Human Occupation and Increasing MidHolocene Aridity Southern Andean Perspectives

Author(s): Gustavo Neme and Adolfo Gil

Source: Current Anthropology, Vol. 50, No. 1 (February 2009), pp. 149-163
Published by: The University of Chicago Press on behalf of Wenner-Gren Foundation for
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Human Occupation and Increasing
Mid-Holocene Aridity
Southern Andean Perspectives
Gustavo Neme and Adolfo Gil
CONICET, Departamento de Antropologa, Museo de His-
toria Natural de San Rafael, Parque Mariano Moreno, San
Rafael-Mendoza 5600, Argentina (adolfogil@
arqueologiamendoza.com). 10 X 08
The discussion of human occupation in the southern Andes
during the mid-Holocene, centered on whether or not the
region was abandoned because of the increasing aridity that
has been identified by paleoecologists, has intensified since
the 1990s. Examining lithic technology, faunal remains, and
radiocarbon data, this paper explores the topic in light of the
archaeological variability exhibited in west-central Argentina
between 8,000 and 4,000 14C BP. Analysis of data in the spatial/
temporal archaeological record demonstrates significant re-
gional variability during the different stages of the mid-
Holocene and in the two contrasting environmental sectors
of the study area: the mountainous areas (cordilleras) and
plains. We propose that changes in occupation are correlated
with the greater aridity of certain environments.
Human occupation in the Americas during the mid-Holocene
is a topic of considerable disagreement with respect to both
its archaeological and its paleoenvironmental characteristics
(Anderson, Maasch, and Sandweiss 2007; Araujo et al. 2005;
Bettinger 1999; Grosjean et al. 2003; Hockett 2005; Lovis,
Donahue, and Colman 2005; McGuire and Hildebrandt 2005;
Meltzer 1999; Nunez, Grosjean, and Cartajena 2005; Sand-
weiss, Maasch, and Anderson 1999; Steig 1999; Zarate, Neme,
and Gil 2005). During the 1990s, an occupational hiatus was
proposed to explain the paucity of mid-Holocene sites in
South America (Nunez and Grosjean 1994; Nunez et al. 1996; 2001; Nunez, Grosjean, and Cartajena 2002, 2005; Zarate,
Nunez, Grosjean, and Cartajena 2005; Yacobaccio 1998; Gros-
jean et al. 2007). These authors argued that a relationship
exists between environmental conditions and the absence of
an archaeological record. The onset of a major episode of
aridity across a large part of the Americas is believed to have
affected human subsistence strategies (Grimm et al. 2001;
Mayewski et al. 2004; Meltzer 1999; Sandweiss, Maasch, and
Anderson 1999; Sandweiss 2003). However, questions have
also arisen about the validity of this postulated hiatus and its
reflection of human settlement patterns (Grosjean et al. 2003;
Madsen 2002; Meltzer 1999; Rech et al. 2003). The economic
2009 by The Wenner-Gren Foundation for Anthropological Research.
All rights reserved. 0011-3204/2009/5001-0008$10.00. DOI: 10.1086/
596199
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149
strategies during this time period have been significantly re-
searched not only to understand human adaptations to en-
vironmental changes but also to understand the outcomes of
later processes such as the domestication of plants and animals
(Yacobaccio 1998).
This research presents a case study from west-central Ar-
gentina between 32 and 38S (fig. 1), where new data and
different perspectives on human settlement have recently
come to the forefront (Garca 2005; Cortegoso 2005a, 2005b;
Gil, Zarate, and Neme 2005). From a paleoenvironmental and
archaeological perspective, the mid-Holocene, defined here as
the period between 8,000 and 4,000 14C BP, is poorly under-
stood in the southern Andes (Nunez, Grosjean, and Cartajena
2005; Zarate, Neme, and Gil 2005). The following is a de-
scription of the problem and a discussion of the existing data
and hypotheses. The aim of this study is to identify hypotheses
that are scientifically testable, and its utility is that it is oriented
within a research program.
Human Occupation in the Mid-Holocene:
The Problem
An analysis of the radiocarbon dates of the mid-Holocene
was recently completed for some areas of west-central Ar-
gentina (Gil, Zarate, and Neme 2005; Garca 2005). This gen-
erated a discussion of the significance of the hiatus in the
radiocarbon record, deemed the problem of the mid-
Holocene. The paucity of archaeological sites and the absence
of dated materials for this time period have been the basis
for postulating changes in the archaeological record, be it
abandonment of the area or a change in the settlement pattern
(Gil, Zarate, and Neme 2005). When this situation was ob-
served in the Ro Grande Valley, Duran (2000) suggested that
volcanic activity was an important causal factor. However,
with further investigation, this explanation was discarded and
replaced by another theory: significant increase in aridity had
occurred throughout the region and had affected a great part
of South America (Gil, Zarate, and Neme 2005; Grimm et al.
Neme, and Gil 2005).
Very ephemeral occupations and/or regional abandonment
have been recorded throughout the Americas during the mid-
Holocene (Barrientos and Perez 2005; Beron 2004; Grayson
1993; Nunez, Grosjean, and Cartajena 2002; Sandweiss,
Maasch, and Anderson 1999; Zarate, Neme, and Gil 2005).
This has been interpreted as the archaeological consequence
of a human adaptation in response to a changed climate and
environment (Meltzer 1999), such as a decrease in precipi-
tation and/or an increase in summer temperature. Garca
(2005) proposed a change in the technological system in the
west-central Argentine region, while others have proposed a
change in the settlement pattern and/or in the intensity of
exploitation of the area (Duran 2000; Gil 2006; Gil, Zarate,
and Neme 2005; Neme 2007). Taking this hypothesis into
 150 Current Anthropology Volume 50, Number 1, February 2009

