Scribd Logo
Upload

Welcome to Scribd!

  • ESKOM Overhead Power Lines The Planning Design Construction PDF

    Uploaded by

    Carlos Eduardo Rocha
    574 views789 pages

    Original Title

    ESKOM-Overhead-Power-Lines-The-Planning-Design-Construction.pdf

    Copyright

    © © All Rights Reserved

    Available Formats

    PDF or read online from Scribd

    Did you find this document useful?

    Is this content inappropriate?

    Report this Document

    Copyright:

    © All Rights Reserved
    Download as PDF or read online from Scribd
    Flag for inappropriate content
    574 views789 pages

    ESKOM Overhead Power Lines The Planning Design Construction PDF

    Uploaded by

    Carlos Eduardo Rocha

    Copyright:

    © All Rights Reserved
    Download as PDF or read online from Scribd
    Flag for inappropriate content
    of 789
    THE PLANNING, DESIGN | & CONSTRUCTION OF The planning, design and construction of overhead power lines EDITORIAL COMMITTEE 5 Bisnath AC Briecen DH Cretchley D Muftic T Pillay R Yajeth February 2005 ‘THE PLANNING, DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION OF OVERHEAD POWER LINES Prepared by a staff of experts from Eskom Holdings Ltd under the direction of Thavanthiran Pillay and Sanjeev Bisnath This book is dedicated to the memory of Mike Korber, one of the authors who sadly passed away while developing the material. His contribution is ‘greatly appreciated by the Eskom team, While the authors and Eskom Holdings Ltd have made every effort to ensure the accuracy of this document, they cannot be held responsible for any errors or any afringment of copyright and patent rights, nor any direct ‘or consequential loss or damage suffered by any person or organisation, however caused, which may result from the use of this document. All rights to this document are reserved. Except where allowed by the Copyright Act, no part of this document may be reproduced, stored in ‘retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means, either electronic oF mechanical, without prior written permission from Eskom Holdings Led. Published by Crown Publications cc 2 Theunis Street, Bedford Gardens, Johannesburg February 2005 CONTENTS Chapter 1 OVERHEAD LINES jan Reynders, Daevad Mutle, Antony Britten and Dave Cretchlay Introduction. veveee cee J id . 1.2 Voltage, Impedance and Power Limit 13° The Design Task. ..... 14 The Design of Overhead Power Lines 15 16 References .... Bibliography... Chapter 2 MODELLING Mike Korber, Dzevad Muftic and Dipeen Dama 21° Introduction. ........ 22 Power Transfer Limits. 23 Other Factors Limiting the Power Transfer of Overhead Power Lines 24 Inductance of Transposed and Non-transposed Three-phase ‘Overhead Power Lines 25 Calculation of the Inductance of Bundied Conductors 26 Line Characteristics and Parameters for Three-phas Sig Cireuie System 27 Onaread Power Line Modeling 28 — Unbalanced Systems....... 29 Concluding Remarks . 210 References 211 Bibliography Chap Pow M ANALYSIS AND PL Riaz Vajeth and Roy Estment 3.41 Introduction. eee 32 Identify the Need for Network Expansion 33 Formulation of Alternative Options 34 Analysis of the Options 3.5 Selection of the Best Option 36 Sensitivity Analyses 37 Economic Justification» 3.8 Current and Future raters for the Pring Engineer. 3.9 Concluding Remarks .. : 3.10 References Chapter 4 HIGH VOLTAGE DIRECT CURRENT ( Nelson fjumba and Gary Sibilant 4.1. Introduction. 42 Background. ..- 43. HVDC Transmission Lines. 44 Future Developments in HVDC 45 HVDC Systems in Africa... +--+ 46 — Concluding Remarks . araessaaat geese 47 Acknowledgements . cote veeveeeeeeteeeree res 1 89) 4B References nn ce covcteeneeteseeseees 89 49. Bibliography cece eereerreees 31 4.10 Appendices oe 2 Chapter 5 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT MANAGEME Dave Cretchley and José Clara 5.1 Introduction... 52 Environmental Impacts Caused by Power Lines. 53. Managing the Impacts coe 54 Environmental Management System 55 Detailed Environmental Impact Management in Design and Construction. 54 Servitude Rights Acquisition (‘Negotiations’) 5.7 Overhead Line Setting-out Survey and Profiling 58 Construction Phase: EMP. 59 Concluding Remarks 5.10 References . 5.11 Appendices. Chapter 6 CORONA Antony Britten and Arthur Burger 6.1 Introduction coeeseeee TDD 62 Corona Phenomena on Overhead Power Lines : 14 63 Factors Influencing the Generation of Corona on Conductors. 133 64 Practical Design Procedures and Considerations 141 65 Design Limits for Radio Interference, Audible Noise and Corona Losses . . 148 64 Consideration of Conductor Surface Grades and External Fibre Opt Cable... cecteeseeses cevteeeeee 151 67 — Concluding Remarks v2.01 ssi Ciotietnsrereeseee 152 68 — References vevcecees 69 Appendices Chapter 7 POWER FREQUI Pieter Pretorius ICY ELECTRIC AND MAGNETIC 71 Introduction. .... . = 158 72 Typical Electric and Magnetic Field Levels. ceeereeee ess 160 73 Overhead Power Line Electric Field Design Limits... ..0.cccc20001 162 74 Human Exposure Guidelines... foe veces 162 75 Application of ICNIRP Exposure Guidelines Dovetteneenseeess 164 7.6 — Field Micigation : 165 7.7 Interference with Computer Monitors. m1 78 — Concluding Remarks 172 79 References m Chapter 8 DELL ELECTRIC FIELDS Shawn Nielsen BY Introduction. .......ccescceeseseecseeeeseeeeeseteeteeeseees 176 82 Electric Field Theory... : : Ceci ITB 83 Modelling Methods. ..... 7 84 Step-by-step Illustration bee Chinese 182 85 Practical Examples : : 189 86 Measurement of Electric Field Intensity... 87 Concluding Remarks 88 — References Chapter 9 TNING Arthur Burger 9.1 Introduction. . 92 South African Studies of che Effeccs of Lightning on Overhead Power Lines 93 Interaction of Lightning with Overhead Power Lines, 9.4 Physics of Lightning 95 Direct Lightning Series to Overhead Power Lines . 9.6 The Use of Overhead Ground Wires to Limit the Effects of Lighning: : 9.7 Concluding Remarks 98 — References . . Chapter 10 INTRODUCTIO! N OPTIMISATION Dzevad Muftic, and Dumsani Mtolo 10.1 Introduction . 102 Electrical Design Optimisation, 10.3 Optimisation of Line Components .- 104 Final Optimisation of Line 10.5 Reliability-based Design 106 References . 10.7 Bibliography . Chapter 11 BASIC ELECTRICAL DESIGN Drevad Muftic and Arthur Burger 14.1 Introduction 11.2 Number and Size of Sub-conductors. 11.3 Phase Configuration and Spacing, 114 Line (Phase Conductors and Ground Wire) Configuration 115 Required Withsand Voltages of Ar Gap Invision 11.6 Clearances and Line Geometry... 117 Electrical Characteristics of the Line 118 Concluding Remarks 11.9. References 11.10 Appendices Chapter 12 INSULATION CO-0 Sanjay Narain and Kristoff Sadurski 12.1 Introduction 122 Definition of Insulation Co-ordination 123 Types of Voltage Stresses 124 Insulation Strength. . 