IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER DELIVERY, VOL. 24, NO.

3, JULY 2009 1257

A Simple Model for Calculating Transformer

Hot-Spot Temperature
Dejan Susa, Member, IEEE, and Hasse Nordman

AbstractA simple model for calculating the hot-spot temper- Weight of core and coil assembly (in
ature is introduced. The model is based on the hot-spot to am- kilograms).
bient gradient. The model considers the changes of the oil viscosity
and winding losses with temperature. The results are compared Weight of the oil (in kilograms).
with temperatures calculated by IEEE Annex G method and mea-
sured results at varying load for the following transformer units: Weight of the tank and fittings (in kilograms).
250-MVA ONAF, 400-MVA ONAF, and 605-MVA OFAF.
Correction factor of oil.
Index TermsHot-spot temperature, oil viscosity, top-oil tem-
perature, winding losses. No-load losses.
DC losses per unit value.
NOMENCLATURE Relative winding eddy losses, per unit of dc
loss.
Eddy losses (per unit value).
Specific heat capacity of winding material.
Stray losses (in watts).
Specific heat capacity of core.
DC losses (in watts).
Specific heat capacity of the tank and fittings.
Heat generation.
Specific heat capacity of oil.
Heat generated by total losses.
A constant.
Heat generated by winding losses.
Oil thermal capacitance.
Nonlinear winding to ambient thermal
Winding thermal capacitance.
resistance.
Thermal capacitance of the core.
Current density at rated load.
Thermal capacitance of the tank and other
Subscript indicates the ultimate value.
metal parts.
Constant.
Load current.
Portion of the core losses in the total
Subscript indicates initial.
transformer losses.
Load factor.
Portion of the stray losses in the total
Weight of core (in kilograms). transformer losses.
Minute. Portion of the winding losses in the total
Weight of the tank and fittings (in kilograms). transformer losses.

Weight of oil (in kilograms). Oil viscosity.

Weight of winding material (in kilograms). Ambient temperature.

Top-oil temperature.
Top-oil temperature rise over ambient.
Manuscript received January 25, 2008; revised January 16, 2009. Current ver-
sion published June 24, 2009. This work was supported in part by the SINTEF Hot-spot temperature.
Energy Research Department, Trondheim, Norway. Paper no. TPWRD-00036-
2008. Rated hot-spot to ambient temperature
D. Susa is with the SINTEF Energy Research Department, Trondheim gradient.W
NO-7465 , Norway (e-mail: dejan.susa@ sintef.no).
H. Nordman is with the ABB, Power Transformers, Vaasa 65101, Finland Winding time constant.
(e-mail: hase.nordman@fi.abb.com).
Color versions of one or more of the figures in this paper are available online Winding time constant.
at http://ieeexplore.ieee.org.
Digital Object Identifier 10.1109/TPWRD.2009.2022670
Oil time constant.

0885-8977/$25.00 2009 IEEE

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1258 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER DELIVERY, VOL. 24, NO. 3, JULY 2009

Winding time constant.

R Subscript indicates rated value.
pu Subscript indicates per unit value.

