Journal of Geochemical Exploration 77 (2003) 45 63

www.elsevier.com/locate/jgeoexp

Application of geostatistical methods in gold geochemical

anomalies identification (Montemor-O-Novo, Portugal)
A.P. Reis a,b,*, A.J. Sousa b, E. Cardoso Fonseca c
a
Bolseira BPD, FCT, Portugal
b
CVRM, Instituto Superior Tecnico, Av. Rovisco Pais 1049-001 Lisbon, Portugal
c
Departamento de Geociencias, Universidade de Aveiro, 3810, Aveiro, Portugal
Received 26 September 2002

Abstract

The study described herein concerns the application of geostatistical methods to data soil from Montemor-O-Novo area
(Southern Portugal). In the area, the gold mineralised zones (Banhos, Caeiras, Fales, Gamela, Malaca and Monfurado) are
characterised by different geological settings and mineralogical assemblages. A total of 1211 soil samples were collected in
Montemor-O-Novo area and analysed for Cu, Pb, Zn, As, Ba and Au by atomic absorption spectrometry.
To account for spatial structure, simple and cross variograms were computed for the main directions of the grid sampling.
From the experimental variograms a linear model of coregionalization composed of three structures, a nugget effect and two
anisotropic spherical structures, was fitted to each of the six variables. The coregionalization matrices deduced from the
theoretical model show the relationships between the variables at different scales. These matrices were compared with those
obtained by principal component analysis (PCA).
This methodology was the basis for estimating the corresponding spatial components (Y0, Y1 and Y2) using factorial
kriging analysis (FKA). Maps of raw data, Y0, Y1 and Y2 were made for each variable.
The use of multivariate analysis permit the study of the spatial structure intrinsic to geochemical data and the identification
and refinement of significant anomalies related to Au-bearing mineral deposits.
D 2002 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Gold; Factorial analysis of coregionalizations; Factorial kriging; Geochemical exploration; Portugal

1. Introduction ing in temperature pressure relationships from hypo-

Gold occurs in association with mineralised rocks
related to igneous intrusives that range in composition
from felsic to ultramafic; hydrothermal systems rang-
* Corresponding author. CVRM, Instituto Superior Tecnico, Av.
Rovisco Pais 1049-001 Lisbon, Portugal. Tel.: +351-234-370804;
fax: +351-234-370605.
E-mail addresses: pmarinho@geo.ua.pt (A.P. Reis),
ajsousa@ist.utl.pt (A.J. Sousa).
thermal to epithermal; contact metamorphic, peg-
matitic and replacement deposits; porphyries and
disseminated deposits and placer deposits of Au and
other metals (Antweiler and Campbell, 1982). Most
auriferous deposits contain essentially the same suite
of elements, but the content range widely from traces
to minor amounts (Boyle, 1979).
Chemical and mechanical processes contribute to
the formation of the secondary dispersion halo of
Au. The balance between both processes depends,