12.5 Live-line Maintenance. 2... 12.6 Fires Under Overhead Lines 12.7 Line Compaction 12.8 Eskom Practice 129. Concluding Remarks 12.10 References 196 “197 197 200 200 201 201 208 209 209 :210 212 212 213 2216 217 224 221 24 24 25 226 27 28 232 232 233, errs Chapter 13 THERMAL RATING Rob Stephen, Dzevad Muftic Johan Swan and Arthur Burger 13.1 Introduction. 132 Factors Affecting the Thermal Line of Conductors... 133 Calculation of Conductor Temperature in the Steady-state 134 Dyramic Behaviour of Conductor Temperatire 135. Deterministic Thermal Rating... 13.6 Probabilistic Conductor Rating Technique . 13.7 _ Real-time Line Monitoring of Overhead Power Lines . 438 Concluding Remarks .. coeteeees 139. References 13.10 Appendices Chapter 14 COUPLI Antony Britten, Mike Korber and Rulesh Ramnar: 14.1 Introduction. ...... 142 The Basics of Coupling at Power Frequencies 143 Safety Issues. 144 Capacitive and Inductive Coupling and the Operation of Overhead Power Lines = . 145. Practical Considerations and Mitigation Techniques 146 Telephone Interference. .... a 147 Geomagnetically Induced Currents 148 Concluding Remarks .......00.05 149° References Chapter 15 CONDUCTOR OPTIMISATION Dzevad Muftic, Riaz Vajeth and Dipeen Dama 15.1 Introduction. ..... 152. Overview of Conductors for Overhead Power Lines 153 Selection of Optimal Conductor. . 184 Concluding Remarks 155 References 15.6 Bibliography . 15.7 Appendices ‘Chapter 16 ROUND WIRE OPTIMISATI Dzevad Muftic, Sanjay Narain and Rukesh Ramnarain 161 Introduction. - 162 Position of Ground Wires 163. Electrogeometric Model 164 Ground Wire Selection... 16.5. Losses in the Ground Wrre. . 16 Optica Fire Ground Wire (OPGW). 167 Concluding Remarks . 168 References 310 310 2319 321 322 -323 323 326 “326 333, 2351 2351 352 353 386 356 21357 367 373 373 2373 374 Chapter 17 JLATOR SELEK abio Bologna 17.1 Introduction, 172. Funetion and Main Parameters of Insulators for Overhead Power Lines, 17.3 Corona Rings... 174 The Influence of The Environment on the Performance of Outdoor Insulators . : 175. Site Severity Monitoring Techniques 176 Fashover Caused by Pollution 177 The Influence of Leakage Current on the Flashover Process 178 _Inuence of Discharge Activity on Polymer Inelator Surtaces 17.9 Concluding Remarks . ve 17.10 References TAI Appendices... Chapter 18 INSULATION Sanjay Narain and Dzevad Muftic 18.1 Introduction. 18.2 Air gap Clearances. . 183 Insulator Parameters... 184 Concluding Remarks - 185 References 186 Appendices. Chapter 19 INE itz, Bharat Haridass, Bertie Jacobs, Johann Retief and Pieter du Plessis 19.1 Introduction 19.2 Preliminary Design of Hardware 19.3 Detailed Design of Load Bearing Hardware 19.4 Compatibility of Hardware . 495 Joints and Dead-ends.. 19.6 Live-line Maintainability . . 19.7 Material Characteristics of Hardware. 198 Material Properties 19.9. Mechanical Properties 19.10 Other Factors in Material Selection 19.11 Non-load Bearing Hardware for Overhead Power Lines. 19.12. Testing and Quality Control of Hardware . : 19.13 Overhead Line Oscillation 19.14 Concluding Remarks 19.15 References 19.16 Bibliography 19.17 Appendices. Chapter 2 Jose Diez-Serrano and Pierre Marais 20.1 Introduction 202 Tower Types 203 Support Structure Design Methodology 378 376 383 383 388 388 392 392 39% 396 410 “410 “Ait 2422 2422 144 484 485 491 204 Conceptual Design. . 205 Geometry Definition 206 Loading 207° Analysis and Design 208 Failure Sequencing and Component Design Loads 209 Final Design Documentation : 20.10 Loading Trees. 20.11 Tower Acceptance Tests 20.12 Evaluation... 2013 Concluding Remarks. 20.14 References ........sssecees 20.15 Bibliography : Chapter 21 FOUNDATIONS ‘Willem Combrinck and Pierre Marais 21.1 Introduction. 21.2 Foundation Requirements 21.3 Foundation Design Process 214 Soil Investigations 21S. Soil Classification... 2... 21.6 Foundation Leading Factors. . 21.7 Foundation Types 2118 Application of Various Foundation Systems . 21.9 Seructural Design of Foundation Systems 21.10. Concluding Remarks DIAL References Chapter 22 EARTHING Arthur Burger, Rukesh Ramnarain and Luthando Peter 22.1 Introduction 222 Concluding Remarks 223. References 224 Appendices Chapter 23 "AND SURVEY Norman Banks 23.1 Introduction. 232 Planning 233. Implementation . 234 Survey Methods . 235 Concluding Remarks 23.6 Bibliography ‘Chapter 24 TOWER Suren Natesan, Allan Muir and John Mokocna 24.1 Introduction. 242 Line Optimisation Process Flow 243 Inputs and Design Criteria 244 Processing: Sag Calculations and Templating 245 Ourpurs cevteetees 314 “4 oid 516 516 519 520 534 2535) 2539 2539 542 564 564 11566 516 376 378 585, 586 588 2590 592 596 246 Concluding Remarks 247 References ... 248 Bibliography Chapter 25 NTR Donald Andrews 25.1 Introduction, . 25.2 Telecommunications and Power Networks . 25.3 Telecommunications Opportunities for Power Network Operators 25.4 Power Line Carriers vos .-sesec00+ vente 25.5 Aerial Fibre Optic Cables 25.6 Cellular Base Station Antennas on Structures 25.7. Concluding Remarks 258 Bibliography Shapter 26 POWER LI ‘Andrew Pollard 26.1 Introduction. .. 262. The Role of Power Line Carriers in Power System Operation 263 Basics of Power Line Carriers (PLCs) 264 The Overhead Line as a Telecommunieations Transmission 265 Practical Isues of Overhead Power Lines». 266 Other Overhead Line Criteria that Affect PLC Performance « 267 Impact of Corona and Arcing Noises on PLC Performance . 268 Concluding Remarks . 269. References Chapter 27 AERIAL FIBI David Si 27.1 Introduction... .. 27.2 Types of Aerial Optical Cable in General Use =... 27.3. Factors to be Considered in Selection of Cable Type Used « 274 Installation Practices 275 Concluding Remarks 276 References Chapter 28 Pieter Pretorius 28.1 Introduction. . . 282. Technical Considerations. 283 _Environmeneal Consideracions 284 Concluding Remarks 285 References Chapter 29 Pierre Marais and Barrie Badenhorst 29.1 Overhead Power Line Construction . 29.2 Project Management - 29.3 Concluding Remarks .