I. INTRODUCTION

P OWER transformers represent the largest portion of

capital investment in transmission and distribution
substations. In addition, power transformer outages have a
considerable economic impact on the operation of an electrical
network. One of the most important parameters governing a
transformers life expectancy is the hot-spot temperature value.
The classical approach has been to consider the hot-spot tem-
perature as the sum of the ambient temperature, the top-oil tem-
perature rise in tank, and the hot-spot-to-top-oil (in tank) gra-
dient [1], [2]. During the last 20 years, fiber-optic probes have
been used by many authors [3][5] in order to obtain as accurate
values for transformer temperatures as possible. When the load
Fig. 1. Hot-spot and top-oil temperatures of the 120-kV winding in the
is increased, it takes some time before the corresponding oil cir- 400-MVA ONAF-cooled transformer at 1.29-p.u. constant load.
culation adapts its speed [4] due to lower temperature and higher
oil viscosity at the preceding loads. Consequently, the hot-spot
temperature rises rapidly during the first 1020 min with a time The model presented in this paper takes oil viscosity changes
constant that is equivalent approximately to the winding time and loss variation with temperature into account. The changes in
constant [6] (Fig. 1). Nevertheless, this time period is different transformer time constants due to changes in the oil viscosity are
for each transformer and it is very dependent on the transformer also accounted for. The model requires an iterative calculation
design. Conveniently, it has been further observed that 50% of procedure.
the temperature change occurs during the rapid rise. When the The models are validated by using experimental results,
temperature threshold level is reached, the oil circulation is es- which have been obtained from a series of thermal tests per-
tablished at a rate, which is defined as critical, preventing further formed on three different power transformers: (250-MVA
rapid temperature rise. Therefore, the hot-spot temperature will ONAF, 400-MVA ONAF, and a 605-MVA OFAF-cooled unit),
continue to rise slower with a time constant that is equivalent to [3], [4]. The model is tied to measured parameters that are
the top-oil time constant (Fig. 1). readily available (i.e., data obtained from a normal heat-run test
On the other hand, at the transformer cold start, 75% of the performed by the transformer manufacturer at commissioning).
temperature change occurs during the rapid rise period due to
more harsh initial oil conditions (i.e., initial oil speed is zero).
In contrast, the initial oil circulation prior to the load decrease II. THERMAL MODEL
is faster than it will be under the load considered. Therefore, the
temperature will now decrease rapidly with a time constant that A. Thermal Circuit
is equivalent to approximately the winding time constant. Once The thermal circuit for the hot-spot temperature rise over
50% of the final temperature drop is reached, the oil velocity the ambient based on heat-transfer theory, [7][11], [19] and
will be much lower than initially. As a result, the temperature thermal-electrical analogy [30][36] is given in Fig. 2 with the
starts decreasing slowly with a time constant equivalent to the following elements:
top-oil time constant.
This paper presents a simpler but still accurate temperature heat generated by winding losses;
calculation method, taking into account the findings mentioned
before. With alternate switching between two different time thermal capacitance of the winding;
constants, (the short one being equal to the winding time con- hot-spot temperature rise over ambient;
stant and the long one being equal to the top-oil time constant),
the model is based only on the hot-spot-to-ambient air gradient. winding to ambient nonlinear thermal resistance.
The thermal model is based on heat-transfer theory [7][10], The steady-state temperature rise equation for the natural
numerous transformer thermal tests and reports [3][6] and convection and heat-exchange phenomena between the winding
[11][38], application of the lumped capacitance method, the insulation surface, (where the sensors are located), and the am-
thermal-electrical analogy, and the concept of thermal resis- bient is given as follows:
tance between winding insulation surface and ambient (i.e.,
air). (1)

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SUSA AND NORDMAN: SIMPLE MODEL FOR CALCULATING TRANSFORMER HOT-SPOT TEMPERATURE 1259

TABLE I
THRESHOLDS FOR ALL COOLING MODES

Fig. 2. Hot-spot temperature rise thermal circuit. valid only for ONAN and ONAF cooling mode

where the load current is given as and the rated current

where is the hot-spot-to-ambient temperature gradient. is given as ;
is a function of the fluid properties and winding characteristic the rated hot-spot to ambient gradient
dimensions and is considered to be a constant [32]. is con-
stant that is partly based on experimental results obtained from (9)
thermal tests [3], [4]. The sensors locations have been discussed
in [3], [4], and [20]. is the viscosity variation with temperature ;
(in kilograms per millisecond), given by the following equation the heat generated by the winding losses
[6]:
(10)
(2)
where is the loss per unit value given as
where the viscosity is evaluated at the value of given by
(11)
(3)
where is the winding losss dependence on the hot-
is the hot-spot temperature and is the ambient spot temperature
temperature.
The nonlinear thermal resistance between the winding insula-
tion surface and the ambient of the transformer is characterized (12)
by (4), which is derived from (1) where and describe the behavior
of the dc and eddy losses as a function of temperature [6].
The dc losses vary directly with temperature, whereas the
(4) eddy losses vary inversely with temperature. is the tem-
perature factor for the loss correction, equal to 225 for alu-
The differential equation for the thermal circuit in Fig. 2 is minium and 235 for copper. is the hot-spot tempera-
given as follows: ture.
Finally, (5) becomes
(5)
(13)

