Professional Documents
Culture Documents
1. Let X be a topological space; let A be a subset of X. Suppose that for each x A there
is an open set U containing x such that U A. Show that A is open.
S
sol) For each a A let Ua be an open set with a Ua A. Then A = Ua , so A is open.
aA
(b) Show that there is a unique smallest topology on X containing all T , and a unique
largest topology contained in all T .
These are based on student solutions.
1
T S
sol) The unique largest topology contained in all T is S T . Noting T is a subbasis for a
topology on X, let Ts be the topology generated by T . If U Ts then U can be written
as S T T S
U= U,1 U,n where U,1 , . . . , U,n T .
Thus U T for any topology T that contains T , i.e. Ts T . Suppose Ts0 is a smallest
S
topology containing all T . In general we cant say either Ts Ts0 or Ts0 Ts . However,
since Ts0 contains T , so Ts Ts0 . Then Ts0 Ts since Ts0 is a smallest topology that
S
containsTall T . This complete the proof. The unique largest topology contained in all T
is Tl = T . The proof of uniqueness is similar to the above.
(c) If X = {a, b, c}, let T1 = {, X, {a}, {a, b}} and T2 = {, X, {a}, {b, c}}. Find the
smallest topology containing T1 and T2 , and the largest topology contained in T1 and T2 .
sol) By (b), Ts = {, X, {a}, {b}, {a, b}, {b, c}} and Tl = {, X, {a}}.
5. Show that if A is a basis for a topology on X, then the topology generated by A equals
the intersection of all topologies on X that contain A.
sol) Let {T } be a family of all topologies onTX that contains the basis ATand TA be the
topology generated by the basis A. Note T is a topology on X and T TA since
A TA . On theTother hand, any U TA is a union of elements in A, so U T for all
and thus TA T . This completes the proof.
sol) Let T be the topology of X and TY denote the subspace topology of Y . We also denote
by TA/Y (resp. TA/X ) the subspace topology of A as a subspace of Y (resp. X). Then
4. A map f : X Y is said to be an open map if for every open set U of X, the set f (U ) is
open in Y . Show that 1 : X Y X is an open map.
S
sol) Let W be an open set in X Y . Then W = (U V ) where U and V are open in X
and Y respectively. So,
S S S
1 (W ) = 1 ( (U V ) ) = 1 (U V )) = U
2
17 Closed Sets and Limit Points
(a) If A B, then A B.
sol) Recall that A is the intersection of all closed sets that contain A. Since B is closed and it
contains A, we have A B.
(b) A B = A B.
8. Let A, B and A denote subsets of a space X. Determine whether the following equations
hold ; if an equality fails, determine whether one of the inclusions or holds.
(a) A B A B.
sol) A B is a closed set that contains A B, so A B A B. Let A = (0, 1) and B = (1, 2).
Then A B = , while A B = {1}.
T T
(b) A A
T T T T
sol) Similarly as above, A is a closed set that contains A . So, A A .
(c) A B (A B).
x A (X B) = A B.
sol) A B AB since the latter is a closed set (see prob 3) that contains AB. Conversely,
let (x, y) A B. Then for any basis element U V containing (x, y) we have
(U V ) (A B) = (U A) (V B) 6= .
Thus x A B.
13. Show that X is Hausdorff iff the diagonal 4 = {(x, x)|x X} is closed in X X.
3
sol) Suppose X is Hausdorff and let (x, y) X X 4. Since x 6= y, there are disjoint
neighborhoods U and V of x and y respectively. Then (x, y) U V X X 4. This
implies X X 4 is open, or 4 is closed. Conversely, if X X 4 is open then for any
x 6= y there is a basis element U V such that (x, y) U V X X 4. This implies
U and V are disjoint neighborhoods of x and y respectively.
(a) Show that IntA and BdA are disjoint, and A = IntA BdA.
sol) If BdA = then IntA A A = IntA where the last equality follows from (a). Con-
versely, if A is both open and closed, then IntA = A = A, so again by (a) BdA = .
sol) U is open U = IntU BdU = U U where the last equivalence follows by (a).
sol) Not true; let U = (1, 0) (0, 1). Then Int(U ) = (1, 1).
20. Find the boundary and the interior of each of the following subsets of R2 :
18 Continuous Functions
3. Let X and X 0 denote a single set in two topologies T and T 0 , respectively. let i : X 0 X
be the identity function.