- 294 References 606 607 610 610 612 612 613 615 616 616 618 619 621 2622 632 1639 643 643 646, 651 661 665 666 670 671 674 675 675 PREFACE ‘The Eskom Power Series was conceived as a result of concern over the continuing foss of critical technical skills and experience. A series of events, spanning the past few decades, has reshaped the electricity supply industry and retaining a skilled workdorce remains a major priority. Each year, a growing ‘number of technical experts leaves the industry, depriving it of a wealth of experience, knowledge and expertise. Eskom’s R&D team has created the Eskom Power Series, each book of which has been written by experienced specialists and consulkants in the utility field Eskom’s strong R&D programme, which is specifically focused on utility issues, will, by supplying the most up-to-date information available, ensure that the series is kept relevant and practical. The aim of the series is to serve asa guide and a legacy by collating Eskom’'s knowledge and experience. Written by Eskom staff who are familiar with local Southern African conditions, the Power Series offers a source of reliable, reputable and high level ‘technics! information and practice. We anticipate that the series will grow according to the needs of industry. ‘The confidence we place in our Power Series is justified by the many world-class innovative technologies developed by Eskom, which has also created a highly effciene infrastructure. For example, Eskom built the world's largest coal-fired power station, which uses a dry- cooling system developed by engineers in South Africa. Eskom is also developing ‘pebble bed modular reactor’ nuclear technology, designed to be inherently safe, The great success of our rural electrification programme, achieved in a relatively short time, places us among, world leaders in this field, Eskom also pioneered and was the first to build power lines at voltages of 765 KV in high altitude conditions, 2 challenging feat. In addition to many local and international awards presented to Eskom each year, we were awarded the Community Development Programme of the Year award in 2003, at the Global Energy Awards in New York City. This award, arguably one of the most, prestigious in the global uclty industry, affirms our place among ather major utilities in the world, ‘The Power Series is a practical series targeted at individuals working within the utility environment. Volume One offers a useful guide to the design of overhead power lines for voltages of 132 kV and above, focusing mainly on alternating current (AC) lines. A brief chapter covers high voltage direct current (HVDC). The chapters are well balanced in their coverage of electrical, mechanical, environmental and civil engineering. The authors regard overhead power line design to be a multidisciplinary field which must not be considered in isolation. Line construction and communication over power lines are covered briefly Volume Two deals with the fundamentals and practice of overhead line maintenance and provides a comprehensive insight into its philosophy and practice (132 kV and above). High voltage insulators, a major component in utility power systems, must be selected, applied and maincained with care. Volume Three, titled ‘The Practical Guide to Outdoor High Voltage Insulators’, is devoted to their application and maintenance. ‘The extensive information contained in the Power Series can be applied in utilities worldwide and is accessible to any interested person, would like, in conclusion, to acknowledge the high quality of the work that went into the development ofthis reference book and hope that readers will find it useful in their application. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Many people doubted the possibility of publishing such a comprehensive manual in view of the schedules of the Eskom engineers, technologists and technicians. This was indeed a challenge for our team but I must commend Sanjeev Bisnath for his dedication and drive in managing this project. Special thanks are also due to Eskom Holsings Ltd Board for the confidence they have shown us in their continued support of R & D, both in funding and resources, Tony Britten assisted greatly in the technical development of this reference book and deserves acknowledgement for going beyond the cal of duty to ensure that an international standard was upheld, The technical editing for this publication was challenging and I must, thank Dave Cretchley for his invaluable concribution. Dzevad Muftic made significant contributions in collaborating with the authors when problems were encountered and added great value in collating the text. Jan Reynders is acknowledged for his general guidance. Riaz Vajeth did a sterling job in getting the chapters developed and also assisted with the technical editing, ‘Thavanthiran (Logan) Pilly, PeEng Eskom Transmission Research Manager EDITORIAL COMMITTEE S Bisnath AC Brieten Eskom Eskom DH Cretchley D Muftic Eskom Eskom T Pillay R Vajeth Eskom Eskom SPECIAL CONTRIBUTORS M Cope D Dama Eskom Eskom K Grant G Moodley ‘Crown Publications Eskom (formerly) T Mosloung AMuir Eskom (formerly) Eskom (formerly) M Mulaudzi v Pillay Escom (formerly) Eskom Jvan den Berg B Vorster Eskom ‘Crown Publications Tyan den Berg M Lloyd Grab u Graphies Eskom P Marques: JP Reynders Eskom University of Wiewatersrand ‘CHAPTER 1 OVERHEAD LINES BY JAN REYNDERS, DZEVAD MUFTIC, ANTONY BRITTEN AND DAVE CRETCHLEY @€skom EDITORIAL COMMITTEE SBisnath AC Britten Eskom Eskom DH Cretchley D Muttic Eskom Eskom T Pilly R Vajeth Eskom Eskom ‘SPECIAL CONTRIBUTORS M Cope D Dama Eskom Eskom K Grant G Moodley ‘Crown Publications Eskom formerly) T Motioung AMuir Eskom (former) Eskom (formerly) M Muiaudz VPilay Eskom (formerly) Eskom Jvan den Berg B Vorster Eskom Crown Publications Tyan den Berg M Lloyd Grab u Graphies Eskom P Marques JP Reynders Eskom University of Wiewatersrand CHAPTER 1 OVERHEAD LINES BY JAN REYNDERS, DZEVAD MUFTIC, ANTONY BRITTEN AND DAVE CRETCHLEY @€skom OVERHEAD LINES INTHE CONTEXT OF A POWER SYSTEM 1 HAPTE SYNOPSIS This chapter introduces the role played by overhead power lines inthe establishment and operation of a modern electric utility network. The interaction of the electrical parameters ‘that affect the ability of the overhead power line to transmit power are described. This serves to introduce the theme of the book, namely, the design and construction of novel, compacted overhead power lines which offer reliable, cost-effective and environmentally acceptable performance. INTRODUCTION Society inall parts of the world is profoundly dependent on a reliable and low-cost source Of electricity for the home and work. Electricity is not an end in itself, but it makes communication, mass transport and energy for the home, business and factory easy to provide, Tes hard to imagine an effective hospital without electricity; business and industry would cease if all the facilites made possible by electricity were removed. Electricity has become indispensable because people need energy that is highly adaptable and controllable. In addition, natural sources of energy are frequently in areas remote from the user and may not be in the form the user needs. Electrical energy offers efficient conversion froma variety of sources to electricity, easy transport to the user (sometimes cover very long distances), and re-conversion to the form that the user needs. All ofthis ‘ean be achieved in a clean, controllable and efficient manner. Thus, it is not surprising