Now, if the following parameters are defined: The final solution of (13) for the load increase and decrease
the thermal resistance as is given in the following section. The corresponding values for
the temperature threshold level and oil viscosity exponent are
(6) given in Tables I and II.
where subscripts and stand for the rated and relative B. Complete Model
values, respectively,
1) Load Increase: The hot-spot temperature increases to a
the winding time constant
level corresponding to a load factor of K
(7)
(14)
where stands for the rated winding time constant
The initial hot-spot rise over ambient is . The hot-spot
given in Section II-C and it is assumed that
rise calculated for the end of previous load step is used as the
, [32];
initial hot-spot rise for the next load step calculation. is
the load factor
the ultimate hot-spot rise given by the following equation:
(8) (15)

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1260 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER DELIVERY, VOL. 24, NO. 3, JULY 2009

TABLE II is the time delay correction for the following condition:

LOAD STEPS FOR THE 250-MVA TRANSFORMER
(25)

Equation (21) is applicable here as well.

Equations require an iterative calculation procedure.
3) Winding Exponent and Change Levels: The viscosity ex-
ponent for all cooling modes is equal to 0.5 (i.e., 0.5). In
addition, the temperature change thresholds are given in Table I.

C. Time Constants
1) Winding Time Constant: The winding time constant [19]
is as follows:

for (26)
The function describes the relative increase of the hot-spot
temperature rise until the corresponding threshold is reached
for (27)
(16)
where
is the winding time constant prior to the change
winding time constant in minutes at the rated
(17) load;
hot-spot to ambient temperature gradient at the
is the rated winding time constant given in Section II-C. rated load;
The function will be replaced by function once
relative winding eddy losses, per unit of dc loss,
the threshold level for a given load is reached as suggested in
corrected for the hot-spot temperature;
Table I
current density in A/mm2 at the rated load.
(18)
2) Top-Oil Time Constant: The top-oil time constant at the
rated load is given as follows:
is the winding time constant after the change

(19) (28)

is the rated oil time constant given in Section II-C. where

is the time delay correction for the following condition:
rated top-oil time constant (in minutes);
(20) rated top-oil temperature rise over ambient
(21) temperature (in Kelvin (K));
total supplied losses (total losses) (in watts (W))
is the time when the function reaches the corresponding a the rated load;
threshold level. equivalent thermal capacitance of the
Equations require an iterative calculation procedure. transformer oil .
2) Load Decrease: The hot-spot temperature decreases to a
The equivalent thermal capacitance of the transformer oil for
level corresponding to a load factor of K
transformers with external cooling and a zigzag oil flow through
(22) the windings is given by

The function describes the relative decrease of the

hot-spot temperature rise until the corresponding threshold is (29)
reached
where
(23)
weight of the winding material (use only the
The function will be replaced by function once the excited parts) (in kilograms);
change level for a given load is reached as suggested in Table I weight of the core (in kilograms);

(24) weight of the tank and fittings (in kilograms);

