Skinfold Equations for Estimation of Body Fatness in Children and Youth

Author(s): M.H. SLAUGHTER, T.G. LOHMAN, R.A. BOILEAU, C.A. HORSWILL, R.J. STILLMAN,
M.D. VAN LOAN and D.A. BEMBEN
Source: Human Biology, Vol. 60, No. 5 (OCTOBER 1988), pp. 709-723
Published by: Wayne State University Press
Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/41464064 .
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Skinfold Equations for Estimation of Body Fatness in Children
and Youth

BYM.H.SLAUGHTER1,T.G. LOHMAN2,R.A.BOILEAU,
C.A. HORSWILL3,
R.J.
M.D. VANLOAN4
STILLMAN, ANDD.A. BEMBEN5

Abstract The purpose of thisstudywasto assessthepredictability of

bodyfatness as determinedbythreeseparate approaches: ( 1) bodydensity
from hydrostaticweighingandfunctional residualvolume alone(PFD); (2)
bodydensity andwater(PFDW);(3) bodydensity, water andbonemineral
(PFDWB).Bonemineral wasestimated from radius
andulnameasurements
usingphotonabsorptiometry, and totalbodywaterwasestimated using
deuterium oxidedilution.Nine skinfolds weretakenwitha Harpenden
caliper.A 4 X 2 X 2 factorialplanwasusedrepresenting fourmaturation
on
groups(based secondary sex characteristics)males and females,black
andwhitesubjects. Thesample consistedof310subjects children andadults
rangingin agefrom 8-29 years.In theprepubescent andpubescent groups
ofchildren,systematic werefound
differences among methods withthePFD
aloneproducing highermeandensity valuesthantheothertwoestimates.
Constants werefitted bytheleastsquaresmethodin a stepdown
multipleregression todetermine
analysis whichskinfold measurements most
accuratelypredicted PFDWB.The systematic effectsofracialgroup, sex,
andmaturation werealsoincluded in theanalysis.The R2andSEE from
sumof triceps and calfand sumof triceps and calfsquaredplusdesign
variablesin prepubescent groupweresubstantially lowerforeachof the
threePFDestimates compared totheotherthree groups. WhenPFestimate
wasdetermined from PFDWBrather thanPFDalonetheR2increased from
62%to77%andtheSEE dropped from 4.5 to3.9%,lending supporttothe
conceptthatconstants usedto estimate fatin adultstendto overestimate
bodyfatness in children.Curvilinearequations fortheprediction ofPFD-
WBarepresented fortriceps
andsubscapular skinfoldsandlinearequations
fortricepsandcalfskinfolds taking intoaccounttheeffects ofmaturation
level,raceandsex.Theseequations mayprovide moreaccurate estimates
of
PFthanthosecurrently sincetheytakeintoconsideration
available, theuse
ofa multicomponent approach to bodycomposition andaccountforthe
chemical immaturity ofchildren.
Fitness
Physical Research
Laboratory,
DepartmentofKinesiology,
University at
ofIllinois
Urbana-Champaign
ofExercise
2Department andSport
Sciences,
University Tucson
ofArizona,
ofPhysical
3Department BallStateUniversity,
Education, IN47304
Muncie,
P.O.Box29997,
ofAgriculture,
4U.S.Department California
SanFrancisco,
Presido 94129
ofHealth
5Department & Physical
Education, Missouri
Northeast Kirksville,
University,
MO63501
HumanBiology, 1988,Vol.60,No.5,pp.709-723
October
Wayne
StateUniversity 1988
Press,