that the electrical utlty industry is one of the largest and most complex in the world ‘Overhead power lines are the means of transporting electrical energy, and they need to fulfil their function with a high level of reliability, while having the lowest possible impact ‘on the environment. ‘Overhead power lines have been in existence for more than a hundred years, as shown in Table 1.1 below [1] Table 1.1: History of overhead power lines AcIDC | Length | Voltage | Date | Location (ken) (ky) First line De 50 24 | 1882 | Germany First single [AC 2 4 1689 | Oregon, USA phase line First three- | AC 179 12 | 1891 | Germany phase line From these humble beginnings, there are now DC lines operating at + 600 kV and three phase AC lines operating up to 1150 kV. with power transfer capabilities approaching 10 GW. OVERHEAD LINES INTHE CONTEXT OF A POWER SYSTEM ‘In Southern Africa, the highest voltage used so far is 765 kV (AC) and # 533 kV (DC), One of the dominant characteristics is the development of long distance transmission, as shown in Figure 1.1 Southern African Power Pool Utility Country SNEL DR Congo TANESCO Tanzania FSCOM Malawi ZESCO Zambia ENE Angola Nampower Namibia BPC Botswana ZESA Zimbabwe eam Mozambique SEB Swaziland Eskom South Africa Lec Lesotho Figure 1.1: The Southern African transmission grid. ‘The Southern African network is being developed in response to the needs of the region as a whole. Despite this level of achievement, there is continual refinement underway. Significant reductions in cost and improvements in performance have been achieved by using compact guyed structures and other innovations. In the past three decades, environmental impact has assumed considerable importance. The influence the structures and electric and magnetic fields have on the environment must conform to increasingly demanding requirements. Audible noise and radio interference are also significant issues ‘hich have to be addressed. Some of the above environmental factors cam have a critical influence on the ultimate design of a line. The designer must therefore blend all the restrictions, with the requirement of producing a cost-effective and highly reliable line. ‘This book draws on a wealth of practical and theoretical experience on the planning, design and construction of overhead powerlines. Tc is intended to serve as a reference source for planners and design teams, by providing a comprehensive overview of the theoretical considerations and thei aplication tothe actual design of optimised lines. Te is complemented by the Eskom book entitled, ‘The fundamentals and practice of overhead line maintenance’ [2 Before presenting an overview of the design process and the structure of the book, itis necessary to introduce some elementary concepts. CHAPTER 1 OVERHEAD LINES INTHE CONTEXT OF A POWER SYSTEM 12 124 122 VOLTAGE, IMPEDANCE AND POWER LIMIT EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT ‘An overhead power line may be represented by the simple equivalent circuit shown in Figure 1.2 [1,3]. For three-phase lines, iis assumed that balanced conditions pertain and that single-phase circuit is an adequate representation of the line. The series resistance and inductance, as well as the shunt capacitance, can be readily calculated from the line geometry or found in tables (see Chapter 2). R L Figure 1.2: Pi-equivalent circuit for an overhead power line ‘The subscript '' on the voltage and current applies to the sending-end of the line and the subscript ‘r’ on the voltage and current applies to the recelving-end of the line. POWER LIMIT ‘The maximum power that a line can transmit is given by equation (1.1) =v x (4) ‘where X is the series reactance of the line, and is normally much larger than the series resistance. P, also refers to what is known as the steady-state stability {imit of the line This equation describes some very important properties of the limits of performance of an overhead power line: + The power that can be transmitted is directly proportional to the product of the sending- and receiving-end voltages. Since these are usually more-or-less the same, the power limit is proportional to the square of the operating voltage. It is for this reason that utilities use higher voltages to transmic higher amounts of power. The increase in series reactance, for comparable line lengths, does not increase significantly with voltage, and hence, ifthe operating voltage of a line is doubled, the increase in the power limit is almost fourfold 13 OVERHEAD LINES INTHE CONTEXT OF A POWER SYSTEM Obviously increases in voltage require more insulation and wider servitudes, but the economies and environmental impact of moving to higher voltages, in comparison to having a number of parallel lines, are usually in favour of the higher voltage option, The power that can be transmitted is inversely proportional to the series reactance, and hence the length, of the line. The geometry of the conductor bundles, phase separation and length of the line dictate this reactance, Compact configurations can decrease the series reactance significantly. This becomes very important for long lines. + The series reactance is inductive and can be reduced through the use of series capacitors. This is often implemented on lines of 500 km or more in length, In this, way, the transmitted power can be significantly increased, but atthe risk of causing sub-synchronous resonance. + For lines shorter than about 100 km, the above equation is still applicable. However, in such cases, the maximum power transmitted is often limited by the thermal rating of the line conductors or substation terminal equipment, and not by voltage drop and, stability considerations THE DESIGN TASK Bearing in mind the above considerations, line designers are usually presented with an approxima line length, an operating voltage and a power limit. It is their task to produces line that operates at the desired voltage and is capable of delivering the power required. At the same time, it must satisfy che environmental, availablity, reliability, safety and security requirements, all within a specified budget. Environmental considerations have a major influence on the design of overhead power lines. They are generally covered by statutory requirements, utility policies and related ‘guidelines, but designers do in any case need to be aware of the environmencal impacts of overhead power lines, There are major constraints for overhead power lines in respect of electric and magnetic fields, corona (audible and radio noise). land occupation and limitation for further use, wildlife protection, and visual impact. Environmental constraints fon current development in Southern Africa can have a sigificant effect on the economics and performance of overhead power