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SUSA AND NORDMAN: SIMPLE MODEL FOR CALCULATING TRANSFORMER HOT-SPOT TEMPERATURE
TABLE III
MAXIMUM AND AVERAGE ERROR FOR THE 250-MVA TRANSFORMER
SM: simple model;
IEEE: IEEE-Annex G
weight of the oil (in kilograms);
specific heat capacity of the winding material
( and ) in , [32];
specific heat capacity of the core
, [32];
specific heat capacity of the tank and fittings
0.13) in , [32];
specific heat capacity of the oil
, [32];
correction factor for the oil in the ONAF, ONAN,
and OFAF cooling modes;
correction factor for the oil in the ODAF cooling
mode;
portion of the stray losses in the total losses;
portion of the core losses in the total losses;
portion of the winding losses in the total losses.
Equation (29) is an empirical formula based on observations
from different thermal tests and the modeling that has already
been performed and validated in the authors previous work
[33], [34].
The equivalent thermal capacitance of the transformer oil
for transformers without either external cooling or guided
horizontal oil flow through the windings (where the lack of
radiators and the lack of the horizontal oil flow through the
winding directly affects the oil flow inside the transformer tank,
thus slowing down the cooling process) is calculated according
to the IEEE Loading Guide-Annex G [2] and [6].
III. COMPARISON
The measured temperature results, which are recorded for
three different transformer units during different varying load
tests, are compared by the new calculation method presented in
this paper and the IEEE Annex G method. The input data for
both methods are given in the Appendix. The maximum and av-
erage errors obtained for both models are given in Tables III,
V, and VII. The maximum error is obtained as the maximum
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1261
0.13) in
Fig. 3. Hot-spot temperature of the 118-kV winding in the 250-MVA ONAF-
cooled transformer.
0.51) in
difference between the measured and calculated curve. The av-
erage error is obtained as the sum of the data values divided by
the number of data values. The error plots are also shown in
Figs. 35.
A. The 250-MVA ONAF
The rated voltages of the 250-MVA transformer were
1.5%/118/21 kV. The windings were seen from
the limb side, the 118-kV and 230-kV main windings, the
regulating winding, and the 21-kV tertiary winding. The con-
nection was YNyn0d11, and the short-circuit impedance in the
250/250-MVA main direction was 12%. The oil flow through
the windings was guided by oil guiding rings in a zigzag pattern.
The transformer was equipped with a total of 16 fiber-optic
sensors, eight in the 118-kV winding and eight in the 230-kV
winding, according to the principles explained in [4]. In total,
14 thermocouples were located in the tie plates and outer core
packets at the top level of the main windings of phase B.
In addition to the normal delivery tests, including the ONAN
and ONAF heat-run tests, the following load tests were per-
formed on the unit operating in the ONAF cooling mode:
constant load current; 1.28 p.u.; duration 13.5 h;
constant load current; 1.49 p.u.; duration 15 h;
varying load current Table II.
The measured hot-spot temperature results of the hottest
winding and sensor, recorded during the varying load current
test, are compared with the results obtained from the thermal
models in Fig. 3.
The maximum and average errors are given in Table III.
B. The 400-MVA ONAF
The rated voltages of the transformer were 410 6 1.33%/
120/21 kV. The windings were, seen from the limb side: 120-kV
and 410-kV main windings, a regulating winding, and a 21-kV
1262
Fig. 4. Hot-spot temperature of the 410-kV winding in the 400-MVA ONAF-
cooled transformer.
Fig. 5. Hot-spot temperature of the 362-kV winding in the 605-MVA OFAF-
cooled transformer.
tertiary winding. The connection was YNynd, and the short-cir-
cuit impedance in the 400/400-MVA main direction was 20%.
The oil flow through the windings was guided by the oil guiding
rings in a zigzag pattern. The main windings in this transformer
are representative of two basic cases: 1) restricted oil flow
(2-mm radial spacers in the 120-kV winding) and 2) unre-
stricted oil flow (3-mm radial spacers in the 410-kV winding).
The main windings were equipped with a total of 16 fiber-optic
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IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER DELIVERY, VOL. 24, NO. 3, JULY 2009
TABLE IV
LOAD STEPS FOR THE 400-MVA TRANSFORMER
TABLE V
MAXIMUM AND AVERAGE ERROR FOR THE 400-MVA TRANSFORMER
SM: simple model;
IEEE: IEEE-Annex G
probes (eight in each winding), and the tie plates, outer core
packets, and yoke clamps had a total of 37 thermocouples.
Additional load tests with ONAF cooling were the following:
constant load current: 1.0 p.u.; duration 12 h:
constant load current: 1.29 p.u.; duration 10 h;
constant load current: 1.60 p.u.; duration 15 h;
varying load current (Table IV).
The measured hot-spot temperature results of the hottest
winding and sensor, which were recorded during the varying
load current test, are compared with results obtained from the
thermal models in Fig. 4.
The maximum and average errors are given in Table V.
C. The 605-MVA OFAF
The 605-MVA transformer was a generator stepup (GSU)
unit with the windings seen from the limb side: part of the HV
winding (i.e., 362 kV-winding), the double shell LV winding
(i.e., 22 kV-winding), and the main part of the HV winding.
The oil circulation through the windings was guided by the oil
guiding rings in a zigzag pattern in such a way that the oil flow
through the LV winding was restricted (2-mm radial spacer) and
through the HV winding unrestricted (3-mm radial spacer). The
transformer was not a sealed OD (i.e., the oil circulation was
not forced through the winding block). In total, 24 fiber-optic
sensors were installed in the top disc/turns of the outer shell of
the LV winding and the outer part of the HV winding.
In addition to the normal heat-run tests, the following load
tests were made with OFAF cooling:
constant load current: 1.00 p.u.; duration 12 h;
constant load current: 1.30 p.u.; duration 1.2 h;
varying load current (Table VI).
The measured hot-spot temperature results of the hottest
winding and sensor, which were recorded during the varying
load current test, are compared with results obtained from the
thermal models and are shown in Fig 5.
SUSA AND NORDMAN: SIMPLE MODEL FOR CALCULATING TRANSFORMER HOT-SPOT TEMPERATURE 1263

