MEASUREMENT AND CONTROLS

MEASUREMENT If R1 R4 = R2 R3 then V0 = 0 V and the bridge is said to be

Definitions:
Transducer a device used to convert a physical parameter
such as temperature, pressure, flow, light intensity, etc. into an
electrical signal (also called a sensor).
Transducer sensitivity the ratio of change in electrical
signal magnitude to the change in magnitude of the physical
parameter being measured.
Resistance Temperature Detector (RTD) a device used to
relate change in resistance to change in temperature. Typically
made from platinum, the controlling equation for an RTD is
given by:
RT = R0 81 + a _T - T0iB, where
RT is the resistance of the RTD at temperature T
(measured in C)
R0 is the resistance of the RTD at the reference temperature
T0 (usually 0 C)
is the temperature coefficient of the RTD
Strain Gauge a device whose electrical resistance varies in
proportion to the amount of strain in the device.
Gauge factor (GF) the ratio of fractional change in electrical
resistance to the fractional change in length (strain):
DR R DR R
GF = = f , where
DL L
R is the nominal resistance of the strain gauge at nominal
length L.
R is the change in resistance due the change in length L.
is the normal strain sensed by the gauge.
The gauge factor for metallic strain gauges is typically
around 2.
Wheatstone Bridge an electrical circuit used to measure
changes in resistance.
+ the A/D converter the following equation is used.
R3
R1
V IN
VO +
R2 R4
balanced. If R1 = R2 = R3 = R and R4 = R + R where
DR % R, then V0 . DR : VIN .
4R
SAMPLING
When a continuous-time or analog signal is sampled using
a discrete-time method, certain basic concepts should be
considered. The sampling rate or frequency is given by
fs = 1
Dt
Shannons sampling theorem states that in order to accurately
reconstruct the analog signal from the discrete sample
points, the sample rate must be larger than twice the highest
frequency contained in the measured signal. Denoting this
frequency, which is called the Nyquist frequency, as fN, the
sampling theorem requires that
fs > 2fN
When the above condition is not met, the higher frequencies
in the measured signal will not be accurately represented and
will appear as lower frequencies in the sampled data. These
are known as alias frequencies.
Analog-to-Digital Conversion
When converting an analog signal to digital form, the
resolution of the conversion is an important factor. For a
measured analog signal over the nominal range [VL,VH], where
VL is the low end of the voltage range and VH is the nominal
high end of the voltage range, the voltage resolution is given
by
V -V
fV = H n L
2
where n is the number of conversion bits of the A/D converter
with typical values of 4, 8, 10, 12, or 16. This number is a
key design parameter. After converting an analog signal, the
A/D converter produces an integer number of n bits. Call
this number N. Note that the range of N is [0 , 2n 1]. When
calculating the discrete voltage, V, using the reading, N, from
V = fV N + VL
Note that with this strategy, the highest measurable voltage is
one voltage resolution less than VH , or VH - fV .

WHEATSTONE BRIDGE

110 MEASUREMENT AND CONTROLS

Signal Conditioning G1(s) G2(s) H(s) is the open-loop transfer function. The
Signal conditioning of the measured analog signal is closed-loop characteristic equation is
often required to prevent alias frequencies and to reduce 1 + G1(s) G2(s) H(s) = 0
measurement errors. For information on these signal
conditioning circuits, also known as filters, see the System performance studies normally include
ELECTRICAL AND COMPUTER ENGINEERING
1. Steady-state analysis using constant inputs based on the
section.
Final Value Theorem. If all poles of a G(s) function have
MEASUREMENT UNCERTAINTY negative real parts, then
Suppose that a calculated result R depends on measurements DC Gain = lim G ^ sh
s " 0
whose values are x1 w1, x2 w2, x3 w3, etc., where
R = f(x1, x2, x3, ... xn), xi is the measured value, and wi is the Note that G(s) could refer to either an open-loop or a closed-
uncertainty in that value. The uncertainty in R, wR, can be loop transfer function.
estimated using the Kline-McClintock equation:
For the unity feedback control system model
2 2 2
wR = d w1 n dw n g + d wn n
2f 2f 2f
2x1 + 2 2x2 + 2xn R(s) + E(s) Y(s)
G(s)