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 ET AL.
710 / SLAUGHTER

The accurateestimation ofbodyfatnessfromskinfolds in childrenand youthis

limitedbyseveralproblems whichhave notbeen adequatelyresolved(Lohman
et al. 1984b;Lohman1986; Boileauet al. 1985; Boileauet al. 1988; Mukherjee
and Roche 1984; Forbes1972, 1978). First,thereareseveralgroupsofchildren
forwhichequationshave beendeveloped(Parizkova1961a;Younget al. 1968;
Lohmanet al. 1984b; Harshaet al. 1978; Boileau et al. 1981, 1985). These
equations,however,havenotbeencross- validatedon othersamplesofchildren
such as thosewho are obese or highlyactive,or childrenat different matura-
tionallevels.A secondproblemlimiting theaccurateestimation ofbodyfatness
fromskinfoldsis that childrenare chemicallyimmature, whichmeans that
equationsdevelopedon prepubescent childrenwhichuse conversionconstants
derivedfromadult samplesmayoverestimate bodyfatnessby 3-6% fat and
underestimate lean bodyweight(Lohmanet al. 1984b).
A thirdcomplicationwhich occursin estimatingthe bodyfatnessof
childrenand youthis thatthereis a changein thechemicalcomposition ofthe
fat-freebody(FFB) as thechildpassesthrough puberty. Thus,estimates ofbody
fatnessmayreflectthechangingFFB composition ratherthanchangein actual
fatcontent.An exampleofthisproblemcan be seenfromthedatapresented by
Harsha et al. (1978). Equationsbased on a 6 to 16 yearold populationare
applicableto neitherthe6 to 9 yearold norto the 14 to 16 yearold populations.
To solve thisdifficulty,
estimatesofbodyfatnessneed to be developedusinga
multicomponent approachto bodycompositionmeasurement ratherthanthe
traditionaltwo-component model.
The purposeofthisstudywasto assessthepredictability ofbodyfatnessas
determinedby threeseparateapproaches:(1) bodydensityfromhydrostatic
weighingand functional residualvolumealone (D); (2) bodydensityand water
(DW); and (3) bodydensity,waterand bone mineral(DWB). The hypothesis
forthe studywas that improvedestimatesof percentfatcan be achievedin
childrenand youthwhentotalbodywaterand bonemineralin additionto body
density,are takenintoaccount.

Materials and Methods

The 310 subjectsin thisstudyincludedfourmaturation groupsof black

and whitemalesand femalesarrangedin 4 X2 x 2 factorial plan. The studywas
conductedin Illinois(182) and replicatedin Arizona(128). Thereweresixty-
six prepubescentchildren(50 boysand 16 girls);fifty-nine pubescentchildren
(30 boysand 29 females);117 postpubescent (58 malesand 59 females);and 68
adults(36 malesand 32 females).The maturational level of the subjectswas
assessedby the TannerScale (1962) of pubertalstagedevelopmentto classify
each subjectas prepubescent (stages1 and 2), pubescent(stage3), postpubes-
cent (stages4 and 5) or adult(stage6 and higher).The Illinoissample(IL) was

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 BodyInertia
andJoint
Torques/ 711

