Janhunen Khitan Understanding The Language Behind The Scripts Scripta 4 2012

Khitan: Understanding the Language
Behind the Scripts
Juha A. Janhunen
University of Helsinki, Finland
Khitan was the dynastic language of the Liao empire in Manchuria and
Northern China (907-1115). Although today extinct, samples of Khitan
are preserved in two native scripts, known as the Khitan Large Script
and the Khitan Small Script. Both scripts may be classified as Sinitic or
Sinoform in the typological sense, though only the Large Script has a direct
connection with the Chinese script. Recent progress in the decipherment
of, in particular, the Khitan Small Script allows the lexicon and grammar of
the Khitan language to be assessed in much more detail than before. Khitan
may be defined as a Para-Mongolic language, meaning that it represents
a branch related to, but collateral with, the extant and historically known
Mongolic languages. The present paper examines the genetic position of
the Khitan language with regard to Mongolic with the help of the methods
of comparative linguistics, as applied to the deciphered Khitan language
material.
Keywords: Sinitic scripts, Khitan Small Script, Khitan language, Para-
Mongolic, reconstruction, decipherment
In the global context of ancient scripts and their decipherment it is not

widely known that some of the last great challenges posed by unknown
systems of writing are those connected with the scripts of peripheral
mediaeval China. Three non-Chinese ethnic groupsthe Khitan, the
Jurchen, and the Tangut, corresponding to the alien dynasties of Liao
(907-1125), Jin (1115-1234), and Xixia (1038-1227), respectively
created scripts and literary languages of their own. After centuries of
oblivion, samples of these scripts emerged in the late 19th and early 20th
centuries and became objects of intensive study. Even so, we cannot say
SCRIPTA, Volume 4 (October 2012): 107-132

2012 The Hunmin jeongeum Society
108 SCRIPTA, VOLUME 4 (2012)
that any of these scripts has been fully deciphered. The problems vary
from script to script, however, and they are also connected with the level
of knowledge we have of the underlying languagesKhitan, Jurchen, and
Tangut. It happens that of these three languages, only Jurchen survived
till later times, becoming the direct ancestor of Manchu, while both Khitan
and Tangut became extinct soon after the fall of the political states that
had used them as their dynastic languages.1
1. The Khitan Scripts
As far as Khitan is concerned, the situation is complicated by the

circumstance that it was written in two different scripts, today known as
the Khitan Large Script ( Dazi) and the Khitan Small Script ( Xiaozi).
Like the Tangut Script and the Jurchen Script, the two Khitan scripts have
a Chinese appearance, meaning that they are composed of the same type
of primary and secondary elements (strokes, characters), presupposing the
same type of writing instruments (brush, ink), as the Chinese script. We
may therefore identify all these scripts as Sinitic or Sinoform in the
typological and aesthetic sense. None of them is, however, identical with
the Chinese script, and only two scripts, the Khitan Large Script and the
Jurchen Script, are materially related to the Chinese script, meaning that
they may be viewed as ancient regional derivatives of the latter, a situation
which also allows them to be identified as Sinographic writing systems,
and their characters as Sinograms. The Khitan Small Script and the
Tangut Script, on the other hand, have no material relationship with the
Chinese script, which suggests that their origination may have involved a
factor of conscious invention.2
We know today that the Khitan Large Script and the Jurchen Script
are very closely related with each other, both probably representing a
1
For a more comprehensive survey of the chronological context of the scripts of
mediaeval peripheral China, cf. Janhunen (1994).
2
The present paper will not deal in any more detail with the Tangut script. However,
from the point of view of graphemic analysis, this script offers a particularly difficult
challenge, since nothing is known of the principles of how it was designed. For this
reason, the assumptions conventionally made about the identity of the Tangut language
are also detached from the graphic reality and cannot be considered as confirmed, as
was already pointed out by Kwanten (1984, 1988).
Khitan: Understanding the Language Behind the Scripts 109
continuation of a local Manchurian variety of the Chinese script. It is