Figure 1. Archaeological sites. 1, Agua de la Cueva; 2, Alero 2 Arroyo el

Tigre; 3, Jaguel III; 4, Agua de la Tinaja; 5, El Piedron 01; 6, Arroyo
Malo-3; 7, El Desecho; 8, Gruta del Indio; 9, Gruta El Manzano; 10,
Cueva Delerma.

consideration, the regional archaeological variability of the
mid-Holocene is now investigated on a broader scale than
before, with the intention of evaluating the regional pattern
of the archaeological record and discussing its significance in
terms of human strategies in relation to the paleoenviron-
mental landscape of this portion of the southern Andes.
Past and Present Environmental Landscapes
The study area (fig. 1) consists of the westernmost moun-
tainous area (i.e., the cordillera) and the plateaus and vol-
canoes of the easternmost plains (Abraham and Rodrguez
2000). The region is arid to semiarid, with an annual precip-
itation of 250 mm. Although correlated with an east-west
gradient, the precipitation can vary between 80 and 1,000
mm. Patterns of precipitation differ in that the western cor-
dillera sector and southern Mendoza have predominantly
winter rainfall caused by the Pacific anticyclone, while on the
plains, the summer rainfall is influenced by the Atlantic an-
ticyclone. These climatic characteristics reflect the marked
heterogeneity of the environment and provide a sharp contrast
between the western cordillera and the eastern plains (Gil,
Zarate, and Neme 2005; Neme, Gil, and Duran 2005; Abra-
ham and Rodrguez 2000).
Consistent with a great part of South America (Grimm et
al. 2001), a general increase in aridity during the mid-
Holocene has been proposed for west-central Argentina (Zar-
ate 2002), although with distinct temporal and spatial char-
acteristics. The few paleoenvironmental studies for the region
are supported by palynological, geomorphological, and glacial
data (DAntoni 1980, 1983; Markgraf 1983; Garca, Zarate,
and Paez 1999; Polanski 1963; Zarate and Paez 2003; Espizua
2004; Sting and Garleff 1985). On the basis of data from Gruta
del Indio, Salina 2, and Salado, Markgraf (1983) proposes a
significant change from primarily Patagonian vegetation to
one of a high-montane content at approximately 12,000 14C
BP. Between 8,500 and 5,000 14C BP, the fossil pollen record
from these sites suggests a decrease in precipitation and an
increase in average temperature (Markgraf 1983). The pollen
record shows a renewed increase in precipitation, primarily
winter rainfall, for the western sector between 5,000 and 3,000
14
C BP. Glaciological studies of the Atuel and the Ro Grande
(Espizua 2004; Sting and Garleff 1985) reveal glacial advances
associated with an increase in winter precipitation in the cor-
dillera between approximately 5,700 and 4,400 14C BP.
These studies have established that arid conditions pre-
dominated in west-central Argentina between 8,000 and 5,500
14
C BP and were followed by a period of increased precipi-
tation primarily along the cordillera. In Laguna Aculeo (Jenny