0375-6742/02/$ - see front matter D 2002 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/S0375-6742(02)00269-8
46 A.P. Reis et al. / Journal of Geochemical Exploration 77 (2003) 4563
essentially, on the morphological and climate con-
ditions and the type of mineralisation. The geo-
chemical signature of Au at the surface mostly
depends upon the behaviour of Au and accompa-
nying minerals in the relevant supergene environ-
ment.
A large number of elements (e.g. Cu, Ag, Zn, Cd,
As, Sb, Bi, Se and Te) are enriched in Au-bearing
deposits, occurring either in accompanying metallic
minerals, in native gold or in various other Au
minerals (Boyle, 1979). Most of these elements are
useful as indicators of the presence of gold (pathfinder
elements) and should be considered in all types of
geochemical surveys.
The main purposes of this paper are (1) the
definition of regional geochemical patterns of gold
and its pathfinder elements, and (2) the detection of
anomalies at a smaller scale, using geostatistical
methods such as variography, factorial analysis of
coregionalization and factorial kriging analysis.
These methodologies have been used successfully
by several authors on different scientific domains:
geochemical exploration (Jimenez-Espinosa et al.,
1992), soil sciences (Goovaerts and Webster, 1994),
mining (Sousa, 1989) or environment (Batista et al.,
2000).
2. Geostatistical methodology
The variography allows the description of the
spatial pattern of a continuous attribute zj, say a
pollutant concentration of a chemical element or the
anomalous concentrations of a metal orebodies with
economic interest. Given a data set for the variable zj
at n locations ua, zj(ua), a = 1, 2,. . ., n, the experi-
mental cross variogram cjj V*(h) measures the average
dissimilarity between data variables j and jV separated
by a vector h (Goovaerts, 1999).
N h
1 X
cjj V *h Zj xi h  Zj xi 
2N h 1
 Zj V xi h  Zj V xi 
When j = jVthis expression gives the simple variogram
of variable j.
These experimental variograms can be fitted by a
linear model of coregionalization (Wackernagel,
1988) giving rise to a set of coregionalization matri-
ces.
The coregionalization matrices can be viewed as
partitions of the variance covariance matrix, showing
the relationships between the variables at different
scales. Each matrix may be submitted to a principal
component analysis (PCA) as suggested by Wacker-
nagel (1988).
Factorial kriging analysis (FKA) is a geostatistical
method used in geochemical exploration for filtering
purposes (Sandjivy, 1984; Wackernagel, 1988). With
FKA it is possible to estimate spatial components
corresponding to different scales of variability (sam-
ple scale phenomenon, local and regional events),
revealed by simple and cross variogram functions.
3. Montemor-O-Novo mining district
The Montemor-O-Novo mining district is an elon-
gated area trending NW SE with an approximated
length of 35 km (Fig. 1). This area is located on a
large anticlinorium structure, limited at W and NE by
two major thrust zones. Fig. 1 shows the geology
(Gonhas and Martins, 1986; Carvalhosa and Zby-
zewski, 1994) of the Montemor-O-Novo mining dis-
trict.
Economic concentrations of Au in these area
deposits (Banhos, Caeiras, Fales, Gamela, Malaca
and Monfurado) are characterised by slightly different
geological settings and mineralogical assemblages.
Banhos mineralisation is at the contact between
amphibolites/leptites of Escoural Unit and a small
granitic intrusion. In this area Au is associated to
arsenopyrite. Caeiras deposit is in Monfurado Unit
(micaschists and gneisses, leptites associated to
amphibolites). Monfurado deposit is at the contact
between Monfurado Unit and Escoural Unit (lyddites,
quartzite, micaschists and subordinated amphibolites).
Lyddites occur as layers in the quartzite and are
mineralised (pyrite, pyrrotite, Fe-oxides/hydroxides,
gold). Gamela is at the contact between orthogneisses
and Monfurado Unit. The Monfurado Unit leptites
have a pyrite-Fe oxides/hydroxides-minor arseno-
pyrite mineralogical assemblage whilst the orthog-
neisses have arsenopyrite. In these three areas gold is
 A.P. Reis et al. / Journal of Geochemical Exploration 77 (2003) 4563 47

Fig. 1. Geologic map of the study area.

associated with pyrite. Malaca and Fales deposits are
in the Escoural Unit and Au is associated with
arsenopyrite/minor stibnite.
Soil development is characterised by the presence
of a Mediterranean, reddish soil type (Carvalho Car-
doso et al., 1971). A Mediterranean temperate climate
prevails in the area, with an annual rainfall of about
656 mm.
4. Sampling and analysis
The total of 1211 soil samples from Montemor-O-
Novo mining district were collected in six sampling
areas: 233 samples from Monfurado, 255 from Ban-
hos, 138 from Caeiras, 278 from Fales, 189 from
Gamela and 118 soil samples from Malaca. For each
sampling area, the soil samples were collected in a

Table 1
Elementary statistics on raw data for Cu, Pb, Zn, As, Ba and Au
N Geometric Mean Standard Minimum Maximum 1jQ 3jQ Skewness Mean Standard Skewness
mean deviation (log) deviation (log)
(log)
Cu 1211 22 27 20 3 220 16 32 4 1.34 0.27  0.16
Pb 1211 6 8 12 1 260 4 8 12 0.78 0.27 0.94
Zn 1211 32 42 50 5 1210 18 52 12 1.50 0.31 0.50
As 1211 18 37 66 5 800 5 40 5 1.24 0.49 0.65
Ba 1211 106 198 447 15 4300 62 139 6 2.03 0.38 1.64
Au 1211 9 31 97 2 1657 3 19 9 0.95 0.59 0.94
Values of mean, standard deviation and skewness coefficient for the log-transformed raw data.
Cu, Pb, Zn, As and Ba data in ppm; data for Au in ppb.
48 A.P. Reis et al. / Journal of Geochemical Exploration 77 (2003) 4563
 A.P. Reis et al. / Journal of Geochemical Exploration 77 (2003) 4563 49

