TABLE OF CONTENTS PAGE GENERAL KILN SECTION 1 Description of Main Kiln System 04

2 Kiln Operation Priorities 05 3 Kiln System Stability 06 4 Main Parameters, Trends

and Absolute Values 08 5 Main Parameters to Control and Evaluate Kiln 13 6
Variables which the Operator Cannot Control 15 7 Variables which the Operator Can
Control 15 8 Kiln Limitation Factor 16 9 Kiln Operation Target 17 10 Optimization
of Kiln System 18 11 List of Most Frequent Factors when Kiln Operation Is not
Satisfactory 19 12 List of Typical Kiln Operation Problems 20 13 What to Look for
When Looking Inside a Kiln 21 14 Kiln Upsets 27 15 Kiln Cycling 28 16 How to Break
a Cycle in a Kiln 29 KILN EMERGENCY CONDITIONS SECTION 17 Red Spot on Kiln Shell
30 18 Raw Unburned Feed in Clinker Cooler 31 19 Large Ring Broken Loose in Kiln 32
20 Burning Zone Dangerously Hot 33 21 Sudden Sharp Raise in Back End Temperature
(B.E.T.) 34 22 Black Smoke Emission from Kiln Stack 35 23 Distorted Flame Shape 36
24 Loss of Section of Refractory Lining 37 25 Cooler Drive or Clinker Conveyor
Stopped 37 26 Red Clinker at Cooler Discharge 38 27 Rapid Rise of Temperature in
Coal System 39 28 Power Failure 40 29 A Chain Fire 42 30 Heavy Rain or Thunder
Storm 43 31 Sudden High Positive Pressure 43 32 Overheated Kiln Bearing 44 33
Kiln Hazardous Conditions 44 KILN OPERATION SECTION 34 Kiln Operation Techniques
47 35 Burning Zone Evaluation 48 36 Kiln Stable Temperature Profile 49 37 Target
Set Point and Operation References 50 38 Back End Temperature Control 51 39 The
Three Basic Variables 51 40 Target Range for the Three Variables 51 41 The Three
Basic Conditions 52 42 The 27 Conditions (Kurt Peray) 53 43 Kiln Slow Down 56 44
Normal Operation Procedures on Shift 59 45 Plan of Action 59 46 Oxygen Level in
Automatic Mode 60 KILN START-UP AND SHUTDOWN PROCEDURES 47 Light-up Flame Example
(Gas) 61 48 Preheat or Drying of Refractory Lining 62 49 Heating to Reach
Temperature Ready to put Feed On. 63 50 Feed On 64
 51 Kiln Start-up Procedures after a Brick Job 64 52 Example of How to Re-start if
Preheat is Required 68 53 Example of How to Re-start if No Preheat is Required 69
54 Kiln Shutdown General Information 70 55 Cooling Procedures 70 56 Kiln Rotation
Schedule 71 57 Burner Pipe and Hood Protection 72 58 Emptying the Feed from the
Kiln 73 59 Kiln Shutdown Procedures for Brick Job and Red Spot 73 COOLER SECTION
60 Cooler Function 76 61 Cooler Operation 77 62 Cooler Controllers 77 63 Rule on
Cooler Operation 78 64 Main Sensors to Control the Cooler Operation 79 65
Particle Size of Clinker 80 66 Operation of Cooler Fans 80 67 Clinker and Air
Distribution 81 COMBUSTION SECTION 68 Flame 82 69 Rules on Flame 85 70
Combustion 86 71 Heat Transfer in Rotary Kiln 89 72 Burner Pipes and Nozzles 89
73 Fuels in Cement Industry 92 74 Solid Fuels 94 75 Drying, Grinding and Firing
Solid Fuels 96 76 Comparison of the Three Major Fuels 97 77 Combustion Reaction
97
 78 Non-Combustibles (Ash) 98 BASIC PRINCIPLES SECTION 79 Basic Principles,
System of Units 98 80 Temperature Scale n/a 81 Some Useful Conversion Factors n/a
82 Basic Principles, Pressure and Flows n/a 83 Basic Principles, Heat and
Temperature n/a 84 Basic Principles, Heat Exchange or Transfer n/a GENERAL KILN
SECTION DESCRIPTION OF MAIN KILN SYSTEMS Wet Process Better homogeneity of raw
feed Dust produced is approximately 15 to 20% of clinker production Dust return to
kiln by means of Vortex at feed location (mixing problem) Scoop near kiln
discharge Dust insulation in burning zone Back end temperature is the main
parameter to control and react on behavior of slurry through chain system. (ring
formation in chain, spillage near feed end) High heat consumption (near 1300
kilocalories or 4676 MBtu/st), therefore there is a lower secondary air
temperature. All other parameters are the same as a dry process kiln. Long Dry
Feed is dry dust.
Long residence time (up to 2 hours), so we have to take this into account when
stabilizing the kiln. Heat consumption is approximately 920 kilocalories (3309
MBtu/st). Natural load movement often unstable and creates pushes. Pre-calciner
and Pre-heater Residence time in tower is from 2 to 5 seconds. Residence time in
kiln is approximately 30 minutes. Fast reaction time, requires fast action to
control the kiln. About 50 to 90% calcinations is done in tower. More stable than
long dry, because calcinations is taking place in tower. Heat consumption nears 800
kilocalories (2878 MBtu/st). Very high secondary air temperature especially with
pre-calciner need tertiary air duct. Fuel ratio split: kiln = +/- 40%, pre-calciner
= +/- 60% KILN OPERATION PRIORITIES 1. Protection of the personnel working in and
around the kiln system is a basic safety rule that must be strictly followed at all
times. 2. Protection of the equipment. Around the kiln, the safety of the
equipment is mainly related to overheating problems and could be: a) Back-end of
kiln Do not exceed 840oF (450oC) at precipitator inlet b) Feed Do not exceed 10
minutes without feed as the feed end temperature would go high. c) Chain inlet
temperature Do not exceed metallurgical maximum temperature of chain system.
(usually approximately 1900oF or 1038oC)
d) Burning zone Do not over-heat; keep the raw load near end of flame. Set a
maximum amps level on kiln motor. e) Cooler Avoid overloaded cooler grates, cut
kiln speed down to protect the cooler grates. Avoid high exhaust gas temperature;
could damage dust filter system. Avoid high clinker temperature; could damage the
clinker evacuation circuit. 3. Quality. To produce a well-burned clinker with good
free-lime at the desired liter-weight 4. Stability. Continuous operation should
always have priority over maximum production. Stable kiln operation is the key to
long refractory life, high fuel efficiency and uniform quality clinker. 5.
Optimization. Strive for optimum production level at the lowest possible cost.
KILN SYSTEM STABILITY 1. Stable Feed a) Chemical Feed quality range should be:
+/- 0.4% in CaO +/- 0.4% in SiO2 +/- 0.2% in Al2O3 C3S variations in clinker not
to exceed +/- 3%
Approximately 25% relative potential liquid phase in the clinker is good for kiln
burning and fuel saving. b) Physical Good and accurate feed rate indication. Weigh-
feeder should be linear at low, medium and high feed rate. Good calibration by
physical weight of the material should be done at every major kiln shutdown. Good
feed and speed ratio. 2. Stable Dust Re-introduction to Kiln Dust collector
cleaning cycle sequencing. Dust circuit configuration should provide stable re-
introduction. Monitoring of the dust return flow is an added advantage. If dust
wasting is required, wasting should be done in such a way not to upset the dust
return to the kiln. 3. Stable Water Spray Injection in Kiln or in Conditioning
Tower Good spray injects into gas stream, not in material load. Good regulation of
water injection with respect to ESP inlet temperature control. (will cause changes
in kiln oxygen level if water flow is not changing smoothly). 4. Good Chain System
Design (Wet and Long Dry) Act as a good dust curtain (dust trap). Wet kiln design
needs to favor a good plastic zone in order to prevent ring formation. Chain
tonnage should be between 12 to 14% of clinker production for large kiln and 10 to
12% for small kiln. Good chains should stand high temperature so that in return
enable high production rates. 5. Good Control of Hood Pressure
Hood pressure control is critical because it prevents the cooler variations to
upset the burning zone conditions. Hood pressure set point should be set as close
as possible to zero, while remaining negative. 6. Stable Secondary Air Temperature
The temperature variations during normal operation should not exceed +/- 85oF
(29oC) Good regulation of the cooler under-grate pressure is then required with a
thick clinker bed depth. The secondary air temperature should be as hot as
possible, without damaging the nose ring or the refractory at the kiln discharge
section. 7. Good Production Level Lower limit: Under-60% capacity kiln tends to
become unstable Upper limit: Production restriction due to: Kiln diameter; (maximum
flame size, flame erosion on kiln walls). ID fan capacity; (no leeway on oxygen
level) Precipitator capacity (cooler grates overloaded and high clinker temperature
at cooler outlet) 8. Constant Fuel Quality and Quantity Constant fuel quality and
quantity to allow constant heat input inside the kiln. MAIN PARAMETERS, TRENDS
AND ABSOLUTE VALUES Back End Temperature Set point varies with the kiln production
level. Set point varies with the condition of the chain system.
Absolute value allows one to draw conclusions about efficiency of the kiln system
and the kiln operation. BET trend is important for the kiln operation. With the use
of water spray in the back end, the water volume will show the reactions of the
back end temperature. Material Temperature Slow reaction compared to gas
temperature. In wet process kiln, material temperature is a good indication of the
behavior of the material in the chain system. Chain Gas Temperature This
temperature is generally a limiting parameter for the kiln operation. The chain gas
temperature set point is generally fixed by the metallurgy of the chain system and
its design. Absolute value is very important and must be held below the allowed T
for the chain system. The trend is representative but has slow reactions with
respect to the back end temperature. Very important to the kiln operation in order
to make a good material preparation before it reached the burning zone. Burning
Zone Temperature Importance of this instrument is often overestimated. Precise only
when kiln conditions are clear. The secondary air dust influence in the indication
of the instrument and readings are in error when kiln gets hot and dusty. It must
be correlated with the kiln amps indication and the secondary air temperature to
ensure the validity of the reading. Shell Temperature (Scanner) Importance of this
instrument is underestimated.
It is often used only to detect hot spots on the kiln shell, an estimation of brick
thickness, and coating in the kiln. On bigger charts, it gives a good indication of
the burning zone temperature profile. It is one of the fastest indications of a
slowly moving ignition point in burning zone. It is a very good indication of flame
variations due to the burner pipe position, flame shape and direction. (Good
indication when adjusting flame in kiln). Absolute value is important to detect hot
spots and rings. Trend indicates changes in the burner system, kiln speed, ignition
point movement and operating conditions which are affecting the temperature profile
of the burning zone. Kiln Drive Amps It is the most important sensor used to
evaluate the burning zone state. The running set point will change according to the
raw material composition. Amperage value changes with ring formation. Amperage
value changes with the size of the clinker. The absolute value is important only
when amperage is high (fuse protection limitations). The trend is a very good
indication of burning zone length and temperature; therefore the amps should be
recorded in such a way to give a good indication in its variations. A drastic
increase of the amps trend, followed by a fast decrease is an indication of loss of
coating or a broken ring inside the kiln. A target amps range should be established
(depending on raw mix and other factors) through which this variable can fluctuate
safely. A drastic increase in amps could indicate a possible mechanical condition
problem. NOx Analyzer Essentially it is an indication of the flame temperature.
Higher is the flame temperature, the higher will be the NOx concentration. NOx
content in the flue gases in the smoke stack originate partly from high temperature
synthesis in flame from oxygen and nitrogen. NOx level has been measured in the
range between 500 and 2000 ppm in the Lafarge group. NOx increase with excess air
and is strongly correlated to low excess air levels.
At higher levels, i.e. 3% and greater, NOx is weakly dependent on excess air.
Correlation between burning zone temperature and NOx level is good. NOx is
generally, but not systematically correlated with the kiln drive amps. NOx gives a
truer picture of burning conditions. Kiln drive amps will change due to ring
formation and degradation, whereas NOx signal will not. NOx correlates better with
clinker liter weight than free lime. NOx is affected by fuel changes. Natural gas
flames yield the highest NOx level. All the factors having an impact on the flame
temperature will affect the NOx signal like the following: The secondary air
temperature, The primary air temperature, The burning zone temperature, Chemical
composition and fineness of the fuel, The air and fuel ratio and The flame
environment (reduced or oxidized atmosphere). A quick decrease in the NOx signal is
an indication of the burning zone temperature dropping. A slow and even decrease on
the NOx signal is an indication of a slow cooling of the burning zone and is
related to a bad material preparation from the kiln back end. On the automatic kiln
control system developed by Lafarge, the program is giving 30% of it as evaluation
of the burning zone state to the NOx signal, 55% to the kiln amps, and 15% to the
clinker temperature at the kiln outlet. Secondary Air Temperature It should be
kept as stable as possible by the automatic cooler control system (+/- 85oF or
39oC). Absolute value is not important because most indications are incorrect due
to instrument inaccuracy. Trend is very important as it shows variations of
material from the kiln and the gas temperature variations to the kiln. The
secondary air temperature should be as high as possible in respect of the various
refractory temperatures in front of the kiln.
Hood Draft Absolute value is important and is automatically controlled at a
constant value (usually looped to cooler exhaust fan damper / fan). It should be
low as possible (to reduce in-leakage). It is the separation between cooler and
kiln and it should be always constant to avoid influences of changes in the cooler
gas flow to the kiln operation. A poor regulation of this signal will induce
variations in the kiln gas flow and could bring the kiln into cycling. Feed End
Draft and ID Fan Draft Trend and absolute value help to detect build-up in the
kiln. This is a very important sensor if many ring problems occur in a plant.
Cooler Exhaust Gas Temperature Trend will give you information about the
temperature profile in cooler gas flow variations and clinker temperature. Absolute
value is an important limitation for protection of the dust collection system. The
cooler exhaust temperature is a more reliable clinker discharge indication than the
clinker temperature. Clinker Discharge Temperature Trend has no importance for
cooler operation. Absolute value is an important limitation for safety of the
clinker transport system. Clinker temperature measurements are generally not very
accurate. Under Grate Pressure The absolute value should be maintained constant
with automatic control. The value varies with the cooler bed depth and with clinker
size. It must be held constant in order to achieve a constant secondary air
temperature. Also, only a constant air flow can allow the relationship between
under grate pressure, bed depth and secondary air temperature to be valid.
