MATH 411, HW 8 SOLUTIONS

3.26.6. Show that if f : X → Y is continuous, where X is compact and Y is Hausdorff,

then f is a closed map.
Let C be any closed subset of X. Since X is compact, C is compact by Theorem 26.2.
Then f (C) is compact by Theorem 26.5. Since Y is Hausdorff, f (C) is closed by Theorem
26.3. Thus, f takes closed sets to closed sets.

3.26.7. Show that if Y is compact, the projection π1 : X × Y → X is a closed map.

Let C be any closed subset of X × Y . We must show that π1 (C) is closed, or equivalently
that its complement is open. For any x ∈ X − π1 (C), {x} × Y is contained in U . By the tube
lemma applied to the open set X × Y − C, there exists an open set V ⊂ X such that x ∈ V
and V × Y ⊂ X × Y − C. If there were a point w ∈ V ∩ π1 (C), then for some y ∈ Y , we
would have w × y ∈ C, a contradiction. Thus, V ⊂ X − π1 (C). This shows that X − π1 (C)
is open, so π1 (C) is closed.

3.26.8. Let f : X → Y be any map, where Y is compact Hausdorff. Show that f is contin-
uous iff the graph of f , Gf = {x × f (x) | x ∈ X}, is closed in X × Y .
Suppose f is continuous; we must show that Gf is closed, or equivalently that X × Y − Gf
is open. For any point x0 × y0 ∈ X × Y − Gf , we have y 6= f (x). Since Y is Hausdorff, we
may choose open sets U, V ⊂ Y such that f (x0 ) ∈ U , y0 ∈ V , and U ∩ V = ∅. Consider
the open set f −1 (U ) × V ⊂ X × Y , which contains x0 × y0 . If x × y were a point in
(f −1 (U ) × V ) ∩ Gf , we would have y = f (x), and therefore x ∈ f −1 (V ), which contradicts
the fact that f −1 (U ) ∩ f −1 (V ) = ∅. Thus, f −1 (U ) × V ⊂ X × Y − Gf . This proves that
X × Y − Gf is open, as required. (For the direction, we did not need the fact that Y is
compact.)
Conversely, suppose Gf is closed. For any closed set C ⊂ Y , the set π2−1 (C) = X × C is
closed since π1 is continuous. Therefore, Gf ∩ (X × C) is also closed. Tracing the definitions,
we have Gf ∩ (X × C) = {x × f (x) | f (x) ∈ C}, so π1 (Gf × (X × C)) = f −1 (C). By the
previous exercise, f −1 (C) is closed. Thus, we have shown that f is continuous, using the
closed sets formulation. (Note that this direction did not need the fact that Y is Hausdorff.)

3.27.2. Let X be a metric space with metric d; let A ⊂ X be nonempty.

(a) Show that d(x, A) = 0 iff x ∈ Ā.
If d(x, A) = 0, then for any  > 0, there exists some y ∈ B(x, ) ∩ A, since otherwise 
would be a lower bound on the distances from x to points of a, while we assume 0 is the
greatest lower bound. Thus, every open set containing x contains some point of A, so x ∈ Ā.
Conversely, if x ∈ Ā, then for every  > 0, the set B(x, ) intersects A, so there is a point
y ∈ A with d(x, y) < . Thus, 0 is the greatest lower bound on d(x, y) for all y ∈ A, meaning
that d(x, A) = 0.
(b) Show that if A is compact, then d(x, A) = d(x, a) for some a ∈ A.
The function f : A → R defined by f (y) = d(x, y) is continuous, so it achieves its minimum
somewhere on A: there exists a ∈ A such that d(x, y) ≥ d(x, a) for all y ∈ A. Thus, d(x, a)
1
2 MATH 411, HW 8 SOLUTIONS

