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Wastewater Lecture Note PDF
Wastewater Lecture Note PDF
Treatment
D D
C
C
B B
E
A
1 Noorderzijlvest A
2 Frysln
3 Blija Buitendijks
4 Hunze and Aas
5 Reest and Wieden
6 Velt and Vecht 3 cross section longitudinal
1
7 Groot Salland
8 Regge and Dinkel A. suction pipe section
9 Veluwe 4 B. membrane pump
10 Rijn and IJssel 2
11 Vallei and Eem C. pressure line
12 De Stichtse Rijnlanden
13 Amstel, Gooi and Vecht D. grit reservoir
14 Hollands Noorderkwartier
15 Rijnland 5 E. grit removal carriage
16 Delfland 14
17 Schieland and Krimpenerwaard 6
18 Rivierenland
19 Hollandse Delta
20 Zeeuwse islands 27 7
21 Zeeuws-Flanders
22 Brabants Delta
8
23 De Dommel 9
13
24 Aa and Maas 15
25 Peel and Maasvallei a. grit trap in water line wit bar screen
26 Roer and Overmaas 11
27 Zuiderzeeland 12 10 sedimentation tank
16 17 Q Q
18
19 screen grit trap
24
22
23 sludge treatment
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25
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sludge treatment
sludge treatment
A - Screen sludge grit trap
B - Pipe
C - Bypass pipe
wastewater treatment
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wastewater treatment
Preface 4
1 Introduction 5
2 Primary Treatment 21
3 Biological Treatment 33
4 Additional Treatment 55
5 Sludge Treatment 61
6 Practical Considerations 71
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wastewater treatment
Preface
The wastewater treatment lectures are designed to provide insight into the processes and techniques
that are applied in the wastewater treatment eld, where the focus is laid on the basic principles, local
conditions, basic circumstances and performance processes. Their mutual relationship is also explained.
After this it will be possible for a student to set up a schematic wastewater treatment plant (wwtp) and to
design various industrial components. This textbook is thus meant to bring about a general understanding
of the basic principles of the treatment of wastewater.
In this lecture and syllabus we make use of general rules of thumb and maybe somewhat old design
methods. Since this course is just an introduction to sewage treatment, the design methods you learn
here will give some basic insight in sizing of the different process units. However, nowadays, most
designs are based on the sludge kinetics and biological conversion rates. This will be taught in the
Masters Course Waste Water Treatment (CIE 4485)
This text book is similar in many ways to a cook book; just as in every cook book the ingredients,
techniques and recipes are essential. The ingredients of wastewater treatment are in the wastewater
itself, bacterial cultures, and purication chemicals. The techniques are divided into physical, chemical,
physical-chemical, and biological (aerobic and anaerobic) treatment techniques. Finally there are various
recipes to treat wastewater. This is what differentiates the purication concept (conguration of various
purication techniques).
The most important aspect of wastewater treatment is that the efuent (the puried wastewater) that
leaves the wwtp and is drained onto the surface water meets discharge requirements. Along with that
the purication water authorities (the regional water authority, the district water control board, and the
sewage purication board) will pursue an environmentally friendly or sustainable design and operations
with minimal effects on society.
For an in depth knowledge refer to Wastewater Engineering, Treatment and Reuse, 4th edition, Metcalf
and Eddy, 2003; ISBN 0-07-112258. In this syllabus there is continual referral to the chapters in
this manual with ME This book is also used in the continuation lectures in the Masters Programme.
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1 Introduction
1.1 Background 6
1.1.1 Contamination in the Netherlands
1.3.3 Nutrients
1.3.4 Pathogens
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5106PE.
24
22
23
20
1.1.2 Regulation in the Netherlands 25
21
In 1970 the Wet Verontreiniging oppervlaktewater
(WVO) (Surface water Pollution Act) was created.
The purpose of the WVO is to protect surface 26
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Waste materials that are subject to being taxed discharged to municipal sewers, and some
as a result of discharge into the sewer or into the direct industrial wastewater discharges with
surface water are characteristics similar to municipal waste water
Oxygen consuming components (e.g. the food industry). Specic standards set by
To calculate the levies a unit accounting for the UWWD depend on the population equivalent
the oxygen consuming components is used: (p.e.) of the waste stream and whether or not the
the population equivalent (PE); that is the surface water being discharged to is considered
average oxygen consuming components a sensitive area. The UWWD explicitly requires:
capacity from the waste produced, within a 24 collection and treatment of all waste water
hour period per person that gets discharged streams >2000 p.e.,
with the wastewater. secondary treatment of all discharges from
Other materials (e.g. heavy metals) waste streams > 2000 p.e.,
The contamination unit (v.e.) is employed advanced treatment for streams >10 000 p.e.
in the Netherlands to account for other discharging to sensitive areas,
compounds. pre-authorisation of all discharges of urban
wastewater, from the food-processing industry
Aside from oxygen consuming components since and industrial discharges into urban wastewater
the 1980s much attention is being increasingly collection systems
paid to fertilizing compounds, such as phosphates performance monitoring of treatment plants
and nitrogen. What is more, in 1988 and 1990 and receiving waters status
thanks to the Rhine and North Sea campaigns sewage sludge disposal and re-use controls
international agreements were made that have treated waste water re-use whenever it is
led to a substantial reduction of phosphate and possible and appropriate.
nitrogen emissions.
Integrated Pollution Prevention and Control
In recent years the issuing of rules has established Act (IPPC) was originally adopted in 1996 as
a more European character. In this way the Directive 96/61/ECC, and it along with 4 minor
European Union directives set requirements amendments was codied as Directive 2008/2/
in respect to city wastewater concerning EC in 2008 and has subsequently been recast,
contaminating particles in the efuent. There along with other related directives, as a part of
are three main directives which impact the the new comprehensive Directive on Industrial
emission limit values which wastewater treatment Emissions 2010/75/EU (IED), which will repeal
plants in member states must achieve prior to the existing directives in 2014. The IPPC directive
discharge of their efuent to surface water. These provides a framework for regulating industrial
directives are the Urban Waste Water Directive, discharges whose activities are potentially
the Integrated Pollution Prevention and Control polluting, including the waste treatment industry.
Directive/Industrial Emissions Directive, and the The IED was compiled to further reduce
Water Framework Directive. emissions from industrial installations, simplify
implementation and streamline the permitting,
The Urban Waste Water Directive 91/271/ reporting and monitoring requirements of the
EEC (UWWD) was adopted in 1991 to protect Directives it recasts. The IED is essentially
the environment, namely surface waters, from a more comprehensive version of the IPPC,
the adverse effects of the discharge of urban requiring even more industrial facilities to obtain
wastewater (combined domestic and industrial permits for emissions discharge. The concepts
wastewater). The UWWD thus addresses the of integrated pollution control and best available
collection , treatment and discharge of domestic technology (BATs) based Emission Limit Values
(or municipal) wastewater, industrial wastewater
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wastewater treatment
(ELVs) in permits set forth in the IPPC are still The most important aspects of the WFD with
central to the IED approach. respects to WWTP discharge limitation are those
Different approaches to controlling emissions dedicated to surface water quality protection. The
into air, water or soil separately may encourage WFD requires ecological based protection for all
the shifting of pollution from one environmental waters by directing that they meet the standards
medium to another rather than protecting off good biological and chemical status. Good
the environment as a whole. It is, therefore, status requires that the surface waters biological
appropriate to provide for an integrated approach community be as close as possible to that
to prevention and control of emissions into air, which would be expected with no anthropogenic
water and soil, to waste management, to energy interference and that all chemical pollutant quality
efciency and to accident prevention. standards are achieved.
Additionally the IED allows for exibility when 1.1.3 Investment in the Netherlands
cost of compliance is signicantly higher than The provisions for the treatment of wastewater
the environmental benefit, has mandatory form the largest environmental health activity
requirements for environmental inspections and in the Netherlands in terms of the costs. In the
ensures transparency and public participation in period between 1960 and 1990 the government
the process. invested nearly 4,000 million Euros in treatment
works (largely in wastewater treatment plants and
The Water Framework Directive 200/60/EC was approximately 25% in transportation pipelines
adopted in 2000 as a means of restructuring and pumping stations). Industry invested
European water policy and water management in accordingly.
a coherent way. In order to take a comprehensive
look at the water cycle and how the resource should In the last 20 years a further 4,000 million Euros
be protected, the framework was developed with was invested and also in the future the annual
input from a variety of stakeholders including investment level (for expansion and replacement)
local and regional authorities, water users will certainly cost roughly 300 million Euros. The
and non-governmental organisations (NGOs). total costs for the urban wastewater management
Specic goals of the WFD include: amounted to around 900 million Euros per year.