Variations of the under grate pressures trend are reflected by variations in the
cooler grate speed. Under grate pressures together with cooler drive amps, should
give an indication of the clinker size. Under grate pressure set point should be at
least 5 inches (H2O) in order to get good heat recuperation from the clinker bed in
the cooler. Oxygen Analyzer Trend and set point value are very important. It
should be maintained as constant as possible. It can supply indications about
general kiln conditions, burning zone and back end temperature. One of the best
indications when the kiln is pushing to indicate if the push is still on or over
(related with the amount of CaO in the kiln gases). It should be kept as low as
possible when the kiln is stable, without going into CO range. However, when using
coal or coke, set point should be increased to overcome the fuel quality
variations. MAIN PARAMETERS USED TO CONTROL AND EVALUATE KILN Kiln Amps It is
a very good indication of the burning zone state, accurate at 80% of the time. NOx
Analyzer Nitrogen Oxide level is related to the flame temperature than the burning
zone temperature. NOx vary all the factors that has an effect on the flame. It is a
very good indication of the burning zone state. Fuel Flow
It should be related to the kiln feed rate. It should be used as the main
controller for the burning zone and the kiln back end temperature. Kiln Speed It
should be related to feed rate. It should be set with a constant feed ratio. Small
variations of the kiln speed (1 to 3 revs) could be used to control the burning
zone state. However, kiln speed variations should be used only after the fuel flow
rate has been used as the primary controller on long wet and dry kiln. Often if
over used, speed variations in the material loading of the kiln and will lead the
kiln into a cycle. On large temperature variations in burning zone like raw
material pushes, the kiln speed must be used with wide variations (as example 30
revs or even a complete stop) to avoid raw materials to go in the cooler and to re-
heat the burning zone. Fan Draft It should be related to the oxygen level, fuel
flow rate and feed rate. It is the main controller to keep the temperature profile
along the kiln. The rpm variations should be small during kiln normal operation +/-
15 rph. During kiln pushes and kiln slow speed, large speed variations will be
required to maintain the chain gas temperature under safe limit of the chain
system. Back End Temperature It should be kept at constant level according to feed
rate. It should be kept stable in auto by the water spray system. Good indication
of the feed end T. Indicate variations in the feed and dust variations to the
kiln. When in auto, use water flow variations for indication. Gas Temperature It
is the main variable to control the kiln.
It should be kept inside a certain T range. It is controlled by the ID fan speed
variations and the fuel rate. Oxygen level It is related to the ID fan speed and
fuel rate. Minimum and maximum level limits need to be established, to control
combustion efficiency. When kiln stability has been reached the O2 level should be
set in auto with the ID fan speed to lock the temperature profile of the kiln.
Hood Pressure Control of excess air by cooler exhaust fan Open during kiln pushes
Need to be kept stable to avoid variations in cooler to upset the burning zone
Secondary Air Temperature Temperature of combustion carried back to kiln from the
cooler Large variations during kiln pushes Should be controlled in a very small
range in auto during normal kiln operation with a good regulation of the clinker
cooler (+/- 85oF or 39oC) Cooler Exhaust Temperature Varies with clinker input to
cooler Will indicate variations during a push Under Grate Pressure Related to
cooler grate speed Set point controlled by the under grate pressure of second
compartment to keep a constant clinker bed depth in order to get stable and high
secondary air temperature VARIABLES WHICH THE OPERATOR CANNOT CONTROL
 Quality and characteristics of the raw materials Quality of the fuel used as a
example: heat value, ash content, volatile matter and moisture level Dust quality
and quantity returned to the kiln Accuracy of the feeders Chain system design
Accuracy and good response of all control loops and sensors of the kiln system For
these variables that he cannot control, the operator should be kept informed of any
changes done and should make sure that those variables are kept inside an
acceptable range to maintain a good kiln stabilization. VARIABLES WHICH THE
OPERATOR CAN CONTROL Material feed to the kiln Fuel feed to the kiln Speed
rotation of the kiln Temperature profile along the kiln Draft at the feed end of
the kiln Supply of combustion air Retention time of the material in the kiln
Temperature of the combustion air Flame shape Observation of instruments, and
correct reaction to their readings Observation of the kiln burning zone, and
correct reaction to this evaluation However, some restrictions are sometimes given
on the utilization of those variables and may vary from plant to plant due to local
conditions and are usually the following: Set point on the maximum speed of the
kiln Set point on the maximum feed rate to the kiln Automatic loop set point for
oxygen level and ID fan speed
Settings on the burner pipe and its position Primary air settings and fuel tip
velocity Set point on cooler fans flow Set point for the under grate pressure and
the clinker bed depth in the cooler KILN LIMITATION FACTORS Dust Emission at
Precipitator Stack (Local emission regulations) Gas Chain Temperature Maximum
value depend on chain quality and position Diameter of Kiln Gas velocity in kiln
(70 ft/sec in free section of kiln and 30 ft/sec in chain section maximum) Heat
load in front of kiln, flame erosion on kiln walls ID Fan Capacity Maximum fan
speed and low oxygen level Cooler Capacity No red clinker should be present after
third compartment of cooler in normal operation Clinker discharge temperature not
to exceed 170oF (80oC) Cooler exit gas should be about 370oF (190oC) Bed depth to
allow good under grate pressure (15) with sufficient fan capacity KILN OPERATION
TARGET Highest clinker production with Good quality clinker
Stable kiln operation Oxygen level as low as possible Gas and fuel oil 1.0 to
1.5% Coal and coke around 2.0% (depending on the variations in fuel mixture)
Kiln exit temperature as low as possible Flame as short as possible (with respect
of the burning zone refractory) Keep burning zone short in front of the kiln
Secondary air temperature as high as possible but stable Temperature not above
liquid phase temperature in front of kiln to protect refractory and coating Run
with an under grate pressure as high as possible Compatible with the cooler fans
static pressure capacity Primary air as low as possible As combustion air to
replace by hot air from cooler as much as possible Clinker Temperature Not to
exceed 230oF (110oC) as it could promote quality problems (false set) during the
grinding process Gravel bed filter Normal operation temperature is 350oF (180oC)
Maximum temperature for normal operation is 660oF (350oC) For 2 hours, up to 750oF
(400oC) For 20 minutes, up to 840oF (450oC) OPTIMAZATION OF THE KILN SYSTEM
 Operate the kiln: With higher free lime Reduce air leakages: Around and near the
nose ring area and seal Air in-leakage on kiln hood Around blast pipe port holes
and doors Hood pressure set point as close as possible to zero Primary air should
be kept as low as possible Reduce length of pre-cooling zone by: Adjusting the
burner position Proper material load (kiln speed/feed ratio) Increase clinker bed
depth in cooler (near 15 inches) Oxygen to be maintained at minimum level Good
flame shape and temperature Good chemical composition Good burnability factors
Constant raw mix TYPICAL KILN PROBLEMS List of most frequent factors at work
when kiln operation is unsatisfactory 1) High leakage, pre-heater only into feed
end seal (more than 5%)
2) Faulty suspension results in high pre-heater outlet temperatures, thus reduces
capacity (bleed air) 3) Poor operating practices (burning techniques) 4) Reducing
conditions in kiln 5) Reducing conditions in burning zone due to flame impingement
with load 6) Lack of momentum at burner tip leads to long, lazy flame 7) High
primary air, (30%+) due to direct firing of coal, (critical in dry process kiln) 8)
High level of volatile elements in raw feed particularly chlorine 9) Systematically
hot burning 10) Inadequate chain system 11) Poor cooler heat recovery due to cooler
fan design 12) Poor cooler heat recovery due to excessive air flows, insufficient
pressure in under grate compartments 13) Chemically variable raw mix C3S, more than
10 points over a shift 14) Variable slurry moisture (more than 3 points) 15)
Variable addition of hi-alkali or hi-volatile dust from precipitator (over a period
of more than one-half hour) 16) Erratic feed rate 17) Erratic fuel rate (wet coal)
18) High leakage into hood seal (more than 10% of combustion air) 19) Inadequate or
obsolete design of equipment or facilities 20) High leakage into pre-heater and
down-comer duct 21) Flame erosion on lining could create premature brick failure
22) Kiln misalignment, excessive tire clearances and other factors of shell
deflection 23) Bricking techniques lead to rings not tight enough 24) Low slurry
moisture 25) High slurry moisture List of Typical Kiln Operating Problems
1) Heat consumption higher than normal Long dry: Higher than 3.4 MBtu/ton Long wet:
Higher than 5.2 MBtu/ton Four stage Pre-heater: Higher than 3.1 MBtu/ton 2) Output
lower than nominal and / or standard 3) Kiln is unstable and requires frequent
massive shutdowns 4) Kiln is cycling spontaneously without any action of operator
5) Kiln is out of draft with output below nominal 6) Stack stinks SO2 emissions
are high 7) Mud ring in chain section on wet kiln 8) Back-spills on wet kiln 9)
Burning zone rings 10) Discharge end rings 11) Snowmen in cooler 12) Frequent
burning zone burnouts (brick life is less than 3 months) 13) High dust return
(above 20% of clinker) causes handling problems 14) Cyclones plug-ups (four stage
pre-heater) 15) Build-ups in pre-heater feed box (four stage pre-heater) 16) Cooler
exhaust system seems undersized/under-designed - Hood frequently under pressure
(during pushes) - Exhaust temperature is higher than normal - Bleed in damper is
open very often - Frequent bag burnouts in cooler bag house 17) Red grates in the
cooler all the time. Frequent grates burnouts 18) Red rivers on side of cooler 19)
Under pushes, cooler speed up to maximum, yet some fans stop blowing any air
(pressure overload) 20) Kiln drive seems undersized, kicks out upon start-up after
a short shutdown WHAT TO LOOK FOR WHEN LOOKING INSIDE A KILN
 Viewing the kiln interior This may sound somewhat elementary, but we should never
forget that we are looking into an extremely luminous source. Although filtering
glasses are used, the light source is so strong that focusing the eyes into it for
too long a time could cause partial blindness. One should look no longer than one
minute at a time into the fire. If longer viewing is required, look a side for few
seconds occasionally to rest the eyes. Looking steadily too long at the flame
results in the eye losing its ability to see details, hence the need for a short
rest every minute or so. The question of what type of colored filter glass to use
must be left to the operators. Burning with a natural gas flame usually makes
necessary a darker colored than oil fire would require, because of the greater
luminosity of the flame. As a rule, one should always use a glass that enables him
to see under and behind the flame. Once a certain glass has been chosen, the
operators should stay with this glass at all times in order to properly judge the
burning zone conditions. How frequently should one look into the burning zone?
There is no set answer to this question. Experienced operators sometimes become
over-confident and think that it would be perfectly safe to leave the kiln alone
for periods in excess of 30 minutes. This action however, is against good burning
practice. The secret of every good operator is his ability to recognize a change in
kiln condition at the time a change takes place and not later. For this reason, a
good operator will never leave a kiln too long a time unchecked. When things are
going smoothly, the kiln should be checked every half hour, with more frequent
checks if adjustments are being made. There is no such thing as operating a kiln by
the instrument alone, as the instruments do not show, for example heavier and
lighter loads entering the burning zone until it is almost too late to make the
necessary adjustment. The kiln condition can be estimated from the color observed
in the hottest part of the flame. Dark red cherry red orange-yellow white Cold -
- normal hot Any deviations from the orange-yellow range should be investigated to
determine the cause and when adjustments need to be made to the kiln operation to
get back to normal kiln condition.
 Appearance of burning zone Good or bad visibility Bright white or dark red color
Good appearance is an orange-yellow color The gas stream should be calm without
great turbulence Appearance of coating Coating should begin approximately .
diameter of kiln size from the nose ring Color of coating tells a great deal about
the condition in burning zone as coating acts as heat storage in burning zone
Overall thickness of coating should be between 9 and 12 inches and is dependent of
the type of raw mix Check for ring formation near lower or upper section of the
kiln If the surface of the coating appears smooth, then the burning zone in this
area is hot If the coating appears lumpy then the burning zone is okay A bare
spot without coating could be due to flame erosion, thick brick or high flame
temperature in this location Appearance of the coating falling off from the top of
the kiln shell: Large pieces: normal Fine noodles dripping: too hot The location
where the coating pieces are falling from the top of the kiln wall, above the end
of the flame is generally where the raw load is. So whenever the raw load cannot be
seen in the bottom and behind the flame of the kiln, try to look at the top.
Appearance of material load
 Is clinker balling or fine? Is material sticky? Is material heavy or light? Is
material movement fast or slow? Is material climbing low or high in the wall?
(material should climb up +/- to the 10 oclock position in normal operation)
Appearance of material before falling in the cooler, fine or nodular Upper burning
zone section Are rings building up or not? Is coating formation seem normal? Try
to evaluate the length of the coating (50 to 100 feet from burning zone to far up)
Raw feed location Look behind the flame at the bottom of the kiln Normal position
is approximately . diameter distance under the flame Never allow raw feed to come .
way under the flame as kiln speed will have to be reduced to control it (kiln low
speed) An advancing or receding dark feed is the earliest indication of a burning
zone that is warming up or cooling down. So that is why it is important for the
kiln operation to be able to see this load. Every effort should be done during
normal operation to keep this load in sight. Flame appearance Should always be
evaluated during stable kiln condition Long (100 ft) or short (30 ft) Hard or lazy
Bushy or narrow
Bright or dark White or orange yellow Eroding the coating or the brick wall Aiming
high, low or in the center Eroding the material load If fuel is burning in
suspension or in the material load Position of the ignition point when coal or coke
is used The flame temperature should be as hot as possible as long as it does not
create problems with the coating and the kiln refractory. Whenever a change is made
on the flame shape, a close monitoring of the shell temperature should be done.
Coal flames Coal normally burns with longer flame than oil A coal flame normally
starts at 3 to 5 feet from the burner tip Coal fineness to be about 85% passing 200
mesh Keep the coal system air flow at about 70 ft/sec to avoid coal deposit inside
pipe, while keeping primary air to minimum (direct system and burner design) On
direct firing system, coal fan damper setting should be set at minimum value and
the fuel rate changes made only by making changes with the coal feeder system in
order to keep the flame shape short and as constant as possible. Burner pipe
appearance Is the tip of the blast pipe in good condition? Is the burner cast-able
in good condition? Is the burner pipe aimed correctly? How is the pipe location
relative to the nose ring? Are snowmen building up on top of burner pipe? Whenever
a bad condition deflecting the flame is observe, a quick evaluation should be done
to evaluate if the kiln can continue its operation or if it needs to be shut down
to fix the burner pipe.
