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    FIELD AND WAVE ELECTROMAGNETICS DAVID K. CHENG SYRACUSE UNIVERSITY | i P| FIELD AND WAVE ELECTROMAGNETICS DAVID K. CHENG ‘SYRACUSE UNIVERSITY A ADDISON-WESLEY PUBLISHING COMPANY + Reading, Massachusetts rk, California, London’ ‘team enlace Sydney | i z ‘This book i in the APDISON;WESLEY SERIES IN ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING SPONSORING EDITOR: Tom Robbins PRODUCTION EDITOR: Marilee Sorotskin TEXT DESIGNER: Melinda Grbsser ILLUSTRATOR: Dick Morton PRODUCTION MANAGER: Herbert Nolan ‘The text ofthis book was composed in Times Roman by Syntax International Library of Congress Cataloging in Pobliction Data (Cheng, David K. (David Keun date~ Field and wave eletromigoetcn. Bibliography: p. 1. Electromagnetism, 2. Field thoy Physics) LT Qcr60.ce8 sora 5 seiz9 : ISBN 0201-01239.1 ‘AACR? ; Copstiaht © 1983 by Addison-Wesley Pelshing Company, ne Alig reser No part of his publication may be pprouee, sored in a trical system, of rae raed i Ay form erty any mans, exon meter meng ae ea ts Tihout he prior writen perma afte pusher, Fined inte Uae Sehenor rs Sioutaneouly in Canad : Plot SEER sn Ake 246] x | 34 1 Treztectromagnetic Mode! 24 Introduction ‘The electromagnetic model SI units and universal constants Review questions Introduction ‘Vector addition and subtraction Products of vectors 2-3.1 Scalar or dot product 243.2 Vector or cross product 2-33. Product of three vectors Orthogonal coordinate systems 2-4.1 Cartesian coordinates 2-42 Cylindrical coordinates 2-4.3 Spherical coordinates Gradient of a scalar field Divergence of a vector field Divergence theorein Curl of a vector field Stokes’s theorem, ‘Two nul identities 2-101 Identity 1 2-101 Identity 11 Helmholtz’s theorem Review questions Problems 10 u B B 1s 16 18 a 4 31 45 33 35 55 56 37 ci) o static Electric Field : x CONTENTS i 3-1 Introduction 3-2. Fundamental postulates of electrostatics in free space 3-3. Coulomb's law 3.2.1. Electric figld due w a system of discrete charges 3-32. Electric feld due to a continuous distribution of charge 3-4 Gauss's law and applications 3-5. Electric potential 3-51 Electric potential due to a charge distribution 3-6 Condugtors in static electric field 347 Dielectrics in static electri field 3-7.1__ Equivalent charge distributions of polarized dielectries 3-8 Electric flux density and dielectric constant 3-811 Dielectric strength 3-9 Boundary conditions for electrostatic fields 3-10 Capacitance and gapacitors 3210.1 Series and parallel connections of capacitors 3-1 Electrostatic energy ang forces 3-111 Electrostatic energy in terms of field quantities 3-112 Electrostatic forces Review.questions Problems 4-1 Introduction i "4-2. Poisson's and Laplace's equations }-3 Uniqueness of elegtrostatic solutions i 4 Method of images = A 44.1 Point charge and conducting planes 4-42 Line charge and parallel «° conducting cylindgr = 4-4.3 Point charge and conducting sphere 65 Cy) B 15 8 2 84 9 9s 96 99 108 10s 109 44 47 120 123 126 128 133 133 139 141 142 148 147 66 o 78 8 2 an 95 96 99 104 10s 109 114 7 120 123 126 128 133 133 . 139 14h 142 144 147 4-5 Boundary-value problems in Cartesian coordinates 4-6 Boundary-value problems in cylindrical coordinates 4-7 Boundary-value problems in spherical coordinates Review questions Problems 5-1. Introduction 5-2 Current density and Ohm's law 5-3 Electromotive force and Kirebhof’s voltage law 5-4 Equation of continuity and Kirchhof’s current law 5-5 Power dissipation and Joule’s law 5-6 Boundary conditions for current density 5-7. Resistance calculations Review questions Problems © static magnetic Fictds 6-1 Introduction 6-2 Fundamental postulates of magnetostatics in free space ‘Vector magnetic potential Biot-Savart's law and applications The magnetic dipole : 6-5.1 Scalar magnetic potential 6-6 * Magnetization ancl equivalent current densities 6-7 Magnetic field intensity and relative permeability 6-8 Magnetic circuits 6-9 Behavior of magnetic materials 6-10 Boundary conditions for magnetostatic fields 6-11 Induetances and Inductors 6-12 Magnetic energy 6-121 Magnetic energy in terms of field quantities 6 ee 6 conTeWTs xi 150 158 168 167 169 i 173 17 180 182 183 187 19 192 196 197 202 204 208 212 23 217 