lines. ‘The availability of a power supply is generally measured in terms of the number of hours ina year for which the power system is able to perform its function. The availability of lines as a part of the power system is a component of total availablity. For lines in particular, a distinction can be made between the electrical and mechanical (structural) components of reliabiliy. As a measure of effectiveness, availability was considered from the early stages of the development of overhead power lines, although it was not formalised in terms of measured values. What has changed, and is stil changing, is that the criteris of availability are becoming stricter and stricter. What was once considered an acceptable level of availability is not acceptable today. The gap between the ultimate hypothetical goal of 100% availability and realty is slowly being reduced. The implications for the design of overhead power lines are significant. CHAPTER 1 OVERHEAD LINES INTHE CONTEXT OF A POWER SYSTEM 434 132 14 1A. CHAPTER? Reliability resolves itself into two important criteria, namely, availabilty and quality of supply. It is defined as the probability of continuous power transfer under a set of ‘operating conditions, during a specified time of operation. Like availabilty, ithas economic implications and for each project the question of how much the improvement in reliability will cost, and whether itis worth the cost, must be answered [4]. ‘The stochastic (statistically random) nature of all the main influencing factors and the behaviour of the power delivery system suggest the use of probabilistic rather than deterministic methods and approaches in design. In overhead power line design, this is a relatively new approach, but it has already brought about better understanding of power system behaviour and an improvement in reliability within acceptable cost limits Safety and security are two of the other main requirements for power delivery systems For overhead power lines, these have the following meaning: SAFETY Electrical: phase-to-ground clearances and earthing (step-and touch-potentials) and their impact on the safety of the public. Mechanical and structural safety during construction and maintenance and in the rare occurrences of conductor or structure failure SECURITY Security is the measure of the ability of the overhead power line to avoid or resist a collapse from component fallure or from zhe expected loads imposed on it. The emphasis is on the behaviour of the line as an integrated structural system, Safety and security and their improvement also have particular economic implications. ‘Optimal design should consider this aspect in the same way as availability and reliability. ‘THE DESIGN OF OVERHEAD POWER LINES. ‘The main objective of opsimising the design of overhead power lines isto attain the lowest cost in construction and maintenance, together with the required availability in operation, ‘There are many ways of achieving these objectives. The main approaches developed in Eskom will be presented in this book. LINE DESIGN PROCESS ‘The process of line design optimisation is outlined in the sequence diagram, Figure 1.3 Tereflects che way this book is structured: Te starts with Section A ~ PLANNING. Within Planning, the first ehapter is power line Modelling (Chapter 2). This is one of the first activities in which the expected electrical performance of the new line is clarified at a conceptual level OVERHEAD LINES INTHE CONTEXT OF A POWER SYSTEM It's followed by Power system analysis and planning (Chapter 3). The principles ofthe techno-economic evaluation of each project, as well as the basic requirements in terms of power transfer capacity and performance, are discussed. Section A is concluded by HVDC transmission (Chapter 4). This chapter deals with some basic principles and possible options of High Voltage Direct Current Transmission. Section B - ENVIRONMENT. ‘This section starts with the discussion in broad terms of Environmental impact management (Chapter 5). All relevantissues of environmental impact, as wellas relevant weather data, and line route information, are considered, More specificay, the electrical aspects of environmental impact are dealt with in Chapters. 6109. They cover: Corona (Chapter 6), Power frequency electric and magnetic fields (Chapter 7), Modelling of electric fields (Chapter 8), Lightning (Chapter 9). They are followed by Section C - DESIGN OPTIMISATION This section has three sub-sections: C.1_ Electrical design optimisation 2. Line components C3. Line design Section C starts with the Introduction to design optimisation (Chapter 10). ‘The first sub-section, Electrical design optimisation, leads on to in-depth discussion of issues such as: + Basic electrical design (Chapter 11), ‘+ Insulation co-ordination (Chapter 12), + Thermal rating (Chapter 13), + Coupling (Chapter 14), The optimisation of line components in the next sub-section, is one of main and the ‘most comprehensive activities in the development of overhead power lines. The main component issues are + Conductor optimisation (Chapter 15), + Ground wire optimisation (Chapter 16), + Insulacor selection (Chapter 17), + Insulation design {Chapter 18), + Line hardware (Chapter 19), + Supporting structures (Chapter 20), + Foundations (Chapter 21), + Earthing (Chapter 22) CHAPTER 1 OVERHEAD LINES INTHE CONTEXT OF A POWER SYSTEM HAPTER 1 “The final sub-section in design optimisation is line design. Ie covers Land survey (Chapter 23), and Tower spotting (Chapter 24). Under Section D - COMMUNICATION, more detail is presented on: + Introduction to communication systems (Chapter 25), + Power line carriers (Chapter 26), + Aerial fibre optic cables (Chapeer 27), + Cellular base station antennas (Chapter 28). The final, Section D - OVERHEAD POWER LINE CONSTRUCTION includes the chapter Construction (Chapter 29), in which line construction technology is discussed in some detal, with the emphasis on design-related aspects. This brief overview of the main activities in the design and construction of overhead power lines demonstrates that itis multidisciplinary, interactive work. It requires the Participation of several different disciplines or professions, Network planners, economists, environmentalist, electrical engineers, structural designers, civil engineers, surveyors and, others, are all required to work together to obtain the optimum result ‘The days are past when the electrical engineer (traditionally the dominant profession in ‘overhead power lines development) could survey the line, design the conductors, decide fon the necessary insulation and design the supporting structures and foundations. The depth of development and the use of more sophisticated optimisation methods in each discipline