4
(a) Show that i is continuous T 0 is finer than T .
Then, f is continuous at 0 since f (/2, /2) (, ) for any > 0. On the other hand,
if x 6= 0 then the interval (f (x) |f (x)|/2, f (x) + |f (x)|/2) does not contain f (x , x + )
for any > 0. This shows f is not continuous at x 6= 0.
20 and 22
sol) Triangle inequality shows if (x, y) Bd (x0 , /2) Bd (y0 , /2) then
sol) Let p : X X be the quotient map induced from the equivalence relation and define a
function g : X R by g(x, y) = x + y 2 . Then g is constant on the preimage p1 ([(x0 , y0 )])
for each point [(x0 , y0 )] in X . Thus there is a continuous function f : X R with
g = f p. Since g is onto and g(x0 , y0 ) = g(x1 , y1 ) (x0 , y0 ) (x1 , y1 ), f is onto and
one-to-one. In order to prove f is a homeomorphism, we will show that f is an open map
(i.e. its inverse function is continuous). Let G : X X defined by G(x, y) = (g(x, y), y).
Then G is a homeomorphism with the inverse function G1 (x, y) = (x y 2 , y). Since
5
g = 1 G, where : X X X is the projection map onto the first factor, and both 1
and G are open map, so is g. On the other hand, subjectivity of p and g = f p give
23 Connected Spaces
2. Let {An } be a sequence of connected subspaces of X, such that An An+1 6= for all n.
Show that An is connected.
11. Let p : X Y be a quotient map. Show that if each p1 ({y}) is connected, and if Y is
connected, then X is connected.
sol) Let A be both open and closed in X. Then for each y Y , p1 ({y}) A is both open and
closed in p1 ({y}). Since p1 ({y}) is connected, p1 ({y}) A or p1 ({y}) (X A).
This implies p(A) p(X A) = , so we have
p1 p(A) p1 p(X A) = .
6
This shows A = p1 p(A) and X A = p1 p(X A) since
A p1 p(A) X A p1 p(X A)
and
Consequently, p(A) is both open and closed in Y since p is a quotient map. By Connect-
edness of Y we have either A = or A = X.
12. Let Y X; let X and Y be connected. Show that if A and B form a separation of X Y ,
then Y A and Y B are connected.
C D = and C D = (0.1)
BD BA = and B D B A = . (0.2)
X = Y t (X \ Y ) = Y t A t B = C t D t B = (B t C) t D. (0.3)
X Y = A t B = [UA (X Y )] t [UB (X Y )]
Y = Y (Y A) = (UC Y ) t (UD Y ).
7
This, together with the facts Y UC , A UA and B UB , implies
1. (a) Show that no two of the spaces (0, 1), (0, 1], and [0, 1] are homeomorphic.
sol) Suppose there exists a homeomorphism f : (0, 1] (0, 1). Then the restriction map
is also a homeomorphism. (0,1) is connected, but its image g(0, 1) = (0, 1) f (1) is not
connected. Contradiction!
is also a homeomorphism. Rn \ {f 1 (0)} is path connected, while its image R \ {0} is not.
Contradiction!
The image g(S 1 ) is connected since S 1 is connected and g is continuous. Since g(x) 6= 0
for all x S 1 , we have either g(x) > 0 for all x S 1 or g(x) < 0 for all x S 1 . This is
impossible since g(x) = g(x).
3. Let f : X X be continuous. Show that if X = [0, 1], then f (x) = x for some x X.
What happens if X equals to [0, 1) or (0, 1]?
8
sol) Define g : X X by g(x) = f (x) x. Then g is continuous and
Since g([0, 1]) is connected, g(x) = 0 for some x [0, 1], i.e., f has a fixed point. If
X = [0, 1) (resp. X = (0, 1]) then the function
f (x) = 12 x + 1
2 (resp. f (x) = 12 x)
sol) No. (cf. p157 Example 6) Let S = {( x, sin ( x1 ) ) | 1 < x 1}. Since S is the image of
(0, 1] under the continuous map g : (0, 1] S defined by g(x) = ( x, sin ( x1 ) ), S is path
connected. In particular, S is connected, so is its closure S in R2 . Recall
Suppose there is a path f : [a, c] S with f (a) V and f (c) S. Since V is closed in S,
its preimage f 1 (V ) is closed in [a, c] ; f 1 (V ) is bounded and closed in R. The preimage
f 1 (V ) thus has a maximum b and b < c since f (c) S. Write h(t) = (x(t), y(t)) for the
composition map
h : [0, 1] [b, c] S
where the first map is t (1 t)b + tc /2 and the second map is the restriction of f to
[b, c]. WLOG, we may assume h(0) = (0, 0). Since x(t) > 0 for t > 0, for each n > 0 we
can choose u satisfying
Applying the Intermediate Value Theorem to the function t x(t), we can then find tn
with 0 < tn < n1 such that x(tn ) = u. We have contradiction since h is continuous and
tn 0, but h(tn ) dose not converge to (0, 0).