220 225 230 233 241 244 255 257 259 268 269 2 24 281 283, 286 287 288 290 291 292 293 294 296 298 301 302 306 307 8-21 Transverse electromagnetic waves t 8-2.2 Polarization of plane waves Plane waves in conducting media i 8-31 Low-loss dielectire 1 8-3.2 Good conductor 8-3.3 Group velocity Flow of electromagnetic power and the Poynting vector | 8-4.1 Instantaneous and average power densities “Normal incidence at a plane conducting boundary ‘Oblique incidence at a plane conducting boundary 8-61 Perpendicular polarization 8-62 Parallel polarization, Normal incidence at a plane dielectric boundary Normal incidence at multiple dielectric interfaces 8-8.1 Wave impedance of total field 8-8.2 Impedance transformation with__ multiple dielectrics 8-9 Oblique incidence at a plane dielectric boundary 89.1 Total reflection 8-9.2 Perpendicular polarization 8-9.3 Parallel polarization, Review questions Problems 9 Theory and Applications of Transmission Lines 9-1 Introduction 9-2 Transverse electromagnetic wave along a parallel-plate transmission line 9-2.1 Lossy parallel-plate transmission lines 9-3. General transmission-line equations 9-3. Wave characteristics on an infinite ‘transmission line 9-32 Transmission-line parameters 9-33 Attenuation constant from power relations 9-4 Wave characteristics on finite transmission lines 9-4.1 Transmission lines as circuit elements 9-42 Lines with resistive termination CONTENTS — xiii 32 314 317 318 319 322 370 37 315 379 381 385 388 390 395 400 xiv CONTENTS 9-43_Lines with abjtdry termination 404 41 an 9-44 Transmission-lne circuits |! 407 9-5. The Smith chart an oad 95.1, Smith-chart calculations for lossy lines 420 u 9-6 Transmission-ine impedance matching 42 ‘ “ 9-6. Impedance mateng by quarter, wave transformer! 423 u 9-62. Single-stub matching 426 un 9-63 Double-stub matching 41 Review questions | 435 u Problems : 437 : uu 10 Waveguides and Cavity Resonators ‘ : 0-1 Introduction 443 10-2 General wave behaviors along uniform " Buiding structures a4 10-2.1 Transverse electromagnetic waves 487 10-2.2 Transverse magietic waves 443 10-2.3 Transverse glectric waves 452 1 10-3 Parallel-plate wavepiide : : 456 10-3.1 TM waves betwiéen parallel plates 457 10-3.2 TE waves between parallel plates 461 10-3. Attenuation in beralie-pate waveguides 463 10-4 Rectangular waveguides 467 10-4.1 TM waves jn rectangular waveguides 467 10-4.2 TE waves in rectangular waveguides an - 10-43 Attenuog in rectangular waveguides 415 10-5. Dielectric waveguides 478 10-5.1 TM waves along detect stb a0 o 10-5.2 TE waves along a dielectric slab 483 << 7 10-6 Cavity resonators, 5 486 “10-61 TMynp modes 5 s 487 2 TE modes 488 10-6.3 Quality factor Si cavity resonator 490 Review questions : 493 Problems i 495 an 420 “422 43 426 al 435 437 447 448 452 456 437 461 463 461 467 an 475 48 419 483 “7 8 490 493 495 11-1 Introduction 11-2 Radiation fields of elemental dipoles 11-21 The elemental electric dipole 11-2.2 The elemental magnetic dipole Anteana paticfff€ and artenna parameters’ Ni-4 This tinear antennas 11-41 The halt-wave aipole M1-5 Antenna arrays * 115.1 Two-element arrays 118.2 General uniform linear arrays 11-6 Receiving antennas 11~6.1 Internal impedance and directional pattern 11-6.2 Effective area 11-7 Some other antenna types 11-71 Traveling-wave antenna ——~— 41-72. Yagi-Uda antenna 11-73 Broadband antennas 1-8 Aperture Radiators References Review questions Problems Appendix A Symbols and Units A-1 Fundamental SI (rationalized MKSA) units A-2 Derived quantities A-3- Multiples and submultiples of units Appendix B Some Useful Material Constants B-1 Constants of free space B-2 Physical constants.of electron and proton 00 02 502 505 50? 