rectilinear grid, at equal distance (50 m) along evenly Table 2

spaced line (100 m). The baseline for Banhos sam- Sills of the direct and cross variograms for the three structures
(coregionalization matrices)
pling grid has an orientation approximately N45jE
Cu Pb Zn As Ba Au
whilst Caeiras baseline is N50jW. Fales, Monfurado,
and Malaca have N60jW orientated baselines whereas C0first structure
Cu 0.0224
Gamela sampling grid has a N65jW baseline. At each
Pb 0.0018 0.0168
sampling location it was collected approximately 1 kg Zn 0.0076 0.0035 0.0090
of soil. As 0.0112 0.0058 0.0000 0.0510
The soils were dried and sieved trough a  80- Ba 0.0036 0.0004 0.0080 0.0054 0.0120
mesh sieves. All samples were analysed by Induc- Au 0.0044 0.0000 0.0000 0.0180 0.0041 0.1240
tively Coupled Plasma-Atomic Emission Spectro-
C1second structure
scopy for Cu, Pb, Zn, Ba, As and Au. The precision Cu 0.0272
for analytical results if approximately of 4% for Cu, Pb 0.0094 0.0328
6% for Pb, 5% for Zn, 19% for As and 22% for Au. Zn 0.0084 0.0132 0.0200
As 0.0193 0.0101 0.0012 0.0690
Ba 0.0148 0.0092 0.0073 0.0202 0.0220
Au 0.0151 0.0006  0.0008 0.0736 0.0076 0.0960
5. Results
C2third structure
5.1. Elementary statistics Cu 0.0168
Pb 0.0040 0.0192
Zn 0.0024 0.0110 0.0170
Table 1 presents some elementary statistics for Cu,
As 0.0012 0.0200 0.0000 0.141
Pb, Zn, As, Ba and Au. Data from Table 1 shows that Ba 0.0084 0.0100 0.0002 0.0000 0.0860
maximum values of all the elements are very high Au 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0140 0.0050 0.0920
relative to the corresponding mean values. These
extreme values have a dominant impact on the results
produced by the methods used in this paper that rely were selected based on the soil sampling grids,
on mean values. The logarithmic transformation of which are parallel to the Hercynian structures and
raw data is a very effective procedure to reduce the have similar orientations (Fig. 1). From the exper-
asymmetry of the distribution for the data populations, imental variograms a linear model of coregionaliza-
as indicated by the skewness coefficients. Moreover, tion was fitted to Cu, Pb, Zn, As, Ba and Au, which
the lognormality test of Ahrens (1954) applied to the allowed the recognition of three structures of con-
data suggests a lognormal distribution for the ele- tinuity: a nugget effect (C0), a first anisotropic
ments (values for arithmetic mean/geometric mean spherical structure (C1, represents the local events)
are: 1.21 for Cu, 1.31 for Pb, 1.34 for Zn, 2.10 for with a 300-m range and a second anisotropic spher-
As, 1.87 for Ba and 3.45 for Au). Therefore, it was ical structure (C2, representing the regional events)
decided to work with the natural logarithms of the with a 440-m range. The ellipses for each structure
data instead of the raw values. have a major axis with an orientation of N60jW
(direction  60 in Fig. 2). This direction is similar to
5.2. Variography those of the Hercynian structures. Fig. 2 shows
simple and cross directional variograms for Au and
In order to account for spatial structure, simple As. Directional variograms for the remaining varia-
and cross variograms of Cu, Pb, Zn, As, Ba and Au bles are not shown although the model was jointly
were computed for directions  15,  60, 30 and 75 fitted to all. Table 2 shows the sills of the direct and
(in Fig. 2), equivalent, respectively to N15jW, cross variograms for each structure (coregionaliza-
N60jW, N30jE and N75jE. These four directions tion matrices).