is a lower bound on d(x, y) for all y ∈ A, so d(x, a) ≤ d(x, A) (which is the greatest lower
bound. But also d(x, A) ≤ d(x, a) by definition, so the two are equal.
(c) Define the -neighborhood of A in X to be the set U (A, ) = {x | d(x, A) < }. Show
that U (A, ) equals the union of the open balls B(a, ) for all a ∈ A.
If x ∈ B(a, ) for some a ∈ A, then d(x, A) ≤ d(x, a) < , so x ∈ U (A, ). Conversely, if
x ∈ U (A, ), then d(x, A) = δ for some number δ < . Then  cannot be a lower bound on
the values {d(x, y) | y ∈ A}, since δ is the least upper bound, so there is some a ∈ A with
d(x, a) < , and hence x ∈ B(a, ) as required.
(d) Assume that A is compact; let U be an open set containing A. Show that some -
neighborhood of A is contained in U .
Proof #1: Let B denote the set of all open balls B(a, ) where a ∈ A and for which
B(a, 2) ⊂ U . Every point a ∈ A is contained in such a ball, so these sets form an open
cover of A. Thus, there is a finite subcover, i.e.Spoints a1 , . . . , an ∈ A and values 1 , . . . , n
such that B(ai , 2i ) ⊂ U for each i, and A ⊂ ni=1 B(ai , i ). Let  = min{1 , . . . , n }. We
claim that U (A, ) ⊂ U . For any yS∈ U (A, ), part (b) shows there exists some b ∈ A such
that d(y, b) < . And since A ⊂ ni=1 B(ai , i ), we have d(b, ai ) <  for some ai . By the
triangle inequality, d(y, ai ) < 2, so y ∈ B(ai , 2) ⊂ B(ai , 2i ) ⊂ U , as required.
Proof #2: Let C = X − U ; this is a closed set. The function f (x) = d(x, C) is continuous
on all of X, and it is never 0 on any point in U (since d(x, C) = 0 implies x ∈ C̄, which implies
x ∈ C since C is closed). Because A is compact, the function f achieves a minimum on A;
there exists some a0 ∈ A such that d(a, C) ≥ d(a0 , C) > 0 for all a ∈ A. Let  = d(a0 , C)/2.
For any x ∈ U (A, ), there is some a for which d(x, a) < . Since d(a, C) ≥ 2, it follows
that d(x, C) ≥ , so x ∈ X − C − U . Thus, U (A, ) ⊂ U .
(e) Show that the result in (d) need not hold if A is closed but not compact.
Let X = R2 with its Euclidean metric, and let A = {0} × R. Then for any  > 0,
U (A, ) = (−, ) × R. The open set N from Example 7 in Section 26 then contains A but
does not contain U (A, ) for any  > 0.

3.27.3. Recall that RK denotes R in the K-topology.

(a) Show that [0, 1] is not compact as a subspace of RK .
Let K = { n1 | n ∈ Z+ }. The sets U = [0, 1] − K and Vn = ( n1 , 1] (n ≥ 1) are all open in
the subspace topology on [0, 1] coming from the K-topology on RK , so they form an open
cover U. Any finite subcover would have to consist of U (since it is the only one of these
sets containing 0) and Vn1 , . . . , Vnk for some n1 < · · · < nk . However, the point nk1+1 is not
contained in any of these sets. Thus, U cannot contain a finite subcover, so [0, 1] is not
compact.
(b) Show that RK is connected.
Following the hint, we show first show that (0, ∞) inherits its usual topology as subspaces
of RK . To see this, first note that (0, ∞) is open in RK , so a set A ⊂ (0, ∞) is open in the
subspace topology iff it is open in the whole space. Moreover, we know that the K-topology
is finer than the standard topology, so we just need to show that if A ⊂ (0, ∞) is open in
RK , then it is open in the standard topology. For each x ∈ A, there is a set of the form
(a, b) or (a, b) − K containing x and contained in U . In the latter case, some subinterval
of (a, b) − K contains x and is contained in U , as required. The same applies to (−∞, 0).
Thus, we see that (−∞, 0) and (0, ∞) are both connected as subspaces of RK .
 MATH 411, HW 8 SOLUTIONS 3