sol) Yes. Let x, y A . Then x A1 and y A2 for some A1 and A2 . Fix a point
z A1 A2 and choose paths from x to z in A1 and from z to y in A2 respectively.
One can then paste two paths to make a path from x to y in A1 A2 A (see The
Pasting Lemma p108).
sol) Let Lp denote a line passing through a point p in R2 . Note that (i) there are uncountably
many such lines Lp and (ii) there are at most countably many lines Lp with Lp A 6= .
So, for any distinct points x, y in R2 A, we can choose lines Lx and Ly such that their
intersection Lx Ly is one point. We can then join x and y by line segments in R2 A
using Lx and Ly .
9
10. Show that if U is an open connected subspace of R2 , then U is path connected.
sol) Fix x0 U and define P = {x U | x can be joined to x0 by a path in U }. It suffices to
show P is open in U (or in R2 since U is open) and closed in U . Let x P . We can then
choose an open ball B(x, ) U for small > 0. Since any point in B(x, ) can be joined
to x by a line in B(x, ) U , by pasting two paths, any point in B(x, ) can be joined to
x0 by a path in U . This implies P is open.
In order to prove P is closed in U , one can show U P is open as done in class. Lets
do differently. First recall that the closure of P in U is P U , namely the closure of P
w.r.t the subspace topology of U is P U . Let x P U . Since U is open in R2 and
x U , we can choose an open ball B(x, ) U for small > 0. Since x P , there exists
y B(x, ) P . We can then join x to x0 by pasting a path in U from x0 to y with a
line segment in B(x, ) U from y to x. Thus, x P . Since x is arbitrary, P = P U is
closed in U .
11. If A is a connected subspace of X, does it follows from that Int A and Bd A are connected?
Does the converse hold?
sol) (i) X = R and A = (0, 1) : Bd A = {0, 1}.
(ii) X = R2 and A = B (0, 0), 1 B (2, 0), 1 : Int A = B((0, 0), 1) t B((2, 0), 1).
10
9. Let G be a topological group; let C be the component of G containing the identity element
e. Show that C is normal subgroup of G.
sol) For each x G, xCx1 = Rx1 Lx (C) is connected where Lx and Rx are homeomorphisms
defined by Lx (g) = xg and by Rx1 (g) = gx1 . On the other hand, since e = xex1
xCx1 and C is a component containing e, xCx1 C. A similar argument shows that
for any a, b C, ab1 C C which implies ab1 C.
26 Compact Spaces
5. Let A and B be disjoint compact subspaces of the Hausdorff space X. Show that there
exists disjoint open sets U and V containing A and B, respectively.
sol) Since A is compact and A B = , for each b B there are disjoint neighborhoods Ub
and Vb of A and b respectively. By Compactness of B there are finitely many Vb1 , , Vbn
whose union contains B. We set
/ Ubi
Then A UA , B VB and UA UB = since x VB x Vbi for some bi x
x
/ UA .
sol) Let A be a closed set in X. Then A is compact and hence f (A) is compact. Since Y is
Hausdorff, f (A) is closed.
sol) We will show that X 1 (A) is open if A is closed in X Y . Let x X 1 (A). Noting
(x, y)
/ A for any y Y and X Y A is open, for each y Y choose neighborhoods
Ux,y of x and Vy of y satisfying
(x, y) Ux,y Vy X Y A.
U = Ux,y1 Ux,yn .
11
8. Let f : X Y ; let Y be compact Hausdorff. Then f is continuous if and only if the graph
of f
Gf = { (x, f (x) | x X }
is closed in X Y .
U V X Y Gf .