Protection of all waters; surface waters and
groundwater
achieving good status for all waters by a set
deadline
water management based on river basins
combined approach of emission limit values
and quality standards
getting the prices right
getting the citizen involved more closely
streamlining legislation
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wastewater treatment
Wastewater that comes from pure municipal It should be pointed out that in a combined sewer
and urban sources is of a fairly constant wastewater ows can be buffered within the
composition. If industries are also connected to system. This can also be true for the wastewater
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With all these factors taken into account one can 2000
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the sewer system, state of the sewer (leakage other organic compounds (e.g. organic
or drainage) and the diverse drainage systems. suldes).
Biodegradable compounds:
organic compounds (protiens carbohydrates,
and fats)
organic nitrogen compounds;
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wastewater treatment
1.3 Wastewaster Contaminants loss can be found through subtracting the ash
content from the weight of the dried solids.
1.3.1 Solids Older instructions still report an incineration
The size of compounds in wastewater differ temperature of 600C, but presently 550C
greatly. Visible particles or undissolved matter is insisted on to prevent the carbonates from
are 0.1m and larger. Compounds with a particle decomposing.
size between 1 and 100 nm are called colloidal
particles. Dissolved solids measure from 1 nm or 1.3.2 Biodegradeable Organic Substances
smaller. In table 1.3 an overview is given of the Organic compounds are formed mainly from
amount of contaminants per inhabitant per day. carbon and hydrogen, bonded with other
elements. Carbons tyically present in domestic
The settle-able solids are determined in a wastewater include:
sedimentation experiment by putting a sample carbohydrates generally to be seen as (CH20)n
in a special conical funnel (Imhoff-glass) of 1 fats (esters of glycerine and fatty acids);
litre for 2 hours. The glass must be regularly proteins (compounds made up of C and H and
rotated to prevent the particles from sticking to also N and sometimes P and S);
the glass walls. In this way the settled sludge is urea, that gets excreted through urine:
determined in ml/l. CO(NH2)2.
Phenols detergents and pesticides
The total content of dissolved and dissolved Explicit inorganic substances in wastewater are
particulate compounds is determined by salt, sand, loam and ash, and cannot be remobed
evaporating a sample and then after that drying through biodegredation.
the residue at 103C; after weighing the residual
weight the dried solid content can be calculated Oganic compouunds within wastewater afor the
in g/l or mg/l. most part biodegradable, thus in the presence
of aerobic microorganisms these biodegradable
The undissolved solids can be separated from the compounds can be broken down, consuming
dissolved solids through ltration; the remaining dissolved oxygen in the process.
material from and on top of the lter, after having
dried and weighed the ltration solids in g/l or mg/l Oxygen is reasonably soluble in water. The
(=undissolved solids), can be determined. From solubility depends on the pressure, the
the ltrate after evaporating comes the content temperature and the content of dissolved
of dissolved solids. substances (see figure 1.4). In general the
inuence of dissolved compounds is limited, so
The amount of inorganic solids present in a the oxygen saturation value amounts to 11.3,
sample of wastewater or sludge, indicated by 10.7 and 9.0 mg O2/l with a chloride content of
ash content, is assessed by incinerating the respectively 0, 5 and 20 g Cl/l.
evaporation residue or the ltration residue for
45 minutes in an oven temperature of 550. The Through measuring the oxygen demand/ an
amount of organic matter, that is: the weight impression is obtained of the content of organic
compounds. This usually happens with one of
Table 1.3 Contaminants in wastewater of the following methods:
one inhabitant per day in grams
the biochemical oxygen demand (BOD), i.e.
inorganic organic total by means of bacteria;
settleable 20 40 60 the chemical oxygen demand (COD), with the
colloidal 10 20 30 help of a strong oxidiser such as potassium
dissolved 50 50 100 dichromate.
total 80 110 190
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15
In oxidation through the biochemical process
rst the biochemical oxidizable elements are
oxygen concentration fresh water (mg/l)
nitrification step
measurements necessary, namely one at the onset 200 200
and one at the end of the experiment. The greater the
150 146 = BOD 20
content of the biochemical oxidizable substances, 20
people usually use the BOD205 that is to say a test carbon step
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wastewater treatment
Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD) useful because the non biodegradable organic
In the determination of the COD most organic substances are also chemically oxidized.
compounds are nearly all chemically oxidised.
Potassium dichromate is used as an oxidizing The BOD is more representative for the
agent. In determining the COD the following is concentration (aerobic) biodegradable
added in a sample: components because the assessment is
A known amount of potassium dichromate based on the measuring of oxygen consumed
(K2Cr2O7); through aerobic micro-organisms during the
A certain amount to silver sulphate (Ag2SO4) decomposition of the compounds. A special point
that serves as a catalyst agent for the of interest is that some inorganic compounds, of
oxidation; which ammonium is the most well-known, can
Mercury(II) sulphate (HgSO 4) to prevent also be biochemically oxidized through certain
chloride from oxidizing. micro-organisms and therefore can add up to
the BOD. This must be taken into account or be
The remaining amount of potassium dichromate corrected. The usefulness of the BOD is actually
is determined after two hours of boiling under limited since the biochemical oxidation of organic
back ow cooling in a basket. The consumed matter is not always complete; also because
amount of oxygen is calculated by comparing the time that the micro-organisms is given for
the difference between the original amount of the decomposition is chosen fairly arbitrarily.
potassium dichromate and the remains. On top of that the micro-organisms, which are
The results obtained are much less susceptible used for determining the BOD, also still use a
to fluctuations than the results from a BOD part of the organic compounds for making new
determination. The aberrations can be limited to biomass (growth). For these reasons the BOD
3-5%. The presence of toxic substances does from a wastewater sample is always lower than
not inuence the analysis results and practically the COD.
a complete oxidation of the cellular and humic
acids takes place. The comparison COD/BOD is otherwise often
used as an indication for the biological treatability
Comparing BOD and COD of wastewater: a ratio of 2 or lower clearly shows
Despite that both (expressed in gO2/m3) are a aerobic treatability of wastewater, while a ratio
measurement for the concentration of organic from above 2.5 is an indication for less treatable
matter, BOD and COD have different meanings. wastewater, for example due to the presence of
The COD represents the exact concentration of toxic components. Apart from that these ratios
organic matter because the chemical oxidation say little about the anaerobic biodegradability of
is complete. In fact there is a fundamental the organic matter: anaerobic micro-organisms
connection between the number of electrons work, after all, according to different biochemical
that are absorbed onto the organic matter decomposition routes than aerobic organisms.
(read: is available) and the measured amount of
used oxygen. Therefore the COD is extremely In practice BOD and COD are used alongside
useful for formulating a mass balance: after each other, depending on the utilization.
all no electrons can be lossed or made. A Furthermore, the employment as a measure of
possible complication is that some inorganic the concentration of organic matter is dependant
substances that are present (such as sulphide) on the geographical context: in North America
are also chemically oxidized, which means that BOD is most often used, while Europe prefers
previously this had to be corrected. For biological to use COD.
wastewater purication is COD determination
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wastewater treatment
The use of the BOD as an indication for the second nitrication step is carried out through
wastewater concentration is sometimes doubted. the nitrobacter bacteria type.
In fact the BOD was developed as a test for the
effect of discharge on the rivers water quality, The nitrifying bacteria develop only slowly and the
where the point is actually about much lower reactions occur as long as the temperature does
concentrations of polluting compounds than not drop too far below 10C. The nitrication stops
in wastewater. The story goes that the BOD5 if the oxygen content is dropped to circa 1 mg/l or
test was developed in England where it was lower. Observe that the nitrication leads to the
determined that the water in the Thames took an forming of H+, which means that enough buffer
average of 5 days to reach the sea, that is why capacity must be present to prevent acidication.
there is a 5 day incubation time. [source: www.
heritagesystemsinc.com] Total Nitrogen (TN) is a measurement of both
the Kjeldahl-nitrogen and the nitrate and nitrite.
1.3.3 Nutrients
Nitrogen and phosphorus are the two most The daily amount of discharged nitrogen per
common nutrients monitored in wastewater inhabitant can be assumed at 10 g. The chemical
efuent due to their roles as limiting nutrients equation shows that per one gram of nitrogen
in eutrophication of marine and freshwater 4.57 g oxygen is consumed.
environments respectively.
Phosphorus
Nitrogen Monitoring phosphorus is challenging because it
Nitrogen can come in various forms, namely involves measuring very low concentrations down
as an organically bound nitrogen, such as to 0.01 milligram per liter (mg/L) or even lower.
proteins or the decomposition products from Even such very low concentrations of phosphorus
that (amino acids), and in an inorganic form, as can have a dramatic impact on streams. Less
NH3 (ammonia) or NH4+ (ammonium). During sensitive methods should be used only to identify
the mineralisation process the organically bound serious problem areas.
nitrogen first turns into ammonium ions (or
ammonia depending on the pH). While there are many tests for phosphorus,
only four are likely to be performed by volunteer
The content of the total of the organically bound monitors.
nitrogen and the ammonium nitrogen in mg/l is
determined according to the Kjeldahl method. 1) The total orthophosphate test is largely
This is also referred to as Kjeldahl-nitrogen (N- a measure of orthophosphate. Because the
Kj). sample is not ltered, the procedure measures
both dissolved and suspended orthophosphate.