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et al. 2002), central Chile, this pattern of mid-Holocene aridity
is clearly documented to have extended into the Late Holo-
cene. After approximately 5,500 14C BP, the lake shows an
increase in effective humidity (Jenny et al. 2002) consistent
with the recorded dates of glacial advance and precipitation
in several areas of west-central Argentina.
Further data are obtained from a marine deposit from the
Valparaiso continental shelf (Lamy et al. 2001). Lamy et al.
(2001) report conditions similar to the mid-Holocene during
the Late Holocene, with century- to millennial-scale variability
in rainfall. In Los Vilos, close to the Chilean coast, a recent
palynological analysis completed by Maldonado and Villagran
(2006) for Palo Colorado is also consistent with the aridity
attributed to the mid-Holocene. The data led them to propose
that the onset of this climactic pattern occurred between 8,500
and 7,500 14C BP, with aridity being most intense between
7,500 and 5,500 14C BP. Indications of an increase in the
regional humidity are recorded approximately 5,500 14C BP
(Maldonado and Villagran 2006).
These data strengthen the validity of the regional model
for the southern Andes in terms of the extreme aridity for a
great part of the mid-Holocene and also confirm the tendency
toward a change in precipitation along the cordillera ap-
proximately 5,500 14C BP. It is important to consider the
differences between the mountainous landscape and the east-
ern plains. While the precipitation in the cordillera increased
stream flow and the availability of water on the eastern plains,
primary productivity on the plains was mostly dependent on
local precipitation, which, as of 5,500 14C BP, differed between
the cordillera and plains.
The Archaeological Record
Sites included in this analysis are mid-Holocene stratified sites
that have been radiocarbon dated and published so their re-
liability can be evaluated (Pettitt et al. 2003). This body of
archaeological information has been generated by different
projects, primarily through research completed in the past 25
years. Only recently has a systematic random sampling of
archaeological data been initiated to evaluate the settlement
pattern of mid-Holocene occupation for the area south of
Mendoza (Raven Carper 2008).
The following sites are discussed in this paper: Agua de la
Cueva (Garca, Zarate, and Paez 1999; Garca 2005; Lucero, by archaeologists, the second of which is the richest (Barcena
Cortegoso, and Castro 2006), El Piedron 01 (Cortegoso 2005a,
2005b), Agua de la Tinaja I (Barcena, Roig, and Roig 1985),
Jaguel III (Barcena and Roig 19811982), Alero 2 Arroyo el
Tigre (Barcena 19771978), Arroyo Malo-3 (Neme 2007; Die-
guez and Neme 2004; Perez Winter 2008), Arroyo el Desecho-
4 (Neme 2007), and Gruta El Manzano (Gambier 1985)all
from the mountainous area. The two mid-Holocene sites lo-
cated on the eastern plains included in this analysis are Gruta
del Indio (Semper and Lagiglia 19621968) and Cueva De-
lerma (Gil 2006; fig. 1). We will focus on the patterns evident
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151
in radiocarbon dates in relation to the lithic and faunal
records.
Agua de la Cueva (6904W, 3237S) is a multicomponent
shelter with evidence of human occupation from the Late
Pleistocene until the Late Holocene (Garca 2005; Lucero,
Cortegoso, and Castro 2006). Located at 2,900 m asl, ap-
proximately 8 m2 (Garca, Zarate, and Paez 1999) has been
excavated in the southern sector of the site and approximately
2 m2 (Lucero, Cortegoso, and Castro 2006) has been excavated
in the northern sector. Garca, Zarate, and Paez (1999) defined
three major strata with subdivisions; a major part of the mid-
Holocene (9,0005,000 14C BP) is represented by substrata
2b, 2c, and 2d. Garca (2005) reports that the assemblage at
Agua de la Cueva reflects camelid hunting as well as tool
manufacturing, hide preparation, and cooking activities.
Excavation of the northern sector of the site resulted in
the identification of three time periods (Lucero, Cortegoso,
and Castro 2006). The first is comparable with substratum
2b (11,0009,000 14C BP) of the southern sector; the other
two are contemporaneous with substratum 2c (9,0007,500
14
C BP).
El Piedron 01 (3255S, 6919W) is a rockshelter at 2,300
m asl (Cortegoso 2005a, 2005b). In the excavation of 3 m2,
investigators identified four stratigraphic units; stratum III
and most likely stratum IV correspond to the mid-Holocene.
Two dates are available from the top and bottom of stratum
III (table 1; Cortegoso 2005a, 127, figs. 4, 5, 2005b), yielding
evidence of recurrent occupations and/or extensive use of the
shelter (Cortegoso 2005a, 2005b).
Agua de la Tinaja I (3228S, 6918W) is a shelter situated
at 2,050 m asl (Barcena, Roig, and Roig 1985; fig. 1). Barcena,
Roig, and Roig (1985) distinguish four cultural levels of which
the bottom (level IV) is the only stratum that can be attributed
to the mid-Holocene (table 1). This level begins at the bedrock
of the shelter and is separated from level III by a layer of
sandy loam chronologically placed at 4,500 14C BP. Level IV
yields a few lithic artifacts, including the only grinding tool
from the site, as well as scant vegetal remainsdomesticates
such as quinoa, squash, and possibly one grain of maize (Bar-
cena, Roig, and Roig 1985, 350351; Gil et al. 2006). Re-
searchers interpret level IV as a series of short occupations.
Jaguel III (3225S, 6911W) is a small shelter found at
2,500 m asl (Barcena and Roig 19811982), covering a surface
area of 12 m2. Three occupational levels have been identified
and Roig 19811982, 91). The occupations attributed to the
mid-Holocene were found in the lowermost level, which rests
on bedrock, dated between 4,200 and 3,550 14C BP (Barcena
and Roig 19811982). A low density of artifacts was collected
from this level; the level is separated from the midlevel by a
sandy loam (Barcena and Roig 19811982, 95).
Alero 2 Arroyo el Tigre is found at 3225S and 6911W
and situated at 3,100 m asl. Approximately 10 m2 (Barcena
19771978) was excavated, resulting in the identification of
four cultural levels. The oldest levels, III and IV, fall within
 152 Current Anthropology Volume 50, Number 1, February 2009

Table 1. Mid-Holocene Dates for Sites in the Area

Archaeological Site
and Material Lab Code 14
C Years BP Cal. Years BP Reference

Agua de la Cueva:
Charcoal BETA-90740 7,450 140 7,9968,482 Garca 2005
Charcoal BETA-84829 5,080 70 5,6565,941 Garca 2005
Charcoal LP-324 4,720 80 5,3025,601 Garca 2005
Charcoal LP-1678 8,460 100 9,1269,547 Lucero, Cortegoso, and Castro 2006
Charcoal LP-1662 8,270 90 8,9959,444 Lucero, Cortegoso, and Castro 2006
Charcoal LP-1654 7,420 90 8,0078,368 Lucero, Cortegoso, and Castro 2006
El Piedron 01:
Charcoal BETA-63175 5,460 130 4,8705,484 Cortegoso 2005a, 2005b
Charcoal BETA-63174 4,560 120 4,8745,479 Cortegoso 2005a, 2005b
Agua de la Tinaja I:
Charcoal GaK-10733 4,510 130 4,8475,473 Barcena, Roig, and Roig 1985
Jaguel III:
Charcoal AC-0412 4,200 180 4,2845,294 Barcena 19771978
Alero 2 Arroyo el Tigre:
Charcoal GIF-4492 4,170 110 4,4194,965 Barcena 19771978
Gruta del Indio
Charcoal LP-845 7,860 90 8,5098,989 Lagiglia 2001b
Charcoal LP-873 7,430 90 8,0428,392 Lagiglia 2001b
Arroyo Malo-3:
Charcoal LP-783 7,670 105 8,2868,659 Dieguez and Neme 2004
Charcoal NSRL-11722 7,660 50 8,3828,546 Dieguez and Neme 2004
Charcoal LP-1279 5,350 80 5,9856,289 Dieguez and Neme 2004
Charcoal LP-1267 5,310 100 5,9066,294 Dieguez and Neme 2004
Charcoal NSRL-11719 4,540 40 5,0475,317 Dieguez and Neme 2004
Arroyo el Desecho-4:
Human bone AA-54671 5,502 60 6,1886,408 Gil et al. 2006
Gruta El Manzano:
Charcoal GaK-7529 7,330 150 7,9198,414 Gambier 1985
Charcoal GaK-7531 7,190 130 7,7518,224 Gambier 1985
Charcoal GaK-7530 7,110 180 7,6138,222 Gambier 1985
Charcoal GaK-7532 7,070 170 7,5818,203 Gambier 1985
Cueva Delerma:
Charcoal LP-1023 7,650 70 8,3588,586 Gil 2006