recruitedfromtwo seniorhigh schools,two juniorhigh schoolsand several

elementary schools,fromparticipants in a SportsFitnessProgram, and fromthe
University ofIllinois.The Arizonasample(AZ) wasrecruited fromelementary,
juniorhighand seniorhighschoolsoftwoschooldistricts as wellas theUniver-
sityofArizona.The projectwasapprovedbyboththeUniversity ofIllinoisand
Universityof Arizona Institutional Review Boards,and a writteninformed
consentwasobtainedforeach subjectandfromtheguardianofeach minorchild
priorto participation. The studyhas beenpreviously described(Slaughteret al.
1984; Boileauet al. 1984; Lohmanet al. 1984a).
Bodydensitywasmeasured byunderwater weighing withthebodyvolume
estimatefromunderwaterweightcorrectedfor pulmonaryresidualvolume
(Boileauet al. 1981). FortheIllinoissampleresidualvolumewasdetermined at
the timeof underwater weighing;forthe Arizonasampleresidualvolumewas
determined on land. The differencesbetweenmeansforbodydensitybetween
Arizonaand Illinoiswas .003 g/ccforall groupswithArizonahavinghigher
bodydensityvaluesin all cases. In spiteofthegroupmeandifferences between
the twosamplesthe patternof changein the relationship of skinfoldto body
densitybetweenmaturationlevels was similar.Thereforethe data forboth
sampleswerecombinedforfuture analysis.
Bodywaterwasmeasured bydeuterium oxidedilutionusinga modification
of the methodof Byers(1979) and describedby Boileau et al. (1984). Bone
mineralmeasurements weremade on both the rightand leftradiusand ulna
usingphotonabsorptiometry (Cameronand Sorenson1963) a NorlandCam-
eronBone MineralAnalyzeras describedbyLohmanet al. (1984a).
Nine skinfold measurements (triceps,biceps,subscapula,midaxillary, su-
prailiac,anteriorsuprailiac,abdominal,mid-thigh and medialcalf)weretaken
on therightsideofthebodybya Harpendencaliperand recordedto thenearest
0. 1 mm. Three completesetsof measurement weretakenconsecutively. The
meanof the threemeasurements was usedas the representative value foreach
site. The specificsitesare describedbySlaughteret al. (1984). The equations
usedfortheprediction ofpercentbodyfatwere:
(1) PFD (Siri, 1961) = [(4.95/BD) - 4.50] x 100
whereBD = bodydensity(g/cc)
(2) PFDW (modification ofSiri, 1961) =
[(2.057/BD) .800 (PWBWT) - 1.286] x 100
-
wherePWBWT = Total BodyWater(L)/BodyWeight(kg)
(3) PFDWB (Boileau et al., 1985) =
- 2.053] x 100
[(2.747/BD) - .727 (PWBWT) + 1.146 xMW
=
whereMW Total BodyMineral(kg)/BodyWeight(kg)
Total BodyMineral= MineralContentofFat-FreeBodyx
Fat-FreeBodyWeight,
and MineralContentofFFB = 2.1 x RadiusBone Mineral+ 4.05
and FFB = BodyWeight- (PFDWB x BodyWeight)

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 ET AL.
712 / SLAUGHTER

The development and derivationof theseformulasare describedby Boileauet

al. (1985) and Lohman(1986).
Constantswerefittedbytheleast-squaresmethodin a multipleregression
analysisto determine
which skinfoldmeasuresmost accuratelypredictedPF from
each ofthethreeapproaches.The systematic effect
ofracialgroup,sex,matura-
tionand samplewasalso includedin theanalysis(designvariables).The recom-
mendedequationsforthe predictionof PFDWB fromtricepsand subscapular
skinfolds on samplesfromtheliterature
werecross-validated to testforexternal
validity.

Results

The physicalcharacteristicsofsubjectsin thissample(Table 1) aresimilar

to thosefoundin theliteratureforchildrenofequivalentages(Parizkova1961a;
1961b; Boileau et al. 1981; Younget al. 1968); foryouth(Parizkova1961a;
Young et al. 1968; Katch and Michael 1969); and foradults(Wilmoreand
Behnke1969; 1970; Lohmanet al. 1978;Katchand McArdle1973).
The sumof tricepsand subscapular skinfolds (mm) are also reportedin
Table 1. Forthe8-11 yearold males,themeantricepsandsubscapular measure-
mentswere1 to 3 mmlargerat a givenage thanthedatafroma NationalHealth
Survey(Johnston etal. 1972; 1974). Forotherage groupsofmalesand females
themeanofthesumoftricepsand subscapular waswithin1 mmoftheNational
HealthSurveyforeach age group.
The PFD (percentfatfrombodydensity),the PFDW (percentfatfrom
bodydensityand water)and PFDWB (percentfatfromdensity, waterandbone)
foreach of the maturational groupsare presentedin Table 2. In the prepubes-
cent male group,the PFD was 23.5, 20.4 PFDW and 19.0 PFDWB. In the
pubescentmale groupthe PFD was 20.7, comparedto 18.6, PFDW, and 17.3
PFDWB. In the pubescentfemalegroup,PFD was 27.9, 24.8 PFDW and 23.7
PFDWB. In the postpubescent and adultgroupsthe threeestimatesofpercent
fatforbothmalesandfemaleswerefoundto be quitesimilar,suggesting thatthe
FFB composition had stabilized(Boileauet al. 1985; Lohmanet al. 1984b).
Constantswerefittedbytheleastsquaresmethodin a stepdownmultiple
regressionanalysisto determine whichskinfold measurements mostaccurately
predictedPFD, PFDW, and PFDWB (Table 3). The systematic effects ofracial
group,sex,and maturation werealso includedin theanalysis(designvariables).
In generaltwoskinfolds weresatisfactory
in predicting 7
bodyfatness.
The coefficients ofdeterminationand standard errors
ofestimatefromthe
sumof tricepsand calfand the sumof tricepsand calfsquaredplusthe design
variablesin theprepiibescentgroupweresubstantially lowerforeach ofthethree