515 517 518 521 327 $52 532 534 555 555 . Answers to Sstected Problems ; i Index CONTENTS Relative permittivities Gite conan) Conductivities Relative permeabilities Back Endpapers Left. Gradient, divergence, cprl, and Laplacian operations Right: Cylindrical coordinates Spherical coordinates 556 556 357 559 560 14 The many books on introductory electromagnetics can be roughly divided into two main groups. The first group takes the traditional development: starting with the experimental laws, generalizing them in steps, and finally synthesizing them in the form of Maxwells equations. This is an inductive approach. The second group takes the axiomatic development: starting with Maxwell's equations, identifying each with the appropriate experimental law, and specializing the general equations to static and time-varying situations for analysis. Ths i a deductive approach. A few books begin with a treatment of the special theory Pvelativity and develop all of electro. magnetic theory from Coulomb's law of force; but this approach requires the cussion and understanding of the special theory of relativity first and ‘best suited for a course at an advanced level Proponents of the traditional development argue that itis the way electromag netic theory was unraveled historically (from special experimental laws to Maxwell's equations), and that itis easier for the students to follow than the other methods 1 feel, however, that the way a body of knowledge was unraveled is not necessarily the best way to teach the sybject to students. The topics tend to be fragmented and cannot take full advantage ofthe conciseness of vector calculus, Students are puzzled at, and often form a mental block to, the subsequent introduction of gradient, d- vergence, and cur operations, Asa process for formulating in ceectromagnetic model, this approach lacks cohesiveness and elegance The axiomatic development usually begins with the set of four Maxwell's equa tions, either in differential or in integral form, as fundamental postulates. These are ‘equations of considerable complexity and are dificult to master. They are likely 10 cause consternation and resistance in students who are hit with all of them at the beginning of a book. Alert students will wonder about the meaning of the feld vectors and about the necessity and sufficiency of these general equations. At the initial stage students tend to be confused about the concepts ofthe electromagnetic model, and they are not yet comfortable with the associated mathematical manip- ulations. In any case, the general Maxwel’s equations are soon simplified to apply to static fields, which allow the consideration of electrostatic fields and magneto- static fields separately. Why then should the entire set of four Maxwell's equations be introduced at the outset?" perhaps vi PREFAC™ ‘ : - Traay be argued that Coulomb's law, though based on experimental evidence, Shargegre# Postlate’ Consider the two stiphlations of Coulomb's ans one tre aay eles re very small compared with their distance of sepuraton aeaits Feo between the charged bodies is inversely proportional to ine sree te st Gftance. The question arises regarding the fst stipulation: How stall wots ‘tacaed bodies be in ordar to be considered “very small” compared with hag dn asces aeguctice the:charged bodies cannot be of vans’ ag sizes (ea! poten Sparees). and theres dificulty in determing the"true” distance between the bocing of fnite dimensions. Far given body sizes the relative accuracy in dstence mesccne, rec eater when the separation is largér. Hoviever, practical consderatng. (weakness of force, existence of extraneous charged bodiss cle) seine noes Sistanee of separation in the laboratory, and experimental inaccuracies cannon og Snikely avoided. This lends to a more important question concerning the mere Sauare relation ofthe second stipulation, Even ithe charged bodies were of vanishing pomcgperimental measurements could not be of an infinite accuracy no meee accuracy (See Section 3-2), se tack builds the electromagnetic mode] using ain axiomatic approach in B7e st for static elecric folds (Chapter 3), them for siatie magnetic telee (Chapter Sh 2nd finally for time,varying fields leading to Maxwell's equations (Chapter 7). Ire nathematical basis foreach step is Helmholtz's theorem which tance tat Onstant if both its divergence and model in pec eeeited evprywhere. Thus, for the development of the sloteetanc Fer sru tee space iis boy necessary to defen single vector (namely the eens FEM tensity B) by specifying its divergenée and its curl as postulate il ate Raations in electrostatics for free space, including Coulamb’s law end Gagne Law, can be derivéd.ftom th¢ wo rather simple postulates. Relations ip weaned raiatsetn be developed through the concept of equivalent charge dictthucoee ot