The oxidation of ammonium is separated in two The EPA-approved method for measuring
steps: total orthophosphate is known as the ascorbic
acid method. Briey, a reagent (either liquid or
2NH4+ + 3O2 2NO2- + 2H2O + 4H+ powder) containing ascorbic acid and ammonium
2NO2- + O2 2NO3- molybdate reacts with orthophosphate in the
sample to form a blue compound. The intensity
2NH4+ + 4O2 2NO3- + 2H2O + 4H+ of the blue color is directly proportional to the
amount of orthophosphate in the water.
For the rst nitrication step the bacteria type
nitrosomonas (nitrite forming) is necessary, while 2) The total phosphorus test measures
all the forms of phosphorus in the sample
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wastewater treatment
(orthophosphate, condensed phosphate, and the presence and absence of various types
organic phosphate). This is accomplished by rst is not possible. Some types come actually in
digesting (heating and acidifying) the sample scant numbers, so that there is a good chance
to convert all the other forms to orthophosphate. that the sample taken does not contain any
Then the orthophosphate is measured by the and thus incorrect conclusions are made. To
ascorbic acid method. Because the sample is not overcome both difculties often the coli-content
ltered, the procedure measures both dissolved is determined; indeed the presence of coli-
and suspended orthophosphate. bacteria indicates a faecal contamination and
that allows for the possibility that also pathogenic
3) The dissolved phosphorus test measures bacteria and viruses are present. The organisms
that fraction of the total phosphorus which is that belong to the coli-group, what is referred
in solution in the water (as opposed to being to as coliform organisms or coliforms, is the
attached to suspended particles). It is determined real coli-bacteria the Escherichia coli (E-coli) a
by rst ltering the sample, then analyzing the meticulous characterized organism that occurs in
ltered sample for total phosphorus. the intestines of warm-blooded organisms. There
4) Insoluble phosphorus is calculated by are various cultivation techniques to reveal these
subtracting the dissolved phosphorus result from coliform organisms, where culture media are
the total phosphorus result. used. Many occur at 37C (coliforms) or 44.5C
(faecal coli, E-coli). The amount of coli-bacteria
All these tests have one thing in common they are expressed in a number of colony forming
all depend on measuring orthophosphate. units (cfu) per 100 ml.
The total orthophosphate test measures the
orthophosphate that is already present in the In terms of the order of size some gures can
sample. The others measure that which is contribute to the understanding about the degree
already present and that which is formed when of hygienic quality of wastewater. In wastewater
the other forms of phosphorus are converted to the coliforms count is 3105 per ml; in efuent the
orthophosphate by digestion. count is reduced to 6103 per ml. This is in sharp
contrast with the requirements for swimming
1.3.4 Pathogens water (100 cfu/100ml), drinking water (1 cfu/100
For the bacteriological/ assessment of water in ml), coast water (200 cfu/100 ml) and fresh water
terms of whether it has been contaminated with (1000 cfu/100 ml).
faeces is often used for checking the presence of
the coli-bacteria. 106 - 108 intestinal bacteria are 1.3.5 Treatment Requirements
found in 100 ml. domestic wastewater. A large In order to ensure that the contaminants
amount of that in general consists of innocent described above do not adversly impact the
coli-bacteria. In faeces bacteria can also be surface water by direct discharge of wastewater
present that cause intestinal diseases such as there are typically requirements for wastewater
typhoid fever, paratyphoid fever (salmonellosis) in to be treated prior to discharge, and limits
various forms and bacillary dysentery as well as given to the amount of said contaminants that
viruses, of which can be the causers of infantile can allowbly be discharged in the euent after
paralysis, jaundice, and worm eggs, for example treatment.
lint worms and round worms and small intestinal
worms. Moreover contact with wastewater can The discharge requirements in the Netherlands
bring about skin reactions. are laid down on the basis of the WVO (Wet
Verontreiniging Oppervlaktewater (Surface Water
In view of the diversity of pathogenic organisms Pollution Act)), various general enactments by the
and viruses that can occur a routine test of government (Rijnactieplan (Rhine campaign) and
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number of WWTPs
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Table 1.6 Overview contaminants, effects on treatment systems
contaminants effects on discharge processes
a. coarse particles and settleable solids sludge sedimentation sieves
decompostion sediments
oxygen depletion
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2 Primary Treatment
2.1 Screens 22
2.1.1 General
2.1.4 Sieves
2.2.2 Dimensioning
2.2.5 Hydrocyclone
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2. Primary Treatment
2.1 Screens C A B
2.1.1 General
Wastewater carries certain solid materials such A - Screen
as wood, plastic and brous material. These B - Pipe
C - Bypass pipe
substances can cause serious problems in
Figure 2.2 - Bar screen with bypass pipe
the treatment process by plugging the pumps
and mains or by forming oating layers in the
digestion tanks. The size is usually such that it is is installed at the screen which allows the water
possible to remove it through a screen or sieve. to drain if the screen is clogged (see gure 2.1
The placement in the process is usually directly and 2.2).
after the inuent pump.
Design of Bar Screens
2.1.2 Bar Screens One of the most important process parameters
Bar screens are made up of a number of parallel with a bar screen is the resistance that the screen
rods that are equidistant and are positioned at creates against the water ow. This resistance
an angle of circa 75. Cleaning the screens is will increase as a result of contamination. The
carried out by a raked bar screen. This can be resistance loss resulting from the presence of
done manually as well as automatically. The a clean screen is a function of the velocity, the
screen waste, also known as screenings, is often form, thickness and distance of the screen bars
removed through a conveyer belt to a container and the angle at which the screens are placed.
or to a screenings press. Sometimes a reduction To prevent the resistance loss from increasing to
is adjusted ahead of time. Often a bypass pipe 10 to 20 cm, the velocity through the screen is
often kept at a value of maximum 0.6 to 1.0 m/s.
The ow velocity in the intake pipe must always
be high enough so that no sand settles (> 0.4 to
0.5 m/s).
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underneath. On the outside of the drum there An important aspect of the processing of screen
are a few knives made of hard steel, which t debris is the avoidance of odours. That is why
inside the openings between the prongs of a the screens and the transportation of the screen
hard steel stationery comb. The held back debris debris is often covered or stored in a separate
is pushed up by the water pressure against the building. The entire installation is equipped with a
turning drum, and is cut nely between the comb ventilation system that puries the extracted air.
and the knives and is then discharged from the
drum through the slits.
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wastewater treatment
2.2 Grit Chambers a. grit trap in water line wit bar screen
sedimentation tank
Q Q
For more information see ME Chapter 5-6 grit trap
screen
2.2.1 General
sludge treatment
There are various reasons why sand and grit
must be removed from wastewater:
b. grit trap in water line with cutting screen
sedimentation tank
to extend the lifespan of the mechanical Q Q
grit trap
components, especially pumps;
cutting screen
to prevent sand and grit from getting into the
pipelines and machinery, which can cause sludge treatment
blockages.
to avoid depositing a sand package at the c. grit trap in sludge line
bottom of the digestion tank, the presence of sedimentation tank
which would minimize the effective volume and Q Q
sludge treatment
In a grit chamber one tries, through selective
sludge grit trap
sedimentation, to remove grit and similar mineral
material with a grain diameter of > 0.15 mm;
while from a hygienic standpoint, in relation to Figure 2.6 Grit chamber in the water line (a) and in
the disposal or dumping of the removed sand, the sludge line (b)
In a plant with sludge digestiona grit chamber can 2.2.3 Rectangular Horizontal Flow Grit
be placed placed in the sludge line, for example Chamber
between the primary treatment and the sludge The rectangular horizontal ow grit chamber (see
thickening or between the sludge thickening gure 2.7) is essentially a long channel that is
and the sludge digestion. As a result of this one made up of a rectangular spillway. This type of grit
can save costs on the size of the tank; in fact chamber is suitable for one type of hydraulic load.
the amount of sludge that needs to be treated That is why various channels are built parallel to
is noticeably less than the total wastewater ow each other, so that depending on the amount
(see gure 2.6). of supplied sewer water- one or more channels
can be put to use. The settled sand is removed
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wastewater treatment
cross section BB
D D
C
C K
B B
E
A cross section CC
A
D supply channel
E bypass channel
cross section longitudinal F drive head
A. suction pipe section G scraper
B. membrane pump H adjustable baffles and flow regulators
C. pressure line I raker
D. grit reservoir J grit evacuation opening
E. grit removal carriage K jack screw with drive
Figure 2.8 Square horizontal ow grit chamber with Figure 2.9 Dorr grit chamber with mechanical grit
air lift removal and grit washing equipment (Dorr-Oliver)
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wastewater treatment
D
C
sludge
sand-sludge mixture
A B
sand
Figure 2.10 - Hydrocyclone
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wastewater treatment
2.3.1 Introduction
Usually the primary sedimentation tank comes A sedimentation path with turbulence
after the grit chamber. Here as many of the B sedimentation path without turbulence
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Q Q
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wastewater treatment
The optimal depth is between 1.5 m (small tanks) overow rate may not exceed certain values. The
and 2.5 m (large tanks). With rectangular tanks Weir-overow rate is the discharge of the efuent
the ratio depth/length must be approx. 1:20; the (m3) per unit (of length of the efuent weir troughs/
width/length ratio must be minimum 1:4 and (m) per unit of time (h). If the Weir-overow rate
preferably 1:5 to 1:6. is too high, light material can be discharged with
the overow water from the tank. As a maximum
In terms of the minimum and maximum tank sizes acceptable value the Weir-overow rate of the
the following is recommended: primary settling tanks is kept at 10 to15 m3/(mh).