have gone beyond the capability of an individual in any discipline. This is why rmultidisciplinary teamwork is essential OVERHEAD LINES INTHE CONTEXT OF A POWER SYSTEM START PLANNING - POWER SYSTEM ANALYSIS ENVIRONMENT - WEATHER. (DATA, LINE ROUTE DATA POWER LINES MODELLING BASIC TECHNICAL REQUIREMENTS ELECTRICAL ASPECTS OF ENVIRONMENT, | LINE OPTIMISATION CONDUCTOR & GROUND WARE OPTIMISATION _]| ELECTRICAL DESIGN, AC/ DC TRANSMISSION # INSULATION AND. 2 HARDWARE DESIGN JI & | 2 SUPPORTING & STRUCTURES DESIGN | | <— I COUPLING COMMUNICATION OVER POWERLINES CONSTRUCTION ‘OPERATION, MAINTENANCE Figure 1.3: Line design optimisation sequence diagram OVERHEAD LINES INTHE CONTEXT OF A POWER SYSTEM 15 16 HAPTER 1 Te emphasises another important characteristic ~ interactive work during each stage of ‘the whole process of optimisation, No activity can be done in isolation, For example, conductor optimisation has to have the active participation of the structural designer, ‘tower design requires input on the electrical requirements (clearances, insulation) ete. To neglect or ignore this aspect, and to attempt to do the optimisation as a set of Independent activities, will result in a sub-optimal design. Another feature, which has developed from Eskom's practice, is that optimised designs should be verified and improved by means of full-scale electrical and mechanical tests. These include, where practicable, tests of the lightning and switching impulse strengths, live-line insulation assessments, corona performance, mechanical strength of the tower and conductor vibration. The dielectric and corona tests, in particular, must be done at a suitable altitude, so as to replicate the conditions existing in many parts of Southern Africa. Full-scale electrical and mechanical certification tests, and insulator pollution surveys are a significant component of overhead power lines development. The foregoing tests should be seen as indispensable in cases where the optimisation process leads to the development of novel designs in particular. REFERENCES: [1] Glover .D. and Sarma MS., Power system analysis and design, 3"ed., Brooks/Cole, 2002. [2] Pillay T. and Bisnath S. (eds), The fundamentals and practice of overhead line maintenance (132 kV and above), 1 ed,, Johannesburg. Crown Publications, 2004. [3] Grainger Jj. and Stevenson W.D., Power system analysis, McGraw-Hill Ine., 1994, [4] Dorf RC., The electrical engineering handbook, CRC Press, 1993, BIBLIOGRAPHY [1] ELHawary ME, Electrical power systems, IEEE Press, 1995. [2] Faulkenberry LM. and Coffer W., Electrical power distribution and transmission, Prentice Hall, 1996, [3] _ Billinton R. and Allen RIN., Reliability evaluation of power systems, Plenum Press, 1996, [4] Conradie SR. and Messerschmide Lj.M., A symphony of power ~ che Eskom story, Johannesburg, C van Rensburg Publishers, 2000, [5] _ Kiessling F., Nefeger P., Nolasco JF. and Kaintzyk U., Overhead powerlines, Springer, 2003. CHAPTER 2 MODELLING BY MIKE KORBER, DZEVAD MUFTIC AND DIPEEN DAMA @®€skom MODELLING 2A SYNOPSIS This chapter introduces electrical engineers to the most relevant parameters and techniques used in the electrical design of high voltage overhead power lines. Although the theoretical aspects are emphasised quite extensively in this chapter, when selecting the best design, application and theory need to be integrated to arrive at an optimal design solution. The chapter shows that lumped parameter representations of overline power line models need to be understood before further analysing interconnected electric power systems. Lumped parameter representations allow simpler algorithms to be developed for solving complex networks that involve overhead power lines. The approach for long lines is different since an infinite number of ineremental lines, each with a differential length, must be considered. The analyses of long lines provide a more accurate solution for a line of arbitrary length | (m). The chapter ends with consideration of symmetrical components and line transpositions. INTRODUCTION ‘The economic and operational advantages that can be realised by the availabilty of a high-capacity transmission network indicate the role of High Voltage (HV) and Extra High Voltage (EHV) lines in the transmission of bulk loads. In addition, the reduction of losses makes it more economical to operate at high voltages. From a systems point of view, the main interest is in the electrical performance characteristics of the overhead power line. ‘These can be expressed in terms of the following four line parameters Line inductance in Him (Henrys per metre). Line shunt capacitance (susceptance) in Fim (Farads per metre) Line resistance in ©m (Ohms per metre}. Line shune conductance in S/m (Siemens or mho (1/Ohms) per metre) If the overhead power line is asymmetrical i is generally not theoretically possible to express the parameters on a per phase basis. However, if some approximations are tolerated, it can be done as a practical convenience. Line paramerer data are necessary for detailed studies of overhead power line phenomena. ‘The simplest constants are series impedance and shunt capacitance for the positive sequence as used in power flow studies. More detailed line parameters are sometimes needed for steady-state problems at power frequency. As an example, it may be necessary to study the current and voltage variations on a long untransposed line or the current distribution among the subconductors of a bundle. Line parameters are also necessary for interpreting transient problems such as switching studies. Line parameters are sometimes measured after a line has been built. However, some of them are needed in the design stage so they must be computed in advance. The following sections explaln the basic equations used in the calculation of line parameters. Modern computations of line parameters use computer programs, and remove the need for tedious hand calculations. 