polarized dielectrics. : aa Similarly, forthe mggnétostatic model in. fre space it is necessary to define Calta single magnetic fuxidensty vector B by specifying its divereecce ance nn Ralana eestlatest all othgt formulas can be derived from these ts posts Relations in material media éan be developed thyough the concept of eecreclae Field rene aes OF cours! the validity of the postulates lies in thelr soil te yield results that pnform with experimental evidence. ro gme-varyie fields, the cleric and!imagngtic fel intensities are coupled. he GutlE postulate forthe electrostatic model mbt be modified to conten no Faraday's law, In addition, the curl B postulate fgr the magnetostatic model must also be modified inorder obs consisent withthe uation stecmne ee i ental evidence, b's law: that the bration, and that de square of their ¥ small must the 24 with their dis. izes (ideal point tween two bodies istance measure. 4 considerations ssriet the usable racies cannot be sing the inverse- vere of vanishing aracy no matter ble for Coulomb square (not the 2TH uestion ok iy ae tic approach in fields (Chapter ns (Chapter 7), ch states that a divergence and xe electrostatic ly, the electric ates, All other ¥ and Gauss's ons in material listributions of ‘sary to define reenpand its wo f cutates Of alent hei? wwulty t0 S are coupled. conform with i¢ model must sity. We have, PREFACE vil then, the-four Maxwell's equations that constitute the electromagnetic model, 1 believe that this gradual development of the electromagnetic model based on Helmholtz’s theorem is novel, systematic, and more easily accepted by students. In the presentation of the material, I strive for lucidity and unity, and for smooth and logical flow of ideas. Many worked-out examples (a total of 135 in the book) are included to emphasize fundamental concepts and to illustraie methods for solving typical problems. Review questions appear at the end of each chapter 10 {est the students’ retention and videsstanding of the essertial material in the chapter. ‘The problems in each chapter are designed! reinforce sswlents’ comprehension of the interrelationships between the different quantities in the formulas, and to extend their abilitysof applying the formulas to solve practical problems. I do not believe in simple-minded drill-ype problems that accomplish little more than an exercise on a calculator, ‘The subjects covered, besides the fundamentals of electromagnetic fields, include theory and applications of transmission lines, waveguides and resonators, and fantennas and radiating systems. The fundamental concepts and the governing theory of electromagnetism do not change with the introduction of new clectromas- netic devices. Ample reasons and incentives for learning the fundamental principles of electromagnetics are given in Section 1-1. | hope that the contents of this booi, strengthened by the novel approach, will provide students with a secure and suf. ficient background for understanding and analyzing basic electromagneic phe- nomena as well as prepare them for more advanced subjects in electromagnetic theory. There is enough material in this book for a two-semester sequence of courses. Chapters I through 7 contain the material on fields, and Chapters 8 through 11 on waves and applications. In schools where there is only a one-semester course on electromagnetics, Chapters 1 through 7, plus the first four sections of Chapter 8 would provide a good foundation on fields and an introduction to waves :n un- bounded media. The remaining material could serve as a useful reference book on applications or as a textbook for a follow-up elective course. If one is pressed for time, some material, such as Example 2-2 in Section 2-2, Subsection 3-112 on electrostatic forces, Subsection 6~5.1 on scalar magnetic potential, Section 6-8 fon magnetic circuits, and Subsections 613.1 and 6=13.2 on maynetic forees and torques, may be omitted. Schools on a quarter system could adjust the material to be covered in accordance with the total number of hours assigned to the subject of electromagnetics ‘The book in its manuscript form was class-tested several times in my classes on clectromagnetics at Syracuse University. I would like to thank all of the students in