the mid-Holocene, but only the most recent, level III, provides
a single radiocarbon date with which to chronologically place
the occupation at 4,200 14C BP (table 1). Barcena (19771978,
fig. 34) identifies interspersed sterile sediments between levels
III and IV. Because of the paucity of artifacts in level IV, it
is poorly understood.
The Arroyo Malo-3 shelter (3451S, 6953W) is an ar-
chaeological site at 2,000 m asl (Neme 2007). Excavation of
6 m2 down to bedrock showed multiple occupations dating
from the beginning of the Holocene until the Late Holocene.
Dieguez and Neme (2004) defined three lithological units of
which units B and C include mid-Holocene material. These
units are separated by an erosive event that would have oc-
curred between 7,660 and 3,570 14C BP (Dieguez and Neme
2004). In another sector of the excavation, sedimentary de-
posits between these units are estimated to date 5,300 14C BP.
Arroyo el Desecho-4 (3511S, 7003W) is an open-air site
located at 2,050 m asl. During the 1980s and the early 1990s,
a crew from the Museo de Historia Natural de San Rafael
excavated approximately 10 m2. Published information from
this site is scant; the only 14C date from this site indicates that
it was occupied during the mid-Holocene, approximately
5,500 14C BP (Gil et al. 2006).
Gruta El Manzano is a cave located in the Ro Grande
Valley (3606S, 6952W) at 1,500 m asl. This site was in-
vestigated during the 1970s by a crew from Universidad Na-
cional de San Juan. A total of 8 m2 has been excavated, which
represents a major portion of the site (Gambier 1985). The
only dates from the site (table 1) were extracted from the
lowest level, between 140 and 215 cm, placing that occupation
within the mid-Holocene (Gambier 1985).
Gruta del Indio (3445S, 6822W), a cave site on the
eastern plains at 660 m asl (fig. 1), is situated along the south-
ern bank of the Ro Atuel (Lagiglia 1968). Excavated several
times since the 1950s and with currently ongoing excavations,
human occupations have been identified in the cave since the
end of the Pleistocene (Long, Martin, and LaGiglia 1998;
Lagiglia 2001a, 2001b) until the Late Holocene (Semper and
Lagiglia 19621968; Lagiglia 1968). Lagiglia (2001b) has de-
fined four cultural units (Lagiglia 1968) and four natural

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Figure 2. Frequency of reoccupied sites and new sites in the study area
in 14C thousands of years.
strata. For the purpose of this discussion, we are primarily
interested in what Lagiglia (2001b) includes within Pre-Atuel
III, which corresponds to level II and is considered an ex-
pression of the Archaic Period. The scant archaeological rec-
ord for Pre-Atuel III has been attributed to a low regional
population density (Lagiglia 2001b).
Cueva Delerma (3619S, 6827W), a cave site, lies at 1,200
m asl at the edge of the eastern volcanic region of La Payunia
(Gil 2006). The excavation of this cave covers approximately
2 m2 (Gil 2006), representing a major portion of the cave
surface area. The only radiocarbon date (table 1) places the
occupation of this site in the mid-Holocene. Few archaeo-
logical remains were recovered from the stratigraphic se-
quence, and the site is interpreted to have been used only as
a temporary camp (Gil 2006).
Chronological Patterns
Making use of the patterns in radiocarbon dates from these
sites as proxy to investigate aspects of the prehistoric utili-
zation of the landscape and changes in demography is a valid
and acceptable methodology (Rick 1987; Shennan and Edin-
borough 2007; Kuzmin and Keates 2005; Surovell, Wagues-
pack, and Brantingham 2005), while keeping in mind the
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153
limitations and criticism that the methodology receives (Su-
rovell and Brantingham 2007; Van Andel et al. 2003). Figure
2 represents the number of sites with radiocarbon dates by
millennium, differentiating between newly occupied sites and
sites with previous occupations (reoccupied sites). In dates
from 10 archaeological sites, 209 dated samples fall between
11,000 and 200 14C BP and only 24 samples between 8,000
and 4,000 14C BP. A chronological hiatus between 7,000 and
6,000 14C BP can be clearly observed from these latter samples
(fig. 2).
At a smaller spatial scale, that of the site or locality, the
temporal hiatuses are of variable duration and in some cases
cover more than 3,000 years (Garca 2005; Gil, Zarate, and
Neme 2005; Neme, Gil, and Duran 2005). Following the
chronological void, the data show the reoccupation of pre-
viously utilized sites as well as completely new sites (fig. 2).
Figure 3 provides a summary of the probability ranges of
calibrated dates generated by CalPal (Weninger, Joris, and
Danzeglocke 2005) for all radiocarbon dates from west-central
Argentina between 11,000 and 4,000 years 14C BP. The figure
clearly illustrates a void between 7,500 and 6,500 cal. 14C BP
and another around 5,500 cal. 14C BP. Figure 4 illustrates the
pattern of these dates in 14C years, while figure 5 illustrates
the pattern in calibrated years. Using Calib 5.01 software
 154 Current Anthropology Volume 50, Number 1, February 2009

Figure 3. Probability ranges of radiocarbon dates calibrated with CalPal

(Weninger, Joris, and Danzeglocke 2005).