E A
A. Wastewater inlet
B. Floating scum scraper
C. Scum trough
D. Sludge scraper
E. Sludge outlet
Figure 2.15 - Settling reservoir with a circular layout with sludge scraper and oating scum scraper
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wastewater treatment
slowly towards the central sludge funnel, where it Both transport chains go over two chain wheels
is removed. The bottom is built with a slight slope. that are mounted under water at the end of the
For the efuent trough there is a scumboard or basin. One of the chain wheels is driven through
bafe for holding back the oating solids. The a transmission by an electric motor. The slide
oating solids (usually fat) are pushed into a blades are dragged along the basin bottom by
scum trough by the oating scum scrapers that the transport chains in the opposite direction
are attached to the bridge. of the wastewater ow direction and push the
sludge continuously into the sludge funnel on the
An important aspect is the delivery of the delivery side of the basin. In the returning motion
wastewater into the tank. The inow energy must the transport chains usually lie above the water
be destroyed as much and as quickly as possible surface of the basin. Some chain scrapers, by
to prevent swirling (of settled solids). Along with means of the slide blades returning movement,
that it must be taken into consideration that the bring any present oating scum to the direction
entering liquid should have at least a rate of of the basin outlet, where the oating scum is
approx. 1 m/s, which must be reduced to less held back by the scumboard. The oating scum
than 2 to 3 cm/s. For this purpose feedwells and is removed by a tilting mechanism.
ow splitter constructions are installed.
settling reservoir
slib outlet
31
wastewater treatment
32
wastewater treatment
3 Secondary Treatment
3.1 Trickling Filters 34
3.1.1 General
3.1.2 Biolm
3.1.8 Recirculation
3.1.10 Dimensioning
3.2.5 Dimensioning
33
wastewater treatment
3. Secondary Treatment
wastewater
aerobic biofilm
anaerobic biofilm
packing material
air
For fundamentals of Biological treatment see
ME Chapter 7 O2
organic material
3.1 Trickling lters
inorganic compounds
CO2
For more information see ME Chapter 9-2 H2S
NH3
3.1.1 General
In gure 3.1 the construction of a trickling lter
Figure 3.2 - Biolm on the packing material in a trickling
is depicted. The trickling lter bed consists of a lter
cylindrical tank 2 4 meters high equipped with
a perforated bottom. The trickling lter is lled other non-biodegradable or slowly biodegradable
almost entirely with packing material made up compounds like humic substances occur.
of lava slag, gravel or other suitable material. Protozoa, which consume bacteria, also live in
A rotary distributor arm spreads the influent this bacterial biolm. Furthermore in the packing
wastewater over the upper layer of the media material algae, larva and larger worms (tubifex)
and then the wastewater trickles down over and are found. Deeper down in the lter agellates
in between the packing material through the and protozoa dominate the bacteria.
lter. Through the underdrain and the drainage
collection trench the treated water is discharged The settled wastewater flows in thin layers
into the clarier. over the aerobic layer of the biofilm. From
the passing liquid absorption of the dissolved
3.1.2 Biolm solids, present in the settled wastewater, takes
The so-called biological skin, also known as place in the biolm, whereas through the liquid
biofilm has developed on the surface of lm the biodegradable substances are formed
the packing material of a stabilised trickling by hydrolysis and oxidation and from organic
lter. The biolm consists of an aerobic layer compounds, which were absorbed earlier, are
and an anaerobic layer (see gure 3.2). The discharged. For the oxidation of the organic
biofilm is made up of a slimy substance in compounds in the aerobic layer oxygen that is to
and on which, apart from bacteria and other be found in the airow and is pulled through the
organisms, the residues from lysed cells and trickling lter is necessary. The oxidation product
CO2 disappears both with the water discharged
from the trickling lter and the discharged air.
34
wastewater treatment
Table 3.1 - Characteristics of trickling lters with lava lling (slag) dependant on the load
Low-loaded trickling lters Moderately loaded trickling lters Highly loaded trickling lters
BOD load 0.1-0.2 kg BOD/m3.d) BOD load: 0.3-0.5 kg BOD/(m3.d) BOD load: 0.7-1.0 kg BOD/(m3.d)
Hydr. Load: <0.2 m3/(m2h) Hydr. Load: 0.4-0.8 m3/(m2h) Hydr. Load: 0.7-1.5 m3/(m2h)
Oxidation of BOD and N-Kj and partial Oxidation of the BOD and limited oxidation of N-Kj Unquestionable oxidation of the
mineralization of sludge BOD
Mineralised lm lets go by itself. In order to prevent excessive sludge growth High hydraulic load, thus a thin
For enough nitrogen removal and sludge resulting in blockages there must be as a result biolm. With even higher bio loads
mineralisation the hydraulic load must be of recirculation a large hydraulic load installed, there is a large chance of creating
small, thus having no recirculation. however not too high to disturb the slowly nitrifying a blockage.
bacteria.
35
wastewater treatment
36
wastewater treatment
37
wastewater treatment
spraying the wastewater. In this case the lter For low-loaded trickling lters a surface loading
is preferably ventilated from top to bottom. The rate is kept at 0.05 - 0.3 m3/(m2h); for highly
advantage of this is that the odorous substances loaded trickling lters 0.6 - 2 m3/(m2h).
that are mostly released during the spraying
process can be decomposed in the lter, as a 3.1.8 Recirculation
result of the biological activity. In order to obtain the required surface loading
rate in a trickling filter under all conditions
3.1.6 BOD-Load recirculation is applied. Mostly with high loaded
The operation of a trickling filter is largely trickling filters a high surface loading rate
determined through the amount of degradable (minimum 0.6 m3/(m2h)) is important to prevent
organic material that is allowed on the trickling the void spaces from becoming clogged. Aside
lter, given the BOD-(volume) load in kg BOD/ from this, recirculation in general has a few
m3d. In formula form: advantages, for which it is also desirable for
Bd low-loaded trickling lters to install a recirculation
B=
V system. These advantages are:
where diluting of concentrated wastewater
B = volume load or BOD-load eliminating of peek supply and peek
(in kg BOD/(m3d)) concentrations
Bd = BOD-supply in kg BOD/d, also known as reducing the inuence of biodegradable toxic
BOD load substances through dilution
V = volume trickling lter (m3) longer average residence time for the
wastewater in the trickling lter
The treatment performances in general are by recirculation with nitrate containing efuent
reduced if the BOD-load increases; also the the heavy odours in the primary settling tank
(non) occurrence of nitrication (transference of and the trickling lter are prevented or limited,
ammonium nitrate) is greatly dependent on the as the odorous substances (usually H2S) are
BOD-load. oxidised with nitrate (denitrication).
3.1.7 Rinsing Effect The advantages mentioned refer to the fact that
In order to have an optimum removal of the applying recirculation mostly results in better
excess biolm a well functioning rinsing effect in efuent quality. Disadvantages of recirculation
the trickling lter is very important. On the one are:
hand blockages must be prevented and on the higher utilization costs as a result of the
other hand there must be a thick enough biolm constant pumping back of efuent
created. The rinsing effect is largely determined cooling off of the wastewater in the winter time,
through the surface loading rate v o; this is reducing the biomass activity.
calculated through the inuent ow divided by
the surface. The degree of recirculation is described through
the recirculation factor R.
Q
vo =
A
R = QR/Q
where
vo = surface load/surface loading rate in m3/ where
(m2h) Q = the wastewater inuent ow (m3/h)
Q = inuent ow m3/h QR = the ow of recirculated water (m3/h)
A = surface trickling lter The supply to the trickling lter thus becomes
Q+QR or Q(1+R).
38
wastewater treatment
A B C A B C
A - Primary sedimentation
A - Primary sedimentation B - Trickling filter
B - Trickling filter C - Clarifier
C - Clarifier D - Recirculation with humus sludge
Figure 3.4 - Recirculation methods
39
wastewater treatment
good sedimentation characteristics; this way a the recirculation amount QR (m3/h) is then
relatively high surface loading rate of 1.5 m3/ Q R = Q opt - Q, where Q is the actual
(m2h) in the clarier is applied. The occulation (varying) supply flow of the
characteristics of the sludge are however not 3
wastewater (m /h).
optimal, which leads to ne ocs that are difcult
to remove. This can be seen in the efuent from An example of a compact installation is given in
the secondary settling tanks; mostly amounting gure 3.6.
to the suspended solid content up to 20-30 mg/l.