those classes who gave me feedback on the covered material. { would aiso tike to thank all the reviewers of the manuscript who offered encouragement and valuable suggestions. Special thanks are due Mr. Chang-hong Liang and Mr. Bai-lin Ma for their help in providing solutions to some of the problems. Syracuse, New York D.K.C. January 1983 ce INTRODUCTION Stated in a simple fashion, electromagnetics isthe study ofthe effects of electric charges, at rest and in miotion. From elementary physics we know there are two kinds of charges: positive and negative, Both positive and negative charges are sources of an lectric field, Moving charges produce a current, which gives rise to a magnet fel, Here we tentatively speak of electri fleld and magnetic field in a general wi efinitive meaings wll be attached to these terms later. A feld isa spatial distribution of a quantity, which may or may not be.a fuinetion of time. A time-varying electric field is accompanied by a magnetic field, and vce versa. In other words, time-varying leetric and megnetic fields are coupled, resulting in an electromagnet field. Under certain conditfons, time-dependent electromagnetic fields produce waves that radiate fom the souice. The concept of fields and waves is essential in the explanation of action at a distance. In this book, Field arid Wate Electromagnetics, we stay the Principles sind applications of the laws of electromagnetism that govern electro. ‘magnetic phenomena, Eleciromagnetits is of fundamental iniportinee to physicists and electrical engineers, Eléctromagnetic theory is indispensable in the understanding of the principle of atom smashers, cathode-ray ostilloscopes, radar, satellite communication, television reception, remote sensing, radio astronomy, microwave devices, optical fiber communication, instrument-landing systems, electromechanical energy con- version, and s@ on. Circuit concepts represent a restricted version, a special case, of electromagnetic coticepts. As we shall see in Chapigt 7, when the source frequency is very low so that thé dimensions of a conducting nétwork are much smaller than the wavelengib, We have a quasi-static situatior, which simplifies an electromagnetic problem ta drcll problem. However, we hasten {0 add that circuit theory is ill a highly developed, sophisticated discipline. It appliés to a different class of electrical engineering probletns, and itis certainly important in its own right. ‘Two situitions illustrate the inadequacy @f circult-theory concepts and the need of electromagnetic-ield concepts. Figure J-I depicts a monopole antenna ofthe type we sce on a jwilkie-talkie, Ol transmit, the source at the buse feeds the antenna with ‘Amessage-carrying current ai an appropriate cartier frequency. From a circuit-theory 1 2 THE ELECTROMAGNETIC MODEL /1 Incident condudting \ wal Fig. 1-1 Amonopoleantenna, * Fig. 1-2 An electromagnetic problem, Point of view, the source feeds into an open circuit because ‘he Upper tip of the antenna nay Gonnected to anything physically; hence no eurrent would flow and nothing ould happen. This viewpoint, of course, cannot explain why communication ean fe SSablished between walkie-talkies ata distance. Electromagnetic concepls moxt be used, We shall seein Chapter 11 that when the length ofthe antenna isan apprecisble part of the carrier wavelength a nonuniform curtent will ow along the open arded antenna, This current radiate a time-varying electromagnetic Fld in space, which an induce current in another antenna ata distance In Fig. 1-2 we show a situation where an electromagnetic wave is incident from fd yon large conducting wall containing a small hoe aperture) Electromagnexie felds wil exist om the right side of the wal at points, such as Pin the figure, thet ne Polunecessarily directly behind the aperture. Circuit theory is obviously insdesuate here forthe determination (or even the explanation ofthe existence) of the felon {Us situation in Fig. 1~2, however, represents a problem of practical importance oc ‘solution is relevant in evaluating the shielding effectiveness ofthe conducting wall Generally speaking, circuit theory deals with lumped-parameter systems Circuits consisting ‘of components characterized by lumped parameters such an