22 23 POWER TRANSFER LIMITS. For a normal line the series reactance is the dominating impedance element. Recalling the load capacity of a power line equation in Chapter 1, the role of the reactance X is ilystrated in equation (2.1) below: YM x P, 4) where X is the series reactance of the line and is normally much larger than the series resistance. V, and V, are the sending end and receiving end voltages respectively To achieve high transmission capacities, designers explore possible means of reducing the magnicude of the reactance. OTHER FACTORS LIMITING THE POWER TRANSFER OF OVERHEAD POWER LINES. In most circumstances, power flow limits are the result of constraints over electrical phase shife, voltage drop or thermal effects in lines, cables or substation equipment. In addition to electrical phase shift, voltage magnitude decreases with distance. Generally, for ‘overhead power lines, the maximum allowable drop in voltage is limited to between 5% and 10% of the sending end voltage. The power flow (MVA or MW) that corresponds to the maximum allowable decrease in vokage magnitude is called the voltage drop limit. To define the load eransfer capability itis very useful to consider ewo features characterising the ‘loadabilty’ of an overhead power line: For a reactive lossless single-phase overhead power line, the surge impedance Z, is defined in equation (2.2): (22) where X; is the series reactance, Y, the shune susceptance, L the series inductance and C the shunt capacitance “The Serge Impedance Loading (SIL) on a three-phase basis is defined in equation (23) Wud su =%)" mw (23) z where V,, (KY) is the phase-to-phase voltage Aline loaded co its SIL has no reactive power flowing into or out of it. A line loaded at SIL is known to be loaded at ies ‘natural loading’. Figure 2.1 shows a single-phase overhead power line that serves as an appropriate departure point in the analysis. MODELLING CHAPTE MODELLING CHAPTER 2 Figure 2.1: Currents defined for a single-phase overhead power line In computing the total inductance per m of line, inductance due to magnetic lux inside (L) and outside (L,) the two conductors can be distinguished. The total inductance L, of the single conductor of one-phase overhead power line is given by equation (24): Hie Bo jy Lat +t, Bees Bein? Him een nr en where D_ =the distance between conductors (m) r= conductor radius (m) by = 4nx107, permeability of Free space (Him) b= relative permeability of material (conductor) L, = _ internal indvetance of conductor (independent of wire size (1]) L, = externa inductance of conductor Substituting the value of jg in equation (2.4) gives the following simplified expression (25) for Ly: by=2st07 rin) Him 25) Expressing the size of conductor in terms of the geometric mean radius (F’ = 0.7788 x ‘valid for sold conductor; e"™ = 0.7788), the inductance can be expressed ina simpler form, as shown in equation (2.6) Ly =210In(2) Him 26) To geta feel for the order of magnitude involved, the inductance of single-phase overhead power line, with the following data, is given by equation (2.7): r= 115m D=4m b, = 1 (copper) 4 (1.15 x 0.788/100) The factor 2 used in the above equation shows that the flux linkages per metre are double for two conductors. Multiplying the resuit of equation (2.7) by «= 2nf = 314 (for f= 50 Hr), the corresponding reactance X = 0.767 Sum ofthe line is obtained, 1x2 107 In( 14.4107 Him 27) ‘Another form for the effective inductance for a single-phase line is shown in equation (28): L=Ly +L: -2My, Him (28) ‘This is in fact the effective inductance of two series-connected coils (with opposing polarities), each having a selfinduetance L, and L,, characterised by a mutual inductance M,,as given by equation (2.9) Hod Ma = Bend Hm 29) wihere Dis the separation distance (in m) between the two conductors carrying current in opposite directions ‘The last term in equation (2.8) is negative because of the opposite directions of the currents I, and I, (1 = I, = I). For these currents, the volt drop along the reactance is given by equation (2.10): AV =\4-Vy =joxIxL_ Vim 2.10) where i © ‘complex number operator Onf- circular frequency ‘The volt drops for the two conductors are symmetrical in nature. They represent the voltage drop in each conductor. The volt drap expressed by equation (2.10) can be extended to the nphase overhead power lie. It should be noted that the single and three-phase lines are but specia) cases of the more general case, when the apparent self inductance of a phase i (L) is given by equation (2.8) and the mutual inductance between phases i and j (M,), is evaluated by equation (2.9): AV, = jot x(L, + EM) Vim Cap Figure 2.2 shows the case for an n-phase overhead power line. MODELLING CHAPTER 2 MODELLING e's important to make the following observations: + Equation (2.11) is applicable only in the case where SI,=0; it cannot be applied to a line where reaurn currents are flowing in the ground. + Inadding the contribution of ll mutually induced voltage drops in equation (2.11), the summation over i must be extended (except in the ease when i=), selhimpedance). 2.4 INDUCTANCE OF TRANSPOSED AND NON-TRANSPOSED ‘THREE-PHASE OVERHEAD POWER LINES ‘The application of the foregoing technique is used for finding the inductance of a three- phase overhead power line. The line consists of three conductors of radius R, positioned in a horizontal plane at a distance D apart as illustrated in Figure 2.3. Figure 2.3a shows a section ofthe untransposed line and Figure 2.3b shows the same line when transposed. When transposed, the line length is divided into three equal sections and each phase conductor occupies all three possible positions in a transposition cycle. a a ———— 5 ire 2.3: Untranspoted line (a, Transposed line (b), Using Equation (2.11) for the untransposed fine, the voltage drop on phase 1 ean be computed by equation (212) ay, = jot, 24nd) «jot, Mind + jot in vy 2.12) array Rea D8 aap Wm @n) By using the current relation given in equation (2.13) +h, +1,=0 (2.13) and by eliminating I, from equation (2.23), equation (2.14) is obtained by collecting Ho (1, 20, Bo AV, = jot, 22h +In22) + jot, #2 In2 vim Jol FG tne) iol FInd vi (214) CHAPTER 2 Similarly, the voltage drop for phases 2 and 3 is obtained using equations (2.18) and (2.16): 1,2 ayy =iot, #2 (402) vim / h=joh (G+) Vi 215) AN = jo M4 n®) +01, sine Vim (2.16) ‘The results contained in equations (2.14) t0 (2.16) can be summarised in matrix form, as shown in equation (2.17) ay, tein nao 1 ra Me 1,2 ay, [=108| dane x |n) vim . ioe wee b (2.17) ayy 0 na tan22} fr, rR Before commenting on the results obtained for the untransposed line in equation (2,17), the results for the transposed line can be treated in a similar manner, the only diference being ‘thatthe three distinct sections of che line created by the transposition must be considered separately. The volt drop for phase one is therefore given by equation (2.18) Ho 122 He Po, ior, 2 (141022) + jar, end |+5|iot Se + le 2.18) se "n ion} | fron Ge 2h. (2.18) qfionted +n? ©) +o, 2 en Vim Reducing the above expression, equation (2.19) is obtained: bof 1, 4D ¥, = jot, P| bn 82 | i, 2.19) Because of the complete symmetry between phases, the expression for phases two and three can be wrieten directly as shown in equations (2.20) and (2.21): AN, =jot, 22] 1 sn 8) y 220) 2x|4 VE AV, =jat; 2} 4 in 22 | vin 221) an} a7" R Summarising in matrix form, equation (2.22) is obtained MODELLING CHAPTER 2 MODELLING 25 CHAPTER 2 va ay] tent o | fy, eR va ayfeio%] 0 Leno ba, vin aay 2 rR 1. Yap a ° 0 tent! 5, 4 | aR ‘An immediate observation