possible, though not verified, that this same variety, or an earlier form
of it, was used already before the Liao-Jin period in other political
contexts, including, perhaps, Beiwei (386-534) and/or Balhae
(698-926). It is notable that the Khitan Large Script incorporates many
Chinese characters, especially simple ones, in unchanged form, while in
the Jurchen Script such characters are normally distinguished from their
Chinese counterparts by using diacritics. We also know that both the
Khitan and the Jurchen used this script as a mixed logo-syllabic system,
with some characters functioning as logograms (with Khitan and Jurchen
pronunciations) and others as syllabograms (for fixed sequences of sounds,
not necessarily corresponding to phonetic syllables). In general, the
number of separate characters in the Khitan Large and Jurchen Scripts
is considerably smaller than in the Chinese script, and the forms of the
characters are less complicated, with no functionally relevant radical
components.
Unfortunately, the Khitan Large Script is still very imperfectly
deciphered, with only a small proportion of the characters identified with
meanings (logograms) and/or sounds (syllabograms). One important
direction of research that has not yet been properly initiated is the
systematic comparison of the Khitan Large Script characters with those
of the Jurchen Script. Due to the fact that the Jurchen Script survived
relatively long (till the 16th century) and was used to write a well-
known language (Jurchen-Manchu), our knowledge of the Jurchen Script
is rather close to decipherment in the sense that most of its elements
have a known linguistic correlate, even if there still remain many open
questions.3 On the other hand, the corpus of the Khitan Large Script is
much more extensive, and in a much better state of preservation, than that
of the Jurchen Script. Therefore, the Khitan Large Script is potentially a
crucial source of information also for Jurchen studies. At the present stage,
however, its potential cannot yet be exploited.
This leaves us only the Khitan Small Script corpus as the most
important currently available direct source on the Khitan language. Since
several decades, it has been known that this is a basically syllabic script,
3
The principal works on the Jurchen Script are Grube (1896), Kiyose (1978), Kane (1989),
Jin Qicong (1984), and Pevnov (2004), as well as, most recently, Golovachev & Ivliev &
Pevnov & Rykin (2011). Of these, only Kane comments also on the Khitan Large Script.
using a limited number of graphically simple syllabic signs (syllabograms),

known as the Khitan Small Script characters. What makes the graphic
image visually complicated is the convention of accumulating the syllabic
signs into blocks corresponding to linguistic words, a convention which,
incidentally, has a close analogy in the Korean Hangeul.4 Since a Khitan
word (with derivational and inflectional suffixes) can consist of up to eight
syllables, a block can have a graphic appearance (stroke composition)
even more complex than a Chinese charactera circumstance that
caused confusion during the early stages of Khitan studies, when it was
not yet clear how the Small and Large scripts should be properly
distinguished.5
The decipherment of the Khitan Small Script has involved both slow
progress and rapid steps forward starting with the early 1920s.6 A definitive
breakthrough, which for the first time yielded concrete readings of
Khitan words, was achieved by a team active in China in the 70s and 80s.7
Since then, the most important development has been the rapid increase of
the corpus, conditioned by the discovery of new texts. The currently known
corpus comprises 34 published and a few unpublished epigraphic texts plus
a diffuse selection of minor materials. The standard of publication varies,
however, and not all texts have been made available in a form that can be
used for textological and linguistic analysis. Even so, and in spite of the
fact that the epigraphic texts tend to be stereotypic in form and content,
the corpus is large enough to allow relatively detailed conclusions to be
made about the Khitan language and the properties of the Small Script.
The phonetic value of the Khitan Small Script syllabic signs varies from
4
The difference between the two scripts is, of course, that the blocks in Hangeul are
composed of phonograms. It is not known whether the Khitan Small Script can have
inspired the creators of the Hangeul, for ultimately the blocks in both the Khitan
Small Script and the Hangeul must have been modelled along the principle of Chinese
characters.
5
The distinction between the two Khitan scripts was first correctly made and
communicated internationally by Toyoda (1964).
6
A large part of the research on the Khitan Small Script has been communicated in
scattered papers and a few monographs in Chinese. An important critical summary of all
this work was made available for the international readership by Kane (2009).
7
Chingeltei & Liu Fengzhu & Chen Naixiong & Yu Baolin & and Xing Fuli (1985). For a
more detailed history of Khitan Small Script studies, see Wu Yingzhe & Janhunen (2010:
20-25).
one segment (consonant or vowel) to sequences of up to three segments.