This shows X Y Gf is open. Now, suppose Gf is closed. Fix x0 X and let V be a
neighborhood of f (x0 ). Then Gf X (Y V ) is closed and hence by Problem 7
U = X 1 Gf X (Y V )
12. Let p : X Y be a closed continuous surjective map such that p1 ({y}) is compact for
each y Y . Show that if Y is compact, then X is compact.
sol) Let {U } be an open covering of X. Then for each y Y since p1 ({y}) is compact it can
be covered by a finite subcollection {Ui | i = 1, , ny } of the covering {U }. Set
Then, we have
(i) and (ii) show that {Wy | y Y } is an open covering of Y . Since Y is compact, we can
choose a finite subcover {Wyi | i = 1, , n}. Then by (iii)
n
[ n
[ n
[
1 1 1
X=p (Y ) = p W yi = p (Wyi ) Uyi .
i=1 i=1 i=1
Since each Uyi is a finite union of open sets in {U }, this implies that the open covering
{U } has a finite subcover.
12
sol) We will use the fact every topological group is regular (see p146 #7 (c)). Let c / A B.
Then cB 1 A = and hence by regularity of G for each b B there exist disjoint
neighborhoods Ub and Vb of cb1 and A respectively. Note that cB 1 = Lc (B) is
compact where Lc is the left translation by c and : G G defined by (g) = g 1 . One
can thus find finitely many Ub1 , , Ubn whose union contains cB 1 . We set
sol) Recall that p1 (p(C)) = CH. If C is closed, then p1 (G/H p(C)) = G CH is open
by (a). Thus G/H p(C) is open, i.e. p(C) is closed.
(c) Let H be a compact subgroup of G. Show that if G/H is compact, then G is compact.
sol) The proof directly follows from #12 and (b) since p1 (gH) = gH is compact for any
gH G/H.
5. Let X be a compact Hausdorff space; let {An } be a countable collection of closed sets of
X. Show that if each An has empty interior in X, then the union An has empty interior
in X.
sol) We will show that U An 6= for any open set U (this implies Int(An ) = ). We
first show that given A1 and nonempty open set U there exists a nonempty open set V1
satisfying
V1 U and V 1 A1 = .
Since IntA1 = , there exists y U A1 . Noting A1 is compact, choose a neighborhood of
W1 of y and an open set W2 containing A1 with W1 W2 = (by Lemma 26.4). Similarly,
since X (W1 U ) is closed and hence compact, choose a neighborhood W10 of y and an
open set W20 containing X (W1 U ) with W10 W20 = (again by Lemma 26.4). Let
V1 = W10 . The nonempty open set V1 then satisfies V 1 W1 U U and V 1 A1 = .
Now, applying the same arguments inductively, given An and Vn1 one can find a nonempty
open set Vn satisfying V n Vn1 and V n An = . Consider the nested sequences
V 1 V 2
of nonempty closed sets of X. Since X is compact, there exists x V n (by Thm 26.9)
such that x
/ An for each n since V n An = for each n. Thus, x U An .
13
31 The Separation Axioms
2. Show that if X is normal, every pair of disjoint closed sets have neighborhoods whose
closures are disjoint.
sol) Let A, B are disjoint closed sets. Then X B is open and A X B and hence there
exists an open set UA with A UA and U A X B (see Lemma 31.1 (b)). In particular,
B (X U A ) since U A B = . Again by Lemma 31.1 (b) applied to B (X U A ) gives
UB open in X with B UB and U B (X U A ). The latter is equivalent to U B U A = .
Thus UA and UB is the desired neighborhoods of A and B respectively.
5. Let f, g : X Y be continuous; assume that Y is Hausdorff. Show that {x|f (x) = g(x)}
is closed in X.
p1 (W ) = p1 (Y p(X U )) = X p1 p(X U ) X (X U ) = U.
Let A and B be disjoint closed sets in Y . Then p1 (A) and p1 (B) are disjoint closed
sets in X. Using normality of X, choose disjoint neighborhoods UA and UB of p1 (A) and
p1 (B) respectively. The claim then shows that for each a A (resp. b B) there is a
neighborhood Wa of a (resp. Wb of b) with p1 (Wa ) UA (resp. p1 (Wb ) UB ). The
open sets S S
WA = Wa and WB = Wb
aA bB
are desired neighborhoods of A and B respectively;
14
32 Normal Spaces
sol) Let X be normal and A be a closed subset of X. Let A1 and A2 be disjoint closed subsets
of A. Since A is closed in X, A1 and A2 are also closed in X. Normality of X then shows
there are disjoint neighborhoods U1 and U2 of A1 and A2 respectively in X. Thus the
open sets U1 A and U2 A in A are disjoint neighborhoods of A1 and A2 in A.