resistances, inductanets, and eupacitances. Voltages and currents ate the mary {ostem variables. For DC circuit, the system variables are constants and the sows ming equations are algebraic equations. The system variables in AC circuile we {ime-dependent; they are scalar quantities and are independent of space coordinaree hs governing equations are ordinary differential equations. On the other hand, moet sigettomagnetc variables are functions of time as wells of space coordinates. Many are vectors with both a magnitude and a direction, and their representation and manipulation require a knowledge of vector algebra and vector calculus, Even ia Sati cases, the governing equations are, in general, partial diferential equations Ie ‘The Product ofthe wavelength and the fequeney ofan AC source isthe velocity of wave propagtion. A theantenna snd nothing tion gan be pis et be appre “able pen aed pace, which cident from Tomagnetic are, that are inadequate e field at P. portance as, tucting wall, systems — sts such as the main 1d the gov- cireuits are ordinates, hand, most ate( any tation and Cin uations. It Propagation, 3 i } is essential that we aie equipped to hjfidle vector quantities and variables that dfe both time- aid shace-dependent, The fundamentals of vector algebra and veciée calculus will:be dveloped in Chaptet 2: Techniques for solving partial differential ‘equations aré heeled in dealing with cerctin types of electromagnetic problems, These techniques will bd discyssed in Chaptér 4. the importance of acquiring a facility in the use of these tnathematical tools in the study of electromagnetics cannot be overemphasized. | THE ELECTROMAGNETIC MoDEL ° + There are two ajproaches inthe developufent ot x scientific subject: the inductive ‘approach and thetleductive approach, Using the inductive approach, one follows te historical developinent ofthe subject, stating with the observations of some simple experiments nd ifring om thon laws af ores tps of snag from particular phesiomena to general pridciples. The deductive approach, on the other hand, postilatesia few fundumentalrelations for an idealized model. The Postulated relatids see axionns, from which particular laws and theoeeims ea he derived. The validity of the model and the axioms is verified by thoi ability to predict. consequences thalicheck with experimental observations. In this book we prefer to tse the deductive or axiomatic approach hegause it is more elegant and enables the development of the subjget of eestromngueltes in ainanrderty way. Ti aad model ws a or stubing & eee nae mun elt 10 world situations and be able to explain physical phenomena: otherwise, we would be engaged in mental exercises for no purpose, For example,a theoretical mode! could be built, from which one might obtain many mathematical relations: but, f these relations disagiee with observed results, the model is of no use. The mathematics may be correct, bt the underlying assumptions of ti€ model may be wrong or the implied approximations nlay not be justified. Three esséntial steps are involved. in building a theory on an idealized model First, some basic quantities germane to the dubject of study are defined. Second. the rules of operatiod:(the mathematics) of these quantities are specified. Thin. som fundamental relatipns are postulated. These postulates or laws are invariably based on numerous experimental observations acquired under controlled conditions and Synthesized by brant minds. A familiar example is the circuit theory built on a circuit model of ideal sources and pure resistnces, inductances, and capacitances lit this case the basic quantities are voltages (V), currents (7), resistances (R, inductances (L), and tapscitatoes (C); the rules of operations are those of algebra, ordinary differential equatigns, and Laplace transformation; and the findamental postulates are Kirchhof’ voltage and current laws. Many reitions and formulas can be derived {om this basically fathar simple model, and the reiponses of very elaborate networks can be determined. ‘The valldity and value of thie model have been amply demonstrated. Jn a like manner, an electromagnetic theory can be built on a suitably chosen electromagnetic model, Ia this section we shall take the first step of