TABLE VI
LOAD STEPS FOR THE 605-MVA TRANSFORMER

TABLE VII
MAXIMUM AND AVERAGE ERROR FOR 605-MVA TRANSFORMER

SM: simple model;

IEEE: IEEE-Annex G.

The maximum and average errors are given in Table VII.

IV. CONCLUSION
The athors have already developed a few transformer thermal
models [30][34]. All models take into account the oil viscosity
change with temperature as one of the parameters defining the
temperature curve. Also, the hot-spot to top-oil temperature gra-
dient and the top-oil temperature rise are defined as two separate
systems but cascadely interconnected. Thus, any change of the
top-oil temperature will affect the hot-spot to top-oil gradient
and further on the hot-spot temperature.
Similarly, by switching from the winding time constant to the
top-oil time constant, the model presented in this paper takes
into account this additional top-oil effect on the hot-spot tem-
perature rise.
A new feature in the thermal model developed in this paper
is that it is based directly on the hot-spot -to-ambient air gra-
dient without splitting up this gradient into the two gradients
hot-spot-to-top oil and top oil-to-ambient air.
The oil viscosity effect and loss change with temperature are
also taken into account.
The model is based on an exponential iterative calculation
procedure. Nevertheless, more rigid and more precise mathe-
matical procedures could be applied as well. The authors have
decided to use an exponential approach to follow well-known
temperature calculation procedures given in [1] and [2].
Comparably, the results obtained by the IEEE Annex G
method and the results plotted by the proposed model are in
good agreement with the measured values for the load increase
and load decrease. However, one could conclude that models
yield values either on the conservative side or with reasonable Fig. 6. Computing algorithm for the simple model.
accuracy. The main advantage of the proposed model is a
reduced number of the input data and its simplicity.
Nevertheless, both models develop higher error at the load compared to the measured one. In addition, the higher overload
increase. This can be straightforwardly observed in Figs. 35. of the error is more pronounced as the oil viscosity effect is un-
The models simply predict a much faster initial temperature rise derestimated. In other words, the established oil circulation is