1. Examine the proof of the Urysohn lemma, and show that for given r,
f 1 (r) =
T S
Up Uq
p>r q<r
where p, q rational.
Suppose x f 1 (r), i.e. f (x) = r. Then f (x) < p for any rational p > r, so x
T
Up
p>r
2. (a) Show that a connected normal space having more that one point is uncountable.
sol) Let X be a connected normal space and x and y are distinct points of X. Then by Uryshon
Lemma, there is a continuous function f : X [0, 1] with f (x) = 0 and f (y) = 1. Since
the image f (X) is connected, f (X) = [0, 1]; suppose not. Then f (X) is a disjoint union
of nonempty open sets f (X) [0, r) and f (X) (r, 1] for some r
/ f (X) where 0 < r < 1.
1
Consequently, the preimage f (s) 6= for any irrational s [0, 1]. Thus X is uncountable.
3. Give a direct proof of the Urysohn lemma for a metric space (X, d).
15
sol) Let A and B are disjoint closed sets of X and let
d(x, A)
f (x) = .
d(x, A) + d(x, B)
Recall that (i) d(x, A) = inf{ d(x, a) | a A }, (ii) it is a continuous function on X into
R and (iii) for closed A, d(x, A) = 0 iff x A (see p175-177). It thus follows that f is a
continuous function on X (since A B = ) such that f (x) = 0 iff x A, f (x) = 1 iff
x B and 0 f (x) 1 for all x X.
Now, similarly as in the proof of Urysohn lemma, writing rational numbers in the set
(0, 1) { n1 |n N} as a sequence {p1 , p2 , } and using the open sets V 1 and induction on
n
finite subsets of {p1 , p2 , }, for any rational p (0, 1) one can define an open set Up A
satisfying U q Up if q < p and Up = V 1 if p = n1 . The function f (x) = inf{ p | x Up }
n
is then continuous and f (x) = 0 for x A. Moreover, f (x) > 0 for x / A; in this case,
1
x / V 1 for some n, so f (x) n (see p210 (2)).
n
16
for any x X. This shows Fn uniformly converges to F , so F is also continuous. It proof
is : fix x X and > 0. By (0.4) there is N > 0 ( 2N1+1 < ) such that
Fn (x) (F (x) , F (x) + )
2 2
for all n > N . Continuity of Fn then shows there is a neighborhood Un of x with Fn (Un )
(F (x) 2 , F (x) + 2 ) where n > N . It then follows that F (Un ) (F (x) , F (x) + ).
This shows F is continuous.
5. Prove: Let X be normal space. There is a continuous function f : X [0, 1] such that
f (x) = 0 for x A, and f (x) = 1 for x B, and 0 < f (x) < 1 otherwise, if and only if A
and B are disjoint G sets in X.
sol) (by Mohamed and Jonathan) Let A and B are disjoint closed G sets. By the above
Problem 4 there are continuous function fA (resp. fB ) into [0, 1] such that fA (x) = 0 for
x A (resp. fB (x) = 0 for x B) and fA (x) > 0 for x / A (resp. fB (x) > 0 for x
/ B).
The desired function is then
fA (x)
f (x) =
fA (x) + fB (x)
The proof of the converse is the same as that in Problem 4.
sol) Let r : Z Y be the retraction. Then r(z) = z iff z Y . Problem 5 in p199 thus implies
Y = {z|j r(z) = idZ (z)} is closed where j : Y , Z is the inclusion map.
17
sol) Let C = C {(0, 0)} and (R2 ) = R2 {(0, 0)} and define continuous functions
36 Imbeddings of Manifolds
2. Let X be a compact Hausdorff space. Suppose that for each x X, there is a neighborhood
U of x and a positive integer k such that U can be imbedded in Rk . Show that X can be
imbedded in RN for some positive integer N .
sol) Since X is compact, there is a finite open covering { Ui | i = 1, , m } of X such that for
each i there is an imbedding i : Ui Rki for some ki > 0. Note that X is normal since
X is compact Hausdorff. So, there is a partition of unity {i } subordinated to {Ui } that
gives rise to an imbedding :
R} Rk1 Rkm
: X |R {z
m times
defined by (x) = 1 (x), , m (x), 1 (x) 1 (x), , m (x) m (x) where for x in
X supp(i ) we define i (x) i (x) = 0 so that it is a continuous function on X.