3.1.10 Dimensioning
The size of a trickling lter is determined based
on the following parameters: C
the BOD supply Bd in kg per day from the
B
settled wastewater (kg BOD/d)
the maximum ow of pre-settled wastewater
Qmax in m3, that is supplied per hour to the
A
trickling lter (in m3/h)
the acceptable organic or BOD-load B in kg
BOD per m3 content of a trickling lter per day
(kg BOD/(m3d)); this parameter determines in
fact the treatment performance;
the maximum acceptable hydraulic or surface
loading rate vqmax from the trickling lter, that
is: the amount of wastewater in m3 that per
hour on 1 m2 surface from the bed is allowed
(m3/(m2h)).
E
Content V in m3: V = Bd / B
Surface A in m2: A = Qmax / vomax
Height in m: H = V / A = (Bd vomax) / (B Qmax)
40
wastewater treatment
3.2 Activated Sludge Process continuously returned to the aeration tank (return
activated sludge), where once more it is mixed
For more information see ME Chapter 8 with new wastewater. As a result of this a high
concentration of biomass in the aeration tank
3.2.1 General can be maintained. The activated sludge mass
The activated sludge process was developed increases, until a certain amount of this activated
between 1913-1914 in Manchester by Ardern sludge must be discharged (excess sludge or
and Lockett. They discovered that if they exposed surplus activated sludge).
wastewater to air for a long enough amount of
time that ocs formed in the water and that the 3.2.2 Biological Metabolism
upper layer of water, after the ocs had settled, In the activated sludge ocs the living bacteria
was substantially treated. When this sediment cells ensure that the contaminants are consumed
was added again to new wastewater and this and degraded, these lead to the (partial)
mixture was aerated, it was found that the water treatment of the wastewater.
was noticeably treated faster than if the sludge
ocs were not added. These ocs were called From the wastewater small organic molecules
activated sludge; they are made up of a slimy (with fewer than 8 to 10 C-atoms) are consumed
material where both bacteria and protozoa live. directly through the cell walls into the bacteria.
The larger components must rst be split into
This principle is used in many various forms smaller molecules by enzymes; made small
and further developed in the technique of enough to be able to pass through the cell walls.
wastewater treatment. In general wastewater These enzymes are produced for that reason by
is rst subjected to a preliminary treatment, this the bacteria cells and excreted. Enzymes are
consists of removing large particles, sand, fat proteins that, in very low concentrations are able
and settleable solids. Then the activated sludge to catalyse the decomposition of large molecules
process takes place (see gure 3.7); for this allowing them to be taken up by bacteria. Within
purpose the wastewater is lead into an aeration the cell the so called metabolism takes place
tank. In this aeration tank the wastewater is (see gure 3.8).
mixed with earlier made activated sludge and
with the help of the aeration equipment oxygen The metabolism comprises all the processes
is added. Under these conditions the activated of components consumption by organisms,
sludge can remove both the organic as well the changes that the biodegradable matter
as other whole or partial contaminates from undergoes within the organism until the
the wastewater. After the aeration tank the excretion of the degraded products. The most
wastewater/activated sludge mixture is lead to a important processes are the direct degradation
secondary settling tank, in which the biologically
activated sludge settles and separates from the non biodegradable
organic matter
treated wastewater. This activated sludge is
Protoplasma
A B C Energy
Enzymes
Hydrolysis
E D D Oxygen
Oxidation
41
wastewater treatment
or dissimilation (in which energy is released), The sludge loading therefore gives an impression
the cell construction or assimilation (where of the ratio between the daily supplied nutrition
energy is needed) and the cell-digestion or and the total amount of bacteria or biomass (in
endogenous respiration. In addition to bacteria, English literature it is referred to as F/M ratio =
other single cell organisms such as protozoa and food to microorganisms ratio).
agellates develop within the activated sludge; The sludge loading can vary from very low
these typically graze on bacteria. Protozoa are (approximately 0.05 kg BOD/(kg ds.d)) to very
particularly present at a relatively low amount of high (> 1 kg BOD/ (kg ds.d)) (see table 3.2).
nourishment for the activated sludge. The organic The sludge loading is influenced by a few
matter in wastewater is partly directly oxidised important factors and processes, such as:
(substrate oxidation), partly is stored as reserve treatment efciency (see table 3.2)
substrate and for a part used for the building sludge growth
of new cells. The remainder is discharged with sludge age and with that the degree of
the efuent. From the formed cell material and stabilisation of the sludge
the stored substrate a part is oxidised through nitrication and denitrication
endogenous respiration; the residue forms the oxygen requirement of the sludge.
excess sludge.
3.2.4 Activated Sludge
3.2.3 Sludge Loading
The treatment performance of an activated sludge Sludge Amount
installation is to a large degree determined by the In the aeration tank the amount of sludge is
daily amount of supplied nutrition and the amount usually constant at 3 to 5 kg ds/m3. From the point
of bacteria. The amount of bacteria is difcult to of view of treatment performance, it should be
quantify. As a standard the amount of biomass taken into consideration to maintain the sludge
is therefore expressed as suspended solids (this concentration as high as possible, because with a
is thus the dryweight of the undissolved particles certain aeration volume the sludge loading will be
from the activated sludge). The supplied nutrition the lowest possible. An upper limit is made by the
is often expressed in the BOD-supply (Bd). The settleability of the activated sludge. With too high
sludge loading is dened as: concentrations, the sludge cannot be adequately
separated in the secondary settling clarier.
Bd
BX = A measure of the settleability of the sludge
V XA
is the sludge volume index (SVI), being the
where sedimentation volume per one gram of activated
BX = sludge loading in kg BOD/(kg ds.d) sludge (in ml/g). It follows from this denition that
Bd = BOD-supply in kg BOD/d the concentration of activated sludge will always
V = volume of aeration tank in m3 be smaller than 1,000/SVI. As a result of the
XA = sludge concentration in kg ds/m3 (also g differences between the varying measurements
ds/l) in the beaker and the factual practice in an
aeration tank or the clarier, an empirical value
42
wastewater treatment
Table 3.3 Production of active sludge per
inhabitant in The Netherlands excess sludge can also be thickened separately
sludge loading BX sludge production in a sludge thickener tank or by mechanical
kg BOD/(kg.ds.d) g ds/(PE.d) equipment.
without primary 0,05 40 - 60
settling tank
with primary 0,1 - 0,2 25 - 30 Sludge age
settling tank As a result of the continuous growth, which gets
0,4 30 counterbalanced by a proportional discharge of
the sludge, an average residence time of the
of 1,200/SVI is taken for the maximal attainable sludge occurs in the system, also known as a
sludge concentration. sludge age.
43
wastewater treatment
Table 3.4 Connection between sludge loading, sludge growth and sludge loading
sludge loading sludge growth sludge age
kg BOD/(kg ds.d) Kg ds/kg BOD-supply (d)
If equilibrium occurs, then sludge that comes from The minimum return activated sludge ratio
the aeration tank with a concentration of XA and is attained with a maximum value for the
a ow of Q + QR in the primary settling tank, is return activated sludge concentration, or
returned again and supplied with a concentration XA
XR and a ow QR. Thus Rmin = met XRmax = 1200 / SVI
XRmax -X A
44
wastewater treatment
- choose maximum sludge loading volume specic endogenous respiration b and the total
vs max = 300 400 l/(m2h) (zie 9.9.) mass of the activated sludge. In formula form:
- calculate surface Q
A = max X A SVI
v smax Oe = bVXA
return sludge where
- determine maximum concentration Oe = endogenous respiration in kg O2/d
of return activated sludge XRmax (kg ds/m3) b = specic endogenous respiration factor in
usually approximately 10 kg/m3 kg O2/(kg ds.d)
- calculate Q = Q XA V = volume of aerationtank in m3
R
XRmax - X A XA = sludge amount in kg ds/m3.
excess sludge
- estimate the sludge growth (yield (Y)) The specific endogenous respiration b is
a. from BOD-load (Y.Bd) and Y ~ 0.5 to 0.8 dependant upon the sludge loading and the
b. from design parameters (20 30 g ds/d temperature; for design purposes usually b =
per PE). 0.06 kg O2/(kg ds.d) is maintained for Bx = 0.05
kg BOD/(kg ds.d) and b = 0.10 kg O2/(kg ds.d)
3.2.6 Oxygen Demand for higher sludge loadings.
The total oxygen demand in an activated sludge
system is based on various factors If substrate is added to activated sludge during
endogenous respiration, then the oxygen
OD = Oe + Os + On + Oo + Oz demand increases rapidly. The amount of
where oxygen that is consumed during the substrate
OD = total oxygen demand (in kg O2/d) degradetion depends on the amount and nature
Oe = oxygen demand from the endogenous of the substrate. With the treatment of domestic
respiration (in kg O2/d) wastewater these oxygen requirements are at
Os = oxygen demand resulting in the 0.5 kg O2 per kg of removed BOD.
substrate respiration (in kg O2/d)
On = oxygen demand resulting in nitrication For the oxidation of 1 kg ammonia nitrogen
including denitrication (in kg O2/d) 4.57 kg O2 is necessary stoichiometrically. (But
Oo = oxygen demand for the transformation of because a part of the nitrogen gets built into the
quickly oxydizable components such as bacteria cells in reality less than 4.33 kg O2 per
Fe2+ and S2- (in kg O2/d) kg N is necessary. The oxygen requirement
Oz = discharge of dissolved oxygen with the On can then also directly be calculated if the
efuent (in kg O2/d). amount of nitrogen that must be nitried is known.