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 ET AL.
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Table2. Means and StandardDeviationsof PercentFat

By MaturationalGroupings
(N = 310)

Percent
Fat
Percent
Fat fromDensity
Percent
Fat from b
Density Waterand
from a
Density andWater BoneMineralc
Maturational
Level Sex X SD X SD X SD

Prepubescent Male 23.5 7.4 20.4 8.2 19.0 8.1

N = 66 (50)
Female 27.8 5.4 24.4 6.8 23.2 6.6
(16)
Pubescent Male 20.7 8.4 18.6 7.2 17.3 7.3
N = 59 (30)
Female 27.9 7.1 24.8 6.8 23.7 6.8
(29)
Postpubescent Male 14.7 6.4 15.1 6.4 14.0 6.2
N = 117 (58)
Female 25.4 5.8 24.7 6.1 23.6 6.0
(59)
Adult Male 15.8 6.4 17.2 7.8 16.4 7.4
N = 68 (36)
Female 27.0 6.1 27.2 6.4 26.2 6.4
(32)
- 4.50]x 100
aPFD= [(4.95/BD)
hPPFDW - .800(PWBWT)
= [(2.057/BD) - 1.286]x 100
CPFDWB - .727(PWBWT)
= [(2.747/BD) + 1.146BMW - 2.0503]x 100

estimatesof PF comparedto theotherthreematurational However,

groupings.
when the PF estimatewas determined fromDWB ratherthan D alone the
amountofvarianceaccountedforincreasedfrom62% to 77%. In addition,the
SEE droppedfrom4.5 to 3.9%. The same findings wereseen forthe sumof
and
triceps subscapular estimates.
In thepubescentgroup,thetricepsand calfcombination yieldeda coeffi-
cientsof determination of 72% forPFD alone witha SEE of 4.5%; and a
coefficient
ofdeterminationof80% forthePFDWB witha SEE of3.4%. Forthe
tricepsand subscapularcombination,the coefficient
of determinationforthe
estimateofPFD was 74%, witha SEE of4.3%; andforthePFDWB, 82% witha
SEE of 3.2%. In boththe postpubescentand adultgroupsthe estimatesof PF
fromthe threemethodsweresimilar.

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 Skinfold forEstimation
Equations ofBodyFatness/ 715

Table3. PredictionofPercentFat UsingThreeDifferent

ApproachesfromSum of
Two Skinfolds3
Total
Pubescent
Prepubescent Adult
Postpubescent Sample
Independent DependentR2x SEE R2x SEE R2x SEE R2x SEE R2x SEE

SumTriceps+ PFDd 62 4.5 72 4.5 81 3.5 82 3.6 77 3.9

Calfplusdesign PFDWe 77 3.9 77 3.6 74 4.0 77 4.2 75 4.0
bc
variables PFDWBf 77 3.9 80 3.4 77 3.7 79 3.9 78 3.8
SumTriceps+ PFDd 66 4.3 74 4.3 74 4.1 82 3.5 75 4.1
plus PFDWe
Subscapular 80 3.7 80 3.4 73 4.1 77 4.2 76 4.0
designvariables15
PFDWBb 80 3.6 82 3.2 76 3.8 80 3.8 78 3.7

aN = 66prepubescent,
59pubescent, and68adult
117 postpubescent
hDesignvariables
include:
maturation
(linear,
quadratic sex,raceandsample)
andcubic,
cAlsosumoftriceps+ calfsquared
wasincludedintheanalysis.
dPFD= [(4.95/BD) - 4.50]x 100
ePFDW= [(2.057/BD) - .800(PWBWT) - 1.286]x 100
fPFDWB = [(2.747/BD)- .727(PWBWT) + 1.146MW- 2.0503]x 100