is that, for the transposed line, the vole drop in each phase is proportional to the current flowing in the respective phase, but independent of the other currents. Therefore, the volt drop can be expressed by the expression as shown in equation (2.23): jax, (223) where X has the same value for each phase and the dimension of Cm Example 2.1 ‘Te(s interesting to compare the numerical values of the reactance for the transposed and untransposed lines. Consider, for example, a line with Sem (conductor radius) &m (phase spacing) For these values the impedance matrices from equations (2.17) and (2.22) become: 435x104 069 ° 0 -392x10 0am _Untransposed 0 069 435x104 42ix* 0 0 0 = 421x10* 0 | Qm_Transposed ° 0 421x10* CALCULATION OF THE INDUCTANCE OF BUNDLED CONDUCTORS ‘Ac exera high voltage (EHV), ie. voltages above 220 kV, corona with its power loss and particularly is incerference with communication circuits, will be excessive if the circuit has only one conductor per phase (see Chapter 6), ‘In che EHV range, the single conductor surface gradient is reduced considerably by having ‘wo or more conductors per phase in close proximity. The phase current will now divide between the sub-conductors. Unless the bundle is transposed, the phase current will not divide exactly between the bundle conductors, but the difference is not of practical importance. ‘The Geometric Mean Radius (GMR) of a symmetric phase bundle for single conductors with uniform current density (no skin effect), is given by equation (2.24): GMR = re! m a2) where relative permeability of the conductor (y=1 for aluminium and copper) radius of the conductor (m) Te leads to the geometric mean radius ” = 0.7788 x r, already quoted above. For a symmetrical bundled conductor with n sub-conductors, the GMR can be approximated using equation (2.25): GMR = yYaxr xR om (2.25) ‘where R, is the radius of the bundle and n is the number of conductors per bundle When the bundle is described by a uniform conductor spacing §, its radius R, can be calculated as shown in equation (2.26): —S on 2sin(e/n) The geometric mean distance (GMD) between the centres of the phase bundles for a three-phase single circuit is given by equation (2.27): R, (2.26) GMD = (Ga xdy xd) m (227) where di. diy, and dare distances between phases 1, 2, 3 in m Reduced reactance and reduced phase distance (compaction are also important advantages of nding. The reduction of reactance results from the increase of the equivalent racius ofthe bundle compared wit te radius fa single conductor and reduced geometric mean distance. The method of calculating the reactance of symmetrically bundled conductors involves, as before, the calculation ofthe sefand mutual inductances as shown n equation 2.28) eno ear ate X=314xL Q: and (2.28) L=2% 107 x1 (m) xIn( )H : 1 M=2x10? xixing ty “eo? MODELLING CHAPTER 2 MODELLING 2.6 LINE CHARACTERISTICS AND PARAMETERS FOR THREE-PHASE. SINGLE CIRCUIT SYSTEM The basic overhead power line consists of phase conductors (the three-phase system is predominant), ground wire and the earth return (Figure 2.4), Yr, 2S Vo ee Vo Vy Vig te are phase-to-ground voltages Earch return current Figure 2.4: A three-phase line wih ground wire and earth return 261 SERIES IMPEDANCE ‘The neswork equation of x three-phase line with one ground wire, as given in Figure 2.4, is given by equation (2.29): Vi Zy Zn Zs Zip y Vay y, Zy Za I, Vo wf > fan ze ae cil * [af > [in om Ve Zp Zp Zp Ze I, Mag () = 2) x f+ lM) (2.30) ‘The self-impedance of the phase conductors and ground wire (diagonal elements ip the above matrix) and earch reaurn paths, are given by equation (2.31): Z, =R, + 4nx 107 x fx[jIn(4h,!d,) + 2x(P +jQ)] Om (231) where i= 1.2.3.8 CHAPTER 2 MODELLING The mutual impedance (non-diagonal elements in the matrix above) wil be given by equation (2.32) Z,=4nx107 x1 %fjIn(Oj/D,) +2(P-+]Q)] 232) where ,)=1,2.3.¢ Dj, = distance between conductor and image of another (m) D, = distance between conductors i,j (m) R,\ = resistance of conductor (2m) f° = frequency (Hz) h = height of conductor / ground wire above ground (rm) 4, = diameter of conductor (rm) P Carson's correction terms for the earth return effect Q a Equations for calculating Z, and Z,, originally developed by Carson, were based on the assumption of an earth of uniform conductivity and semi.infinite in extent. For the assumption of perfectly conducting ground P = Q = 0. For any other assumption, P and Q can be calculated from equations (2.33) and (2.34) FV co.04 1006728 +In2)c0820 + 0si026] (233) a M2 16 k | 3 cos _ nke!cos40 452 1536, 9=-00386+1In2 +" kcoso— 234) - 2k ND 20520, Kcos30 kt 2 se? cos20 ln? + 1.0895) cos40 + sina a aga 30g * 10895) 0840 + Osin 40] wth , ir = 8565x104 2.35) Ye ee) where D = 2h (for seltimpedance) or D, (for mutual impedance) (m) angle (see Figure 2.5); for selfimpedance = 0 radian soil resistivity (Qm) Chapter 2 MODELLING 262 CHAPTER 2 SHUNT CAPACITANCE ‘The earth affects the capacitance of an overhead power line because its presence alters the electric field ofthe line. If tis assumed that the earth is a perfect conductor in the form of a horizontal plane, it can be seen that the field of the charged conductors is not the same as it would be if the earth plane were not present. “The presence of the earth can be accounted for ina simple way by means of socalled ‘image charges’. These are of the same magnitude as the conductor charge but of opposite sign and placed ‘underground’ in a symmetrical position with respect to the ground plane. In accordance with electrostatic theory, the potential difference resulting from the two charges +Q and -Q is given by equation (2.36): Q 2m ity 2 int v (236) Rey ‘where r, and r, are the distances from a point P to the two charges that contribute to the potential at P Line voltages measured to ground are a function of line charges, In steady-state AC conditions, the relationship is given by equation (2.37): (v)=[P,]* (2) (237) where Q, = charge (phasor) on the conductor per unit length and P, (known as Maxwell Potential Coefficients, see Chapter 6) are computed from the geometry of the line, as shown in equations (2.38) and (2.39) below: aya gtx) ana a) ¥D)) vr a») Dj, = anancaboween conductor and nag conductor (ne ge 25) Bi = Guana bewaen candice tady tet tes hove sah et = pemuntyef fos ace saa = Somenigecrectioast tn) radius of each conductor (m) 2.63 D\=2H, Figure 2.5: Conductors and their symmetrical images. For a three-phase configuration with ground wire, as per Figure 2.4, the electrostatic equation is shown in equation (2.40): Mi Pr Pin Pls Pig Q W]e IR Re el * let 20) Vig Pe Pea Pa Pa Q. (v]=[P]x[Q] (241) To determine the currents in terms of voltages, the following matrix form relations hole: [= ex" x[¥] = jox{C}

    You might also like