Some characters seem to be used also for longer words as what may be
actual logograms. There are, of course, also undeciphered characters. Of the
currently known 459 different characters, only 314 have been deciphered
in one way or another.8 These include, however, a large proportion of the
most frequent characters, while many of the undeciphered items are rare
and may even involve mistakes. This means that even if the decipherment
is not fully completed, it is already possible to render long sequences of
continuous Khitan text a more or less consistent phonetic and/or semantic
interpretation, with only occasional lacunae. In this situation, attention may
gradually be turned away from the script to the language behind the script.
2. The Khitan language
The Khitan, or Qidan , were the dominant ethnic group in the Liaoxi
region in the period between the Beiwei and the historical Mongols.
The Khitan survived as an ethnic group after the rise of the Jurchen, and
written documents in the Khitan language continued to be produced almost
till the end of the Jin period. It is well known from Chinese historical
sources that Khitan was a distinct language, spoken by virtually all ethnic
Khitan, a population whose size may have reached a million people during
the height of the Liao dynasty. Khitan was not the only language spoken
in the Liao state, however, for other languages, including Chinese and
Jurchen, were also widely used especially in the areas conquered by the
Khitan during the process of state formation. It is less clear how uniform
Khitan was internally. The Khitan were composed of tribes, some of which
played a more important political role in the Liao state than others, and it
is quite possible that there were tribal forms of speech that deviated from
the mainstream language.9
Apart from texts in the two Khitan scripts, there are two other types
of sources on the Khitan language. These are, first, the occasional samples
of Khitan, mainly lexical items, but also phrases and poems, preserved
8
An up-to-date list of the Khitan Small Script characters is given in Wu Yingzhe &
Janhunen (2010: 259-272, cf. also the discussion ibid. 35-48).
9
On the tribes, as well as on the general social history and historical demography of the
Khitan, see Wittfogel & Fng (1949).
in Chinese transcription and glossing, and, second, the Khitan loanwords

transmitted into neighbouring languages, especially Jurchen. As far as can
be seen, these sources represent a language identical with that of the Khitan
text corpus. The Chinese data are, however, often frustratingly difficult
to interpret with any certainty due to the chronological, phonological,
and semantic inaccuracies as well as outright errors contained in them.10
Loanword research could potentially yield much more informative results,
for it may be taken for certain that Jurchen, as a subordinate language of
the Liao state, received a considerable number of Khitan loanwords.11 It is
also likely that the two languages were typologically similar, which means
that we may occasionally use information from Jurchen to approach the
structure of Khitan.
The fact that Khitan is, or was, typologically speaking, an Altaic
language, was known already before the original sources in the language
could be read.12 This is now confirmed by the actual readings of the
Khitan Small Script texts. We know, for instance, that Khitan had an
elaborate system of nominal and verbal inflectional suffixes, most of which
can be phonologically approximated.13 The syntax and morphosyntax,
including the basic word order (SOV) and the various types of subordinated
(converbial) and embedded (participial) sentence constructions, is also in
full accordance with that attested in the other historical and modern Altaic
languages in the region, including both Jurchen-Manchu and Mongolian.
There are, however, some unexpected features, notably, traces of
grammatical gender (marked masculine vs. unmarked or generic feminine),
a category not typical of Altaic typology though, incidentally, present in
Middle Mongol.14
10
Recent studies of Khitan words in Chinese sources include Sun Bojun & Nie Hongyin
(2008) and Talpe (2010). The only linguistically competent work on the subject is
Shimunek (2007). Selected details are also discussed by Vovin (2003) and Rna-Tas
(2004).
11
Some pioneering work on the lexical parallels between Khitan and Jurchen has been
carried out by Kane (2006).
12
A grammar and a collection of Khitan Small Script texts in digital form was
compiled by a Russian team in the 1960s and 70s, cf. Starikov et al. (1970), Arapov
(1982).
13
So far the only systematic grammatical sketch of Khitan has been compiled by Kane
(2009: 131-166), who also gives a vocabulary of 354 items (ibid. 83-130).
14
The role of grammatical gender in Khitan is still far from completely understood.
It used to be more difficult to determine what genetic group (language