CONTROL SYSTEMS
The linear time-invariant transfer function model represented
by the block diagram
with the open-loop transfer function defined by

% _1 + s ~mi
M
G
G ^ sh = TB # m N= 1
K
s % _1 + s ~ni
n=1
can be expressed as the ratio of two polynomials in the form

% _ s - zmi
M

Y ^ sh N ^ sh K m = 1 The following steady-state error analysis table can be

= G ^ sh =
X ^ sh D ^ sh constructed where T denotes the type of system, i.e., type 0,
=
% _ s - pni
N

n=1
type 1, etc.

where the M zeros, zm, and the N poles, pn, are the roots of the Steady-State Error ess
numerator polynomial, N(s), and the denominator polynomial, Input Type T=0 T=1 T=2
D(s), respectively.
Unit Step 1/(KB + 1) 0 0
One classical negative feedback control system model block
Ramp 1/KB 0
diagram is
Acceleration 1/KB

Y
2. Frequency response evaluations to determine dynamic
performance and stability. For example, relative stability
can be quantified in terms of

a. Gain margin (GM), which is the additional gain required

where G1(s) is a controller or compensator, G2(s) represents a to produce instability in the unity gain feedback control
plant model, and H(s) represents the measurement dynamics. system. If at = 180,
Y(s) represents the controlled variable, R(s) represents the G(j180) = 180; then
reference input, and L(s) represents a load disturbance. Y(s) is
related to R(s) and L(s) by GM = 20log10 ` G _ j~180i j

G1 ^ sh G2 ^ sh G2 ^ sh b. Phase margin (PM), which is the additional phase

Y ^ sh = R ^ sh + L ^ sh
^ h ^
1 + G1 s G2 s H s h ^ h 1 + G1 sh G2 ^ sh H ^ sh
^ required to produce instability. Thus,
PM = 180 + G(j0dB)
where 0dB is the that satisfies G _ j~i = 1.

MEASUREMENT AND CONTROLS 111

3. Transient responses are obtained by using Laplace The step response for t to a step of magnitude M is
transforms or computer solutions with numerical
y ^t h = 9 y0e- t - i /x + KM _1 - e- t - i /xiC u ^t - ih, where
^ h ^ h
integration.
u(t) is the unit step function.
Common Compensator/Controller forms are
Second-Order Control System Models
PID Controller GC ^ sh = K c1 + 1 + TD sm One standard second-order control system model is
TI s
Y ^ sh K~ 2n
Lag or Lead Compensator GC ^ sh = K d n depending on
1 + sT1 , where
R ^ sh
= 2
1 + sT2 s + 2g~n s + ~ n2
the ratio of T1/T2.
K = steady-state gain,
Routh Test
For the characteristic equation = the damping ratio,
ansn + an1sn1 + an2sn2 ++ a0 = 0 n = the undamped natural ( = 0) frequency,
the coefficients are arranged into the first two rows of an array. d = n 1 - g 2 , the damped natural frequency,
Additional rows are computed. The array and coefficient and
computations are defined by:
r = n 1 - 2g 2 , the damped resonant frequency.
an an2 an4
an1 an3 an5 If the damping ratio is less than unity, the system is said to
b1 b2 b3 be underdamped; if is equal to unity, it is said to be critically
c1 c2 c3 damped; and if is greater than unity, the system is said to be
where overdamped.
an -1an -2 - anan -3 an -3b1 - an -1b2 For a unit step input to a normalized underdamped second-
b1 = an - 1 c1 = order control system, the time required to reach a peak value tp
b1
and the value of that peak Mp are given by
an -1an -4 - anan -5 a b - an -1b3
b2 = c2 = n -5 1
an -1 b1 tp = r _~ni 1 - g 2
1 - g2
The necessary and sufficient conditions for all the roots of the Mp = 1 + e- rg
equation to have negative real parts is that all the elements in
the first column be of the same sign and nonzero. The percent overshoot (% OS) of the response is given by
1 - g2
First-Order Control System Models % OS = 100e- rg
The transfer function model for a first-order system is
For an underdamped second-order system, the logarithmic
Y ^ sh
= xs K 1, where decrement is
R ^ sh +
1 1n d xk n = 2rg
d=m
K = steady-state gain, xk + m 1 - g2
= time constant
where xk and xk + m are the amplitudes of oscillation at cycles k
The step response of a first-order system to a step input of and k + m, respectively. The period of oscillation is related
magnitude M is to d by
y ^t h = y0e- t + KM _1 - e- t xi d = 2
x