defining the basic 4 THE ELECTROMAGNETIC MODEL /1 Weanlities of electromagnetics. The second step, the rules of operation, encompasses Nector algebra, vector calculus, and partial differential equations. The fundamentals ot yestor algebra and vector caleulus willbe discussed in Chapter 2 (Vector Analysis) and the techniques for solving partial diferential equations will be introduced wher these equations aris ater inthe hook, The hid step the fundantental postulates sil Sr retented in thressubsicv in Chapters 3,0, and 7 ase deal with respectively, Staticelectric fields, steady magnetic ficlds and electromagnetic elds ‘The quantities in our eleciromgnetic model can be divided vuighly imut wo Rlegoris: source arid'eld quantities. The source of an electromagnetic held is cain ir sletic charges at rest or in motion, However, an electromagnetic eld may SAS @ Cedistribution of charges which will, in turn, change the fields hence, the Separation between the cause and the effect is not always so distinct. Ine Use the symbol q (sometimes 0) to denote eletrc charg. Electic charge is @ fundamental property of matter and it exists only in postive or negative integral ‘multiples of the charge on an eleeteon, «" e=-160x 10 (O, a-1 where Ezench physicist Charles A. de Coulomb, who formulated Coulomb's law i its (Coplomb’s law will be discussed in Chapter 3) A coulomb is a very large unit for eu charge; it takes 1/(.60 x 10") or 625 billion electrons to make apt C, In fac two LC charges 1m apart wil exert a force of approximately | millon too Sigh other Some other physical constants forthe electron are listed in Appenci B-2, mathematically by the equation of continuity, which we will discuss in Section $4 Ary formulation or solution ofan electromagnetic problem that violates the principle of conservation of electric charge must be incorrect. We recall that the Kicchhcirs Satrent law in circuit theory, which maintains that the sum ofall the currents leaving ‘junction must equal the sum of all the currentsntering the junction, is an assertion "tn 1962 Murray GettMann hypothesized quark asthe baie building blocks of matter. Quarks were Fen ria fo ca a fraction ofthe charge, «ofan electron: bit, to date thelr xstenes hag no oe ne fed experimental * The system of units wil be discussed in Section 1-3 compasses damentals Analysis), seed when, lates, will spectively, 1 into two tie itd 5 cfield may henge, the charge is 2 ve integral wy) XY daf the in 88 as unit for zup -1C. nillion tons » Appendix onservation hat cece triccharges influence of tive charges tion of elec~ represented on 5-4 be principle Kirchhof' ents leaving an ytion vanes were Snot beea vere i i | iF L i | i | } t current density), osama jt ted i tpt no ane er assumption thiit there isto cumulation’ of cHllrge at the junction.) Although, in point ina discrete Manne, tese abrupt vatiatlons onan atomicseale are unimportant when we considetthe eldetomagnetic effect of large aggregates of charges. In cons i¢roscopic sense, electticcharge either does or does not exist at 4 structing a mactottopic or large-scale theory of electromagnetism, we find that the use of smoothed-dbt average density fuictidns yields very good results. (The same proach i used i mechanics where a smoothed-out mass density function is defin=*, in spite ofthe fact that mass is associated onl} with elementary particles in a discrete ‘manner on an atosific scale.) We define a voluhd charge densir,, p,as asource quantity as follows: ub am a = tin ici’, ws where isthe ambunt ofcharge in a very smill volume Av. How small should Av be? should be small enough to represent an accurate variation ofp, but large enough to contain a very arge nuniber of discrete charges. For example, an elemental cube with sides as small as 1 micron (10~® m or | jum) has a volume of 10-"* m?, which will still contain about 10"* 100 billion) atoms. A smoothed-out function of space coordinates 9, defined with such a small Av is expected to yield accurate macroscopic results for nearly all practical pirposes. : Jn some physial situations, an amount of charge Ay may be identified with an clement of surface As or an element ofline A¢-In such case, it wll be more appropriate to define a surface charge density, p,, oF a line