 Nose ring appearance . Check the condition of the cast-able or the refractory on
the top of the nose ring if okay . Check the temperature aspect and the wear of the
nose ring castings . Check if the nose ring seal is in good condition Secondary
air . Calm or upset . Dusty if the clinker is fine . Clear if clinker is balling .
Foggy and white if temperature is hot The secondary air temperature has a major
influence on the flame and its shape. Primary air . Should be as low as possible
to obtain satisfactory heat recuperation from cooler . Has an important influence
on the shape of the flame (bushy or narrow) . Pressure should be as constant as
possible When good settings of the flame have been found, the primary air settings
should not be changed in normal operation unless a high temperature condition in
the kiln refractory has raised and required to change the flame. When the kiln is
down . Look for ball or ring formation at upper section of burning zone . Evaluate
length of coating if okay, too long means we burned the kiln too far up . Load
level inside kiln if even and normal
. Appearance on load during kiln jacking (sticky or normal) Look at the sealing
efficiency of the kiln back end (no suction or gases movement inside of kiln should
be observed). When kiln is shutdown, the gases should be bottled inside of the kiln
as fast as possible by closing the kiln back end damper or its equivalent and by
adjusting the hood pressure set point, slightly positive. The procedure need to be
done to avoid heat loss from the kiln to insure a slow cooling of the refractory
and avoid thermal shocks on the bricks. KILN UPSETS Burning zone too hot Too
much liquid is formed and all temperatures are above the solid state temperature
therefore no coating is formed. Coating will be lost and this could damage the
refractory. A) Appearance the kiln could be white and hazy in front end and the
clinker will be balling. B) Appearance of the kiln could appear cold if burning is
too far. The clinker could be fine (very long burning zone). A) Hot burning zone
with high secondary air temperature . The front of kiln is very hot and white,
often hazy . The secondary air temperature is high . The clinker is balling and
getting bigger . Often the dark load is visible behind the flame These conditions
occurs when the burning zone length is moving down and concentrating the heat on a
shorter burning zone length in front of kiln. This situation can be overcome quite
easily by reducing the fuel rate and the ID fan slowly step by step until the
burning zone gets back to its normal condition. B) Hot burning zone with dusty
secondary air
 . Can be caused by burning too far back into the kiln . Flame too long and ignite
too far . Pre-cooling zone is too long in front of the kiln . Long burning zone
promotes very fine clinker formation which is sent back as dust into the kiln with
the secondary air gas stream Whenever dusty conditions prevail in front, corrective
measures should be based on the clinkering conditions behind the flame rather than
on the color of the front of the kiln. Aspect of the clinker falling in cooler is
very important at that time to evaluate the kiln condition. Kiln amps, fuel flow
rate, shell temperature and back-end temperature are usually above the normal
operation settings during these conditions. Get free lime done from clinker coming
out of the kiln to see if OK If operator is in doubt about the kiln being cold or
hot, the kiln rotation could be stopped (out of the interlock for a few seconds) to
allow condition of the burning zone to clear and to view inside the kiln If doubt
still persists, the kiln should be assumed to be hot and it should be cooled down
by reducing the fuel and the ID fan speed until the burning zone get back normal or
end up to be completely cold. Except for very hot and emergency conditions, such as
cooling should take as long as a full shift to be done, to avoid high heat
concentration in front and quick losses of coating from the upper section of the
burning zone which could upset the burning zone temperature. KILN CYCLING This
is an unstable condition when the load in the kiln decreases, causing the
temperature of the burning zone to rise and forcing the operator to reduce the fuel
rate. Then, the burning zone starts to cool off in turn forcing the operator to
increase the fuel rate. In severe cases, the temperature continue
to drop, even though the fuel rate is at maximum and it become necessary to reduce
the kiln speed to slow down the entry of the feed into the burning zone. Once a
kiln gets into an upset such as this, the cycle will repeat. Kiln cycling could be
related to the following reasons; . Variations in kiln feed: physical or chemical,
. Variations in dust re-introduction to kiln, . Variations in the water spray
control system in kiln inlet (if any), . Materials hold up in the chain system (for
wet process kilns), . Poor chain system design (for wet process kilns), .
Variations in hood pressure control . Poor cooler settings and control which
promote secondary air temperature variations, . Operating the kiln above its
production capacity, . Variations in the quality and the quantity of the fuel
supply to the kiln, . Bad operating practices, especially over reacting with the
kiln speed and . Volatile recirculation inside the kiln system especially chlorine
So all the above reasons should be investigated in order to find the cause of the
cycling problem and corrected. HOW TO BREAK A CYCLE IN A KILN . Reduce
feed/speed ratio by approximately 10% in order to change the material load in the
kiln (also mainly to change the material load in the chain system). . Increase the
fuel flow rate by 5% above the normal setting of the current production level. .
Keep the oxygen level above 2% and try to control the back end temperature
variations as much as possible by using fuel rate and ID fan variations.
. Let the kiln amps vary and do not attempt to chase them by varying the kiln
speed. Just try to control them if they get above or below the critical range by
varying the fuel flow rate. . If the kiln speed need to be varied than it should
be done with very small variations, in order to avoid upsetting the material in the
kiln. . If the kiln speed needs to be increased to go back to normal production
level, then it should be carried out more slowly than normal. As you get to normal
production level, fuel settings should be held above normal before returning to
normal operation settings. KILN EMERGENCY CONDITIONS SECTION RED SPOT ON KILN
SHELL Indicators: . By visual observations . Shell scanner sharp and rapid shell
temperature increase to level above 850oF (450oC) . Visual observations of loose
refractory bricks in the material load of the kiln or in the clinker at the cooler
discharge Possible Effects and Danger . Severe warping and damage to kiln shell .
Shell temperature between 900 and 1100oF (480 and 590oC), deep red color on shell .
Shell temperature over 1200oF (650oC), very bright red and shell bulges and warps
Recommended Actions to Take A) For small red spot located in the upper transition
or center of burning zone Continue normal operation of kiln but:
. Place shell cooling fans in the area of red spot . Shorten flame to bring black
feed over area of red spot in attempt to form new coating . Keep watching the shell
temperature trend . Maintain normal burning zone temperature . Change kiln feed
chemistry to obtain an easier burning mix B) For large red spot located under or
near a kiln tire or in areas were no coating is formed SHUT DOWN KILN IMMEDIATELY
Warning: Under no circumstances should a water spray be used on the red spot, as
this could result in severe kiln shell damage. Possible Measures to Prevent Re-
occurrence . Make sure flame configuration and characteristics are not causing
localized coating erosion or continuous and excessive overheating . Employ proper
refractory installation methods . Minimize frequency of kiln shutdowns and upsets .
Minimize frequency of clinker type changes over . Avoid hard burning mixes (i.e.
ensure sufficient percentage of liquid content in mix to promote coating formation)
RAW, UNBURNED FEED IN CLINKER COOLER Indicators: . On rush of raw feed into and
beyond burning zone . Black feed position advanced more than . way under the
flame . Black-out in burning zone . Red grates in cooler . Rapid rise in cooler
grate and clinker discharge temperatures . Cooler drag-chain amperage increases
rapidly Possible Effects and Danger
. Thermal damage to cooler grates and grate drive mechanism . Fire on clinker
conveyor belts . Excessive high temperatures in coal mill air circuit Warning:
Watch for incomplete combustion when visibility in burning zone is severely
restricted. Actions to Take First and foremost, do not wait until raw feed is in
the cooler; act when the first signs of impending problems are visible in the
burning zone. . Immediately reduce kiln speed to minimum (or turn on auxiliary
drive) . Reduce fuel and ID fan speed in accordance with standard slowdown
procedures to protect the kiln back end temperature . Reduce cooler grate drive
speed (switch to manual control) to allow material in cooler more time for cooling
. Adjust cooler air flow rates to obtain maximum cooling without the hood pressure
going positive . Advise all unauthorized personnel to stay clear of the firing
floor, cooler and coal mill area Preventive Measures to Avoid Re-occurrence .
Accelerate frequency of visual observations of burning zone for early detection of
impending cooler upsets . Evaluate kiln output rates vs. capabilities and kiln
operating stability LARGE RING BROKEN LOOSE IN KILN Indicators . Visual
observations of large junks in burning zone . Sudden drop in kiln back end draft .
Large drop in oxygen content of kiln exit gases . Hood pressure tending towards
positive side . Sudden change in kiln drive amperage
Possible Effects and Dangers . Overloading cooler with unburned feed . On rush of
excessive amounts of feed into the burning zone . Damage to cooler drives and
grates . Large pieces jamming cooler hammer crusher . Red hot clinker leaving
cooler Actions to Take . When amount of feed and ring fragments in burning zone are
extremely large: . Immediately reduce kiln speed to minimum . Reduce fuel and ID
fan speed to keep back end temperature under control . Switch cooler grate control
to manual and reduce grate speed . Adjust cooler air flows to maximum flow
possible, without the hood pressure going positive . Have personnel on standby to
watch the cooler and the hammer crusher for possible overloading, overheating and
jamming Possible Preventive Measures to Avoid Re-occurrence . Laboratory to
reevaluate chemistry of kiln feed (including dust return rates) for possible
elimination of ring formation if no solution in this area possible, then . Initiate
regular schedule to remove rings and heavy build-up by means of special devices
design for this purpose . Initiate regular procedures to displace the burning zone
location on a daily basis BURNING ZONE DANGEROUSLY HOT Indicators . Clinker
balling in burning zone . Material load sausage-like . Coating dripping off the
wall . Sliding molten clinker bed in burning zone . Burning zone recording
temperature too high
. Cooler under grate pressure too high . Material load turning to liquid in burning
zone . Very brilliant and white burning zone Possible Effects and Dangers . Loss
of coating and thermal damage to refractory . Red spot in the kiln shell . Thermal
damage to cooler and kiln hood components Possible Actions . Reduce fuel flow rate
to minimum until sausaging stops . Increase kiln speed approximately 10 rph until
sausage is broken . Provide maximum air in cooler (without hood pressure going
positive) . The kiln rotation to be adapted is the aspect of the material near to
fall into the cooler. No liquid material in the cooler, stop kiln rotation if
needed. . Reduced primary air flow, then as soon as the objective of breaking the
agglomeration is accomplished, . Reduced the kiln and ID fan speed then increase
fuel flow rate to normal operating conditions Preventive Measures . If sausaging
is frequent and result of easy-burning mix, have laboratory evaluate possibility of
providing a mix with less percentage of liquid content . Make more frequent,
vigilant observation of the burning zone conditions . Evaluate flame position and
shape to determine if thinner, longer flame is possible SUDDEN, SHARP RAISE IN
BACK-END TEMPERATURE Possible Reasons . Feed shortage . Combustion in exit gas
. ID fan speed too high . Kiln speed too low . Chain fire Possible Effects and
Dangers . Chain fire on wet and dry kilns . Thermal damage to back end, dust
collector and pre-heater tower equipment . Delayed ignition of fuel in back end of
kiln Possible Actions . Immediately de-energize electrostatic precipitator .
Immediately reduce fuel flow rate and ID fan speed to obtain less than 0.3% oxygen
in exit gas Warning: Do not cut off fuel flow rate completely as this could trigger
an explosion. . Increase kiln speed and feed rate . Warn personnel to stay clear of
kiln back-end . Do not open any doors in kiln back-end Then as soon as the primary
objective of bringing the kiln back-end temperature under control is accomplished:
. Return kiln control variables to normal to restore operating conditions . Check
out back-end to determine if thermal damage had occurred Preventive Measures . Do
not operate kiln without feed for more than 10 minutes . Provide alarms and
properly maintain kiln instrumentation to obtain warnings before the back-end
temperature gets out of maximum range . Maintain close vigilance over combustion,
back-end and flow conditions during kiln starts, shutdowns and upsets BLACK SMOKE
EMMISION FROM KILN STACK
Indicators . Combustibles in exit gases . Oxygen in exit gas too low . Flame
extinguished for poor ignition conditions . Burning zone temperature too low .
Excessive fuel rates and/or insufficient kiln draft Possible Actions . Immediately
de-energize electrostatic precipitator . Immediately reduce fuel flow rate (do not
shut off) . Increase ID fan speed to obtain: a) Zero combustible in exit gas b)
Oxygen between 0.2 and a maximum of 0.5% in exit gas . After black smoke has
cleared, maintain the low oxygen/zero combustibles for at least 10 minutes before
restoring kiln variables to normal Preventive Measures . Improve control over
flame and firing conditions . Make frequent, vigilant observation of fuel flow
rates, gas analysis, flame and kiln draft conditions during kiln starts and upsets
DISTORTED FLAME SHAPE Indicators . Irregular and unusual flame shape . Fragmented
flame where part of flame impinges on lining near kiln discharge area Possible
Effects and Dangers . Inspect burner pipe for damage or plugged circuit . If flame
is erratic and severely impinges upon lining near the kiln discharge area: Shutdown
kiln immediately!
. If flame is only slightly distorted; adjust burner position and primary air flow
. Check shell temperature on kiln scanner . Schedule a burner pipe repairs for next
kiln shutdown Preventive Measures . Frequent visual inspection when looking inside
the kiln . Regular inspection and maintenance of burner pipe during each prolonged
kiln shutdown . Improve protection (castables, air cooling) for burner pipe .
Maintain primary air flow for at least 2 hours after a kiln has been shutdown or
pull back the burner pipe immediately when kiln is being shutdown LOSS OF SECTION
OF REFRACTORY LINING Indicators . Loose bricks in clinker bed of burning zone .
Delineated (linear instead of round) red spot on kiln shell . Rapid rise in kiln
shell temperature Possible Effects and Dangers . Thermal damage and distortion of
kiln shell and tire . Further collapse of large sections of linings (especially in
alumina brick sections) Possible Actions . Immediately shutdown the kiln
Preventive Measures . Employ proper refractory installation methods and procedures
. Make annual checks of kiln alignment and shell ovality . Have refractory
manufacturer provide uniform shapes and proper expansion allowance for each type of
brick
. Avoid excessive turning when kiln is cold during shutdowns COOLER DRIVES OR
CLINKER BELT STOPPED Indicators . Cooler overloaded . Large chunks of coating in
cooler . High under grate pressure . High cooler drive amps prior to drive stop .