For an exact calculation the oxygen equivalent
Under normal conditions are Oo and Oz negligible. for denitrication must be taken into account.
This amounts to 2.86 O2 per kg NO3-nitrogen.
If an amount of mixed liquor is continuously For this a clear analysis and insight into the
aerated without adding any substrate (in this case nitrogen balance for an activated sludge system
wastewater), then the oxygen consumption will is required. (Chapter 4)
decrease to a constant base level. In this situation
the endogenous respiration takes place: the 3.2.7 Aeration Systems
degradation decayed cell mass (other bacteria)
for the benet of the production of energy that Functions
is necessary for the primary vital functions (for The aeration of activated sludge and wastewater
example movement) of the cell. The endogenous in an aeration tank has two functions:
respiration Oe is calculated as the product of the
45
wastewater treatment
- addition of the required (air) oxygen to can take place. The turbulence can also inuence
treat the wastewater the size of the ocs and thus inuence the settling
- the ensuring for enough turbulence characteristics.
(velocity) so that the sludge stays in contact
with the wastewater. Oxygen Supply Capacity
The oxygen supply capacity OC (oxygenation
There are also systems in which the functions are capacity) of an aeration system is dened as
split. The aeration system supplies the necessary the amount of oxygen that this system can
oxygen, while a separate mechanical system bring in per hour in 1 m3 oxygen free clean
(agitator/propeller) ensures that the sludge is water with a temperature of 10C and under
kept in suspension. an atmosphericpressure of 101.3 kPa; the OC
is expressed in kg O2/m3.h and is therefore a
The following criteria are employed to meet the characteristic quality of a specic aeration system
necessary mixing requirements: or device.
a. energy input or energy-density (W/m 3 ); The oxygen supply under practical conditions
depending on the shape of the tank 2 to 10 deviates from the OC under the stated standard
W/m3 may be required for sufcient mixing; conditions. This is calculated with the so called
b. ow rate (m/s); to prevent the sludge from -factor.
settling: it is often required that the entire tank
(including very close to the bottom) a minimum = OC in activated sludge / OC clean water
velocity of 0.20 m/s occurs.
c. air-loading (m3/m2.h); this is the amount of air The factor is mostly inuenced by the surfactants
that per surface aeration system can be added and depends on the type of wastewater, the
to the mixed liquor (only ne bubble aeration) activated sludge process and the aeration
In practice the value for ne bubble aeration is system. Experimentally found values of vary
often kept at a minimum of 2 m3/(m2.h). between 0.6 and 0.8 for ne bubble aeration
and are mostly approx. 1.0 for surface aeration.
The following factors are important for the choice
of type and operation of aeration systems: Oxygen demand oxygen supply
energy costs, operational safety, maintenance The actual oxygen transfer depends still on the
and adjustability. oxygen concentration that usually deviates from
0 mg/l. For an actual oxygen concentration of C
On the whole there are two main systems for mg/l is the actual oxygen transference, OCact:
aeration, namely the surface aeration system
and ne bubble aeration. OCact = OC(Cs - C)/Cs
46
wastewater treatment
Surface Aeration OC
Aeration occurs through mechanical forces onto O 2 = V
Ntot
the liquid and is carried out by horizontal rotors
or vertical turbines. where
The oxygen is brought into the liquid via: the O2 = the oxygen transfer efciency in
movement of the liquid surface, the bubbles that kgO2/kWh
are brought into the liquid, the sprinkled liquid and Ntot = the total power in KW;
the air-liquid mixture at the spot of the aerator, here the axel capacity, the efciency of the
where the air is forced into the liquid. electrical power and the electric motor
and possible cable losses are taken into
The amount of oxygen, that is brought into account
the liquid, is inuenced by the diameter of the
revolving element, the rotational speed, the The oxygen transfer efciency of the modern
immersion depth and the shape and placing of vertical axis aerators amounts to approximately
the bafes. 1.8 - 2.2 kg O2/ kWh. With older types these
Aside from bringing in oxygen, the aerators must values are at 1.3 1.8 O2/KWh.
circulate ow in the aeration tanks to prevent the
activated sludge from settling. Shape, size and In some situations vibration problems can occur;
contents of the aeration tank must be related to these are usually caused by the twisting and
the aerator in such a way that in adding in the turning of the water, which can create a wave.
required amount of oxygen the circulation is These problems can mostly be remedied by
sufcient. placing horizontal or vertical break walls.
47
wastewater treatment
A A
B
A C A
C B B
C C
B
D
D
A. Propellor
B. Aerator
C. Air in the water
A. Motor
motor
B. Bridge
C. Cover preventing splatter
D. Rotor
Figure 3.12 - Aeration rotor (Passavant)
gear box
48
wastewater treatment
spiral flow
bottom aeration
Figure 3.13 - distribution of the elements over the
bottom creates spiral ows (whirlpools);
a. spiral ow; b. ridge and furrow; c. bottom aeration
49
wastewater treatment
TYPE A
certain pressure on the system if the aeration is
view cross-section
ceased. For discontinuing operations there are
rubber or (preferably) synthetic elements for the
purpose of sealing off the air supply.
Horizontal Flow
The residence time of the bubbles in the water
can also be increased by adding a horizontal ow.
Examples of this are given in gure 3.16 and 3.17.
TYPE B
For these systems it is nevertheless possible
view cross-section - cross-section -
closed position opened position to realise a high oxygen transfer efciency in
tanks that are relatively large and have a low
aeration density for example with ultra-low
loading activated sludge systems. The power
consumption of the propulsion system amounts
mostly to 1.5 2.0 W/m.
Figure 3.15 Various types of aeration domes
B
It is necessary to filter the air before it is
sucked up to prevent clogging on the inside of
the diffusers. With suspension of the aeration A. Propellor
process the diffusers can become clogged with B. Aerator
C. Air in the water
sludge. That is why it is essential to apply a Figure 3.17 Aeration combined with horizontal ow,
stirred up by a propeller (Rotoow).
50
wastewater treatment
B C
A
(top view)
A. oxidation ditch
B. Brush aerator
C. Settler
Figure 3.19 - Plug ow system Figure 3.22 Continuous oxidation ditch
51
wastewater treatment
B
B D
A C A C
A-trap B-trap
Furthermore the plug ow could also be realized it is a completely mixed system; the chance of
by connecting diverse compartments in a series. bulking sludge is therefore greater than with a
plug ow system.
Bypass Systems
The characteristics of a bypass system are that Two-stage Activated Sludge System
the wastewater/activated sludge mixture goes A two-stage activated sludge system consists of a
around many times in the aeration area, before high-load primary treatment with an intermediate
the treated wastewater leaves the installation. settling tank and a low-load secondary treatment
Examples of bypass systems are the traditional with a final clarifier. It is possible to install
oxidation ditch (see gure 3.22) and the carrousel another primary settling tank before the primary
(see gure 3.23). The amount of activated sludge treatment. Characteristic of this system is that
that ows through the channel of an oxidation primary treatment as well as secondary treatment
ditch or carrousel is many times greater than are both have a seperate return activated sludge
the supplied wastewater ow (for example 50 system where two completely separated sludge
times more). systems exist. (Figure 3.24)
This results in largely diluted wastewater at the The most well known are the AB-systems: in the
moment that it enters the aeration tank. The primary treatment, the absorption stage, amounts
BOD, N-Kj and NO3-N concentrations are then to the BOD sludge loading approximately 2 kg
nearly equal in the entire aeration area. By local BOD/(kg ds.d). The BOD removal efficiency
aeration the oxygen concentration varies during from the primary treatment amounts to 70%;
the circulation; because of this, favourable the energy costs of the primary treatment are
conditions exist for nitrication and denitrication. relatively low. In the secondary treatment, the
biodegradation stage (actually from the German
The following are advantages of the bypass Belebung) with a BOD sludge loading of 0.15
system: kg BOD/(kg ds.d) the further BOD-degradation
limited chance of short circuiting, the inuent and nitrication take place.
is strongly diluted.
good nitrication and denitrication possibilities; An important advantage to the AB-system is that
relatively simple to operate concerning in both the A-stage as in the B-stage good sludge
measuring and control settleability exists. Disadvantages are the limited
possibilities of denitrication and for biological
A disadvantage is: dephosphorization (see chapter 4).