(Stuiver and Reimer 1993) with a curve of Intcal 04,1 2 stan- abandonment on a scale of decades or centuries, answers
dard deviations were used in both cases. Both figures 4 and remain inconclusive.
5 are suggestive of significantly diminished evidence of human
presence during the mid-Holocene. Subsistence Trends
Garca (2005) supports the idea that this hiatus is the result
With respect to resource availability, it is believed that the
of either biased sampling strategy or site-formation processes.
increase in aridity proposed for the mid-Holocene implies a
To verify the second alternative, it would be necessary to
decrease in environmental productivity, which certainly would
review geoarchaeological data for the region, which, unfor-
affect the human population and require changes in their
tunately, is scant. However, the effect of biased sampling is a
resource procurement. A dietary diversification model has
weak argument; if the samples were randomly distributed, the
proved useful to suggest expectations for subsistence changes
probability that no sites would fall between 6,000 and 7,000
based on variations of the regional resource availability itself
BP would be minimal, so their absence is statistically
(Bayham 1979; Winterhalder and Smith 1992; Bettinger 1991;
significant.
Broughton 1994). The archaeofaunal and archaeobotanical
Other research suggests that the absence of samples within
records are conducive to the investigation of variations in
this time period is caused by a diminished occupation of the
human subsistence strategies through time (Broughton and
region, including the possibility of abandonment (Duran
Grayson 1993; Byers and Broughton 2004). In the southern
2000; Gil, Zarate, and Neme 2005). If in fact the absence of
Andes, Agua de la Cueva (Gil, Neme, and Garca 1998), El
samples does not imply a regional abandonment, then this
Piedron 01 (Cortegoso 2005a, 2005b), and Arroyo Malo-3
may instead signal a very ephemeral occupation of the area
(Neme 2007) provide archaeofaunal data between 8,000 and
and/or a highly mobile population. Because the archaeological
4,000 14C BP, whereas archaeobotanical data are available only
and chronological records are not conducive to differentiating
for Arroyo Malo-3 (Llano 2008).
1. Because of constant revisions in the calibration curves (Reimer et On the basis of the available archaeofaunal record (table
al. 2006) and its minor development for the Southern Hemisphere, chro- 2), analysis of the patterns of the artiodactyl index (AI;
nological age in radiocarbon years will be used throughout the text. Broughton 1994) is emphasized to evaluate changes in diet

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 155

14
Figure 4. Chronological patterns (11,0003,000 C BP) clustered by
latitude.

breadth. On the other hand, the number of identifiable spec-
imens for each stratigraphic assemblage is considered a mea-
sure of the intensity of site use (table 2). Figure 6 shows intra-
and intersite variations over time in the values of AI for Agua
de la Cueva (Gil, Neme, and Garca 1998), El Piedron 01
(Cortegoso 2005a, 2005b), and Arroyo Malo-3.
Agua de la Cueva rockshelter allows us to compare three
time periods: 11,0009,000 14C BP, 9,0007,500 14C BP, and
7,5005,000 14C BP. In Arroyo Malo-3, there are four assem-
blages: 9,0007,500 14C BP, 7,5005,000 14C BP, 5,0002,000
14
C BP, and the last 2,000 14C BP. Finally, El Piedron 01 is the
only assemblage assigned to 5,5004,500 14C BP. Figure 6
shows that the two sites with more than one faunal assemblage
reflect stability in the AI ratio during the mid-Holocene oc-
cupations as well as during earlier and later occupations (Agua
de la Cueva and Arroyo Malo-3). In the intersite comparison,
Agua de la Cueva and El Piedron 01, both on the northeastern
cordillera, show similar AI values but differ from the AI values
from Arroyo Malo-3 (fig. 6). The faunal assemblages from
Agua de la Cueva and El Piedron 01 consist almost exclusively
of camelid remains, whereas the Arroyo Malo-3 assemblage
consists of other taxa, including birds, carnivores, and ar-
madillos. This may reflect the availability of local resources.
Another observation in faunal data is the variation in the
depositional rate of faunal materials through time. Intrasite
comparison of this rate can be used as a proxy to determine
the intensity of occupation (Veth 1993), calculated by the
quantification of artiodactyl specimens for every 100 years.
The logarithms of these values (fig. 7) show a notable decrease
during the mid-Holocene. The two sites for which a dia-
chronic pattern is available (Agua de la Cueva and Arroyo
Malo-3) show a notable difference in this rate. During the
period of 9,0007,500 14C BP at Agua de la Cueva, the rate
of deposition of faunal materials was 10 times less than the
rate between 9,000 and 11,000 14C BP. The difference in bone
frequency is even greater when the latter time period is com-
pared with the period 7,5005,000 14C BP.
Based on optimal foraging theory, Wolverton (2005) pro-
posed that the variations in resource availability, generated by
environmental changes or human exploitation, would affect
decision making about resource rankings, which would be
reflected in the faunal record by changes in the diversity of
taxa procured. In his research in Missouri, Wolverton ana-
lyzed the efficiency of prehistoric foraging and questioned if
this was influenced by the effects of the Hypsithermal. Among
his conclusions, Wolverton (2005) noted a greater use of high-
ranking prey during the Late Holocene than in the mid-
Holocene and suggested that there was a decrease in subsis-
tence efficiency during the mid-Holocene. The difference
could be attributed to changes in the ecosystem and the avail-
ability of resources resulting from climatic variations rather
than changes in demographic factors and/or improved tech-