The time required for the output of a second-order system to

In the chemical process industry, y0 is typically taken to be settle to within 2% of its final value is defined to be
zero, and y(t) is referred to as a deviation variable.
For systems with time delay (dead time or transport lag) , the Ts = 4
g~n
transfer function is
Y ^ sh -is
= xKe
R ^ sh s+1

112 MEASUREMENT AND CONTROLS

An alternative form commonly employed in the chemical The orders of the matrices are defined via variable definitions.
process industry is State-variable models automatically handle multiple inputs
Y ^ sh and multiple outputs. Furthermore, state-variable models
= 2 2 K , where
R ^ sh x s + 2gxs + 1 can be formulated for open-loop system components or the
complete closed-loop system.
K = steady-state gain,
The Laplace transform of the time-invariant state equation is
= the damping ratio,
sX(s) x(0) = AX(s) + BU(s)
= the inverse natural frequency.
from which
Root Locus X(s) = (s) x(0) + (s) BU(s)
The root locus is the locus of points in the complex s-plane
where the Laplace transform of the state transition matrix is
satisfying
(s) = [sI A]1.
^ s - z1h ^ s - z2h f _ s - zmi
1+K =0 m # n
_ s - p1i _ s - p2i f _ s - pni The state-transition matrix
(t) = L1{(s)}
as K is varied. The pi and zj are the open-loop poles and zeros,
(also defined as eAt) can be used to write
respectively. When K is increased from zero, the locus has the
t
following properties. x(t) = (t) x(0) + #0 (t ) Bu() d
1. Locus branches exist on the real axis to the left of an odd The output can be obtained with the output equation; e.g., the
number of open-loop poles and/or zeros. Laplace transform output is
2. The locus originates at the open-loop poles p1, , pn and Y(s) = {C(s) B + D}U(s) + C(s) x(0)
terminates at the zeros z1, , zm. If m < n then (n m)
branches terminate at infinity at asymptote angles The latter term represents the output(s) due to initial
conditions, whereas the former term represents the output(s)
^2k + 1h 180c due to the U(s) inputs and gives rise to transfer function
a= n-m k = 0, ! 1, ! 2, ! 3, f
definitions.
with the real axis.
3. The intersection of the real axis with the asymptotes is
called the asymptote centroid and is given by

! Re _ pi i - ! Re _ zi i
n m

i=1 i=1
vA = n-m

4. If the locus crosses the imaginary () axis, the values of K

and are given by letting s = j in the defining equation.

State-Variable Control System Models

One common state-variable model for dynamic systems has
the form
xo (t) = Ax(t) + Bu(t) (state equation)
y(t) = Cx(t) + Du(t) (output equation)
where
x(t) = N by 1 state vector (N state variables),
u(t) = R by 1 input vector (R inputs),
y(t) = M by 1 output vector (M outputs),
A = system matrix,
B = input distribution matrix,
C = output matrix, and
D = feed-through matrix.

MEASUREMENT AND CONTROLS 113