Clinker transfer chutes plugged Possible Effects and Dangers . Thermal damage to
cooler components Possible Actions . Immediately reduce kiln speed to minimum and
attempt to restart clinker belt and/or cooler drive . If drives cannot be restarted
within 5 minutes, shutdown the kiln Note: After kiln has been shutdown, consider
possibility of turning the kiln in less frequent intervals to prevent further
overloading of cooler. (Kiln still had to be rotated periodically nevertheless)
Preventive Measures . Know at what amperage the cooler drive is likely to fail and
provide alarm for overload . Adjust kiln parameters (namely kiln speed) before
cooler can become overloaded at the times when heavier feed load is observed in the
burning zone RED CLINKER AT COOLER DISCHARGE Indicators
. High drag chain amps . Sudden drop in under grate pressure (grate out) .
Excessively high under grate pressure (cooler overloaded) . Cooler drive amps and
clinker bed depth too high . Cooler loaded with coating and ring fragments .
Snowman formation at cooler inlet Possible Effects and Dangers . Thermal damage to
cooler components . Thermal damage to clinker transport equipment Possible Actions
. Immediately make a visual check of the cooler to determine reason for red-clinker
discharge If cooler grate out, shutdown kiln If cooler overloaded, reduce kiln
speed to minimum and reduce cooler grate drive speed to allow more time for cooling
. Increase air flow into cooler . Activate water spray at cooler discharge and
reroute clinker to prevent damage to conveyor belts Preventive Measures a) On
frequent grate failures . Investigate for possible faulty grate installation
methods by maintenance department . Investigate quality of grates and bolts used b)
On frequent one-sided loading of cooler bed . Investigate possible cooler design
changes . Investigate possibilities for elimination of stalagmite (snowmen)
formation at cooler inlet c) On frequent overloading of cooler due to upsets . Slow
down kiln speed before raw feed enters cooler or cooler can become overloaded (make
your corrective moves before things get out of control)
 RAPID RAISE OF TEMPERATURE IN COAL SYSTEM Possible Effects and Dangers .
Explosion . Thermal damage to coal system Possible Actions Warning: Do not open
any door in the system that could provide the oxygen for an explosion or a more
serious fire. . Inject inert gas (CO2) into coal mill inlet . Flood coal mill with
kiln feed or excessive coal . Warn all personnel to stay clear of system . Stop or
reduce air flow to coal mill to minimum Preventive Measures for Re-occurrence .
Provide coal mill inlet with magnetic device to extract metal fragments from coal
feeder belt . Keep paper, rags, etc. out of coal storage pile . Do not feed coal
mill with coal that has undergone spontaneous ignition (smothering) while in
storage . Keep coal mill de-tramp chute clear . Provide coal mill system with
automatic fire-extinguishing devices . Do not operate coal mill above predetermined
safe temperature for any given type of coal POWER FAILURE Possible Effects and
Dangers . Warping of kiln shell . Thermal damage to burner pipe, instrumentation
and equipment at kiln discharge area
. On coal-fired kilns, settlement of ground coal in coal system that could lead to
a fire and/or explosion Possible Actions . Immediately start auxiliary power
generator and primary air fan (coal mill fan on direct fired kilns) . Retract
burner pipe and protect TV monitor in kiln hood . Start . turn on kiln not later
than 10 minutes after the power failure . If available, close feed-end damper
manually to prevent hot gases from escaping from kiln by natural draft Power
Failure Main Procedures . Start generator or auxiliary drive . If it is raining,
carry out . turn as described previously . Close kiln back-end, ID fan damper, or
precipitator inlet damper if power failure is of long duration . Keep primary air
fan running to cool down the burner pipe (and pre-calciner burners) or pull the
burners out of the kiln . Try to restore power as soon as possible The following
should be connected on the auxiliary power system: . Emergency light in control
room . Emergency light in kiln platform . Telephone system for outside calls .
Radio system inside the plant . ID fan louvers and precipitator inlet damper . Kiln
auxiliary drive . Primary air fan . Recirculation pump for the industrial water
system (water cooling system)
Instructions should be given to all members of the shift for specific
responsibilities during a power failure as example: Operator A: . Carry out safety
procedures on kiln system . Start the auxiliary power system . Close kiln back end
(if on auxiliary system) . Rotate the kiln . If it is raining continuously, rotate
kiln as soon as possible . Protection of burner pipe (pull out of kiln . Call the
power company Operator B: . Get to main power breaker and try to reset it . Go to
kiln back-end and close ID fan louvers (if they are not connected on the auxiliary
drive) . If the auxiliary drive control is not remote, make kiln rotation in local
A CHAIN FIRE Indicators . Rapid, sudden rise in intermediate and exit gas
temperatures . By visual observation Possible Effects and Dangers . Melt-down and
loss of chains . Damage to kiln shell in chain system area . On wet process kilns;
steam explosion . Thermal damage to kiln back-end equipment Possible Actions
Warning: Under no circumstances should water be added at the feed end.
. Immediately reduce fuel rate to minimum (but dont shut fuel off completely) . At
the same time, reduce ID fan speed to obtain zero combustibles and less than 0.3%
oxygen . Increase kiln speed and feed rate to maximum until the back end
temperature is under control . On wet process kilns, clear all personnel from
firing floor Preventive Measures . Avoid operating the kiln for more than 10
minutes when there is feed shortage . Establish and enforce maximum permissible
operating limits for intermediate and/or exit gas temperatures HEAVY RAIN OR
THUNDERSTORMS Possible Effects and Dangers . On kilns that are exposed to
elements; . Loss of coating and collapse of refractory lining . Thermal damage and
warping of kiln shell . Possibility of power failure Possible Actions If storm
occurs shortly after a kiln shutdown; . Jack (turn) kiln more frequently or
continuously on auxiliary drive . Start auxiliary power generator in preparation
for a possible power failure SUDDEN, HIGH POSITIVE HOOD PRESSURE Possible
Reasons . ID fan failure . Large ring or build-up broken loose inside kiln .
Instrumentation failure of cooler air flow, cooler stack damper, or ID fan control
. Steam explosion on wet-process kilns Possible Effects and Dangers . All
personnel on firing floor is in danger . Thermal damage to equipment on firing
floor and hood . Danger of backfire in coal system Possible Actions . Immediately
clear all personnel from firing floor . Immediately reduce fuel rate to minimum and
increase ID fan speed . Reduce cooler air flow rates into under grate compartments
. Open cooler excess air damper manually OVERHEATED KILN BEARINGS (Procedure
needs to be approved by your Maintenance Department) Slow down kiln speed near
minimum 20 rph. Do not stop the kiln (bearing will seize) Open reset door on top of
bearing and pour in sulfur until noise stops You can add also powdered graphite
to the bearing lubricating oil The sulfur must be poured on the shaft and not on
the bearing casing Keep a bag of sulfur near the control room location Call the
Maintenance Supervisor Check if the oil heating is on or not, and stop it if it is
in operation (breaker location must be known to all) Check if the water or glycol
circulation is okay. If there is no circulation, open the water valve very slowly
If you cannot reach the Maintenance Supervisor, call for an Oiler and a Maintenance
man Install a water hose to get cold water in the bearing (not a close circuit
loop) Drain the oil and add new oil until the new oil has reached its normal
temperature (below 120oF/50oC you should have a temperature gauge showing the oil
temperature on each bearing) Temperature sometimes requires from 6 to 12 hours to
reach 120oF/50oC
Type of oil to use for the bearings to be confirmed by your maintenance department
KILN HAZARDOUS CONDITIONS Shooting Rings with Gun . Do not allow any employees
other than the gun crew on the firing hood during ring shooting . Do not tamper
with the ammunition . Keep all live ammunition locked up and away from the firing
floor when not in use . Permit only experienced and trained persons to operate the
kiln gun . Use ear muffs when firing gun . Cotton stuffed in the ear is not
adequate . Clean gun at frequent intervals and do not attempt to fire an apparent
defective gun . If kiln has no chain section, keep all persons away from the kiln
back end and rope this area off before shooting Clinker, Fuel Oil and Coal Dust
Spills . Clean up spills immediately . Provide adequate clean-up cans and
facilities for easy removal of spills . Initiate repair action when spills are
caused by leaks that can be repaired Gas, Fuel Oil, Coal and Steam Leaks in Fuel
System . Report any gas odor on the firing floor immediately to the shift
supervisor . Provide for periodic inspection of fuel and steam lines and system to
detect leaks and other defects as a preventive measure against major breaks in the
system Burner Hood, Porthole and Cooler Doors . Do not allow anyone to look into
the burning zone while the kiln is on operation unless approved safety equipment
for viewing is used . Use proper protective clothing when working near open burner
hood and cooler doors while the kiln is in operation
. Instruct all persons to stay clear of the portholes whenever the hood pressure is
temporarily on the positive side Relining the Kiln with Refractory Bricks and
Materials . Use protective screen when working under loose refractory and coating,
if no alternate procedure is possible . Any employee working inside the kiln should
have positive means, such as locking out the kiln drive with his own lock, to
assure that the kiln cannot be started while he is inside . Have proper posture and
steady footing when lifting bricks or scaling coating . Do not work underneath the
burner hood bridge while material is being hauled in and out of the kiln . Do not
test run cooler fans when workmen are inside the kiln . Do not run ID fan when
workmen are at kiln rear or in chain section Working Near or on Dust Collecting
Equipment . Wear extra protective clothing to guard against burns from hot dust .
Wash skin thoroughly with clear water after contact with alkaline dust . Have a
second workman as safety man standing by whenever working under or in bins or
hoppers containing material . Do not allow workmen to work inside hopper without
being properly secured on safety lines and belts . When working on plugged flue
hangers, be constantly on guard against potential dust flushes and cave in of
overhanging materials Backfire and explosion During Kiln Light-up . Open either
one cooler or burner hood door before lighting fire in kiln . Secure proper draft
in kiln before fire is lighted (very important) . Do not allow unauthorized person
to stand near the burner hood during light-up . Stay clear of burner hood ports
when igniting the fuel . Avoid excessive fuel flow on initial light-up of flame .
Start the primary air fan before opening the fuel valve
. When firing coal, make sure that no coal dust spills are present on firing floor,
around coal feeder, or in the primary air pipe Setting any Kiln Machinery into
Motion During Start-up . Make sure all persons are clear of kiln equipment before
each unit started . Sound horn to signal startup . Inspect all circuit breakers
before the startup to make sure that all safety tags and locks have been removed .
Make sure all machine guards are in place before any equipment is started Relining
the Kiln with Refractory Bricks Construct a proper bridge across the burner hood
from firing floor to kiln nose Inspect coating and remove loose overhangs before
passing underneath Keep all unauthorized personnel out of kiln interior KILN
OPERATION SECTION KILN OPERATION TECHNIQUES There are Three Common Techniques for
Burning Clinker in a Rotary Kiln . Maintain a constant kiln speed, and vary the
fuel rate to counteract the temperature changes in the burning zone . Maintain a
constant fuel rate, and vary the kiln speed to hold the burning zone temperature at
the desired label . Vary the kiln speed, the fuel rate or both to maintain the
desired burning zone temperature These techniques have one error in common. They
show concern only for the burning zone temperature.
 Unfortunately, many kiln operators think that this is good enough, reasoning that,
as long as good-clinkers are produced, what more is necessary? The fallacy of this
reasoning lie in the fact that ideal stable kiln conditions can be obtain faster
and more economically when equal consideration is given to all zones in the kiln
and not the burning zone alone. The process of clinker burning, therefore the
process of rotary kiln control starts not at the place where the feed enters the
burning zone but at the point where feed enters the kiln. The Proper Operation
Technique is: Vary the kiln speed, the fuel rate and the induced draft fan in any
combination to maintain the proper burning zone temperature and maintain a constant
back-end temperature for a given rate of feed. This technique is called; Burning a
kiln from the rear. By doing so, you prevent the variations instead of reacting to
them when they reached the burning zone. If you stabilize the kiln back-end
temperature you will be able most of the time to overcome the burning zone
temperature variations mainly by using the fuel input to the kiln and the ID fan
speed. In long wet and dry kilns, kiln speed variations should be avoided as much
as possible in normal operation as it create variations in the material loading of
the kiln and eventually could lead to the kiln into an upset. If kiln speed
variations is to be used, then they should be small (1 to 3 rph) keeping in mind
that the material load of the kiln will be more or less +/- 2 hours later as it
will reach the burning zone, (kiln retention time). However, speed variations must
be used on pre-calciner kilns to control the burning zone temperature as the
calcinations rate or the feed preparation is done by the fuel input on the pre-
calciner burners. The feed/speed ratio must remain constant all the time once the
perfect loading of the kiln has been found. Speed/feed ratio should not be changed
to control the kiln.
 BURNING ZONE EVALUATION The burning zone condition can be estimated from the
colors observed in the hottest part of the flame. An orange-yellow color is normal.
When looking into burning zone, one will observe a sharp color change of the lowest
part of the feed bed under the flame from dark to bright. This point in burning
zone is of great importance to the operator as it is the earliest indication when
the burning zone tends to warm up or to cool down. In normal operation, the
position of the dark feed remains stationary approximately one quarter of the
distance into the flame. This point should be used at the main indicator for
evaluation of the burning zone. If the dark feed move further under the flame
(towards the front of the kiln) the burning zone is cooling down. If the dark feed
shifts in the direction of the kiln rear the burning zone is warming up. The
position of the dark feed can feed can move because of changes in the flame shape,
the feed loading of the kiln or if the feed to kiln is harder to burn. Any change
in the position of the dark feed must be viewed in the light of all of these
influences. The operator must be able to see the dark feed whenever he looks
inside the kiln and he must regulate the operation of the kiln so as to achieve
this; A slow shifting of the dark feed in either direction can usually be
counteracted by a small change in the fuel input rate in order to keep the feed in
its proper place.