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 156
Figure 5. Chronological patterns (13,0003,500 cal. BP) of calibrated dates
clustered by latitude.
nology. Based on faunal analyses of the plains of North Amer-
ica, Sheehan (2002) arrived at similar conclusions. Contrary
to Wolvertons (2005) interpretation of the Missouri Hypsi-
thermal, the archaeofaunal data from the southern Andes
presented in figure 5 shows that the human response to the
proposed environmental changes was not an increase in sub-
sistence diversity. Rather, when compared with earlier and
later times, the faunal data suggest a significant decrease in
the utilization of these sites during this period (fig. 7).
Another indicator of changes in subsistence is the archaeo-
botanical record, for which only Arroyo Malo-3 (Llano 2008)
provides data. Whereas one would expect an increase in plant
collection, the flotation samples from Arroyo Malo-3 are al-
most devoid of plant remains during the mid-Holocene
(Llano 2008).
Trends in Lithic Technology
The technological system is considered to be a strong indicator
of changing subsistence strategies in response to environ-
mental or demographic changes. Technological studies have
been initiated recently (Lucero, Cortegoso, and Castro 2006;
Cortegoso 2005a, 2005b; Perez Winter 2008; Carper 2008),
but here we will focus on the quantitative changes in tech-
nological trends.
Assuming that the quantity of lithic elements is a measure
of occupational intensity (Veth 1993), the quantitative pat-
terns in the lithic record of the sites in question are detailed.
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Current Anthropology Volume 50, Number 1, February 2009
The two sites that best display intrasite temporal variation
during the mid-Holocene are Agua de la Cueva and Arroyo
Malo-3. In Agua de la Cueva (Garca, Zarate, and Paez 1999;
Garca 2005), we note a rapid drop in depositional intensity
over time, with values of 10.5 (item/m2/100 years; n p
16,803) between 11,000 and 9,000 BP to a rate of 0.8 (item/
m2/100 years; n p 2,574) recovered from levels dated between
9,000 and 5,000 BP.
At Arroyo Malo-3 (Perez Winter 2008), a significant de-
crease is noted between 9,000 and 7,500 BP, with deposits
estimated at 1.4 (item/m2/100 years; n p 866), and between
7,500 and 5,500, with values of 0.7 (item/m2/100 years;
n p 563). Both sites show a greater depositional rate at the
beginning of the Holocene with a significant drop occurring
before 5,0005,500 BP. Additionally, the scant lithic assem-
blages from Cueva Delerma (n p 11 in 2 m2) have been in-
terpreted as a result of the very brief occupation of the site
(Gil 2006) at approximately 7,500 BP. The ephemeral nature
of the deposits at Alero 2 Arroyo el Tigre also leads Barcena
(19771978) to postulate a transitory use of the shelter. Carper
(2008) reports a major occupational deposit during the mid-
Holocene at Gruta El Manzano, although, similar to Agua de
la Cueva and Arroyo Malo-3, these major deposits would have
been dated between 8,000 and 7,000 BP and not afterward.
In a recent investigation of three assemblages in the north-
ern sector of Agua de la Cueva, Lucero, Cortegoso, and Castro
(2006) note an increase in the diversity of lithic raw materials
from approximately 9,400 14C BP to approximately 7,400 14C
 157

Table 2. Faunal Record in Number of Identifiable Specimens by Archeological Site and Time Period (in Thousands of
Years)

Agua de la Cueva El Piedron Arroyo Malo-3

119 97.5 7.55 5.54.5 7.59 57.5 2.25 !2.2

Ave 3 ... ... ... 2 ... ... ...

Small bird ... ... ... ... ... 1 3 13
Medium bird ... ... ... ... ... ... 1 ...
Large bird 14 16 1 ... 3 ... 1 ...
Passeriformes ... ... ... ... ... ... 2 19
Rehiadae 1 1 ... ... ... ... ... ...
Emberizidae ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 1
Mammal 84 106 8 33 53 33 46 27
Small mammal ... ... ... 1 3 ... 2 3
Medium mammal ... ... ... ... ... 1 ... 9
Large mammal 127 608 35 8 25 2 11 8
Dasypodidae ... ... ... ... 4 1 5 15
Chaetophractus vellerosus ... 2 ... ... ... ... ... ...
Cf. Zaedyus Pichiy ... ... ... ... ... ... 1 ...
Dolichotis patagonum ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 1
Chinchillidae 1 ... ... ... ... ... ... ...
Chinchilla sp. 1 ... ... ... ... ... ... ...
Rodents X X X ... ... ... ... ...
Lagidium sp. 3 13 ... ... ... ... ... ...
Carnivores ... ... ... 1 3 ... ... 1
Canis pseudalopex (small) ... ... ... ... 1 ... ... ...
Cf. Canis pseudalopex ... ... ... ... 3 ... ... 1
(small)
Canis pseudalopex cul- ... ... ... ... 1 1 ... ...
paeus (large)
Cf. Canis pseudaloex cul- ... ... ... ... 1 ... ... ...
paeus (large)
Felis sp. ... ... ... ... 1 . . . ... ...
Chiroptera ... ... ... ... ... . . . ... 1
Caprininae ... ... ... ... ... . . . ... 1
Artiodactyla ... 50 ... 1 5 . . . 2 3
Lama sp. 138 626 53 17 11 1 7 5
Lama (Vicugna sp.) 4 16 ... ... ... ... ... ...
Lama guanicoe 84 250 10 7 15 2 3 8
Cf. Lama guanicoe ... ... ... 2 14 3 6 5
Xenarthra cf. Tardigradoa ... ... ... ... 1 ... ... ...
Medium bird? ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 1
Carnivore? ... ... ... ... 1 ... ... ...
Undefined 64 215 40 382 3,010 643 1,815 1,084

Total 524 1,903 147 452 3,157 688 1,911 1,206

Note: X p presence.
a
Extinct taxa.