52
wastewater treatment
53
wastewater treatment
54
wastewater treatment
4 Additional Treatment
4.1 Nitrogen Removal 56
4.1.1 General
4.1.2 Nitricatiin
4.1.3 Denitrication
4.1.4 Implementations
4.1.5 Dimensioning
4.2.4 Dimensioning
4.3.3 Chlorination
55
wastewater treatment
C
4. Additional Treatment
F
A
G
H
A
B
4.1.1 General A
A B C A B C
56
wastewater treatment
57
wastewater treatment
the normal amount of phosphorus necessa ry To be able to make use of the characteristics of
for cell growth, but also of taking up the extra the phosphate accumulating bacteria at a wwtp
phosphorus in the form of polyphosphate into it is essential that an alternating anaerobic and
the cell, the so called luxury uptake. aerobic environment is created.
an anaerobic environment stimulates the
selection of the phosphate accumulating
bacteria. Along with this it is important that
A
this environment is not only free of oxygen but
B C D also of nitrate. I.e. that biological phosphate
removal can only take place if nitrate removal
also takes place in the treatment system;
A. Phosphate removing chemicals an aerobic environment stimulates the
B. Primary settling tank phosphate uptake from the wastewater.
C. Aeration tank
D. Secondary clarifier
A B C As a realization for the biological phosphate
removal two principles are described (see gure
4.4):
the head ow process
the split ow process.
D E
For biological phosphate removal in the head
F
ow the uptake of phosphate takes place by
the activated sludge in the aeration tank. The
extra phosphate removal is realized through the
G
discharge of the excess (phosphate-rich) sludge.
In the split ow process the uptake of phosphate
A. Primary sedimentation
takes place in the aeration tank as well, but this
B. Aeration tank
C. Secondary sedimentation is removed from the sludge in a split ow. The
D. P-removal treatment of the activated sludge in the split ow
E. P-thickener
F. P-emission (afgifte) consists of bringing the phosphate back into the
G. Phosphate removing chemicals solution (stripping). The phosphate-poor sludge
A is separated from the phosphate-rich liquid. The
B C D
effluent,
P-poor/deficient
influent
grain reactor
sludge return outlet
post precipitation
58
wastewater treatment
phosphate is then removed from the water phase 4.3 Extended treatment
by means of a chemical method. The phosphate-
poor sludge goes back to the head ow where it For more information see ME Chapter 11
can absorb the phosphate again.
4.3.1 General
4.2.4 Dimensioning For extended treatments there are multiple
Chemical precipitation mainly physical-chemical processes available.
Me/P ratio 1.5- 2 mol/mol
Extra sludge production 15 - 20 gds/d.PE First of all attention will be given to the removal
of particles (suspended solids). In the rst place
Biological phosphorus removal there are ltration techniques available that are
head flow process: anaerobic tank until not supported by chemical precipitation and or
approximately 1 hour residence time coagulation/occulation.
split ow process: Membrane ltration focuses on particles smaller
split ow 30 - 50 % of return sludge than 10 m. Successively through microltration
residence time approximately 2 - 3 hours the micro particles and bacteria, with ultraltration
sludge water separation residence time colloids and viruses, and with nano- and
1 - 2 hours hyperltration even ions and molecules can be
the process must consist of a minimum of an removed (see table 4.1).
anaerobic, anoxic and aerobic process.
The hygienic quality can be further improved by
In practise it is common to remove as much adding specic disinfection processes such as
phosphate as possible through the biological chlorination, ozone treatment and UV radiation.
head ow process; if this is not enough than the Activated carbon treatment is an absorption
chemical precipitation can take place. technique in which many particles, mainly of
an organic nature (micro pollutants, hormone
disturbing substances), can be removed.
For the removal of nitrogen, which occurs as
either ammonium or nitrate, there are many
techniques available. Ammonium can be
removed through ammonia stripping or ion
exchange. Nitrate is most easily removed through
biological denitrication. With the absorption
techniques the handling of the resulting solids
poses many problems.
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influent
Buffer
sludge holding
water
filter filter
effluent
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5 Sludge Treatment
5.1 Sludge Thickening 62
5.1.1 General
5.1.4 Thickening
5.2.2 Theory
5.2.5 Dimensioning
5.3.2 Conditioning
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62
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solids content of the sludge increases and the Apart from the actual thickening process in a
sludge volume is reduced. This is very important thickener, normally also homogenization and
on the one hand for the subsequent sludge buffering take place.
treatment steps, such as for example sludge
digestion and sludge dewatering, and on the In terms of designing, the nature and quality of
other hand for the transportation of liquid sludge the sludge must be taken into account. The most
to a central processing plant. important variables are the suspended solids load
Vds and the sludge retention time.
Technical implementations of sludge thickening
Q s Xsl
are: v ds =
A
gravitational thickening
mechanical thickening (=thickening table) where
mechanical thickening with drum sieve Qs = ow in m3/d
mechanical thickening with centrifuges Xsl = sludge concentration in kg/m3
mechanical thickening by means of otation A = surface in m2.
(= otation thickening).
For one certain type of sludge the thickening
5.1.5 Gravitational Thickening results reduce as the suspended solids load
Gravitational thickeners are usually constructed increases; that is why the suitable suspended
as round tanks with a sloping or at bottom, solids load at the design and operation are tied to
according to the same principle as a settling tank. a maximal value. Depending on the sort of sludge
The thickener is equipped with a slowly rotating various values can be used (see table 5.2).
agitator; the round rods serve to very lightly
agitate and to mix (degassing). In general at the Also the retention time of the sludge is important.
surface, the oating scum is held back by a scum The retention time of the sludge is related to the
bafe and is removed through a discharge drain. sludge layer thickness (retention time = volume
Implemented diameters for thickeners vary from of the sludge layer divided by the ow of the
5 to 20 - 25 m; the sidewater depth amounts to thickened sludge). This translates itself usually
minimum 3 m and for practical reasons maximum in a side water depth of 3 - 6 m. The retention
5 m. time may not be too short because then the
required thickening is (still) not achieved. If the
The supply of sludge (from the primary settling retention time is too long then the sludge will
tank) is often continuous; the sludge is then still digest (acidication, rotting). The production of
relatively unconcentrated (10 - 20 gds/s, that gas bubbles can disturb the thickening process.
is to say 1 - 2% ds); the discharge takes place One day can be kept as a maximum retention
discontinuously throughout the day. time, because longer thickening barely even
brings about a reduction in volume. Mixed
primary sludge with a high content of organic
C B
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particles may not stay in the thickener too long 5.2 Sludge Digestion
considering the danger of rotting.
The hydraulic retention time (= volume of the For more information see ME Chapter 7-12 and
thickener divided by the supply ow) has no 14-9
inuence on the production of the thickener.
5.2.1 General
5.1.6 Mechanical Thickening Mixed treated primary sludge consists of a large
By means of mechanical thickening suspended fraction of decaying organic material. If it is not
solid contents of 5% ds - 7% ds for both the quickly processed, than it will start to acidify
primary as well as the secondary sludge are and an unbearable odour will be developed.
obtained. In contrast to gravitational thickening, Moreover, the sludge is the perfect environment
energy and conditioning agents (in the form of for germs, in which it is not necessarily hygienic.
poly-electrolyte) are used along with mechanical These problematic characteristics can mainly
thickening. Mechanical thickening systems be handled by stabilizing the sludge. In this
are nevertheless clearly more compact than microbiological process the organic sludge
the relatively large primary sludge thickeners. particles are broken down further. In the
The most commonly administered mechanical anaerobic stabilization or sludge digestion this
thickening techniques in urban wastewater occurs under oxygen free conditions.
treatment are the belt lters and the drum sieves.
With sludge digestion the following is intended:
Currently in the Netherlands there is large scale the acquiring of a material, that is better suited
usage of gravitational thickeners, but because for further processing
of the advancement of biological phosphate the fraction of organic material to be reduced
removal increasingly more mechanical thickening and to increase the percentage of suspended
techniques are being applied. Since the sludge solids in the sludge; this means that the sludge
has a longer retention time under anaerobic volume is reduced
conditions in gravitational thickeners, the release the elimination of odorous causing components
of the biologically bound phosphate takes place. in the sludge
This phosphate returns directly to in the water the improvement of the hygienic quality.
line via the overow water from the thickener,
which further loads the wwtp than is necessary. Through the digestion process a stabilized
To prevent P emissions, as a rule of thumb, a material is obtained. Sludge stabilization in
maximal residence time of 24 hours is employed this case can be understood as an extended
(in practice it seems however that even in this anaerobic degradation, resulting in sludge that
relatively short residence time phosphate release after the removal from the sludge digestion tanks
can take place). (the digestate) is no longer digesting or rotting
and thus no odour will be spread.