family) Khitan represents. Altaic typology as such does not indicate
whether a language is Turkic, Mongolic, Tungusic, or something else. In the
past, when work on Khitan was solely based on the Chinese transcriptions
and glosses of Khitan words, it was common to try to identify these words
item by item with the different historical and extant Altaic languages.
The result was ambiguous, since Khitan turned out to contain lexical items
that could be identified variously with either Mongolic or Turkic, or also
Tungusic.15 In many cases, parallel identifications were possible, leading to
speculations that Khitan might be an intermediate idiom between, say,
Turkic and Mongolic, or Mongolic and Tungusic. The problem here was
that inherited elements were not properly distinguished from borrowed
ones.
A more reliable method is to operate with genetically diagnostic words,
such as items of basic vocabulary, which are likely to have been inherited
rather than borrowed. With this method, it was initially possible to identify
the language of the Tabghach, or Tuoba , the leading ethnic group of
the Beiwei state, as basically Mongolic. Since the Tabghach were the
political and, quite possibly, the linguistic ancestors of the Khitan, the
Mongolic identification of Khitan gained ground.16 This identification is
now definitively confirmed by the information from the Khitan Small
Script texts, which show beyond doubt that Khitan was a language whose
basic vocabulary and grammatical resources were related to those attested
in the Mongolic languages. It is important to note that this conclusion is
exclusive, in the sense that Khitan is not an intermediate language and
cannot share elements, except borrowings, with other Altaic languages
than Mongolic.17
The term Mongolic needs, however, modification when used about
Work on this issue has been carried out by Wu Yingzhe (2005, 2007). In spite of its
importance, the issue of grammatical gender is largely unstudied in Middle Mongol, cf.
Rybatzki (2003: 75).
15
Menges (1968) made an effort to identify Tungusic elements in Khitan, though we
know today that most of his identifications are wrong. He had to admit himself that the
material was not conclusive for the determination of the genetic position of Khitan.
16
The Mongolic identification of the Tabghach language was made by Ligeti (1971). A
similar identification for Khitan is implied by Doerfer (1992, 1993).
17
Suggestions that violate this principle are occasionally encountered in the works of
Khitan specialists not sufficiently familiar with comparative linguistics.
Khitan. All other extant and historical Mongolic languages represent

a single genetic node, corresponding to the language of the historical
Mongols, and linguistically identifiable as Proto-Mongolic. Khitan did
not descend from Proto-Mongolic but was, rather, a sister language of
the latter. In other words, Proto-Mongolic and Khitan represented two
branches of an even older protolanguage, a certain stage of Pre-Proto-
Mongolic that could also be termed Khitano-Mongolic. Khitan itself may
also have had sister languages belonging to the same branch, which, in
that case, should be termed Khitanic. Technically, the most suitable term
to describe the position of Khitan (and Khitanic) with regard to Proto-
Mongolic is to identify the former as Para-Mongolic, implying that it is a
question of a genetically related, but collateral, branch of the much better
known Mongolic language family.18
3. The position of Khitan
The availability of direct information on Para-Mongolic in the form of

Khitan Small Script texts opens up extremely important new perspectives
for studies on the history of the Mongolic language family. Working
with the actual Mongolic languages alone, we used to have three kinds
of diachronic information: first, the comparative evidence provided by
the extant Mongolic languages; second, the information contained in
the historical forms of Mongolic, especially Written Mongol and Middle
Mongol; and third, the potential conclusions that can be made from the
comparative and historical data by the method of internal reconstruction.
Only the last type of information allows us to approach the period
preceding Proto-Mongolic, which itself is of a rather shallow depth
corresponding to no more that 800-900 years.
The question is how far backwards the Khitan data allow us to go in the
history of Mongolic. This, on the other hand, depends, on how different
Khitan was as compared with Proto-Mongolic. Before the decipherment
of the Khitan Small Script there was an opinion that Khitan may have
been closely related to Proto-Mongolic, so closely that it was thought that
18
The term Para-Mongolic was introduced by Janhunen (1995, 2003) and has since
found some support in specialist literature, cf. e.g. Kane (2009: x).
Khitan could perhaps be read in terms of the lexical and grammatical

