Strain Ellipsoid

Let us refer again to the sphere inscribed within our cube that undergoes homogeneous strain. Giving this
sphere axes 1, 2 and 3, we find that these remain orthogonal through the homogeneous deformation and can
be used to describe the long, medium, and short dimensions of the resulting ellipsoid. ( Figure 1 , Several basic
types of homogeneous strain imposed on a cube of ideally uniform composition.

Figure 1

In each case, the inscribed circle and ellipse represent cross sections through the strain ellipsoid before and
after deformation. The types of strain shown are: (a) uniform extension; (b) uniform flattening; and (c) plane
strain. Note that no strain occurs in the intermediate direction.)

Together, these are called the principal strain axes of the strain ellipsoid. Just as stress can be said to exist at
every point within a body, so is there a corresponding strain ellipsoid for these points, once deformation has
taken place. Thus, comparison between the "before" and "after" shape and axes of the sphere inscribed within
our cube provides us with a measure of the amount and type of strain.

It is standard practice for geologists to derive the principal axes of stress by superimposing them on the strain
ellipsoid. ( Figure 2 , Note that this superposition assumes homogeneous strain, i.e., maximum shortening
occurs in the direction of maximum principal stress, and maximum extension in the direction of minimum
principal stress).
 Figure 2

This is an optimistic simplification (as we have seen, the principal axes of stress and strain coincide only under
conditions of homogeneity), but can be very useful. It has, for example, offered considerable insight into basic
mechanisms and patterns of deformation-particularly faulting and fracturing-on many scales. This will become
increasingly clear in the following two sections on folding and faulting.

Because of their frequent use of structural cross sections, geologists have also found it advantageous to make
use of a strain ellipse-essentially a cross section through the strain ellipsoid along the 1 3 plane (i.e., the one
that involves 1 and 3). The justification for this is, again, dependent on the assumption of homogeneous
strain. Because of the regional nature of most tectonism, and the layered nature of lithologic sequences, many
geologic examples of strain can be considered to approximate plane strain (see part c of Figure 1 ). In this type
of deformation, the intermediate axis remains the diameter of the "original" sphere (the 2 axis-- parallel to 2--
in part c of Figure 1 ), while shortening and stretching occur along the other two axes.

Thus, two dimensions are sufficient to describe the strain at a particular point. If we are ready to accept the
assumption of homogeneous strain, the strain ellipse becomes one of our principal indicators for the summation-
of-local-strains method. ( Figure 3 Hypothetical cross section and diagram to illustrate domains of pure and
simple shear in a series of folds that show progressively greater total strain.

Figure 3
The shape of the strain ellipse can be the same for either type of shear and cannot be used to derive detailed
strain history.)

As shown by Figure 4 , (Example of how the strain ellipse here constructed from deformed oolites can be
used as a descriptive guide to deformation intensity and orientation.

Some natural materials, such as ooids, spherulites, pebbles, certain fossils, and reduction spots in shales, can be
used as qualitative ellipses or, in some cases, ellipsoids. However, because volume changes frequently occur
during deformation (especially in carbonates) any quantitative determinations of strain based on such materials
must be used with caution.

In principle, any object whose initial shape is known can act as a strain indicator. Such an indicator can be
important to the subsurface explorationist, since it may be the only direct evidence available for how much
strain has affected the fabric-and thus porosity and permeability-of a lithologic section. In most cases, the
degree of tectonic influence on grain texture is fairly apparent from petrographic study. Strain indicators are
primarily useful where this may not be clear and where special circumstances warrant mathematical
determinations of strain. Specific techniques for measuring finite strain from oolites and spherulites are given
by Ramsay (1967) and Ramsay and Huber (1985).

Nearly all deformation in nature is in-homogeneous. Not only do originally planar surfaces become complexly
curved, but volume changes that involve both loss and addition of material frequently take place. Because of
their pronounced heterogeneity in composition, thickness, and thus strength, rocks do not behave passively
during deformation, but adjust in complex ways. Some units become strain-hardened and are able to withstand
and transfer greater and greater amounts of stress as deformation progresses; other lithologies, in contrast, are
fated to absorb stress by flowage, recrystallization, and the development of secondary fabrics such as cleavage.