Fig. 2. Experimental simple variograms for Au and As, and experimental cross variograms for Au As. The solid lines represent the fitted model
of linear coregionalization.
50 A.P. Reis et al. / Journal of Geochemical Exploration 77 (2003) 4563

5.3. Factorial analysis of coregionalizations
Fig. 3 presents the projections of the variables
obtained through a principal component analysis for
each coregionalization matrix and standard correlation
matrix (classical PCA).
An analysis of Fig. 3 suggests that the PCA reflects
with accuracy the first spherical structure (C1)
revealed by the factorial analysis of coregionalization,
i.e., the association of the variables Au/As, Ba/Cu and
Zn/Pb. The three spatial structures and the classical
PCA show that Ba is generally related to Cu. Though,
at the nugget scale Ba appears related to Zn and these
elements are associated with Cu in the construction of
the first axe. The pair Au/As is everywhere associated
with F2 although Au is near the limit of significance
on the second spherical structure. The association Pb/
Zn does not occur at the nugget scale.
5.4. Factorial kriging analysis
The structural analysis of the data set from Mon-
temor-O-Novo survey area suggests that the spatial
variability of the variables is the sum of three struc-
tures, the nugget effect C0 representing the small-
scale events, the first structure C1 representing local
events and a second structure C2 representing a
regional event. This methodology was the basis for
estimating the corresponding spatial components (Y0,
Y1 and Y2) using factorial kriging analysis. Maps of

Fig. 3. Projection of the variables on the first vectorial plane (F1/F2) of the principal component analysis for each coregionalization matrix and
standard correlation matrix (classical PCA).
 A.P. Reis et al. / Journal of Geochemical Exploration 77 (2003) 4563
Fig. 4. Geochemical mapping for gold (raw data) in the sampling areas of Montemor-O-Novo mineralizations district.

51
 52
A.P. Reis et al. / Journal of Geochemical Exploration 77 (2003) 4563
Fig. 5. Mapping of gold for the first spatial component (Y0) in the sampling areas of Montemor-O-Novo mineralizations district.
 A.P. Reis et al. / Journal of Geochemical Exploration 77 (2003) 4563
Fig. 6. Mapping of gold for the new structured component (Y1 + Y2) in the sampling areas of Montemor-O-Novo mineralizations district.

53
 54
A.P. Reis et al. / Journal of Geochemical Exploration 77 (2003) 4563
Fig. 7. Geochemical mapping for arsenic (raw data) in the sampling areas of Montemor-O-Novo mineralizations district.
 A.P. Reis et al. / Journal of Geochemical Exploration 77 (2003) 4563
Fig. 8. Mapping of arsenic for the first spatial component (Y0) in the sampling areas of Montemor-O-Novo mineralizations district.

55
 56
A.P. Reis et al. / Journal of Geochemical Exploration 77 (2003) 4563
Fig. 9. Mapping of arsenic for the new structured component (Y1 + Y2) in the sampling areas of Montemor-O-Novo mineralizations district.
 A.P. Reis et al. / Journal of Geochemical Exploration 77 (2003) 4563 57

Fig. 10. Geochemical mapping for arsenic and gold (raw data) of Gamela deposit. Notes of field geology observations overlay the geochemical
map.
58 A.P. Reis et al. / Journal of Geochemical Exploration 77 (2003) 4563

Fig. 11. Mapping of arsenic and gold for the first spatial component (Y0) of Gamela deposit. Notes of field geology observations overlay the
geochemical map.
 A.P. Reis et al. / Journal of Geochemical Exploration 77 (2003) 4563 59

Fig. 12. Mapping of arsenic and gold for the structured component (Y1 + Y2) of Gamela deposit. Notes of field geology observations overlay
the geochemical map.
60 A.P. Reis et al. / Journal of Geochemical Exploration 77 (2003) 4563

Fig. 13. Geochemical mapping for arsenic and gold (raw data) of Monfurado deposit. Notes of field geology observations overlay the
geochemical map.
 A.P. Reis et al. / Journal of Geochemical Exploration 77 (2003) 4563 61