Anothermethodof studying whetherthe relationship betweenskinfolds

and percentfat improveswhen bone and waterare takeninto accountis to
examinethe F ratiosof the regression coefficients forthe designvariablesof
sample,sex, race, sex X race, and maturation (linear,quadraticand cubic
effects)in addition to the sum of skinfoldsforeach ofthemethodsofestimating
fat
percent (Table 4). When the sum of tricepsand calfskinfolds are used to
predictPFD, six of the regression coefficients are
(besidesskinfolds) significant
(sample,sex, sex X race,and thethreeeffects ofmaturation). However,when
estimating PFDWB, only two of the regressioncoefficients in addition to skin-
foldsremainsignificant. When thesumoftricepsand subscapular skinfolds are
to
used predictPFD, all seven of the regressioncoefficients (besidesskinfolds)
are significant (sample,sex, race,sex X race,and the threeeffects of matura-
tion). Again, when estimating PFDWB, only four of the regressioncoefficients
otherthanthetwoskinfold sitesremainsignificant.
The effectof maturation on the change in the skinfold-body fat rela-
tionship was found to be largerformales than females (Table 5). The difference
of3% fat(DWB) betweentheprepubescent maleand theadultmalecontrasted
withthe 1% fat(DWB) difference forfemalesfora giventricepsplussubscapular
thickness.Becauseofthesmallersamplesizein theprepubescent femalegroup,
the change in the skinfoldto percentfat relationshipwas not as precisely
estimatedforfemalesas formales.For the tricepsand calfcombinationa 1%
changeovermaturation groupswasfound,withPF fora givenskinfold lowerin

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 ET AL.
716 / SLAUGHTER

Table4. Predictionof PercentFat fromSum of Two Skinfoldsand Design

Variables3
PFI> PFDWBd PFDWBe
+ 2 TricepsX Triceps
2 TricepsX Triceps + 2 Triceps2 Triceps
+
+ Ca/ Subscapular + Ca/ Subscapular + Ca/ Subscapular
(mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm)

Sumoftwo 54.5*b 76.9* 35.0* 102.2* 42.0* 117.1*

skinfolds
Sumsquared 6.6 18.3* .6 25.4* 1.0 29.0*
Maturation, 27.7* 84.2* .1 17.2* 1.1 13.4*
linear
Maturation, 9.2* 5.7* 9.8* 6.5* 11.4* 7.6*
quad
Maturation, 5.5* 5.1* .9 .7 1.1 .9
cubic
Sex 15.5* 48.9* 3.4 18.1* 3.4 20.1*
Race .2 12.9* " .15 10.9* .0 12.3*
Sex X Race 10.2* 5.4* 2.6 .3 4.2* .8
Sample 9.3* 18.4* .16 .6 .01 2.0
aN = 310
h*p< .05
- 4.50]x 100
CPFD= [(4.95/BD)
- 4.50]x 100
dPFDW= [(2.057/BD)
ePFDWB- [(2.747/BD)
- .727(PWBWT)
+ 1.46(MW)- 2.0503]x 100

the pubescentand postpubescent groupsthan in the prepubescent and adult

groups. Because differences
among maturation groups were small,it was unnec-
essaryto have separateequationsfor each maturationalgrouptTable 6).
The.relationofsumofskinfolds to PFDWB was notsignificantly affected
by Facialgroup,except formaleswhen and
triceps' subscapular was used. Fora
given skinfoldthickness,blackmales are 1.9% lessfatthan white males (Table
5). Forfemalesusingbothcombinations ofskinfolds,
andforthetricepspluscalf
combinationformales no significant differencesbetweenracial groupswere
foundand beeausethe difference was lessthan 1% betweengroups,no adjust-
mentsweremadeforracein theequationsin Table.
Basedon theresultsofTables4 and 5, quadraticequationsforthepredic-
tion of PFDWB are providedfortricepsand subscapular skinfolds, and linear
equationsfortricepsand calfskinfoldsand theseequationsarefoundin Table 6..
No change in interceptis neededforchildrenor youngadultsbecausesmall
differencesin maturation werefoundfortricepsand calfin bothsexesand for
tricepsand subscapularin females.Formales,thesumoftricepsand subscapular

