontal lobe
- Location:
front
- Function:
controls voluntary motor functions, motivation, aggression,
moods, and smell reception

Parietal lobe
- Location:
top
- Function:
evaluates sensory input such as touch, pain, pressure,
temperature, and taste 71
 Occipital lobe
- Location:
back
- Function:
vision

Temporal lobe
- Location:
sides, separated by lateral fissure
- Function:
hearing, smell, memory

72
73
 Sensory Functions
CNS constantly receives sensory input

We are unaware of most sensory input

Sensory input is vital of our survival and normal functions

74
 Ascending Tracts
pathways in brain and spinal cord

transmit information via action potentials from periphery

to brain

each tract has limited type of sensory input

(temp, touch, pain, position or pressure)

tracts are named based on their origin and termination

Ex. Spinothalamic tract begins in the spinal cord and ends
at the thalamus.

made of 2-3 neurons in sequence 75

 Sensory Areas of Cerebral Cortex
Primary sensory areas:
- where ascending tracts project
- where sensations are perceived

Primary somatic sensory cortex:

- general sensory area
- in parietal lobe
- sensory input such as pain, pressure, temperature

Association areas
- adjacent to primary sensory areas
-recognition process 78
 Motor Areas of Cerebral Cortex
Primary motor cortex:
- frontal lobe
- control voluntary motor movement

Premotor area:
- frontal lobe
- where motor functions are organized before initiation

Prefrontal area:
motivation and foresight to plan and initiate movement
79
 Descending Tracts

Project from upper motor neurons in cerebral cortex

to lower motor neurons in spinal cord and brainstem

Control different types of movements

81
Basal Nuclei
Group of functionally related nuclei
Planning, organizing, coordinating motor movements
and maintenance of posture

Corpus striatum:
deep in cerebrum

Substantia nigra:
in midbrain

84
Other Brain Functions
 Speech
Mainly in left hemisphere

Sensory speech (Wernickes area):

- parietal lobe
- where words are heard and comprehended

Motor speech (Broncas area):

- frontal lobe
- where words are formulated

Aphasia absent or defective speech

87
Brain Waves and Consciousness
Used to diagnose and
determine treatment of brain
disorders

Electroencephalogram
(EEG):
electrodes plated on scalp to
record brains electrical
activity

Brain waves
Wavelike patterns detected in
EEG
88
 Alpha waves:
person is awake in quiet state

Beta waves:
intense mental activity

Delta waves:
deep sleep
severe brain disorder

Theta waves:
in children
frustration 89
 Types of Memory
Short-term memory
info. is retained for a few seconds or min.
bits of info. (usually 7)

Long-term memory
can last for a few minutes or permanently

Episodic memory
places or events

Learning
utilizing past memories
90
 Memory
Encoding
brief retention of sensory input received by brain while
something is scanned, evaluated, and acted up
also called sensory memory
in temporal lobe
lasts less than a second

Consolidated
data that has been encoded
temporal lobe
short term memory

91
 Storage
long term memory
few minutes or permanently (depends on retrieval)

Retrieval
how often information is used

92
 Meninges
What are they?
protective wrapping around brain and spinal cord

Meningitis:
infection of meninges (bacterial or viral)

93
 Types of Meninges
Dura Mater
Superficial
thickest layer

Arachnoid mater
2nd layer

Pia mater
3rd layer
surface of brain

Subarachnoid space
where cerebrospinal fluid sits
94
 Epidural space

in vertebral column between dura and vertebra

injection site for epidural anesthesia

Spinal block and spinal tap

in subarachnoid space where cerebrospinal fluid can be

removed or anesthetic inject

numbs spinal nerves

95
 Ventricles
What are they?
cavities in CNS that contain fluid

Third ventricle
Center of the diencephalon
Connected by foramina to the lateral ventricles

Fourth ventricle
base of cerebellum
continuous with central canal of spinal cord

97
 Cerebrospinal Fluid
Fluid that bathes the brain and spinal cord

Provides a protective cushion around the CNS

Produced in choroid plexus of brain

Hydrocephalus
Accumulation of the CSF in the ventricles due to the
blockage of the opening in the 4th ventricle

99
 Cranial Nerves
12 pair of cranial nerves

Named by roman numerals

2 categories of functions: sensory and motor

100
Peripheral Nervous System
Consists of all neurons outside brain and spinal
cord

Collects input from different sources, relays input

to CNS, and performs action

103
 Divisions of Peripheral Nervous System
1. Afferent (Sensory):
collects input from periphery and sends it to CNS

2. Efferent (Motor):
carries processed input from CNS to effector

104
 Divisions of Efferent (Motor)
1. Autonomic:
- response is automatic (involuntary)
- controls smooth and cardiac muscles and glands

2. Somatic:
- response is voluntary
- controls skeletal muscles

105
 Divisions of Autonomic
1. Sympathetic:
activated during times of stress
part of fight or flight response
prepares you for physical activity by:
- HR
- BP
- BR
- sending more blood to skeletal muscles
- inhibiting digestive tract

2. Parasympathetic:
housekeeper
activated under normal conditions
involved in digestion, urine production, and dilation/constriction of
pupils, etc.
107
108
Effects of Aging on the Nervous System

Sensory and Motor functions decline with age

Mental functions, including memory, may decline

with age