Fig. 14. Mapping of arsenic and gold for the first spatial component (Y0) of Monfurado deposit. Notes of field geology observations overlay the
geochemical map.
62 A.P. Reis et al. / Journal of Geochemical Exploration 77 (2003) 4563
log-transformed raw data and of spatial components
Y0, Y1 and Y2 were made for Au and As. The
individual analysis of the estimated spatial compo-
nents has shown that the spherical structures are
identical and no additional information arises from
them separately. Such a result it is to be expected
since the model of coregionalization, deduced from de
experimental variograms, shows two anisotropic
spherical structures that are similar in range (C1
300 m range and C2440 m range). Therefore, the
spherical structures were transformed in a structured
component Y1 + Y2.
Figs. 4 6 show the results for Au and spatial
components (Y0, Y1 + Y2), in Banhos, Caeiras, Fales,
Gamela, Malaca and Monfurado sampling areas. Figs.
7 9 show the results for As and spatial components
(Y0, Y1 + Y2). The levels used in the mapping cor-
respond to the minimum and percentiles 25, 50, 75,
85, 90, 92, 94, 96 of the data population.
The analysis of the maps shows that the results are
similar for the prospected areas. The first spatial
component (Y0) mapping (Figs. 5 and 8) shows
anomalies with a punctual nature (X in Figs. 5 and 8)
that are not visible in the geochemical mapping (Figs. 4
and 7). Furthermore, this first component enhances
anomalies (W in Figs. 5 and 8), also with punctual
natures, which have small expression in the raw data
(Figs. 4 and 7). The new structured component
Y1 + Y2 (Figs. 6 and 9) enhances anomalous areas
with or without significant expression on geochemical
mapping, the later is the case for Fales. Along with this
enhancement ability, this component has a restraining
capacity on spread anomalies (the case of Gamela).
The comparison of Figs. 4 and 7 shows that maps
for As are similar to those of Au (confirming that
arsenic is a pathfinder for gold), with the exceptions of
Monfurado, Caeiras and Gamela.
At Gamela and Monfurado areas, field notes taken
in a geological survey were overlaid to raw data, Y0
and Y1 + Y2 maps in order to explain the results of
factorial kriging analysis (Figs. 10 14).
An analysis of Gamela As and Au raw data maps
(Fig. 10) shows that As geochemical signature unlike
Au (Fig. 10), marks the contact between the orthog-
neisses with arsenopyrite and the leptites of Monfur-
ado Unit (Fig. 1). However, spatial components Y0
(Fig. 11) and Y1 + Y2 (Fig. 12) improve the similar-
ity between arsenic and gold anomalies. The first
structure (Y0) appears to be generally related to Fe-
enrichment of soil (Fe-soil, Fe-pit, presence of mag-
netite hoematite lymonite, Fe-boulders) whilst the
structured component (Y1 + Y2) marks the existence
of small quartz veins with pyrite and arsenopyrite
hosted by the leptites of Monfurado Unit (A in Fig.
12).
Fig. 13 (raw data mapping for As and Au) and Fig.
14 (Y0 mapping for As and Au) show the results of
Monfurado deposit. An analysis of Y0 maps shows
that arsenic and gold anomalies follow the contact (C
in Fig. 14) between Monfurado Unit (amphibolites,
leptites) and Escoural Unit (lyddites with sulphides).
These anomalies are connected with the geochemical
signatures obtained by raw data mapping (Fig. 13). In
addition, factorial kriging analysis (Y0 and Y1 + Y2)
enhances the alignment of the anomalies by the geo-
logical contact.
6. Conclusions
The application of multivariate analysis to soil data
from Montemor-O-Novo survey area leads to the
identification of geochemical patterns for Au and As.
To account for spatial structure, simple and cross
variograms were computed for the main directions of
the grid sampling. From the experimental variograms
a linear model of coregionalization was fitted to the
six variables which allowed the recognition of three
structures of continuity.
The coregionalization matrices resulting from the
factorial analysis of coregionalization show the asso-
ciation between the variables Au/As, Ba/Cu and Zn/
Pb. The PCA reflects with accuracy the first spherical