If it become necessary to counteract the condition in which the feed has slipped
too far under the flame than the kiln speed should be varied to restore the dark
feed position to the proper location. STABLE KILN TEMPERATURE PROFILE When there
is no movement (up or down) of the dark feed, and no changes were made on the kiln
speed, the fuel rate and the ID fan speed for the last 2 hours, and the back-end
temperature has remained stable than; The kiln temperature profile should be
considerately satisfactory and the kiln system stable, Then the burning zone should
be considered as set point for this kiln feed; When the burning zone as reached
this condition than the related back-end temperature, and gas chain temperature
should be considered as set point also for this kiln feed. TARGET SET POINT AND
OPERATION REFERENCES Whenever the operator has achieved a perfect and stable
temperature profile on the kiln system, the value of the following sensors should
be taken as references set point for future operation and are: . Back-end
temperature . Gas chain temperature . Material chain temperature . Kiln amps .
Burning zone temperature . NOx value And these values need to be correlated to the
main controllers on the kiln which are: . The feed rate to the kiln (and the type
of clinker produced) . The kiln speed . The ID fan speed . The fuel rate to kiln
. The oxygen level References and set point for operation need to be established on
each type of clinker produced and this, at the maximum feed rate on each kiln
system. Also a copy page of the kiln operation should be taken. With all these
references, the operator has all the tools to make an optimized kiln operation.
BACK END TEMPERATURE CONTROL Back End Temperature is controlled principally by 3
factors; . ID fan speed - Change in kiln exit draft (oxygen level) . Fuel rate -
Causing changes in heat input in kiln . Feed rate - From feed variations in feed
ratio, kiln speed, or dust return rate to kiln Back End Temperature control goes
hand in hand with oxygen, fuel rate and burning zone control. As a matter of fact,
whenever the operator makes an adjustment in any one of the main control variables,
he has to consider the reaction that will take place in all regions of the kiln. Of
these, the ID fan speed and the fuel rate are the usual causes for changes in back-
end temperature, as the feed rate should remain constant. THE THREE BASIC
VARIABLES Variable Conditions in the kiln are indicated by: . The Burning Zone
Temperature or dark load position, NOx signal, and kiln amps level which has the
dominant influence on the clinker quality . The Back-End Temperature or the gas
chain temperature which are the principal controls on the operation stability . The
Percentage of Oxygen in the exit gas, which governs the combustion and the fuel
efficiency
In most conditions, except for the emergencies or upset conditions, the operator
will find that these three variables can be maintained within reasonable limits by
means of adjustments of one or more of the 3 basic controls. TARGET RANGES FOR
THE THREE VARIABLES Ranges for the Three Variables For the kiln operation, it is
necessary to establish target ranges for the three variables. This information will
be supplied by the past experience and depend on the raw mix composition, clinker
type and other factors. These ranges has to be established where these variables
can safely be permitted to fluctuate without upsetting the kiln operation.
Examples of Values which have been established: target range limits Burning Zone
Temperature 2800oF (1550oC) +/- 50oF (+/- 50oC) 2750oF to 2850oF (1500oC to 1600oC)
Back-End Temperature 1450oF (800oC) +/- 20oF (+/- 20oC) 1430oF to 1470oF (780oC to
820oC) Oxygen Percentage 1.2% +/- 0.8% 0.4% to 2.0% THE THREE BASIC CONTROLS .
Fuel flow to the burner . Change in the kiln speed . Change in the speed of the ID
fan The operator needs to use one or all of its three controllers to keep these
variables inside their limits. The operator must be alert and correct any out of
range conditions as soon as it reaches the limits of tolerance.
Correction should be made promptly, but care must be exercised to avoid
overreacting as this could lead the kiln to an upset. THE 27 CONDITIONS (KURT E.
PERAY) Because any of these variables can be within, below or above the allowable
range, there are 27 possible conditions that will be encountered by the operator.
These are shown graphically in the following figure. Note that a case number has
been assigned to each condition as an aid to identification. This chart should be
used by the operators to understand the logic of good kiln operation procedures
where the Back-End Temperature, the Burning Zone Temperature and Oxygen level were
all taken in consideration in order to make a logic correction to an out of range
variable. Case Condition Action to be taken Reasons 1 BZT low Ox low BET low When
BZT is drastically low, a) reduce kiln speed b) reduce fuel rate When BZT is
slightly low, c) increase ID fan speed d) increase fuel rate a) to increase BZT
and BET b) to move Ox percentage into range c) to raise BET and Ox d) to raise BZT
and Ox into range 2 BZT low Ox low BET OK a) reduce kiln speed b) reduce fuel rate
c) reduce ID fan speed a) to raise BZT b) to raise Ox percentage into range c) to
maintain BET 3 BZT low Ox low BET high a) reduce kiln speed b) reduce fuel rate c)
reduce ID fan speed a) to raise BZT b) to increase Ox c) to reduce BET 4 BZT low Ox
OK BET low When BZT is drastically low, a) reduce kiln speed When BZT is slightly
low, b) increase ID fan speed c) increase fuel rate a) to raise both BZT and BET
b) to raise BET and Ox c) to raise BZT 5 BZT low Ox OK BET OK When BZT is
drastically low and Ox is in lower part of range, a) reduce kiln speed b) reduce
fuel rate c) reduce ID fan speed a) to raise BZT b) to raise Ox c) to maintain
BET
When BZT is slightly low and Ox is in higher part of range, d) increase fuel rate
d) to raise BZT 6 BZT low Ox OK BET high When BZT is drastically low, a) reduce
kiln speed b) reduce fuel rate c) reduce ID fan speed When BZT is slightly low and
Ox in higher part of range, d) reduce ID fan speed a) to raise BZT b) to raise Ox
c) to lower BET d) to reduce BET and raise BZT 7 BZT low Ox high BET low When BZT
is drastically low, a) reduce kiln speed b) reduce ID fan speed When BZT is
slightly low, c) increase fuel rate a) to raise both BZT and BET b) to maintain BET
c) to raise BZT and lower Ox & BET. BET should be rising also, if not keep
increasing fuel rate and ID fan speed 8 BZT low Ox high BET OK When BZT is
drastically low, a) reduce kiln speed b) reduce ID fan speed When BZT is slightly
low, c) increase fuel rate a) to raise BZT b) to maintain BET. If Ox is still
available after this move, increase fuel also c) to raise BZT and lower Ox 9 BZT
low Ox high BET high When BZT is drastically low, a) reduce kiln speed b) reduce ID
fan speed c) increase fuel rate When BZT is slightly low, d) reduce ID fan speed
a) to raise BZT b) to lower BET and Ox c) to raise BZT and lower Ox d) to raise
BZT and reduce BET & Ox 10 BZT OK Ox low BET low a) increase ID fan speed b)
increase fuel rate a) to raise BET and Ox b) to maintain BZT 11 BZT OK Ox low BET
OK a) decrease fuel rate slightly a) to raise Ox 12 BZT OK Ox low BET high a)
reduce fuel rate b) reduce ID fan speed a) to increase Ox b) to lower BET and
maintain BZT 13 BZT OK Ox OK BET low a) increase ID fan speed b) increase fuel rate
a) to raise BET b) to maintain BZT 14 BZT OK Ox OK BET OK None, however do not get
overconfident 15 BZT OK Ox OK When Ox is in upper part of range,
BET high a) reduce ID fan speed When Ox is in lower part of range, b) reduce fuel
rate c) reduce ID fan speed a) to reduce BET b) to raise Ox c) to lower BET and
maintain BZT 16 BZT OK Ox high BET low a) increase ID fan speed b) increase fuel
rate a) to raise BET b) to maintain BZT and reduce Ox 17 BZT OK Ox high BET OK a)
reduce ID fan speed slightly a) to lower Ox 18 BZT OK Ox high BET high a) reduce ID
fan speed slightly b) reduce fuel rate slightly a) to lower BET and Ox b) to
maintain BZT 19 BZT high Ox low BET low When BZT is drastically high, a) increase
kiln speed b) increase ID fan speed c) reduce fuel rate When BZT is slightly high,
d) increase ID fan speed a) to avoid overheating BZT b) to raise BET and Ox c)
do d) to lower BZT and raise BET & Ox 20 BZT high Ox low BET OK When BZT is
drastically high, a) increase kiln speed b) decrease fuel rate c) increase ID fan
speed When BZT is slightly high, e) increase ID fan speed a) to avoid overheating
b) to lower BZT c) to increase Ox and maintain BET d) to lower BZT and raise Ox 21
BZT high Ox low BET high When BZT is drastically high, a) increase kiln speed b)
reduce fuel rate When BZT is slightly high, c) decrease fuel rate a) to lower BET
and avoid overheating b) to lower BZT and increase Ox c) to lower BZT, BET and
increase Ox 22 BZT high Ox OK BET low When BZT is drastically high, a) increase
kiln speed b) increase ID fan speed c) reduce fuel rate When BZT is slightly high,
d) increase ID fan speed a) to avoid overheating b) to raise BET c) to lower BZT
d) to raise BET and lower BZT (see note A) 23 BZT high Ox OK BET OK When BZT is
drastically high, a) increase kiln speed b) decrease fuel rate c) increase ID fan
speed When BZT is slightly high, d) reduce fuel rate a) to avoid overheating b) to
lower BZT c) to maintain BET d) to lower BZT (see note A) 24 BZT high Ox OK When
BZT is drastically high, a) increase kiln speed a) to avoid overheating & lower
BET
BET high b) decrease fuel rate When BZT is slightly high, c) decrease fuel rate b)
to lower BZT c) to lower both BZT and BET (see note A) 25 BZT high Ox high BET low
When BZT is drastically high, a) increase kiln speed b) increase ID fan speed When
BZT is slightly high, c) increase ID fan speed a) to avoid overheating b) to
increase BET and lower BZT c) to raise BET & lower BZT (note A) 26 BZT high Ox
high BET low When BZT is drastically high, a) increase kiln speed b) increase ID
fan speed c) decrease fuel rate When BZT is slightly high, d) reduce fuel rate a)
to avoid overheating b) to maintain BET c) to reduce BZT d) to lower BZT (see note
A) 27 BZT high Ox high BET high When BZT is drastically high, a) increase kiln
speed b) decrease fuel rate When BZT is slightly high, c) decrease fuel rate d)
decrease ID fan speed a) to lower BZT and BET b) do c) to lower BZT d) to
lower BET (see note A) NOTE A: If the % O2 increased during this adjustment,
disregard it until temperatures are brought under control. KILN UPSET CONDITIONS
SLOW DOWN Kiln cannot operate in a stable condition at all times and it will
eventually get colder. Sometimes heavy rush of feed might end up too far under the
flame (halfway under the flame). Operator must then decide if he will be able to
control the heavy feed load only by increasing the fuel flow, or if he needs to
reduce the kiln speed. The determinant factors to be considered are the oxygen
level, back-end temperature, movement of the feed rush, and conditions in the
cooler. Assuming that it is impossible to maintain the same kiln speed, the
operator must determine how much the kiln speed can be slowed down depending on the
magnitude of the push.
Only experience can tell the operator how much the kiln has to be slowed down. In
those cases the following rules apply all the time; . When in doubt, the kiln
speed reduction should be greater than required. This will help to overcome the
problem faster. . Never allow the raw, unburned feed to enter into the cooler,
even if it means that the kiln must be stopped and rotated on . turn or the
auxiliary drive. As soon as the kiln has been slowed down, the operator must; .
Try to keep the back-end temperature within acceptable limits variation (i.e. 75 to
100oF). . Cut down the fuel flow to maintain the oxygen level above 0.5% and to
keep back-end temperature inside the limit range. . Evaluate the cooler
conditions, grate speed, grate temperature, inlet temperature of gravel bed
collection system and secondary air temperature. . Often, the cooler will have to
be switched on manual mode to protect it to become overheated as often regulation
of cooler are made for small variations only. As the kiln is on slow speed, it is
necessary to determine when the speed can be increased back again. In that case,
the oxygen level is the main factor to look at. Try to keep the same values on the
fuel flow and ID fan speed in order to observe the O2 variations. When O2 level
increases, the burning zone is warming up. . As soon as the oxygen level start to
increase, increase the kiln speed slowly i.e. +/- 3 rph if the burning zone is
still dark and very dusty.
. Observe the reaction of the O2 level if it keeps on raising. . If so, increase
kiln speed by 3 rph at every 10 minutes, and keep on increasing as long as the
oxygen level does not drop. . Keep fuel flow always one step ahead of normal
operation level, (i.e. when rotation speed is at 24 revs, set fuel flow for 27
revs), and ID fan speed accordingly. . Stop increasing kiln speed approximately
1 . to 2 hours after initial slow speed in order to overcome any upset in the
material load of the kiln created by the speed variation. . Restart increase the
kiln speed after reception of material from slowdown is over. . Kiln speed
increase should be reduced around 80 revs as we are getting near full production
(i.e. 2 revs at every 20 minutes). . When full production has been reached (i.e.
85 revs) the fuel flow must be kept one step higher than normal for at least 2 more
hours, and then it must be cut down slowly following the normal operating
procedures to get the load at the end of the flame again. A slowdown made in time
and at proper speed will requires about 20 minutes before to restart to increase
the kiln speed again (as O2 start to go back up). Usually, the kiln should be back
in full production about 4 hours after the slowdown was made. Slowdown Example:
revs t/h Fuel flow ID fan speed O2 Operation 86 93 102 m3/h 530 rpm 1.5% Normal 66
72 85 m3/h acc. O2 level 0.7 Slowdown 36 40 50 m3/h acc. O2 level 0.7 slowdown
 NORMAL OPERATING PROCEDURES ON SHIFT Take Over of Shift by Operators Check: .
Visual inspection of burning zone, look for dark load . Oxygen level and trend .
Back-end temperature and trend . Kiln amps and trend . NOx signal and trend . Kiln
speed . Kiln feed indicator . Secondary air temperature and trend . Clinker load on
grate in cooler . Cooler fans under grate pressure . Kiln draft and hood pressure .