5. Let X be the union of the set R{0} and the two-point set {p, q}. Topologize X by taking
as basis the collection of all open intervals in R that do not contain 0, along with all sets
of the form (a, 0) {p} (0, a) and all sets of the form (a, 0) {q} (0, a), for a > 0.
(b) Show that each of the space X {p} and X {q} is homeomorphic to R.
sol) Noting the collection of all open intervals in R that do not contain 0, along with all sets
of the form (a, a) = (a, 0) {0} (0, a) for a > 0 is a basis for the standard topology
on R, we define f : X {q} R by f (x) = x for x R {0} and f (p) = 0. This function
f is bijective and both f and its inverse f 1 send basis elements to basis elements. Thus
f is a homeomorphism.
18
43 Complete Metric Spaces
2. Let (X, dX ) and (Y, dY ) be metric spaces; let Y be complete. Let A X. Show that
if f : A Y is uniformly continuous, then f can be uniquely extended to a continuous
function g : A Y , and g is uniformly continuous.
sol) Let a A. Then there is a sequence {an } in A converging to a (see Lemma 21.2). Since
f is uniformly continuous, {f (an )} is a Cauchy sequence in Y ; given > 0 there exists
> 0 (depending only on ) such that if dX (an , am ) < then dY (f (an ), f (am )) < . Since
an a, in particular {an } is a Cauchy sequence in X, one can choose N > 0 satisfying :
if n, m > N then dX (an , am ) < . Using Y is complete, set g(a) = lim f (an ). Then
(i) g : A Y is a well-defined function; suppose we have two sequences {an } and {bn }
both converging to a A. Let {cn } be a sequence defined by c2n1 = an and c2n = bn .
Then a similar argument as above and the inequality
dX (an , bm ) dX (an , a) + dX (a, bm ) n, m N
imply that {f (cn )} is a Cauchy sequence in a complete metric space Y , so by unique-
ness of the limit we have lim f (an ) = lim f (c2n1 ) = lim f (c2n ) = lim f (bn ).
(ii) g is an extension of f ; for a A let an = a for all n. Then g(a) = lim f (an ) = f (a).
(iii) g is uniformly continuous; given > 0 choose > 0 corresponding to the uniform
continuity of f and let a, b A with dX (a, b) < /2. One can then find sequences
{an } and {bn } respectively converging to a and b such that there is N > 0 satisfying :
if n, m > N then dX (an , bm ) < , dY (g(a), f (am )) < and dY (f (bm ), g(b)) < .
Consequently,
dY (g(a), g(b)) < dY (g(a), f (am )) + dY (f (an ), f (bm )) + dY (f (bm ), g(b)) < 3.
4. Show that the metric space (X, d) is complete if and only if for every nested sequence
A1 A2 of nonempty closed sets of X with diamAn 0, the intersection of the
sets An is nonempty.
sol) The necessary condition for completeness of (X, d) is given by Lemma 48.3. Lets prove
sufficient condition. Let {xn } be a Cauchy sequence in (X, d). There exists N1 > 0 such
that if n, m > N1 then d(xn , xm ) < 1. Choose n1 > N1 and let A1 = B(xn1 , 1). Similarly,
there exists N2 > N1 such that if n, m > N2 then d(xn , xm ) < 21 . Choose n2 > N2 and
let A2 = A1 B(xn2 , 12 ). Note that A2 A1 and if n > N2 then xn A2 since N2 > N1 .
Repeating the same argument with induction then shows for all k N there exists Nk and
closed set Ak such that (i) Ak Ak1 and diamAk 0 and (ii) xn Ak if n > Nk . Now,
the assumption and (i) imply that there is a point x in the intersection of the sets Ak .
Then for any k > 0, if n > Nk then d(x, xn ) < k2 since both x, xn Ak by (ii). This shows
xn x.
19
5. Show that if f is a contraction of a complete metric space (X, d), then there is a unique
point x X such that f (x) = x.
sol) Fix x0 X and define a sequence {xn } recursively: x1 = f (x0 ) and xn+1 = f (xn ). Then
for some 0 < < 1
d(f (xn+1 ), f (xn )) < d(xn+1 , xn ) < d(f (xn ), f (xn1 )) < < n+1 d(f (x0 ), x0 ).