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 Table5. AdjustedMeans forPercentFat
(DWB) HoldingSkinfoldsConstantWithinSex,
Race and Maturation
X Triceps
plus 2 Triceps
plus
ab
Subscapular Calf
Group Black White Black White

Males
Prepubescent 16.9 18.8 16.1 16.8
Pubescent 15.3 17.1 14.9 15.6
Postpubescent 13.4 15.3 14.7 15.4
Adult 13.9 15.8 17.0 17.7
Females
Prepubescent 24.5 25.6 24.9 23.9
Pubescent 23.5 24.5 24.5 23.5
Postpubescent 22.5 23.5 24.0 23.0
Adult 23.5 24.6 25.9 24.9
aSignificant
effects
ofracewasfoundonlyformales
with
the
+ subscapular
triceps p = < .05
combinations:
effect
Significant ofmaturation
wasfoundwith-in and
group
forbothskinfold p = < .05
combinations:

Table6. RecommendedEquationsforPredictionof PF
fromSum of Two Skinfolds
Regression Regression
Skinfolds Coefficients Coefficients
(mm) (X 2) (2 2)2 Intercept SEE, PFDWB

TricepsandSubscapular0
Males 1.21 -.008 Ib 3.6
Females 1.33 -.013 -2.5 3.9
TricepsandCalf(mm)
Males .735 - 1.0 3.8
Females .610 - 5.1 3.8

aAllintercepts
were increasedinallgroupsby1.4%because oflowermeanbody (.003g/cc)
density
inthisvalidationsampleascompared tobody densities tothesameageandskinfolds
adjusted of
otherchildren
andyouth (Harsha etal.,1978;Boileauetal.,1981;Mukherjee
& Roche,1984and
Lussier
andBuskirk, 1977.
inmales
bIntercept varies
formaturation levelandracial
groupasfollows:
Forblack
males:prepubes-
cent-3.5; pubescent -5.2; postpubescentandadult-6.8. Forwhitemales: -1.7;
prepubescent,
pubescent,-3.4; postpubescentandadult, -5.5.
cEquations
arelinear for
sumofskinfolds than
greater 35mm= for PFDWB
males, = .783(triceps
+ subscapular)
+ 1.6.Forfemales, PFDWB= .546(triceps + 9.7.
+ subscapular)

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 ET AL
718 / SLAUGHTER

withPFDWB does varywithmaturation,

relationship and thisis shownin the
footnoteofTable 6.
All interceptsin Table 6 wereincreasedby 1.4% becauseof the lower
body densityin the presentsampleas comparedto the mean of fourother
samplesin the literature.
In thesesampleswhenage and skinfolds (tricepsand
subscapular)wereheld constant,a densitydifference
of .003% was found.For
example,a skinfold thicknessof 18 mmfor10 yearold malescorresponds to a
densityof 1.050 g/ccin the othersamplesas comparedto 1.047 g/ccin the
presentsample.

Discussion

Recentstudieshaveshowntheneedto examinetheapplicationofpresent
bodycompositiontechniquesto theestimation ofbodyfatnessin childrenand
youth(Boileau et al. 1985; Lohman1986; Boileauet al. 1988). For the most
part,estimatesofpercentfathavebeenbasedon theassumption thattheyoung
childis nearchemicalmaturity and thattheconstants developedforadultsusing
thetwo-component system(Lohman1986) can be appliedto children.
Slaughteret al. (1984) foundthatsignificant changes(p < .05) in the
relationof skinfolds to densityoccurfromprepubescence to pubescenceand
frompubescenceto postpubescence. These resultshave important implications
for estimatingbody fatnessin childrenfromanthropometry-density rela-
tionships,sinceadultanthropometric equationsunderestimate thebodydensity
ofchildrenand thusoverestimate bodyfatness.
To studythisproblemfurther, PF was estimatedusingthreeapproaches:
fromdensityalone (PFD), fromdensityand water(PFDW) and fromdensity,
waterand bone (PFDWB). In the prepubescent and pubescentgroupsof chil-
dren, systematic differenceswere foundamongmethods,with the PF from
densityalone producing highervalues(Table 2). This factlendssupportto the
conceptthatconstantsusedto estimatefatin adultstendto overestimate body
fatnessin children.The PFDWB estimatesin the postpubescent and adult
groupsarequitesimilar,indicating thattheFFB mayhaveapproachedchemical
maturity. Also, in the prepubescentand pubescentgroups,PF estimatedfrom
density,waterand bone can be morecloselypredictedfromskinfolds thanPF
fromdensityalone. In the postpubescent and adult groups,the amountof
varianceaccountedforis similarforall threemethods.
This studyattemptsto correctforthreemajorproblemsevidentin past
researchwhichhave used anthropometric dimensionsto provideestimatesof
bodyfatnessin childrenand youth.These problemsare outlinedin a recent
reviewbyLohman(1986). When thePFD is estimated, six out ofthesevenof
the designvariablesare significant[maturation (linear,quadraticand cubic),