Suppose RK = U ∪ V , where U ∩ V = ∅ and U and V are both open. Without loss of

generality assume 0 ∈ U . Any neighborhood of 0 intersects both (−∞, 0) and (0, ∞), so
U must contain points of both of these sets, and therefore both are contained in U . Thus,
V = ∅, so we have shown that RK is compact.
(c) Show that RK is not path-connected.
We claim that there is no path from 0 to 1 in RK . Suppose, toward a contradiction,
that f : [0, 1] → RK were such a path, with f (0) = 0 and f (1) = 1. Observe that f is
also continuous when viewed as a map to R, since the identity map is continuous as a map
RK → R. The set f −1 ((−∞, 0]) ⊂ [0, 1] is closed, so it has a maximum element a with
0 ≤ a < 1, and necessarily f (a) = 0. Thus, f (t) ≥ 0 for all t ≥ a, so we may simply consider
f as a function on [a, 1]. Likewise, f −1 ([1, ∞)) ⊂ [a, 1] is closed, so it has a minumum element
b. Thus, the restriction of f to [a, b] has image equal to [0, 1]. However, [a, b] is compact in
the standard topology, while [0, 1] is not compact in the K-topology; contradiction
3.27.4. Show that a connected metric space having more than one point is uncountable.
Let x0 and x1 be distinct points in X, and let r = d(x0 , x1 ). For any t ∈ (0, 1), the sets
Ut = {y ∈ X | d(x0 , y) < tr} and Vt = {y ∈ X | d(x0 , y) > tr} are disjoint, open, and
nonempty (since x0 ∈ Ut and x1 ∈ Vt ), so their union cannot be equal to all of X since X is
connected. Thus, there exists a point xt with d(x0 , xt ) = tr. The points xt are all distinct,
so they form an uncountable subset of X.
3.27.6. Let A0 = [0, 1], and inductively let
∞  
[ 1 + 3k 2 + 3k
An = An−1 − , .
k=0
3n 3n
T
The intersection C = n∈Z+ An is called the Cantor set.
(a) Show that C is totally disconnected.
Let x, y be distinct elements of C, and assume 0 ≤ x < y ≤ 1. We may find some natural
numbers a and n such that x < 3an < a+13n
< y, and therefore
3a 3a + 1 3a + 2 3a + 3
x< < < < < y.
3n+1 3n+1 3n+1 3n+1
The point
3a + 23
z = n+1
3
does not lie in An+2 , so it is not in C. Therefore, C ∩(−∞, z) and C ∩(z, ∞) give a separation
of C with x and y on opposite sides.
(b) Show that C is compact.
By induction, each An is closed, since it is the intersection of An−1 with a closed set (the
complement of a union of open intervals). Therefore, C is closed, since it is an intersection
of closed sets. Also, C ⊂ [0, 1], so it is bounded. Thus, C is compact.
(c) Show that each An is a union of finitely many disjoint intervals of length1/3n , and
show that the end points of each of these intervals lie in C.
Let us prove something slightly more precise: each An is a union of finitely many disjoint
closed intervals of length 1/3n , each of which has endpoints at consecutive integer multiples
of 1/3n . We induct on n, the case n = 0 being obvious. Assume the statement has been
b
shown for An−1 . Let B = [ 3n−1 , 3b+1
n−1 ] be one of the intervals in An . Then the only interval
4 MATH 411, HW 8 SOLUTIONS

of the form ( 1+3k

3n
, 2+3k
3n
) that intersects B is the one with k = b. (Proof: If k < b, then
2+3k −1+3b b
k ≤ b − 1, so 3n ≤ 3n < 3n−1 ; a similar argument holds if k > b.) Thus,
∞      
[ 1 + 3k 2 + 3k b b+1 1 + 3b 2 + 3b
B− n
, n
= n, n − n
,
k=0
3 3 3 3 3 3n
   
3b 3b + 1 3b + 2 3b + 3
= n+1 , n+1 ∪ , .
3 3 3n+1 3n+1
Taking the union over each of the intervals of An−1 , we see that A has the desired form.
By this description, we see that if x is an endpoint of an interval of An , then it is an
endpoint of an interval of An+1 , and inductively an endpoint of an interval of every Am for
m ≥ n. Thus, x ∈ C.
(d) Show that C has no isolated points.
Let U be a nonempty open set in C, and let x ∈ U . There is some  > 0 such that
(x − , x + ) ∩ C ⊂ U . Choose n sufficiently large that 1/3n < , and let Bn be the
subinterval of An that contains x. Then Bn ⊂ (x − , x + ). Let a and b be the endpoints of
Bn (one of which could be equal to x). Then a and b are both contained in C by the previous
part, so they are in U . Thus, any open set in C contains at least two distinct points.
(e) Conclude that C is uncountable.
C is a compact Hausdorff space with no isolated points, so it is uncountable.
(The set of points that are endpoints of some subinterval of An is countable: is a union of
countably many finite sets. So this shows that not every point of C is an endpoint.)