BP. Over time, these assemblages show an increase in the
presence of exotic materials (Lucero, Cortegoso, and Castro
2006); these authors emphasize that only in the assemblage
dated to 7,400 BP are the artifacts all bifacially shaped, which
they interpret as a reflection of increased mobility and a
shorter occupation of the site. These data are consistent with
Perez Winters (2008) interpretation of the lithic assemblage
from Arroyo Malo-3. In short, the materials deposited be-
tween 7,500 and 5,500 BP show an increase in exotic raw
materials, although in a decreased frequency and with a lower
fracture index, which, together with other variables described
in Perez Winter (2008), are interpreted to reflect increased
mobility.
Toward the end of the mid-Holocene, the sequence of oc-
cupations at El Piedron 01 shows a change in the use of local
versus exotic raw materials (Cortegoso 2005a, 2005b). The
earliest levels, dated to 5,500 BP, show a large proportion of
tools and lithic debris made of local materials. In contrast,
the levels above this, dated to 4,500 BP, show a predominance
of exotic materials being worked. According to Cortegoso
(2005a, 2005b), local materials were used for the manufacture
of expedient tools at El Piedron 01 that were discarded at the

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 158
Figure 6. Artiodactyl index (AI) in the west-central Argentina
archaeofaunal record during the mid-Holocene.
site before exhaustion. This was more apparent in the earlier
occupation, in which the exotic raw materials suggest a
broader interaction sphere. The uppermost levels show scant
use of local raw materials, and the exotic materials were trans-
ported into the area as almost-completed tools. The differ-
ences between the lithic raw materials from the upper and
lower levels of the site suggest changes in mobility and in the
settlement pattern over time. Cortegoso (2005a, 2005b) uses
the patterns in the technological system to propose that the
occupation in 5,500 BP was of greater duration than in 4,500
BP.
Mid-Holocene Human Occupation in the
Southern Andes
The archaeological data presented hereradiocarbon dates,
archaeofaunal and archaeobotanical remains, and lithic tech-
nologyare consistent with a changing pattern in time and
across space during the mid-Holocene in the west-central part
of Argentina (table 3). The regional archaeological record
supports a more intensive use of the cordillera than of the
eastern plains (table 3). While the occupation of the plains
tends to be ephemeral between 8,000 and 4,000 BP, those
from cordillera are more extensive in all periods except be-
tween 7,000 and 6,000 BP. Reviewing the data from the cor-
dillera sites from 5,500 BP, the increase in new exotic materials
and in the number of new sites coincides with the time of
the proposed climatic changes, while on the eastern plains
this pattern is observed only in the last 4,000 years (Neme,
Gil, and Duran 2005). Exemplified by the significant drop in
the quantity of lithics and faunal remains from Agua de la
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Current Anthropology Volume 50, Number 1, February 2009
Cueva and Arroyo Malo-3, the archaeological record at the
cordillera shows a decreased deposition of materials during
this time period.
The absence of radiocarbon chronology for mid-Holocene
occupation does not imply that the period is devoid of human
occupation but rather that there are time periods that are not
represented by the radiocarbon record. The time lapse rep-
resented in the hiatuswhich is considered here to be about
1,000 years at the most, between 6,000 and 7,000 14C BPis
relative to a spatial scale. However, in terms of space and
actual localities, the gap often appears to be greater than a
millennium (Garca 2005; Gil, Zarate, and Neme 2005).
On the eastern plains, the gap spans about 3,000 years
(Gil, Zarate, and Neme 2005; Neme, Gil, and Duran 2005).
The hiatus appears to be shorter on the cordillera, which can
be interpreted as a result of different reactions to similar
changes in response to the environmental heterogeneity be-
tween the cordillera and the eastern plains. Neme, Gil, and
Duran (2005) have proposed a greater stability and environ-
mental recovery in the cordillera than on the eastern plains.
Paleoclimactic studies also have signaled a transition begin-
ning at least by 5,500 BP. The first dated samples after the
hiatus were obtained from sites on the cordillera (Arroyo el
Desecho-4, Arroyo Malo-3, and El Piedron 01), suggesting
contemporary regional occupations approximately 5,500 BP.
Although specific stratigraphic analyses are few, inconsis-
tencies have been noted at Arroyo Malo-3 between 5,300 and
3,800 BP (Dieguez and Neme 2004) and at Gruta del Indio
between 7,500 and 3,800 BP (Lagiglia 2001b). Other sites yield
sterile layers at approximately 4,500 BPAgua de la Tinaja
I and Alero 2 Arroyo el Tigre (Barcena 19771978; Barcena,
Roig, and Roig 1985). Sterile sediments before 5,500 BP un-
derlie the occupation of El Piedron; few artifacts were found
Figure 7. Patterns of depositional rate for artiodactyls.