Together with triangular inequality, this shows {xn } is a Cauchy sequence. Thus xn x
for some x X. Since every contraction is continuous, we have f (x) = lim f (xn ) =
lim xn1 = x.
48 Baire Spaces
2. The Baire Category theorem implies that R cannot be written as a countable union of
closed subsets having empty interiors. Show this fails if the set are not required to be
closed.
sol) Write the set Q of the rational numbers as a sequence Q = {q1 , q2 , } and set An =
(R Q) {qn }. Then An = R where each An has empty interior since R An = Q {qn }
is dense in R.
sol) Let Y = Wn where Wn is open in X and Bn be a closed set in Y with empty interior in
Y . Given U0 open in X with U0 Y 6= , we need to show that U0 Y Bn 6= . Note
that Bn = B n Y , where B n is the closure of Bn in X, since Bn is closed in Y . Also note
that there is a point y0 U0 Y B 1 Y = (U0 B 1 ) Y since B1 has empty interior in
Y . Using normality of X, since y0 U0 (X B 1 ) W1 , one can find U1 open in X with
y0 U1 (so U1 Y 6= ) and U 1 U0 (X B 1 ) W1 .
In addition, in the metric space, by replacing U1 by a small ball at y0 if necessary, one can
also assume diam U1 < 1. Repeating the same argument inductively yields a sequence of
open sets Un in X satisfying :
1
Un Y 6= , U n Un1 (X B n ) Wn , diam Un < n (for metric space)
Then there exists a point x U n (by Theorem 26.9 and Lemma 48.3) such that (i)
x U0 Y since x U n Un1 Wn U0 Wn for all n and (ii) x / Bn = (B n Y )
since x X B n for all n. (i) and (ii) show that U0 Y Bn 6= as desired.
20
sol) Let Q = {q1 , q2 , } and Wn = R {qn }. Then R Q = Wn and hence the irrationals
R Q is a Baire space by Problem 5.
Proof.
Thus x Un . Conversely, let x Un . Then given > 0 and for n1 < since
x Un there exists an open set U containing x with diam f (U ) < n1 < . So, f (U )
(f (x) , f (x) + ). This shows x C.
Other Homework
HW Let G be a topological group and H be a subgroup of G. Show that if H and G/H are
connected, so is G.
sol) Let U be both open and closed in G. Since H is a connected subgroup and for any g G
the left translation Lg : G G is a homeomorphism,
21
On the other hand, since the quotient map p : G G/H is an open map, p(U ) and p(GU )
both open in G/H. Suppose there exists gH p(U ) p(G U ). Then gH = uH = vH
for some u U and v G U . This is impossible by (0.5). Thus p(U ) p(G U ) = .
This together with the fact p(U ) p(G U ) = p(G) = G/H implies p(U ) are both open
and closed in G/H. Now, by the assumption G/H is connected, we have either p(U ) =
or p(U ) = G/H. Consequently, either U = or U = G.
a2n <
P
HW Let (H, d) be a metric space; H is the set of all sequences {an } in R satisfying
and the metric d on H is defined by
X
d({an }, {bn }) = (an bn )2 .
Show that S = { A H | d(A, 0) = 1 } is bounded and closed, but not compact where 0 is
the zero sequence (0, 0, ).
sol) S is bounded since S Bd (0, 2) and S is closed since S = f 1 (1) where f is a continuous
map defined by A d(A, 0). Let Ai be a sequence {aj } with aj = ij , i.e aj = 0 if j 6= i and
ai = 1. The sequence {Ai }iN in S has no convergent subsequence since d(Ai , Aj ) = ij .
Thus S is not compact (cf. Theorem 28.2).
sol) Let || || be the norm on H satisfying ||A B|| = d(A, B) and let Ai denote the i-th term
of the sequence A H. Let {An |n N} be a Cauchy sequence in H. For each i
for all n, m > N . Taking limit n then gives ||A Am ||2 . This implies (i)
A Am H and hence A = (A Am ) + Am H and (ii) Am A in H.
sol) Let X be an uncountable set and define a metric d by d(x, y) = 1 if x 6= y and d(x, y) = 0
if x = y. Then the metric topology is discrete, so X is not second countable.
22