Gravel bed filter or DC temperature . Water spray and precipitator Then an
evaluation of the kiln and burning zone state need to be done in order to compare
actual settings with the target value and limit ranges established before. Wait at
least 30 minutes before changing any values, unless there is an emergency condition
in order to evaluate if the kiln is warming up, cooling down or stable. PLAN OF
ACTION
If the burning zone is hot (not drastically hot) and the kiln is stable . Decrease
fuel flow by 3% . Then decrease ID fan speed to keep the same O2 level . Wait
approximately 20 min (retention time of the burning zone) to see the reaction of
your move Then repeat the same procedure again or stay there if dark load is moving
in position or if the kiln amps are dropping. Repeat the operation until you get;
. The dark load at the right position . The kiln amps inside its target range . The
kiln gas temperature and back-end temperature inside their target range If burning
zone is cold (not drastically cold) The same approach is to be done but in reverse
This procedure should be done on each shift in order to get the best kiln condition
and the best heat consumption possible at all times. Whenever the dark load, the
kiln amps and the kiln back-end temperature are back inside their target range,
then the 27 conditions procedures should be done again to maintain the kiln back-
end and the burning zone temperature on set point and the kiln temperature profile
stable. OXYGEN LEVEL IN AUTOMATIC MODE When the perfect temperature profile
balance has been reached, we can eventually set the oxygen level on automatic
(looped to the ID fan speed). This will allow the gas flow in the kiln to be
constant and will help to maintain the kiln system stability.
Theoretically speaking, as we reach this situation, no more moves on the fuel rate,
feed rate and kiln speed need to be done and the kiln should remain in balance
until an upset on the material load or a mix change creates an upset again. So the
oxygen level control should be set on automatic whenever the temperature profile in
kiln is satisfactory. Every time this is not so or the kiln is slightly upset, the
oxygen should remain in manual and used to establish a good temperature profile
inside the kiln. KILN START-UP AND SHUTDOWN PROCEDURES KILN PREHEAT Light-Up
Flame Example (gas) 1) Call the gas company to tell them that you are going to
light up 2) Open one side of precipitator (inlet and outlet damper) 3) Start dust
handling system on the side of precipitator in use with dust going to the ground
(to avoid plugging the circuit with moist material) 4) Start up ID fan at minimum
speed (damper closed) 5) Open ID fan damper at 10%. Use a rag in front of kiln door
to evaluate suction in the kiln and adjust damper to obtain proper suction 6) Start
primary air fan with damper closed 7) Install torch under burner pipe 8) Set
natural gas to obtain approximately 13 m3/min (450 ft3/min) 9) Slowly open manual
valve on gas line 10) Adjust primary air damper, primary and secondary gas
pressure, and ID fan damper for best flame possible 11) If flame goes out, make
sure to purge the air inside the kiln before any attempt to try lighting up again
12) Dont turn the kiln for the first 2 hours 13) Start nose ring fan one hour
after the flame on PRE-HEAT or Drying of the Refractory Lining General
Information: . The pre-heat period last around 12 hours. A minimum of 8 to 12 hours
is necessary . The reference temperature during this period should be the kiln feed
end temperature . The target temperature should be approximately 300oC or 575oF at
the precipitator inlet . Start kiln rotation (1/4 turn) 2 hours after flame on .
After make . turn every 30 minutes until the end of pre-heat period If New
Castable was Installed: Pre-heat period could take as long as 36 hours depending on
the location and the quality of the castable installed and could be divided in
three periods as follows: First Period: . For 12 hours with gas flow of 13 m3/min
or 450 ft3/min . Do not exceed 170oC or 340oF at the filter inlet during this
period . Two hours after the flame on, make . turn every 30 minutes during the
balance of this period Second Period . For 12 hours, increase the precipitator
inlet temperature so it could reach 230oC or 450oF . Make . turn every 30 minutes
during this period Third Period: . For 12 hours, increase the precipitator inlet
temperature to reach 300oC or 575oF . Make . turn every 30 minutes during this
period
 HEATING (To reach temperature ready to put feed on) General Information: . The
reference temperature is the gas chain inlet temperature . The target temperature
should be approximately 40oC or 105oF lower than the normal operation temperature .
The rate of increase of the temperature should be approximately 50oC or 125oF per
hour The temperature increase per hour should be done according to the following:
Length of refractory installed; Complete kiln: 35oC or 100oF per hour increase
Repaired burning zone: 50oC or 125oF per hour increase Kiln rotation during
heating: 1) . turn every 10 minutes for 2 hours 2) Continuous turn on auxiliary
drive for 2 hours 3) Rotation at 0.5 or 30 revs for 1 hour 4) Rotation at 0.7 or 42
revs until 15 minutes before feed on 5) Rotation at 1.0 or 60 revs 15 minutes
before putting feed on Oxygen level during this period should be kept between 7 to
10% in order to increase the back end temperature to avoid the burning zone to get
overheated. Burning zone should be pink in color. The cooler system is usually
down, leaving only the nose ring fan and the primary air fan running During this
period, it is most important to keep the greasing system on the kiln drive running
As soon as the kiln is running continuously, start cooling fans on the burning zone
Expansion of the Kiln and Tire
. Heating rate in large diameter kiln (>14) should not be higher than 50oC or
125oF per hour to allow both tire and shell to expand at proper rate . Clearance
between tire and shell should be monitored during start-up . The larger the
diameter of the kiln, the more care has to be taken to get it running FEED ON
KILN General Information: . Feed rate is approximately 50% of normal feed rate .
Feed rate increase of about 5 tons every hour . Kiln speed should be maintained at
1.0 rpm or 60 revs until the material reaches the burning zone (to get material in
burning zone quick) . Target for chain inlet temperature; 800oC (1472oF) or 40oC
(100oF) below normal operation temperature . Set ID fan speed to maintain about 3%
the oxygen level . Start high voltage on precipitator . Start remaining items on
cooler system (all cooler fans with dampers set as required) . Maintain those
settings until the start-up reactions occurs (push should take +/- 2 hours) . In
order to promote good coating formation in the burning zone, stabilize the kiln at
1.1 rpm or 66 revs at about 70 tph for 24 hours . After this period, take the kiln
up to optimum operation level with normal operation procedures KILN START-UP
PROCEDURES (AFTER BRICK JOB) Preparations: . 72 hours before light-up, call the
gas company to tell them the date and the hour of the light-up . 4 hours before
light-up, make dry run on all equipment
. Check burner pipe and its installation . Center the burner pipe, or adjust 1
down and 1 towards the load (make marks outside the kiln for the burner pipe
position reference) . Check fuel on auxiliary drive . Take locks off on kiln
equipment sets . Take off wood shims on kiln rollers Pre-heat: . Start kiln
section on CRT . Open one side of precipitator (outlet and inlet damper) . Start
the dust handling on the side of the precipitator in service, with the dust on
ground to avoid plugging the circuit . Start-up ID fan at 125 rpm or minimum speed,
damper closed . Open ID fan damper at 10% . Start primary air fan, damper closed .
Install a torch under burner pipe . Set natural gas in control room at 13 m3/min or
450 ft3/min . Open manual gas on gas line . Open supervisory cock valve near burner
pipe . Adjust primary air, primary and secondary gas and ID fan to get the best
flame . One hour after, start nose ring fan and make no kiln rotation for the first
2 hours The pre-heating period should last around 12 hours. A minimum of 8 to 10
hours is necessary. The temperature at the inlet of the precipitator must reach
300oC or 575oF. Special pre-heating after castable has been installed near the
burning zone First Period: . For 12 hours with gas flow of 13 m3/min or 450
ft3/min . No kiln rotation for the first 2 hours . Kiln rotation at . turn every 30
minutes after 2 hours . Try not exceed 170oC or 340oF at the filter inlet during
this period
 Second Period . For 12 hours, increase the back-end temperature so it could reach
230oC or 450oF . Make . turn every 30 minutes during this period Third Period: .
For 12 hours, increase the back-end temperature to reach 300oC or 575oF . Make .
turn every 30 minutes during this period HEATING-UP . The reference temperature
is the chain gas temperature . The rate of increase of the temperature should be
approximately 50oC or 125oF per hour . The target temperature should be
approximately 40oC or 100oF lower than normal operation temperature . Draw a curve
on chain inlet temperature chart, so you could follow the temperature increase .
Increase progressively fuel and draft (open second precipitator chamber when
required) . The burning zone should be kept in place and should be pink when the
feed will be put on . During that heating period, the oxygen should be between 7
and 10% . Start the water spray to keep the back end temperature at 350oC or 660oF
. Around 750oC or 1400oF, start kiln feed for 10 minutes for testing . Check if any
clinker on cooler grate and when necessary start the clinker evacuation system .
Start shell fan when kiln is turning on continuously . Start cooler fan #1 and #2
at minimum 30 minutes before kiln feed . When you reach 800oC or 1475oF at chain
inlet temperature (T according to plant normal operation temperature minus 40oC or
100oF), start feed
FEED ON Start: Kiln feed at 45 tons/hr Kiln speed at 1.0 rpm or 60 revs Increase;
Kiln feed at 5 tons per hour Fuel rate and ID fan speed accordingly (maintain fuel
rate 1 step ahead of normal operation) Start fan #3, #4 and #5 (damper closed) 15
minutes after feed is on Start gravel bed filter or its equivalent Put tension on
kiln precipitator 15 minutes after kiln feed is on Stabilize the kiln at 1.1 rpm
or 66 revs/hr at about 70 tph feed rate for 2 hours to promote good coating
conditions in burning zone When increasing kiln feed, adjust the pressure and fan
flow on cooler fans Check closely the clinker evacuating system When there is a
good load in the cooler put the cooler on regulation Kiln turns during heating:
. . turn every 10 minutes for 2 hours . Continuous turn on auxiliary drive for 2
hours . Turn at 0.5 rpm or 30 revs/hr for 1 hour
. Turn at 0.7 rpm or 43 revs/hr until 15 minutes before putting feed on . Turn at
1.0 rpm or 60 revs/hr 15 minutes before feed on EXAMPLE OF HOW TO START KILN IF
PRE-HEAT IS REQUIRED (Load in kiln) If pre-heat is required (Function of burning
zone and gas chain temperature) . Open dampers on precipitator (both side) . Fuel
rate at 44 m3/min or 1554 ft3/min . ID fan speed at 25 rpm (minimum speed) . ID fan
damper position according to O2 level (5% maximum) Maintain these settings until
temperature reach on gas chain temperature at 850oC or 1562oF (normal kiln
operation temperature). Kiln rotation varied according to gas temperature as
follows: If; Chain Gas Temperature Rotation Fuel Rate 750 to 930oF . turn every 20
minutes 44 m3/h or 1553 ft3/min 930 to 1110oF . turn every 15 minutes 50 m3/h or
1766 ft3/min 1110 to 1300oF . turn every 10 minutes 57 m3/h or 2013 ft3/min 1300 to
1562oF . turn every 5 minutes 63 m3/h or 2225 ft3/min Then start the; . Kiln at 60
revs . Feed at 63 tph . Fuel at 88 m3/min or 3108 ft3/min . ID fan speed at 350 rpm
and to maintain O2 near 4% . Start burning zone cooling fans
Wait at this setting to receive the material and then increase slowly like normal
procedures but always maintain on fuel and ID fan speed settings one step ahead.
During this period, the nose ring fan is on. The primary air fan is on with normal
setting. The cooler fans #1 and #2 on cooler are running. Grates, clinker circuit
and gravel bed filter are running. Guidelines: For a shutdown less than 5 hours,
warm-up period should be around 1.5 to 2 hours. For a shutdown between 5 to 12
hours, warm-up period should be around 4 hours. EXAMPLE OF HOW TO RESTART IF NO
PRE-HEAT IS REQUIRED Start-up speed is related to the gas chain temperature of the
kiln and burning zone aspect. Start-up could be as follows: If; Chain Gas
Temperature Rotation Rotation Fuel Rate 1435oF 60 revs 65 tons/hr 3110 ft3/min
1475oF 66 revs 70 tons/hr 3425 ft3/min 1508oF 72 revs 76 tons/hr 3745 ft3/min
1545oF 75 revs 79 tons/hr 3885 ft3/min 1580oF* 78 revs 82 tons/hr 4025 ft3/min
*1580oF being the normal operation temperature Adjust draft and fuel as required.
After material reception, increase according to normal procedures but keep 1 step
ahead on fuel and ID fan settings for 2 hours after you reach normal production
level (retention time of material in burning zone).
This procedure is to be developed in order to restart a kiln faster and having less
perturbation in the material load of the kiln (long dry and wet kilns). KILN
SHUTDOWN (General Information) There are many reasons why kiln must be shutdown
periodically and in most cases, the operator must decide when an immediate
unscheduled shutdown of the kiln system is required. There is often not enough time
available in such situation to weigh or discuss the merits of a shutdown because a
few minutes of delay could lead to major equipment damage. So clearly, an operator
should be fully trained in what to do and what to do if such situation occurs.
Written standard procedures to cover these situations should be at the disposal of
the operators to allow them to review those procedures periodically. COOLING
PROCEDURES In case of a shutdown, slow cooling of the refractory must be ensured.
The Stacks Registers: . Must be kept shut for a sufficient period of time . Cooling
schedule should provide gradual cooling of the burning zone refractory at a maximum
temperature rate of 100oC (212oF) per hour For smaller kiln, i.e. diameter < 13,
maximum rate is 100oC or 212oF For larger kiln, i.e. diameter > 13, maximum rate
is 75oC or 167oF The ID fan; . Should be shutdown immediately as soon as fire is
cut off
. Should not be used for forced cooling at least for the first 12 hours after kiln
shutdown . This is an absolute must on long dry and wet process kilns equipped with
internal heat exchangers such as chain . The ID fan inlet damper should also be
closed completely for at least 12 hours During short shutdown; . The kiln back-end
should be closed completely for at least 12 hours During short shutdown; . The
kiln back-end should be closed completely to avoid hot gases to escape from kiln
Hood Pressure: . Flow adjustments on the cooler fans have to be made to avoid the
kiln hood to get on to high pressure . The hood pressure set point should be set
slightly on the positive side to prevent air from burning zone to escape through
the cooler exhaust fan KILN ROTATION SCHEDULE The kiln must be rotated on a
regular schedule to insure uniform cooling, as the feed bed and the refractory
underneath it, take more time to cool down than the refractory wall exposed to the
kiln gases. Kiln Rotation for Short Maintenance Repair . turn every 5 minutes 4
times during 20 minutes . turn every 10 minutes 4 times during 40 minutes . turn
every 15 minutes 8 times during 2 hours . turn every 30 minutes 8 times during 4
hours . turn every 60 minutes until the end ----------------
If it is Raining, Continuous rotation should be done on the auxiliary drive or on
main drive at minimum speed Kiln Rotation for Long Kiln Shutdown (brick lining
repair) Before: . Stabilize kiln rotation at 1.0 rpm or 60 revs before shutdown
(flame still on) Then: . Maintain continuous rotation at 0.6 rpm or 36 revs during
30 minutes (flame is off) . Maintain continuous rotation at 0.5 rpm or 30 revs
during 2.5 hours . Maintain continuous rotation at 0.4 rpm or 24 revs during 1 hour
. Maintain continuous rotation at minimum speed on auxiliary drive for 1 hour
Then: If it is raining, continuous rotation should be done on the auxiliary drive
or at minimum speed on main drive. Shutdown for long periods also included purging
of the following: . Fuel firing system . Feed system . Dust system from
precipitator or dust collector system . Dust system of conditioning tower . Clinker
from cooler system BURNER PIPE AND HOOD PROTECTION The burner pipe must be
protected as the hood and the kiln discharge area remains at high temperature for
several hours after the fire has been cut off.