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1264
TABLE VIII
INPUT DATA FOR THE THERMAL MODELS
Input data necessary for the suggested thermal model.
at a much higher rate than it is accounted for by the presented
models. The way to overcome the problem is in the further im-
provement of the winding time constant equation assuming that
the oil viscosity equation is correct.
Therefore, future work should consider additional thermal
tests and investigations to derive general and simpler winding
and top-oil time constants calculation procedures.
The concept for the model application in transformer moni-
toring, the model computation algorithm, Fig. 6, and the model
validation are given in the Appendix, respectively.
APPENDIX
A. Transformer Monitoring
A transformer online monitoring system, which collects
information from several measurable variables, should also
include real-time application of the thermal models to provide
an accurate picture of the operating condition of the trans-
former, allowing the operator to detect the early signs of faults
and correct them. In general, the monitoring system identifies
faults by comparing the results of measurements with predic-
tion of the models. Consequently, the complete application of
the suggested model is only possible in the systems used for
transformers equipped with the fiber-optic sensors as is the
case with all developed hot-spot thermal models. However,
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IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER DELIVERY, VOL. 24, NO. 3, JULY 2009
Fig. 7. Load profile during an extended heat-run test of a transformer.
the model could be used for the real-time online hot-spot
temperature computation as an integrated part of a monitoring
system, (i.e., indirect hot-spot measurement). Furthermore, the
model application will allow both transformer manufactures
and users to run different loading and ambient scenarios and,
by analyzing the results, improve the transformer design (costs,
size, and load carrying capacity).
B. Model Algorithm
The algorithm that describes the steps to follow in order to
calculate the hot-spot temperature is given in Fig. 6.
C. Model Validation
The model can be validated in an extended heat-run test (Fig.
7) made on a transformer with installed fiber-optic sensors by
using fitting and extrapolation techniques. Note that these tech-
niques should be applied in a manner consistent with the mod-
eling presented in this paper. An application example as well as
a corresponding mathematical procedure are given in [35]. The
extended heat-run test consists of a regular heat-run test with
added an overload test (Fig. 7). The overload should be applied
three hours after the cooling curve is recorded in order to obtain
a prolonged cooling curve as well. In this way, different oil-flow
modes (i.e., due to cold start, load increase, and load decrease),
are considered as well as their effect on the model parameter.
The duration and size of the applied overload should be limited
with the maximum steady-state hot-spot temperature of 140 ,
[1].
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Dejan Susa (S05M06) was born in Split, Croatia,
on May 22, 1972. He received the D.Eng. degree
in electrical engineering from the University of
Nis, Nis, Serbia, in 2000, and the M.Sc. and D.Sc.
degrees from the Helsinki University of Technology,
Espoo, Finland, in 2002 and 2005, respectively.
He was with the Power Systems Laboratory,
Helsinki University of Technology, from 2001
to 2006. He has been with the Center for Power
Transformer Monitoring, Diagnostic and Life Man-
agement, Monash University, Clayton, Australia,
since 2006. Currently, he is with SINTEF Energy Research Department,
Trondheim, Norway. He is working on different power transformer research
topics (losses, temperatures, moisture, gasses, online monitoring).
Dr. Susa is a member of Norwegian IEC National Committee and of IEC
MT1 (loading guide for oil-immersed power transformers), IEC MT2 (ability
to withstand short circuit), and IEC MT6 (temperature rise).
Hasse Nordman (M08) was born in Overmark, Fin-
land, in 1945. He received the Ph.D. degree in math-
ematics from the Abo Akademi University, Turku,
Finland, in 1977.
From 1970 to 1982, he was with ABB Corporate
Research (formerly Stromberg Research Centre),
Vaasa, Finland, working on current-related phe-
nomena (losses, temperatures, short-circuit forces)
in electric power equipment. Since 1982, he has been
with the Development Engineering Department in
the Power Transformer Division of ABB, Vaasa. He
is also the leader of the global ABB R&D activity Load Losses and Thermal
Performance.
Dr. Nordman is a member of CIGRE, Chairman of the Finnish National Com-
mittee in the IEC Power Transformer Technical Committee (TC 14), and Con-
venor of the Maintenance Team MT1: Revision of IEC 354: Loading guide for
oil-immersed power transformers.