Table 3. Spatial and Temporal Distribution of Assemblages Attributed to the Mid-Holocene
(by Millennia, Based on Radiocarbon Years)
8,0007,000
Cordillera:
Agua de la Cueva X X
El Piedron 01
Alero 2 Arroyo el Tigre
Jaguel III
Agua de la Tinaja I
Arroyo Malo-3 X X
Arroyo el Desecho-4
Gruta El Manzano X
Eastern plains:
Gruta del Indio X
Cueva Delerma X
above this at 4,500 BP. The faunal record shows no change
in diet; camelids were the primary prey, with little variation
in proportion through time. If there were changes in the
availability of resources, this was not reflected by a change in
subsistence or diet, contrary to what one would expect during
times of resource stress (Neme 2007).
Garca (2005, 6667) has proposed an occupational con-
tinuity during these 4,000 years, suggesting an increase in the
occupation between the Late Pleistocene and the first part of
the mid-Holocene. In his analysis of radiocarbon patterns for
the northern region, he rejects the hiatus recorded with cal-
ibrated dates, between 7,250 and 8,000 BP (Garca 2005, fig.
3). His perception of the occupational increase until the be-
ginning of the mid-Holocene is feasible, but the situation
seems to be different after 7,500 BP, as corroborated by the
data from the northern sector of the site (Lucero, Cortegoso,
and Castro 2006). Despite any inference that can be made on
the basis of the scarcity of dated samples, it may be difficult
to reject a hiatus that indeed exists (Garca 2005, fig. 3).
Different authors (Gil, Zarate, and Neme 2005; Duran
2000) have proposed that the mid-Holocene settlement pat-
tern is a result of human response to the extreme aridity of
the period. Similar ideas have been proposed for other parts
of South America (Nunez, Grosjean, and Cartajena 2005; Ar-
aujo et al. 2005) and North America (Meltzer 1999). A sig-
nificant decrease in precipitation can be expected between
7,500 and 5,500 BP (Markgraf 1983). This could result in the
decrease of the availability of water and the general biomass.
The hydrological scarcity could have been more severe on the
eastern plains, with its aquifers and drainage primarily being
dependent on the cordillera. Around 5,500 14C BP, the increase
in the mountainous precipitation could have generated an
increase in highland biomass and a replenishment of the re-
gional hydrology. This suggests that the environmental pro-
ductivity on the plains was markedly different from that of
the cordillera, especially at 5,500 14C BP. Unfortunately, no
paleoecological data exist to facilitate an evaluation of the
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159
7,0006,000 6,0005,000 5,0004,000
X
X X
X
X
X
X
X
effective structure of resources. Research consistently dem-
onstrates that the primary resource procured during the Early
Holocene was the camelids (Garca 2005; Gil, Neme, and
Garca 1998; Dieguez and Neme 2004), which also would have
been affected by shrinking biomass during the mid-Holocene.
Tonni and Politis (1980) report that the demographics of
guanaco populations are affected by rainfall; others have pro-
posed that an increase in median summer temperatures would
affect the reproduction rate of mammals (Barrientos and
Perez 2005, 103).
Perhaps a modern correlate of this is a recent study by
Borreli and Oliva (2001), where they demonstrate variation
in ovine populations in response to years of aridity. In com-
parison with other regions (Broughton 1994; Lyman 1992,
2004), there is scant empirical evidence that allow us to eval-
uate the changes in resources for our study area. Although
there are no direct analogues, examples of increased aridity
in neighboring areas have produced strong environmental
imbalances by which human populations have opted to em-
ploy diverse survival strategies, including migration (Viglizzo
and Frank 2006). In a situation where stability is compro-
mised, different responses are expected from human popu-
lations. One would expect a decrease in demographic density,
changes in mobility, changes in technology, and variations in
diet breadth (Halstead and OShea 1989). Available data seem
to refute this last option and instead suggest that change in
mobility is a more feasible response, with the occupation of
a site or an area being for a shorter period of time.
For an alternate explanation to environmental change ac-
counting for the diminished archaeological record during the
mid-Holocene, one might argue that a reduction in resources
resulted from overexploitation. However, given that the ar-
chaeological record from the Terminal Pleistocene to the Early
Holocene does not reflect an increase in population, this ex-
planation cannot be considered a viable alternative.
 160
Final Considerations
Until the 1990s, archaeological research of the mid-Holocene
had proposed a continuous occupation of hunters and gath-
erers. This was challenged by research in the north Chilean
desert that proposed a period of archaeological silence as-
sociated with extreme aridity (Nunez et al. 1996; Nunez, Gros-
jean, and Cartajena 2005). A similar situation was observed
in North America that was also associated with a period of
marked aridity. The explanation of this pattern is a topic that
remains under discussion in both hemispheres. In fact, a series
of investigations similar to this one suggests that the explo-
ration of the mid-Holocene problem should be done at a
comparative interhemispheric level. To fully understand the
mid-Holocene problem, it seems appropriate to analyze the
average records known for the different chronological periods.
A cultural hiatus does not necessarily indicate abandon-
ment at a macroregional level, although the possibility has
been proposed and supported by bioanthropological infor-
mation for neighboring areas (Barrientos and Perez 2005).
The radiocarbon hiatus, the low density of sites, and the scant
scatters of archaeological materials during the mid-Holocene
are consistent with very low population levels and/or high
mobility of the populationswhich at some times would im-
ply temporary abandonment of an area to be reoccupied at
a later time. The most plausible explanation is that the ar-
chaeological record reflects a strategy applied under extremely
arid conditions that ended, at least in the cordillera area, about
5,500 years ago with the beginning of a neoglacial advance
and increased winter precipitation.
It has been more than 60 years since an environmental
change during the mid-Holocene was defined in the Northern
Hemisphere, primarily for the Great Basin in western North
America (Antev 1948). It has only been during the past decade
that paleoclimatic and archaeological research has begun to
describe a similar pattern in South America (Grimm et al.
2001; Araujo et al. 2005; Grosjean et al. 2003; Sandweiss,
Maasch, and Anderson 1999; Zarate, Neme, and Gil 2005).
Although in the Northern HemisphereAntevs initial hypoth-
esis has been rejected (see Kelly 1997), the problem of the
mid-Holocene archaeological record and its relation to the
environmental changes continues to be researched (Grayson
1993, 2002; Meltzer 1999; Wolverton 2005; McGuire and Hil-
debrandt 2005, among others).
The complex responses in which an ecosystem could have
developed in the face of the climatic change of the mid-
Holocene are only in the initial stages of research. If this
analysis reveals meaningful patterns in the structure of ar-
chaeological data for the southern Andes, it should be un-
derstood to be tentative rather than conclusive. Our primary
goal is to provide a hypothetical framework that defines spe-
cific areas, field research, and laboratory methodology di-
rected toward the verification or refutation of these ideas.
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Current Anthropology Volume 50, Number 1, February 2009
Acknowledgments
This research is part of the CONICET PIP 5819 and Agencia
Nacional de Promocion Cientfica y Tecnologica (IM36 04-
12750, PICT 03-04-14695 and 2006-00046) projects. We are
grateful to the Arizona Accelerator Mass Spectrometry Lab-
oratory for its help with the radiocarbon dates discussed in
this analysis as well as to the reviewers of previous manuscripts
whose comments have clarified our ideas and improved our
presentation of the data.
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