Again, despite the dominance of inhomogeneity in nature, both local and regional deformational history can be
reconstructed by assuming near-homogeneous strain domains. On a large scale, this often establishes the
regional nature of stress and strain. Geologists often estimate a regional strain ellipse based on the orientation of
major structural trends. This is called the mean strain ellipse and is often useful in explaining such trends in
terms of plate interactions.

Types of Strain
Much of the terminology derived for understanding stress has also been applied to strain. Our hypothetical cube is said to have
suffered homogeneous strain (also called uniform strain) when the strain is the same at all points within it. This means that originally
straight lines remain straight after deformation (part a of Figure 1 ).
 Figure 1

Thus, for example, a cube becomes a rhombohedron, while a sphere inscribed within it becomes an ellipsoid.

This should also help make clear the basic concept of inhomogeneous strain (part b of Figure 1 ), by far the most common in naturally
deformed rock. This type of strain involves some amount of rotation in the position of particles, which means that originally straight
lines become warped and detailed analysis becomes impracticable. It is, therefore, almost always useful to find some way in which
natural deformation can be approximated as homogeneous. The most common approach is to consider geologic structures as the
summation of many localized homogeneous strain fields. This method has proved especially helpful in the explanation of secondary
rock fabrics, such as mineral alignment and fracturing.

Such fabrics often provide invaluable clues to both small- and large-scale structural patterns. Natural fracturing, of course, is of
particular importance to petroleum geology, and knowledge of the stress-strain relationship associated with it can be very useful. As
we will see, fracture patterns very often have a direct causal relation to major structures, such as faults and folds. The summation-of-
local-strains method, therefore, will usually reveal this and permit the geologist to predict patterns in adjacent, undrilled areas. Several
examples of this are given later on, when we look at fracturing in detail.

There are a number of basic ways in which deformation by homogeneous strain at constant volume occurs. Those that involve simple
flattening and stretching are shown in Figure 2 .
 Figure 2

(Several basic types of homogeneous strain imposed on a cube of ideally uniform composition. In each case, the inscribed circle and
ellipse represent cross sections through the strain ellipsoid before and after deformation. The types of strain shown are: a. uniform
extension; b. uniform flattening; and c. plane strain. Note that no strain occurs in the intermediate direction.)

To understand how geologists treat natural deformation, however, it is also necessary that we look at the two basic types of shear
strain. ( Figure 3 , Hypothetical cross section and diagram to illustrate domains of pure and simple shear in a series of folds that show
progressively greater total strain.
 Figure 3

The shape of the strain ellipse can be the same for either type of shear and cannot be used to derive detailed strain history.) Both
types help us explain a great many large- and small-scale features seen in rocks.

Pure shear is a form of strain in which no rotation of the strain axes takes place. It is often referred to as an irrotational deformation."
It results from uniform extension in one direction and contraction perpendicular to it ( Figure 4 , Particle paths in simple and pure
shear. Note rotation involved in pure shear). Strain that approximates pure shear is seen in many folds.
 Figure 4

In simple shear, all particles within a body are displaced in one direction. This is our cube pressed into a rhombohedron again; this
time, however, we need to take note of the rotation in the strain ellipsoid. Simple shear can be visualized by imagining the result of
placing our cube (with its inscribed sphere) between the two surfaces of an active fault. The shearing motion created by these two
surfaces stretches and flattens the sphere into a strain ellipsoid whose long axis is progressively rotated until it is nearly parallel to the
fault plane itself. Displacement within such a body takes place by slippage along closely spaced planes ( Figure 4 ).

In actual materials, this can be accomplished in a number of ways, for example, by slippage between grains or crystals, or by actual
flow at elevated temperatures and pressures. As we shall see, this style of deformation has widespread application to geologic
structure.