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 Skinfold forEstimation
Equations ofBodyFatness/ 719

sex, sex X raceand sample]in additionto thesumoftricepsand calfskinfold.

When tricepsand subscapular skinfolds areusedto predictPFD all sevendesign
variables[maturation(linear,quadraticand cubic), sex, race,sex X race,and
sample)are significant along with the skinfolds.However,when estimating
PFDWB, onlytwoofthedesignvariablesremainsignificant whenusingtriceps
andcalf,comparedto fourfromtricepsandsubscapular. In addition,theamount
ofvarianceaccountedforis increasedand theSEE is decreased(Table 3). These
resultsstronglysuggestthatchangesin the densityof the fat-free body(FFBd)
altertheapparentrelationofpercentfatto skinfolds. When changesin thefat-
freebodydensityareaccountedforbyestimating PFDWB, theeffects ofmatura-
tionand racialgroupsarereduced(Table 3).
The recommended equationsforpredictingpercentfatfromskinfold equa-
tionsforchildrenand youthmayprovidemoreaccurateestimatesof PF than
thosecurrentlyavailable(Table 6), sincetheytakeintoconsideration theuseof
a multicomponent approachto bodycomposition and accountforthechemical
immaturity ofchildren.The skinfold equationsshownbeloware recommended
forpredictingbodyfatin children8-18 yearsofage and theyareas follows:

For Tricepsand Calf

Males: PFDWB = .735 (triceps+ calf) + 1.0
Females:PFDWB = .610 (triceps+ calf) + 5.1

For Tricepsand Subscapular

Prepubescent WhiteMales: PFDWB =1.21 (triceps+ subscapular)- .008

(triceps+ subscapular)21.7
Prepubescent BlackMales: PFDWB = 1.21 (triceps+ subscapular)- .008
-
(triceps+ subscapular)2 3.2
PubescentWhiteMales: PFDWB =1.21 (triceps+ subscapular- .008
-
(triceps+ subscapular)2 3.4
PubescentBlackMales: PFDWB =1.21 (triceps+ subscapular)- .008
-
(triceps+ subscapular)2 5.2
Postpubescent WhiteMales: PFDWB =1.21 (triceps+ subscapular)- .008
- 5.5
(triceps+ subscapular)2
Postpubescent BlackMales: PFDWB =1.21 (triceps+ subscapular)- .008
- 6.8
(triceps+ subscapular)2
All Females: PFDWB = 1.33 (triceps+ subscapular)- .013
-
(triceps+ subscapular)2 2.5
greaterthan35 mm,thefollowing
Fora sumoftricepand subscapular equation
shouldbe applied.
All Males PFDWB = .783 (triceps+ subscapular)+ 1.6
All FemalesPFDWB = .546 (triceps+ subscapular)+ 9.7

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 ET AL.
720 / SLAUGHTER

Table 7. Cross-validationof New EquationsforTriceps

and SubscapularSkinfolds
Mean Densityglee ^wo
Age Skfs.
yrs Body FFB (mm) PFDa PFskb Authors