information we have from Middle Mongol. Today we know that this is
not so: Khitan is, in fact, a language rather distantly related to the Proto-
Mongolic branch. To get an idea of how distant the relationship could be
we may think of the neighbouring Tungusic language family, in which
the southern branch, corresponding to Jurchen-Manchu (Jurchenic), is in
many ways strikingly different from the northern branch, corresponding to
Ewenki-Ewen (Ewenic).19
Assuming that the difference between Para-Mongolic and Proto-
Mongolic was of the same chronological scope as that between the
southern and northern branches of Tungusic, the breakup of the original
protolanguage (Proto-Khitano-Mongolic) would have taken place at least
several centuries before the emergence of Khitan as a written language.
The last possible historical context for the still uniform protolanguage
would seem to have been the empire of the Xianbei (93-234), though
the breakup may, of course, have taken place even earlier. A practical
consequence of the chronological difference is that Khitan texts, which
with one notable exception are not bilingual, are difficult to understand
even if the script is no longer a major problem. It is not without reason
that the situation has been compared with that of Etruscan: a known script
but an unknown language.20
Fortunately, however, Khitanunlike Etruscanis not completely
unknown, for it is still related to the Proto-Mongolic branch, although
the relationship is so distant that it does not substantially facilitate the
understanding of Khitan texts. The genetic connection is nevertheless
evident from the existence of cognate words and shared morphological
elements present in both Khitan and Proto-Mongolic. It is very likely
that the number of cognates will continue to grow as more linguistic
work is done on the Khitan Small Script texts. We should, however, not
be too optimistic about the size of the comparative corpus. The total
number of Khitan lexical items that can be assessed both phonetically and
semantically today is still less than 500, and many of these items do not
19
The Tungusic family also has two transitional (or mixed) branches, collectively termed
Amur Tungusic. For a more detailed taxonomy of Tungusic, cf. Janhunen (2012).
20
The Etruscan parallel is mentioned by Kane (2009: x), who also discusses the general
challenge posed by languages that can be read without being understood. On the unique
bilingual Khitan text, cf., most recently, Vovin (2011).
belong to the basic vocabulary; moreover, they also comprise a number of