Some kilns are equipped with movable burner pipes to allow partial or full
retraction of the burner. Others have to rely on primary air fan to provide
necessary cooling of the burner. Primary air fan and nose ring fan should be
running at least 10 hours after the flame has been cut off. EMPTYING THE FEED
FROM THE KILN Emptying the feed from the kiln takes special skills and experience.
It could be very dangerous and could result directly in overheating conditions
either at the back-end of the kiln, the burning zone, or the cooler. So called
chain and coal mill fires have occurred as direct result of attempting to burn
out a kiln. Therefore, burning out a kiln is far too risky and should never be
attempted. As soon as the feed is cut off, the flame should be cut off. KILN
SHUTDOWN PROCEDURES (FOR BRICK JOB OR RED SPOT) Time (- 2 hours) Cut down kiln
speed at 1.0 rpm or 60 revs Time (- 15 minutes) Cut off coal extraction from silo
if required Time (- 5 minutes) Cut off feed extraction from homo silo Time (- 2
minutes) Cut off high voltage on precipitator Time (0 hour) Cut off feed and purge
circuit completely Cut off fuel when system is purged Time (+ 2 minutes) Stop ID
fan Reduce air flow under cooler
Time (+ 4minutes) Close ID fan louvers slowly, or equivalent equipment Adjust
cooler fans to keep hood pressure slightly positive Stop water spray system or any
water system at back-end Time (+ 6 minutes) Cut down kiln speed at 0.6 rpm or 36
revs Reduce primary air fan (1000 Pascals or 10 mbars) Put cooler system on
manual mode Reduce grate speed at 4 strokes per minute Reduce fan #1, #2 and #3
at 50% of normal air flow Reduce other fans according to gravel bed filter inlet
temperature or Other de-dusting system Time (+ 10 minutes) Close main damper on
precipitator, (line 1 & 2) or any equivalent equipment Keep the extraction of the
dust system running Keep nose ring fan running Time (+ 15 minutes) Retract burner
from kiln hood if possible if not keep primary air fan running for cooling Time (+
30 minutes) Reduce kiln speed to 0.55 rpm or 33 revs Pull water spray out of the
kiln Time (+ 1 hour) Reduce cooler fans #1, #2 and #3 to 25% of normal flow
Reduce other fans according to gravel bed filter inlet temperature or other de-
dusting system Time (+ 1.5 hour) Reduce kiln speed to 0.5 rpm or 30 revs Watch
for unburned clinker and send it to proper location Time (+ 2 hours) Stop cooling
fans under kiln shell
 Readjust air flows under cooler If possible, stop last fan according to filter
inlet temperature Time (+ 4 hours) Reduce kiln speed to 0.4 rpm or 24 revs Time
(+ 5 hours) Stop rotation with main motor Start continuous rotation with the
auxiliary drive Stop extraction of dust on the precipitator or dust collector
system Time (+ 6 hours) Stop continuous rotation with the auxiliary drive Make .
turn every 15 minutes (attention to greasing system in the main kiln drive to be
started in manual) Time (+ 8 hours) Make . turn every 30 minutes Time (+ 10
hours) Stop nose ring fan and primary air fan Time (+ 12 hours) Make . turn every
hour Time (+ 15 hours) Stop cooler fans Stop gravel bed filter system if required
Time (+ 16 hours) Open main damper on one side of the precipitator Start the ID
fan a few seconds with damper closed every hour Time (+ 18 hours) Start ID fan a
few seconds Open ID fan damper at 10% Time (+ 20 hours) Start ID fan a few
seconds Open ID fan damper at 25% Open door on kiln hood
Time (+ 22 hours) Start ID fan a few seconds Open ID fan at 75% Time (+ 24 hours)
Close ID fan completely Time (+ 26 hours) Start ID fan at minimum speed Open ID
fan at 10% Time (+ 27 hours) Open ID fan at 30% Time (+ 28 hours) Open ID fan at
50% Time (+ 29 hours) Open ID fan at 75% Time (+ 30 hours) Open ID fan damper
completely Stop kiln rotation completely Start to open kiln hood front door Make
security on kiln system (lock procedures) Start to clean cooler system This
shutdown procedure could also be used as an emergency shutdown on red spot.
CLINKER COOLER SECTION COOLER FUNCTION a) The main function of the cooler is to
recuperate the heat contained in the clinker coming from the kiln as heat recovery
from secondary, tertiary and to coal mill air is important for kiln efficiency and
fuel saving.
b) The cooler must also lower the temperature of the clinker before it leaves so it
can be safely transported to the storage area c) The clinker breaker at the cooler
outlet reduce the clinker size so it can be transported on the conveyor system
COOLER OPERATION Cooling of the clinker material is accomplished by forcing ambient
air upward through the material as it is being conveyed through the length of the
cooler by reciprocating action of the grates. The clinker cooler is divided into
two major areas, which are separated by the grate line. They are the over grate
area where the clinker is cooled down and where the hot gases are handled and the
under grate compartment where cooling air is blown into the system. The grate line
consists of many perforated grate plates arranged in overlapping rows. The
alternate rows are movable and are connected to a wheel mounted frame which is
moved back and forth on its tracks by a crank type drive that drives the grates
their reciprocating motion. See figures 2 to 6. In normal operation, the cooler is
running in auto to keep a constant under grate pressure and air flow under the
second compartment in order to control the secondary air temperature. However under
upset conditions, the cooler must be switched on manual. COOLER CONTROLLERS In
normal operation: . The speed of the grate change the residence time of the clinker
inside the cooler (to control the cooling rate of the clinker and to protect the
grate to get overheated) . The air flow distribution under each compartment to
maintain good heat recuperation and good cooling of the clinker In case of
emergency: (such as a badly overheated cooler condition, the operator must always)
. Decrease the kiln speed in order to reduce the clinker input to the cooler and
control the heat input OPERATION OBJECTIVES
To keep as much as possible: . The clinker temperature at the cooler discharge as
low as possible (high temperature could damage the clinker transport system) . The
secondary air temperature as stable and as high as possible to get the best
recuperation from the clinker and improve the fuel efficiency of the kiln . To keep
the depth of the clinker bed near 15 water gage in order to get good heat
recuperation from the clinker in cooler (according to fan capacity) . To keep the
hood pressure always slightly negative . To set the cooler fans flow in such away
to have enough capacity to get air through the clinker bed and to insure proper
cooling of the grates and the clinker load inside the cooler Cooler settings should
be such that bed grates, cooler drive unit, clinker crusher, cooler wall and
clinker conveyors system cannot become overheated. RULE IN COOLER OPERATION A
fundamental rule on grate cooler is to never permit raw feed or extremely fine
clinker to enter the cooler as the cooler can become overheated and damage. During
kiln pushes, lower the kiln speed in order to reduce fine clinker input in the
cooler. Never run the kiln with positive pressure as this result in troubled kiln
operating conditions as: . Fine clinker in nose ring resulting to wear of kiln seal
. Viewing in kiln is unpleasant and unsafe . Could damage the optical equipment and
the TV camera . Formation of rings and snowmen in cooler inlet can be attributed
to positive pressure Exception: One exception to this rule if ever very high
temperature in cooler and if needed to introduce sufficient air in cooler. MAIN
SENSORS
The Main Sensors to Control the Cooler Operations are: . The fans flow for each
compartment . The under grate pressures under grate #1 and #2 . The secondary air
temperature . The grate speed under grate #1 and #2 . The clinker discharge
temperature at the cooler outlet Also Secondary Sensors as: . Grate temperature in
#1 and #2 compartments . TV camera showing the cooler interior Hood Draft .
Control by regulation the excess air inside the cooler by the cooler exhaust fan
damper . It maintains a constant pressure in front of the kiln . A good hood
pressure regulation is important for the burning zone stability Assuming other
Factors Remain Constant: . An increase in the ID fan speed will lower the hood
pressure . A decrease in the ID fan speed will increase the hood pressure . Also
increasing the amount of air in cooler results in higher hood pressure Under Grate
Pressures and Air Flow Rates The under grate pressure is govern by the following
factors: . Depth of the clinker bed over the grate . Average particle size of
clinker in the cooler . Amount of air flow into the cooler . Should be at 15 water
gage (under 2nd compartment) to get good heat recuperation Clinker Bed Depth . The
depth of the clinker bed is controlled by the speed of the cooler grate . The
faster the grate, the thinner becomes the bed and lower is the under grate pressure
. Because of the relation between the grate speed, bed depth and under grate
pressure, it is possible to maintain a constant under grate pressure by regulating
the grate speed It is usually done under the second compartment of the cooler
because it is that location at the cooler inlet where the clinker bed is more
stable and give an early and good under grate pressure signal for the automatic
cooler control. PARTICLE SIZE OF CLINKER A critical factor in under grate
reaction is the average particle size of the clinker in the cooler. . A fine
clinker bed impose more resistance against air flow, when the under grate pressure
increase, the fan has to use more force to push the air through this kind of bed .
Then the under grate pressure increase when the clinker gets finer because the
smaller particles impede the air flow through the bed . Therefore, the airflow rate
is increased to restore the normal flow through the bed and the clinker bed can
become fluidized . A fluidized clinker bed is highly undesirable and dangerous,
because the bed in such a state does not move along properly in the cooler . On
horizontal grate, the clinker tend to remain stationary and tend to build on top of
the grates and when sufficient weight has been acquired by the bed, it starts to
move again . So the clinker cannot be properly cooled down and could choke off the
airflow through the bed OPERATION OF COOLER FANS . The air volume for cooler
fans is most commonly carried out by means of fan outlet damper. . The fan speed is
constant so it is necessary to change the position of the damper to reduce or to
increase the air moved by the fan. . Fan damper is normally open at 60% as
necessary leeway is required to increase air flow. . Maximum air flow is when the
fan damper reached about 88% open. . The air volume output is directly related to
the under grate pressure.
. The fan must have sufficient capacity to provide necessary amount of air at
maximum under grate pressure. . The maximum operating under grate pressure needs to
take into account the cooler fans capacity. . Flow rate for each fan and under
grate pressure set point need to be set on for a good cooler operation. . The fan
manufacturers provide performance curve for each compartment fan. Fan Static
Pressure Fan static pressure is the total pressure developed by the fan, less the
velocity pressure in the fan discharge duct. For practical purposes, fan static
pressure in a cooler system is equal to the under grate pressure, and the air flow
is a function of this static pressure and the power applied to the fan. (Figure 7)
Whenever the under grate pressure exceed the limit of the fan, the flow decreases
and less cooling is taking place then the cooler could be damaged. CLINKER AND
AIR DISTRIBUTION For proper cooling, it is essential that clinker is evenly spread
over the width of the cooler so that the bed offers a uniform resistance of the air
passage through its width. When clinker passes to one side of the cooler leaving a
thinner bed on the other side, the air will naturally seek a passage through the
bed where it offers the least resistance. So air passes through bed where it is
least needed and little air passes where it is needed most. . Formation of
snowmen at the cooler inlet is the prime cause of this condition. . Various
devices as dead grate, spreaders or grate with their own air supply to spread the
clinker rapidly over the width of the cooler inlet are used to fight snowmen
formation. . For proper air distribution and good cooler regulation, no air should
freely pass from one cooler compartment to another through leaks or other opening
on the compartment walls.
. The under grate pressure is usually set that the highest pressure is found in the
first compartment, and the lowest in the last compartment. Emergency High Clinker
Temperature Installed on the drag conveyor is this sensor to measure the clinker
temperature at the cooler discharge. If the clinker temperature is above 300oF
(150oC), it will transfer the clinker to the emergency bin automatically and will
stay there until the desired temperature will come back. High clinker temperature
is caused by inadequate cooling of clinker in cooler. Guideline: In cooler normal
operation, no red clinker should be seen passing the third compartment.
COMBUSTION SECTION FLAME A flame is a stream of gases at extremely high
temperature (around 3500oF or 1930oC) where the reactions of combustion of the fuel
with secondary and primary air are taking place. Anything exposed to such a flame
is bound to receive heat from it. Flame Evaluation Should always be evaluated
during stable kiln condition Flame Length . Could refer to the distance between
the burner tip and the end of the flame which is a total flame length . It could
also refer to a distance between the point where ignition of the fuel start and
where the reaction of fuel combustion ends . It is desirable to operate a kiln with
the flame as short as possible, as long as it will not create problem in front of
the kiln, hood, nose ring and refractory (Figure #1)
 Flame Shape . Could be long and lazy as heat is released over a relatively long
distance (example A) . Could be snappy as heat is released over a shorter
distance (example C) Flame Direction . The flame path is not a straight line . The
flame has a tendency of lift upward toward the top resulting in uneven entrance of
secondary air, or mechanical condition of the primary air pipe nozzle . A good
direction target for the flame could be 2A or 2B in Figure # 2, or one inch down
center line and one inch towards the material load The flame temperature is
related to: 1. Quality and type of fuel used Gas: 1830oC or 3325oF Fuel oil: 1956oC
or 3553oF Coal: 1927oC or 3500oF 2. Total combustion air temperature Secondary air
temperature Primary air temperature Air in-leakage temperature 3. Oxygen level at
kiln outlet 4. Brick and coating temperature in the burning zone Flame Target .
