Ed255 Week 6 CURRICULUM PROCESS: MODELS OF CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT

Curriculum development has been looked at in two ways. These are basically process and
product. As the terms imply process is concerned with the methods and means how whereas
the product looks at the outcomes, the end product what. There are two approaches that have
been developed: normative and descriptive.

The first approaches are called normative Objectives (Tyler 1949) and the rational (Taba 1962
and Wheeler 1967) because they provide a sequence of steps. These have technical interests of
control. The procedural approach (Stenhouse 1975, Walker 1972, Skilbeck 1976, Olivia 1976)
which is discussed later in the lecture falls into the second category of descriptive approaches
because it an interactive model.

Differentiation between Process and Model:

Process:
Some synonyms include. Procedure, development, method, progression, practice, course of
action. A process is very simply the steps from the beginning of something to its end. We have
said that Curriculum Development is a process because it has a beginning and it is continuously
changing or being developed.

Model:
Some synonyms: representation or reproduction.
In education when we talk about models we are talking about a diagrammatic representation of
something. (See Figure 5.2 A simple Model of Curriculum Development course book).

In the curriculum development process, the term model is used to represent

the different elements or stages and
how they relate to one another.
Models are usually abstract pr conceptual. This means that they exist in peoples minds. They
are very useful in the task of theory building. (Sharma: 2003: 5.6)

A continuum of Curriculum Development Models:

Objectives/ Rational Models Cyclical/ Rational Models Dynamic/ Interaction Models

Tyler Wheeler Walker

Taba Nicholls Skilbeck
(Print: 1993, In Sharma: 2003: 5.8)

QUESTION:
Can you distinguish between aims, goals and objectives? (Refer to pages 5.8 5.11 of course
book)
 TABLE 1 MODELS of Curriculum Development:
Go through READING 13, 14 & 15 to help you complete the table!

FEATURES Objectives/ Rational Cyclical/ Rational Dynamic/

Model Models Interaction Models
Theorists Tyler Wheeler Walker
associated with Taba Nicholls Skilbeck
theory

Models of C. Dev
(Sketch models here
from reading)

Strengths of Model
Weaknesses of
Model

Stages in
Curriculum
Development

Technical Approaches:

1) The Objectives Model approach.

The Objectives approach is so named because the very first step in this approach is the defining
of objectives of the course/program/lesson. (Tyler 1949) In this approach the school is viewed as
a factory. Tyler states three important sources that must be looked at in order to contextualise
and make curriculum development more relevant. These are:
1) The learners and their backgrounds
2) Present and future society, and
3) Knowledge of the major disciplines, especially Philosophy, Psychology and Sociology.
He said that if these were considered that good citizens could be determined. The more specific
the specification of objectives, the easier it would be to determine the sorts of activities that
students could be engaged in. Tylers approach is seen as the linear model as well as the ends-
means model.

ENDS MEANS

Philosophy, Aims, Goals and Objectives Curriculum Content and Activities

The Objectives Model:

Stating objectives

Selecting learning experiences

Organizing learning experiences

Evaluation

2) The Rational Model Approach

A second approach that is categorized as technical is the Rational Model. The two theorists that
we will discuss are Taba (1962) and Wheeler (1967). In this approach, the process begins with
the specification of objectives but a school is not seen as a factory. Curriculum Development is
instead seen as a rational and orderly process. Here the learning experiences are separated from
the content and evaluation. Wheelers model, which is cyclic, does not transform it from being
linear and unidirectional. In this approach we are specifying aims and objectives, selecting
learning experiences, selecting content, organizing learning experiences and evaluating leaning
outcomes. (Wheeler 1967)

Tabas Inverted Model 8 steps:

1. Diagnosing needs
2. Formulating specific objectives: Concepts to be learnt
Attitudes to be learnt
Ways of thinking to be reinforced
Habits and skills to be mastered
3. Select content
What level can students of this age master?
What topics do they find stimulating?
What topics will contribute to the achievement of the
specific objectives selected?
4. Organizing content
5. & 6 Selecting and Organizing content
7. Evaluating
8. Checking for balance and sequence
The Rational Approach after Taba 1962 -
1. diagnosing leaner needs
2. Specifying objectives
3. Selecting content
4. Organizing content
5. Selecting learning experiences
6. Organizing experiences
7. Evaluating

Table 2 - Strengths and Weaknesses of the Objectives Model:

STRENGTHS WEAKNESSES
1 provides an easy to follow step-by-step 1 sees curriculum development as a fixed,
guide to curriculum planning and linear process
development 2 does specify where the objectives come from
3 division of labor at the various points/steps
are fixed so curriculum actors are unaware of
what others do
4 cannot account for the many/complex
outcomes of learning
5 limits what students can learn
2 begins with a set of clear objectives 6 treats ends and means separately
that teachers must plan tasks and work 7 doesnt indicate who decides what is
towards achieving the specified worthwhile learning
outcomes 8 doesnt consider that not all learning
outcomes can be measured
9 fails to consider the changing environment
10 fails to recognize that the future cannot be
predicted accurately with precision.
(note: use this table as a guide to fill in the details in Table 1)

The Procedural Approach:

Interaction / Dynamic Models take into consideration the background and experience of
students & teachers. The curriculum elements are seen as flexible, interactive and modifiable (In
Sharma 2003:5.18). Advocated by Walker (1972), Skilbeck 1976, Stenhouse 1975), it sees the
process of curriculum development as dynamic in nature. Changes can be initiated from any
point in the process unlike the objectives model where the beginning is always the setting of
objectives.

Walker (1972) felt that the objectives or rational models were unsuccessful and devised a model,
which has three phases. These phases are
1. Platform includes ideas, preferences, points of view, beliefs and values about the
curriculum (Print: 1993:113).
2. Deliberations here interaction between stakeholders begin and clarification of views
and ides in order to reach a consensus of a shared vision.
3. Design here, curriculum developers actually make decisions, which are based on
deliberations (above). These decisions affect curriculum documents and materials
production.
Skilbeck (1976) stated that:
A situational analysis of needs is vital for effective curriculum change.
He also said:
Education should be a meaningful learning experience
Teachers are very important
Curriculum change can occur at any point in the process & can proceed in any direction
The source of objectives should be clear to teachers and curriculum developers
(See Reading 13 for more details)

Stenhouse (1975) developed his model as a direct reaction to the limitations of the objectives
model. He focuses on teaching and learning & developing curriculum through practice rather
than policy change. This is also known as Action Research Approach.

This process model identifies the teacher as the person most qualified to make the change. It is
based on two core features teacher research (also known as action research) and reflective
practice (the teacher reflects on his/ her practice and makes improvisations along the way).
(Reading 16 provides more details on this).

A FLEXIBLE APPROACH
There is a general consensus that no one-curriculum development model is better than another
rather one model may better suit a specific situation. Vudiniabola (1999) indicates that it seems
that PICs are taking a flexible approach to curriculum development rather than sticking to one
curriculum development model only. This approach, it has been argued is a better suited to the PI
context.

The flexible model simply refers to another approach that is derived from other curriculum
models. For example, teachers can modify the specified curriculum elements all the time as the
objectives are taken as a guideline. The same can be said for many texts such as Target or Link
(Language texts) which teachers select activities from rather than getting students to do all
exercises from the 1st to the last page. It is seen as a resource book instead with the teacher having
the discretion of how much or how little to use depending on the caliber of the class in question.

NOTE: you are expected to read through the unit thoroughly and complete the prescribed
readings. Understanding this unit is vital in understanding curriculum development.