Children
Males 9.9 1.054 1.084 18.3 13.9 17.2 Boileauet al.
(1981)
11.7 1.046 1.087 23.0 19.0 19.6 Harshaetal. ( 1978)
Mukherjee & Roche
11.6 1.058 1.087 16.1 13.3 13.4 (1984)
Females 12.0 1.034 1.086 29.5 24.3 25.4 Harshaetal. ( 1978)
11.9 1.040 1.086 26.4 21.4 23.6 Mukherjee & Roche
(1984)
1.0370 1.082 22.0 21.9 20.5 Younget al. (1968)
d 1.0372 1.092 26.4 24.6 24.6 Younget al. (1968)

Adults
Age Density Two
Range Body Skinfolds
Sample (yrs) glee (mm) PFDa PFskb Authors

Adults
Males 19.3 1.065 26.7 15.3 20.0 Katch& McArdle
(1973)
18-22 1.068 27.5 13.4 20.6 Pollocket al. (1976)
18-26 1.075 16.9 10.9 11.6 Sloan(1967)
24 1.064 21.8 15.2 16.0 Durnin & Womersley
(1974)
22.0 1.066 22.0 14.6 16.1 Wilmore & Behnke
(1969)
Females 20.3 1.039 40.4 25.6 30.0 Katch& McArdle
(1973)
18-22 1.043 34.1 24.8 27.7 Pollocket al. (1975)
23 1.037 29.0 27.2 25.1 Durnin & Womersley
(1974)
21.4 1.041 26.0 25.7 23.3 Wilmore & Behnke
(1970)
aPFD= [4.95/BD- 4.50]x 100
hSkinfold arefound
equations inTable6
cNon~menarche
girls
dMenarche
girls

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 Skinfold
Equations ofBodyFatness/ 721
forEstimation

The newbodyfatequationsarecurvilinear fortricepsand subscapular but

not forthe tricepsand calf. This is explainedby the curvilinearrelationof
subscapular skinfold and bodydensity,as contrasted withthelinearrelationfor
thetricepsskinfold and bodydensity.The changein thetricepplussubscapular
skinfoldto thebodyfatrelation(intercept change)withmaturation isconsistent
withthe findings of Baumgartner et al. (1986) who showedan increasein the
relativethicknessof trunkskinfolds whencomparedto extremity skinfoldsin
malesbut not femalesduringadolescence.The adjustment in the intercept of
therecommended equationsappears to be needed because of the lower
slightly
densityvalues (.003 g/cc) foundforin the presentsampleunderwhichthe
equationwasderived.This shouldlead to improved cross-validation results.
Because many studies
have reported mean tricepsand subscapularskin-
foldsand bodydensity,mean PF can be estimated using the new equations
developedin Table 6 and comparedwith estimatedfrombodydensityin
PF
othersamples.If the new equationspredictthe fat contentof the original
sample,usingthemeanskinfolds oftheoriginalsample,thenthenewequations
mayhave someexternalvalidityespeciallyforindividualsnearthe population
mean. Comparingthe fatcontentsby the two approachesin adults,general
agreement is foundformostsamples(Table 7). In twosampleswhereagreement
is not found,i.e., Katchand McArdle(1973) and Pollocket al. (1975, 1976)
forbothmale and femalesamples,the Langecaliperwas used. Since the new
equationsweredevelopedusingtheHarpendenskinfold caliperand sinceit has
been shownthat the Lange caliperproduceshigherreadingsthan the Har-
penden(Lohmanet al. 1983) partoftheobserveddifferences maybe associated
withthehigherskinfold readingoftheLangecaliper.
Since in ourpreviousworkwe haveshownthatthefat-free bodydensityis
lowerin childrenone cannotuse theoriginalSiri'sequation(1961) to estimate
bodyfatnessfrombodydensity.For the purposeof estimating percentfatfor
each ofthethreegroupsofchildrenfromtheliterature (Table 7) a fat-free
body
densityvalue was assignedbasedon age (Lohman 1986). Thus the new equa-
tionsappearto be estimating thebodyfatcontentin severalsamplesofchildren
and adultswithouta largesystematic error.Further to cross-validate
efforts these
equationsmustemploya multicomponent bodycomposition approachas wellas
a largesamplesize.

Thisstudy
Acknowledgments inpartbyNIH GrantAM26351andAM
wassupported
35586

1988.
9 July1987. Accepted10 February
Received

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 ET AL.
722 / SLAUGHTER

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