Ignition as quick as possible . Highest flame temperature as possible
. Length as short as possible . As constant as possible . Primary air flow minimum
to carry fuel in kiln . All above combined in such a way for not making erosion and
direct contact of the flame on the refractory Shell temperature scanner is a good
indication of flame profile. Flame Adjustment Increase in primary air . The
speed will increase . Temperature will increase . The volume will become wider
Increase in primary air temperature . The plume will get shorter . The flame will
become shorter . The flame will become wider Increase in secondary air temperature
. The flame temperature will increase . The flame length will decrease . The plume
will decrease Increase on the oxygen level . The flame length will increase . The
flame temperature will decrease The following factors serve to raise the flame
temperature:
. Increasing the secondary air temperature . Using less primary air, thus making it
possible to utilize more secondary air which is preheated to higher temperature .
Promoting rapid mixing of the air and fuel upon leaving the burner by improving the
design of primary air pipe and burner . Better atomization of the fuel oil by
increasing the fuel oil temperature or employing a mechanical device in the burner
nozzle to bring a better atomization . By keeping hood pressure as close as
possible from 0 in order to avoid air in-leaking in front of kiln . Operating the
kiln with neither a deficiency or excess of air by maintaining the oxygen content
of not less than 0.7% and not more than 3.0% Rules on Flames a) When the primary
air pipe nozzle has accidentally been warped, resulting in an erratic flame shape
and direction, immediate steps should be taken to repair this condition b) A flame
should never be allowed to impinge upon the coating or bare refractory for a
prolong length of time c) A flame should never be allowed to strike too hard upon
the feed bed d) Oil burners or gas burners should be centered well in the primary
air pipe in order that an even envelopment of air around the fuel jet takes place
e) Flame direction should be adjusted only when the kiln is in stable operating
conditions and the temperatures, fuel pressures, and air flow rates are at normal
level. Flame direction changes can be caused by unusual operating conditions. If
any attempt were made to adjust the flame at such a time, there will most likely be
an undesirable flame once the kiln returns to normal operating conditions again f)
It is better to make the desired adjustments in flame direction in several small
steps instead of a large one in order that the operating stability of the kiln is
not affected adversely g) Once the ideal flame direction has been obtained, the
primary air pipe position should not be changed unless a definite reason (such as
to combat a ring formation or hot shell conditions) makes it desirable
h) To protect the primary air pipe from possible damage during a shutdown, a
certain amount of primary air flow must be maintained until the temperature inside
the kiln is low enough (approximately 600oF or 315oC) that the pipe cannot be
damaged. Upon power failure when primary air fan stops, the primary air pipe must
be immediately removed from the burner hood. COMBUSTION What is combustion?
Rapid combination of oxygen with fuel resulting into heat Fuels contains, Carbon
Hydrogen Sulfur Oxygen Comes from Combustion Air Carbon + Oxygen = Carbon dioxide
+ heat Hydrogen + Oxygen = Water vapor + heat Sulfur + Oxygen = Sulfur dioxide +
heat Proper Proportioning of Fuel, Oxygen and Heat Perfect combustion Combustion
air = Neutral (stoichiometric) combustion air Deficiency of Air (Reducing
Conditions) Incomplete combustion Heat released is low (4500 Btu vs. 14500 Btu
per lb carbon) Unsafe operation (explosion in precipitator or anywhere in the
system)
Excess of Air (Oxidizing Conditions) Complete combustion Flame temperature
decreases with increasing air, lower fuel economy Recommended back-end oxygen is
1.0 to 1.5% Combustion Air + Fuel = Combustion Gases Combustion Air = Primary Air
+ Secondary Air + Leakage Combustion Gases: Carbon monoxide (CO) with incomplete
combustion Carbon dioxide (CO2) with complete combustion Water vapor (H2O) Sulfur
dioxide (SO2) Nitrogen (N2) from air Excess oxygen (O2) Good Combustion
Requirements: Proper proportioning of fuel and air Thorough mixing of fuel and
air Initial and sustained ignition of the mixture Mixing of Fuel and Air Good
mixing is important for mixture to be uniform throughout Every particle of fuel
must be in contact with an air particle Solids must be pulverized to increase
surface area for mass transfer Liquids must be atomized (breaking up into tiny
particles) to speed up evaporation (resulting to vapors burn as gases) Process of
starting combustion Can start at low temperatures, but may not be sustained Minimum
ignition temperature required for sustained ignition
(Ignition continues without any external source of heat) At this point: Heat from
Reaction > Heat Lost to Surroundings Fixed carbon:* 400 450oC or, 752 842oF
Volatile Matter: 500 600oC or, 932 1112oF C & H (methane): 632oC or, 1170oF
Coke: +/- 800oC or, 1472oF Fuel oil: 200 300oC or, 392 572oF * can be
considered ignition temperature of coal Theoretical Flame Temperature: Tf = LHV /
(NCA + 1) S Where Tf = Maximum (theoretical) flame (in oC or oF) LHV = Fuel low
heating value (in kg/kgf or Btu/lbf) NCA = Neutral combustion air (in kg/kgf or
Btu/lbf) S = Specific heat of combustion gases (=/- 0.29) Typical Fuel Data: Fuel
LHV Kg/kgf (Btu/lbf) NCA Theo. Max. Flame T oC (oF) Coal 6500 (11,700) 9.1 2460
(4460) Oil 9870 (17,770) 13.7 2480 (4500) Gas 11,500 (20,700) 16.6 2400 (4350)
Influences and Impact on Flame Temperature Impact of Oxygen content of Kiln Gases
on Flame Temperature (Figure #3) Oxygen 1% 5% Flame To 2465oC 1965oC
 Impact of Secondary Air Temperature on Flame Temperature Sec. air To 420oC (770oF)
845oC (1553oF) 1093oC (2000oF) Flame To 2180oC (39560oF) 2445oC (4433oF) 2610oC
(4730oF) HEAT TRANSFER IN A ROTARY KILN Radiation (Flame Zone) Flame/Gas by
Material Flame/Gas by Kiln shell Very important because heat transfer x (Tf4 Tm4)
Conduction Wall to Material Chain/crosses to Material Convection Gas to Material
Gas to Wall BURNER PIPES AND NOZZLES What is required from a burner? . A stable
flame with proper geometry . Versatility . Safety Parameters Affecting the Flame
. Fuel characteristics . Primary air and secondary air . The burner design Key
Parameters of Burner Design . Number of circuits . Primary air Quantity . Ejection
velocities . Minimum velocity . Back pressure . Specific impulse . Diameter Number
of Air Circuits (Figure 1 to 6) Single Circuit . Control is minimal . High
velocity requires high fan pressure . Results in more wear Two Circuits . Swirl +
high velocity transport air . Additional control due to swirl . High fan pressure,
high wear rate Three Circuits . Swirl + high velocity axial . Low velocity
transport air . More versatile Primary Air Quantity
Natural gas: 0 to 7% of total combustion air Liquids: 7 to 10% of total combustion
air Solid fuels: Firing system dependent Direct firing system: 30 to 35% of total
combustion air Semi-direct firing: Mill exit air is 18 to 25% (moisture dependent)
Air to burner can be controlled by diverting Overflow to kiln hood Indirect
firing: 7 to 12% of total combustion air Theoretically, indirect firing is the
ideal solution. Ejection Velocities Gaseous and liquid fuels (with atomizing
fluid) Sonic range: 330 m/s (1083 ft/s) Solid fuels Single circuit: 5080 m/s
(164263 ft/s) Multiple circuits: 80170 m/s (262558 ft/s) for axial 5090 m/s
(164295 ft/s) for swirl 2050 m/s (65164 ft/s) for transport Minimum Velocities
. Required to prevent solid fuel accumulation, 20 m/s (66 ft/s) in transport line
and in axial $ swirl annulus if these streams carry any fuel dust . Knowing the
minimum flow rates, the pipe sizes can be determined. Back Pressure Typical values
for a three-circuit burner; 700 1000 mmH2O for axial air 150 600 mmH2O for
swirl air 600 1000 mmH2O for transport air (up to 1200 mmH2O for modified
three-circuit burner)
Specific Impulse Typically, 4 to 8 N/Gcal/h Definition Sp. impulse = Impulse
(Newton) Heat input (Gcal/h) For Solid Fuel; Impulse = air stream mass flow
rate (kg/s) x tip velocity (m/s) For Gaseous and Liquid (pneumatically atomized)
Fuels; Impulse = (abP c) S Where: P = pressure (bars) S = cross-section area
(mm2) a,b,c are atomizing fluid dependent * 5 figures of burners to be attached
at the above information. FUELS IN THE CEMENT INDUSTRY Solid Fuels: . Coal .
Coal tailings . Petroleum coke (fluid, delayed) . Wood . Tires . Municipal waste,
etc. Liquid Fuels: . Oil (bunker C) . Liquid waste
. Coal slurry, etc. Gaseous Fuels: . Natural gas (95% methane) . Landfill gases,
etc. Heating Value Quantity of heat generated from 1 unit (kg, lb, ton, m3, liter)
of fuel Measured in kcal/kg, Btu/lb, MJ/ton, MJ/m3, kcal/liter Can be approximated
from the fuel composition High Heating Value (HHV) vs. Low Heating Value (LHV)
High (or gross) Heating Value Heat produced at constant volume by complete
combustion of fuel, combustion product condensed to liquid state, measured in the
laboratory in an oxygen bomb calorimeter. Low (or net) Heating Value Calculated
from HHV by subtracting the latent heat of vaporization The difference between HHV
and LLV depends upon the hydrogen content of the fuel. LHV = HHV - 92.7 x % H2
(Btu/lb) Examples of HHV and LHV for Various Fuels Fuel % H HHV Btu/lb LHV Btu/lb
(% of HHV) Coal 5 12,000 11,540 (96%) Coke 4 14,000 13,630 (97%) Waste fuel 10
9,000 8,070 (90%) Fuel oil 10 19,000 18,070 (95%) Natural gas 25 23,300 20,680
(90%)
SOLID FUELS Coal, oil, gas and in recent years, petroleum coke are the main fuels
used in cement kilns. Coals are judged on what is called an proximate analysis
which tells the percentage moisture, volatile matter, fixed carbon, ash, sulfur,
and heat value. Coal is very complicated in structure, containing carbon,
hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen and sulfur in various stages of combinations. With the
application of heat, these substances from various combustible gases are classed as
volatile matter. It is the first constituent of the coal to be liberated on
heating. The carbon that remains after the volatile matter is driven off is called
fixed carbon. Combustion is the chemical combination of oxygen with certain
elements of the fuel to form compounds with the release of heat. See figure below.
Every combustible substance has what is called an ignition temperature. This is
the temperature to which it must be raised before chemical combinations with oxygen
or combustion will take place. These combinations liberate definite amounts of
heat depending on the elements entering into the combinations. The principal
combustible elements in coal are carbon and hydrogen. Any sulfur present is also
combustible, but is of minor importance from a heat standpoint. The chief non-
combustible elements in coal are silica, alumina and iron which form the ash.
 Bomb Calorimeter The heat value of coal can be determined by using the bomb
calorimeter. A precise amount of dry coal is fired in an oxygen atmosphere in a
sealed container which is immersed in a water bath. The change in temperature of
the water is measured and knowing the specific heat of water (1.0 Btu/lbm*oF) the
heat content of the coal is determined. Volatile Matter (VM) Portion of solid fuel
liberated as gases and vapors, when it is heated in the absence of air. (result
from thermal decomposition) For good coal: VM = 30 35% For fluid coke: VM = 5
6% Combustion start to be difficult when VM < 15% Fixed Carbon (FC) Residue left
after volatile matter is driven off. FC = 100 - (VM + Ash + Moisture) For
bituminous coal: FC = 40 60% Coke: FC = 75 85% Ash Residue remaining after
the fuel has been burnt. Composed of compounds of silicon, aluminum, iron and
calcium Also some traces of Mg, Na, K and Ti. Proximate Analysis Determination of
VM, FC, ash and moisture Used for quick, preliminary appraisal of solid fuel
Ultimate Analysis Quantitative determination of moisture, C, H, S, O and N
 DRYING, GRINDING AND FIRING SOLID FUELS Ball Mill or Roller Mills are used. Air
from cooler / air heater / pre-heater exit is used for drying. The drying systems
can be; (Figure # 1, 2, 3) . Direct . Semi-direct . Indirect Comparison of fuel
drying system Direct Semi-direct Indirect Simple operation Most difficult to
operate Simple operation Relatively safe Safer than indirect Safety is most
important Primary air is high (30-35%) All moisture to kiln Primary air is low but
all moisture to kiln Primary air can be as low as desired (operation independent)
Result in high heat consumption Heat penalty is lower than direct Good heat
consumption Lowest capital cost Capital cost is in between direct and indirect
Highest capital cost Liquid Fuels Essentially composed of C, H, and S
Evaporation at 200-300oC or 572oF Atomization promotes evaporation Classified
according to: Viscosity (measure of internal friction) Specific gravity
Heating value Gaseous Fuels Natural gas most commonly used (95% methane) No
preparation required for firing Minimum ignition temperature (+/- 650oC or 1200oF)
Very little primary air is required Injected at high pressure (i.e. high tip
velocity) to promote turbulence Comparison of the Three Major Fuels Coal Oil
Natural Gas Installation is expensive Installation is simple Installation is simple
Can be stored in large storage capacity Storage capacity depends on refinery No
storage Radiant flame Radiant flame Non-radiant flame Ash can be used as a raw
material n/a n/a Cheap Expensive Expensive Noisy and dirty Depend on refinery Clean
Risk of explosion and fire n/a Flame control reacts Quality can vary (% H2O & Ash)
Quality is constant Quality is constant COMBUSTION REACTIONS Combustibles
Reactions Heat Released Carbon C + O2 = CO2 C + . O2 = CO 14650 Btu/lb 4340 Btu/lb
Hydrogen 2H + . O2 = H2O 62100 Btu/lb Sulfur S + O2 = SO2 4032 Btu/lb
Non-Combustibles (Ash) It must be treated as a raw material in raw mix Silica
(SiO2) Alumina (Al2O3) Iron (Fe2O3) BASIC PRINCIPLES SYSTEM OF UNITS The
fundamental quantities to be measured are; . Length . Mass . Time . Temperature All
other quantities that need to be measured can be expressed in terms of above
quantities.