structure (C1).
The spatial components Y0, Y1 and Y2 estimated
by factorial kriging are effective in: (a) the detection
of anomalies that were undetected by the geochemical
mapping, (b) enhancing anomalous areas without
expression on geochemical mapping.
The mineralogical assemblage (Reis et al., 1999)
occurring on Gamela, Monfurado and Caeiras (gold
associated to pyrite) are responsible for the difference
between Au and As geochemical signatures. How-
ever, spatial components mapping has increased the
similarity between the images of Au and As and
improved the interpretation of the anomalies.
 A.P. Reis et al. / Journal of Geochemical Exploration 77 (2003) 4563
In Banhos, Fales and Malaca areas gold and arsenic
anomalies are similar and related to the existence of
quartz veins with arsenopyrite/pyrite and Fe-oxides
hosted by the lyddites and leptites of Escoural Unit.
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to express their thanks to
Moriminas Company and to Dr. Luis Martins of the
Instituto Geologico e Mineiro of Portugal for
graciously providing the data, to the Geosciences
Department of Aveiro University and to the CVRM-
IST of the Technical University of Lisbon for
supporting this project, finally to Fundacao para a
Ciencia e a Tecnologia for the scholarship granted to
the first author.
References
Ahrens, L.H., 1954. The lognormal distribution of the elements
(a fundamental law of geochemistry and its subsidiary). Geo-
chimica et Cosmochimica Acta 5, 49 73.
Antweiler, J.C., Campbell, W.L., 1982. Gold in exploration geo-
chemistry. The Association of Exploration Geochemists. Pre-
cious Metals in the Northern Cordillera, vol. 10, pp. 33 44.
Batista, A., Ferreira da Silva, E.A., Sousa, A.J., Cardoso Fonseca,
E., 2000. Factorial kriging applied to the study of industrial
contaminated soils. Proceedings of the 3rd European Confe-
rence on Geostatistics for Environmental Applications, Geo-
ENV 2000, Avignon, Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht,
pp. 111 122.
Boyle, R.W., 1979. The geochemistry of gold and its deposits.
Geological Survey of Canada Bulletin 280 (Canada).
63
Carvalho Cardoso, J., Teixeira Bessa, M., Branco Marado, M.,
1971. Carta dos solos de Portugal (1:1 000 000). Agronomia
Lusitana 33 (1/4), 481 602 (in Portuguese).
Carvalhosa, A., Zbyzewski, G., 1994. Carta Geologica de Monte-
mor-O-Novo, Folha 35-D, escala 1:50 000 e respectiva Notcia
Explicativa I.G.M, Lisboa, Portugal (in Portuguese).
Gonhas, J.A.C., Martins, L., 1986. Area metalfera de Montemor-O-
Novo-Casa Branca (Baixo Alentejo, Portugal). Estudos, Notas e
Trabalhos - Direccao-Geral de Geologia e Minas 28, 119 148
(in Portuguese).
Goovaerts, P., 1999. Geostatistics in soil science: state-of-the-art
and perspectives. Geoderma 89, 1 45.
Goovaerts, P., Webster, R., 1994. Scale-dependent correlation be-
tween topsoil copper and cobalt concentrations in Scotland.
European Journal of Soil Science 45, 79 95.
Jimenez-Espinosa, R., Sousa, A.J., Chica-Olmo, M., 1992. Appli-
cation of correspondence analysis and factorial kriging analysis:
a case study on geochemical exploration. Geostatistics Troia92
2, 853 864.
Reis, A.P., Sousa, A.J., Martins, L., Cardoso Fonseca, E., 1999. A
Analise em Componentes Principais na interpretac ao de dados
geoqumicos de solo da area de Montemor-O-Novo. Actas II
Congresso Iberico de Geoqumica/XI Semana de Geoqumica,
Lisboa, 381 384 (in Portuguese).
Sandjivy, L., 1984. The factorial kriging analysis of regionalized
data. Its application to geochemical prospecting. In: Verly, G.,
Davis, M., Journal, A., Marechal, M. (Eds.), Geostatistics for
Natural Resources Characterisation, NATO-ASI series C122.
Reidel, Dordrecht, pp. 559 572.
Sousa, A.J., 1989. Geostatistical data analysisan application to
ore typology. Geostatistics 2, 851 860.
Wackernagel, H., 1988. Geostatistical techniques for interpreting
multivariate spatial information. In: Chung, C.F., Fabbri, A.G.,
Sinding-Larsen, R. (Eds.), Quantitative Analysis of Mineral and
Energy Resources, NATO-ASI series C223. Reidel, Dordrecht,
pp. 385 392.