charge density, Pe: (Cim’); a3) “Gim. sj Except for certain Special situations, charge densities vary from point to point; hence P,P and py ate it gereral, point functions of space coordinates. Current is the ate of change of charge with respect to time: that is da 4 Be Cor Ay ans) where / itself may be time-dependent. The unit of current is coulomb per second (C/s), which isthe sanié as ampere (A). A current must flow through a finite area (a con: ducting wire of afifite ctoss section, for instabce); hence itis not a point function. [4 electromagnetics, We define a vector point function volume current density (or simply, hich measures the amourtt of current flowing through a unit area ‘normal to the direction of current flow. The bold-faced J isa vector whose magnitudé is the current per unt aréa (A/m2) and whose direction isthe direction of current flow, We shall elaboraté on the relation between I and J in Chapter 5. For very good 6 THE ELECTROMAGNETIC MODEL /1 conductors, high-frequency alternating currents are confined in the surface layer, in- stead of flowing throughout the interior of the conductor. In such cases there isa need. to define a surface current density J,, which is the current per unit width on the con- ductor surface normal to the direction of current flow and has the unit of ampere per meter(A/m). ‘There ars fo r fundamental vector field quantities in electromagnetics: electric Jisld intensity E,eleetrie flux density (or electric displacement) D, maint flus density B, and magnetic field intensity U "The definition and physical signilientice of these uantities will be expkained fally when they are introduced! iter in the book, AU this time, we want only to establish the following, Electric field intensity E is the only vector needed in discussing electrostatics (effects of stationary electric charges) in free space, and is defined as the electric force on a unit test charge. Electric displacement vector D is useful in the study of electric field in material media, as we shall see in Chapter 3. Similarly, magnetic flux density B is the only vector aeeded in discussing ‘magnetostatics (effects of steady electric currents) in free space, and is related to the magnetic force acting on a charge moving with a given velocity. The magnetic field intensity vector H is useful in the study of magnetic field in material media. The definition and significance of B and H will be discussed in Chapter 6. ‘The four fundamental electromagnetic field quantities, together with their units, are tabulated in Table 11, In Table 1-1, V/m is volt per meter, and T stands for tesla or volt-second per square meter. When there is np time variation (as in static, steady, Table 1-1 Electromagnetic Field Quantities Symbols and Unite for Field Quantities Field Quantity Symbol Unit Electric field intensity E vim bole | Blectric tux density D | cm? « (Electie displacement) | Magnetic tux density ® i Magnetic |____ Magnetic etd intensity H Alm or stationary cases), the electric field quantities E and D and the magnetic field ‘quantities B and H form two separate vector pairs. In time-dependent cases, however, electric and magnetic field quantities arc coupled; that is, time-varying E and D will sive rise 10 B and H, and vice versa. All four quantities are point functions; they are defined at every point in space and, in general, are functions of space coordinates. Material (or medium) properties determine the relations between E and D and between Band H. These relations are called the constitutive relations of a medium and will be examined later. : 13 UNV face layer, ine hereisa need hon the con- of ampere per tics: electric fe flux density ance of these ‘book. At this Es the only 1argest in fie displacement e shall see in in discussing elated to the vagnetic field Vang. The hay units, ands ws tesla static, steady, Unit vim Cin? T [3 field as Yever, E ang * will S3 lang are coordinates. and D and medium and SAND UNIVERSAL CONSTANTS 7 The principal objective of studying’ ‘elécttomagnetism is to understand the inter action between elargesvand currents at distance based on the elecromageene rodel, Fields-and' waves (lime- and spatedlependent fields) are basic consol

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