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A stabilized sludge can also be obtained in an enzymes are secreted by the so called acidifying
aerobic way. This is mostly done in the activated bacteria. Because the waste activated sludge
sludge process, implemented as a very low- consists of many complex, slowly biodegradable
loaded system with a sludge age of more than components it goes through hydrolysis relatively
25 days (oxidation ditch). This route uses a lot slowly and incompletely.
of (aeration) energy, so usually sludge digestion
is chosen for the larger plants. The transformation of the hydrolysis products
takes place inside the cells of the acidifying
Along with sludge stabilisation during the bacteria and this goes fairly quickly. Through
digestion biogas is produced, which can be used diverse degradation phases, in which the
for generating energy. intermediate product from the one to the other
type of bacteria can be passed, acetic acid, CO2
5.2.2 Theory and H2 are formed.
Sludge digestion consists of a network of process
stages, which is carried out by various types of The end products of the acidification are
bacteria. On the whole the degradation process transferred by the methanogenic microorganisms
is divided in three sequential steps: hydrolysis, into a mixture of methane and CO 2 . The
acidication and methane formation. methanogenic microorganisms, or methanogens,
have a complete other metabolism than the
The large sludge molecules are split into acidifying bacteria.They grow very slowly and
smaller building blocks outside the bacteria are sensitive for certain toxic particles (see also
cells by hydrolysis-enzymes, which then can be gure 5.3 and gure 5.4).
consumed by the cell bacteria. The necessary
fatty acids
acetic acid
CH4
biopolymers sugars
CO2
H2 + CO2
amino acids
Figure 5.3 Schematic depiction of the degradation steps with sludge digestion
Nitrogen
Carbon-oxygen
CH4 +H2O
C4 acids, alcohols
multiple organic components single organic components
(fats, proteins, carbohydrates) (amino acids, sugars)
acetic acids
methane-forming biomass
proprionic acid
acidifying biomass
Figure 5.4 - Schematic depiction of the degradation stages with sludge digestion
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influent
effluent
B
floating scum A
d C
b
a c D
sludge
E
F
e f
L A. Supply pipe
a. liquid level B. Discharge Centrate
b. minimal 7.5 cm C. Discharge floating scum
c. minimal 30 cm D. Floating scum baffle
d. 40 % of the liquid level
e. 2/3 L E. Scraper
f. 1/3 L F. Sludge discharge pipe
Figure 5.5 - Septic tank Figure 5.7 - Clarigester
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the rst instance digestion tanks were built in thickener. The digester gas is collected and lead
which the water separation took place within the to a gas holder (see gure 5.9).
digestion tank applying regular settling phases
within the digestor (see gure 5.8). 5.2.4 Solids Degradation
In the sludge digestion process organic sludge
Finally this was changed to intensive mixing of the particles are converted into anaerobic microbial
contents in the sludge digestion tank; the efuent cell material (very small quantities), digester gas
of this tank must then still be thickened in a post and water. Macroscopically we we observe a
reduction of the total amount of suspended solids
along with a corresponding production of digester
gas. The degradation of the organic matter (40
A
60%) manifests itself in an increase of the ash
content and a reduction of the total suspended
solids content of the sludge. It is essential to
understand that during the sludge digestion
E processes inorganic sludge is not affected (no
degradation, no deposition in the tank). After the
B
sludge digestion the digested sludge allows itself
to be moderately thickened (to 4 - 6% ds).
F
C
5.2.5 Dimensioning
The most important parameter of dimensioning
or designing is the residence time, which is
extremely dependent on the applied temperature.
G
In general a temperature of 30 - 35C is applied
with a residence time of approximately 20 days.
H
D (see gure 5.10)
A. gas pipe
B. discharge pipe sludge water 60
C. supply primary mixed sludge
D. discharge of digested sludge
E. gas
F. Centrate 50
G. Digesting sludge
H. Digested
Figure 5.8 sludge
Sludge digestion with water removal
1. supply primary mixed sludge, 2. discharge of digested 40
temperature ( C)
30
A. Influent
B. Digesting sludge
C C. Gas holding tank
D. Post thickener 20
E. Discharge thickened sludge
F. Discharge centrate
10
A D F
B
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
digestion time in days
E
Figure 5.10 Connection between the digestion
Figure 5.9- Intensive mixed digestion tank temperature and the digestion time
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If the daily amount of sludge is known, then gure 5.11). The heat exchanger is usually placed
the necessary volume of the digestion tanks is outside the digestion tank.
determined. This means that it is very important
to have thickened the mixed primary sludge as Heat exchangers for heating the sludge must
much as possible (4 - 5% ds minimal). be constructed in this way, so that there is little
pollution and after pollution does occur it can
5.2.6 Forms of Construction be simply and quickly cleaned up. As a result of
possible sludge deposition on the sludge side of
Digestion Tank the heat exchanger, clogging can occur as well
With the sludge digestion process that is as reduction of the heat transfer.
mainly implemented at larger wwtps, the sludge
digestion tanks are mostly large in terms of Gas Purging
volume (1,000 10,000 m3). These tanks are Mixing the tank contents takes place mostly by
mostly situated on the ground level. The height blowing in biogas. By means of a gas compressor
to diameter ratio is usually 1:1 - 1:1.5. The tank the digester gas is compressed and blown in
walls are insulated well to limit the heat loss. under in the tank as larger bubbles. The agitation
caused by bubble ow ensures proper mixing
Sludge Supply this.
The mixed sludge supply is spread regularly
throughout the day with the help of a sludge pump Generating Energy
(with large conveying height: approximately 15 The digester gas can be employed to provide the
to 20 m). The level in the digestion tanks is kept necessary heat, but can also be used to generate
constant via an overow weir. Simultaneous to electrical energy (cogeneration /combined heat
the supply, discharge of the digested sludge and power CHP). This happens by means of
takes place. gas motor-generator combinations, in which the
produced electricity generally at the wwtp is used
Heating (providing in 50 to 70% of the total needs). The
The heating of the tank contents occurs in general heat produced with this CHP is used agian to
through the transference of heat by circulating warm up the digestion tank is put to use.
hot water by means of heat exchangers (see
A
C D E
B
F
G
A. Digestion tank
B. Sludge pump
C. Heat exchanger
D. Water pump
E. Hot water heater
F. Measuring and safety apparatus
G. Gas pipeline
Figure 5.11 - Heating with sludge digestion
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wastewater treatment
5.3.1 General
After the stabilization, sludge dewatering takes
place. This occurs with especially developed
equipment such as centrifuges, belt lter presses
and lter presses. The sludge is not directly suited
for dewatering, but must rst be conditioned. This
is accomplished by adding chemicals (polymeric
occulants or ferric chloride) or by heat treatment. Figure 5.12 Belt lter press
After dewatering the sludge has a solid content
of 20 to 30 (weight) %. sieve belt presses
and a few chamber lter presses.
As last step in the reduction of volume many
thermal processes may follow, such as drying Digested sludge (capable of dewatering until
and incinerating. This is done at regional level at approximately 27% ds) is better suited for
large centralized installations. The solid residue dewatering than fresh mixed primary and
is dumped or treated to become construction secondairy sludge (until approximately 23% ds).
material for example for road construction.
Centrifuge:
5.3.2 Conditioning Attainable suspended solids content =
approx. 25% ds
Chemical Conditioning Poly electrolyte-usage =
Adding chemicals to improve the dewatering approx. 10kg active Polyelectrolyte/ton ds
ability: Energy usage =
inorganic types: lime and ferric chloride (300 approx. 100 kWh/ ton ds
g/kg ds) Production and maintenance =
polymeric cation-active occulants (3 to 8 g/ average (0.4 fte)
kg ds)
Belt Filter Press:
Thermal Conditioning Attainable suspended solids content =
Heating at a high temperature (200 C) and approx. 25% ds
pressure; with or without adding air. A part of the Poly-electrolyte-usage =
sludge goes in the solution. approx. 7kg active Poly-electrolyte/ton ds
Energy usage =
5.3.3 Sludge Dewatering approx. 80 kWh/ton ds
The purpose of dewatering sludge is extended Production and maintenance =
volume reduction of the sludge by driving out average (0.2 fte)
the bound water. The dewatered sludge is
discharged and further treated (incinerated, dried, Chamber Filter Press
dumped, cement industry). When dewatering with a chamber lter press the
solids content of the sludge is increased from
In sludge dewatering in the Netherlands the 25% (undigested, fresh, sludge) to 30% (digested
following is applied: sludge). The chamber lter press is made up of
centrifuges plates with an open edge and an escape hole in
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70
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6 Practical Considerations
6.1 Operation 72
6.1.1 Introduction
6.1.2 Energy
6.1.3 Chemicals
6.1.4 Personnel
6.1.7 Automation
6.2.3 Resources
6.2.4 Alternatives/choices
6.2.6 Permits
6.3 Costs 76
6.3.1 Introduction
6.3.2 Investments
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72
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73
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74
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6.4.6 Permits
Important permits for operations at a wwtp
refer mostly to ground water withdrawal and
Environmental Management Law. In some
75
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76
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Delft University of Technology
Faculty of Civil Engineering and Geosciences
Department of Water Management
Section of Sanitary Engineering
Stevinweg 1
2628 CN Delft
www.sanitaryengineering.tudelft.nl