Chinese borrowings.
As it is, the number of currently known certain or plausible cognates
between Khitan and Proto-Mongolic is at the range of a few dozen, that
is, about ten per cent of the total known Khitan lexicon.21 The only way
to assess the taxonomic status of Khitan with regard to Proto-Mongolic
is to analyze this corpus with the methods of comparative linguistics. It
is particularly illustrative to see in what respects Khitan, as compared
with Proto-Mongolic, is archaic and in what respects it is innovative.
Since Khitan became a written language some 200 years before Middle
Mongol, one would expect that it might be in some respects more archaic.
The picture is not equivocal, however, for in other respects Khitan is
surprisingly modern, often anticipating innovations that took place in
the Proto-Mongolic branch only after the breakup of the latter. This is
compatible with the picture provided by the Tungusic family, in which
Jurchen-Manchu may also be seen as a particularly innovative branch as
compared with Ewenki-Ewen.22 Moreover, some of the innovations present
in Khitan are likely to have been shared with Jurchen on an areal basis.
At this point a word of caution concerning the notation is in place. The
language behind the Khitan Small Script can be approached in terms of a
Romanized approximation of its phonetic structure. The Romanization is,
however, not an exact reconstruction of the segmental properties of the
language. This situation is due to two circumstances: on the one hand,
we simply do not know the exact segmental counterparts of many Khitan
Small Script characters, although we can approximate them; on the
other, we have to consider the fact that the orthography of Khitan is not
always consistent with the actual sequences of sounds. In order to show
the difference between orthography and sounds, it is useful to let the
Romanizations be accompanied by a more phonemically accurate reading
(marked ), which, in turn, should be distinguished from reconstructions
(marked *).23
21
Many of the cognates have been identified over the years by Chinese scholars and are
listed by Kane (2009), though his database involves some mistakes and omissions.
22
The conventional view that Jurchen-Manchu represents an innovative branch
of Tungusic against the more conservative Ewenki-Ewen branch has recently been
challenged by Alonso de la Fuente (2011). The issue is best seen as unconcluded.
23
The current system of Romanization for Khitan was introduced by Kane (2008, 2009)
rd of At caution concerning
this point a word theofnotation
caution isconcerning
in place. The the notation is in place. The language behin
Small Script can be approached
anguage behind the Khitan Small Script can be in terms of a Romanized
approached in terms of a Romanized approximation
ic structure. The
pproximation of its Romanization
phonetic structure. is, however, not an exact is, however, not an exact reconstruction o
The Romanization
ntal propertiesof
econstruction ofthe
thesegmental
language.Khitan: This Understanding
situation
properties of theis due to twoThis
language.
the Language situation
Behind is due to two circumstances:
the Scripts 117
and, we simplyondothe
ircumstances: notone knowhand, thewe exact segmental
simply do not counter-
know the exact segmental counterparts of many
Script
arts characters,
of many KhitanalthoughSmall Scriptwe can approximate
characters, although them;we can approximate them; on the other, w
nsider the factwethat
the other, havethetoorthography
consider theoffact Khitan
that isthenot always of Khitan is not always consistent with
orthography
sequenceswith
onsistent of 4.sounds.
Lexical
the actualIn properties
order
sequences to show the difference
of sounds. In order to show the difference between orthog
unds,
etween orthography and sounds, it is useful toaccompanied
it is useful to let the Romanizations be let the Romanizations be accompanied by a more pho
ccurate
y a more reading
phonemically
As all (marked ), which,
accurate in turn,
reading shouldlength
(marked be which,
), in turn, should be distinguished fr
23 Khitan texts of any significant are memorial in character,
uctions (marked
istinguished from *).reconstructions (marked *). 23
containing epitaphs, eulogies, lamentations, and/or historical records,
the lexicon used in them is thematically and functionally restricted. This 4. Lexical prop
. Lexical properties
gives the decipherer the advantage of having many parallel repetitions
As all Khitan
significant with are
length minor variations,
memorial in as in genealogical
character, containing lists, which, in turn, allows the
As all Khitan texts of any significant length are memorial in character, containing epitaphs, eulog
ions,
pitaphs, and/or identification
historical
eulogies, records,
lamentations, of the
certain
lexicon
and/or crucial
usedlexical
historical themitems
inrecords, isthe and phrases
lexicon usedto in be
them multiply
is thematically an
ly restricted.and
hematically verified.
This The obvious
gives the decipherer
functionally disadvantage
restricted. This the advantage is
gives the of that
decipherer the advantagelexicon
large sections of the of having many pa
ions
avingwith many minor never
parallel occur
variations, inasthe
repetitions texts,
inwith or occur
genealogical
minor so rarely
lists,
variations, which, that
as in identification
genealogical is impossible.
lists, which, in turn, allows
cation
n turn, ofallowscertainAthepotentially
crucial important
lexical
identification items source of lexicon
and phrases
of certain crucial to beis supplied
lexical items and by phrases
the poems which
to be multiply verifie
us disadvantage
multiply verified.oftenis
The that large sections
complement
obvious disadvantage of theislexicon
epitaphic texts,
that large never
but the problem
sections of thehere is that
lexicon neverpoetic
occur in the te
so rarely that
ccur in the texts, identification
expressions
or occurare is impossible.
sovirtually
rarely that hopelessA potentially
to assessiswithout
identification a parallel
impossible. version in
A potentially a
important sour
n is supplied
mportant source byofthe
known poemsis which
lexicon
language. supplied oftenby complement
the poems which often complement epitaphic texts,
blem
pitaphicheretexts,
is thatbutpoetic
Inthe the
expressions
problem
following, here are is virtually
a that
few poetic
hopeless
lexicalexpressions are virtually
spheres relevant hopeless to assess witho
to comparative
version
o assessinwithout
a known a language.
parallel version in a known language. In the f
linguistics are examined in some more detail:
ew lexical In thespheres
following, relevant a few to lexical
comparative spheres linguistics
relevant are to comparative linguistics are examined in so
ail:
xamined in some more detail:
Pronouns. For genetic comparisons, personal pronouns would be an
Pronouns. For
parisons, ideal
personal source
pronouns of diagnostic
would be an information.
ideal source Unfortunately,
of
Pronouns. For genetic comparisons, personal pronouns would be an ideal source of diagnostic info first and second
ortunately, person
first
iagnostic information. and secondpronouns person
Unfortunately,do not seem
pronouns
first andto be
notattested
dosecond seem
person in pronouns
the extantdoKhitannot seem corpus.
to be attested i
Khitan corpus. A Apossible
possible third
third person
person pronoun
pronoun
o be attested in the extant Khitan corpus. A possible third person pronoun is h,is
is h,
h, but this item has no knownbut this item ha
cognate
ut this item hascognate
in Proto-Mongolic.
no known in Proto-Mongolic.
The proximal
cognate The proximal
demonstrative
in Proto-Mongolic. Thedemonstrative
is, is, however,is,fully
proximal demonstrative however, fully
with Proto-Mongolic
owever, fully comparable data. with
The Khitan shape is
Proto-Mongolic
Proto-Mongolic e this
data. The :Khitan shape is e this this :: tt these, s
e readings
t these,esuggesting
: pluralsuggesting
these, e-d, which
the readings correspond
the readings
e : plural e :toplural
Proto-
e-d, e-d, which
which correspond
correspond to Proto-
to Proto- Mongolic *e-n=
e-d=e. As
Mongolic *e-n=e may be
Mongolicseen, the
: plural*e-n=e Khitan
*e-d=e.: plural shapes
As may look
be seen,
*e-d=e. like
As the more
mayKhitan
be seen,shapes look like
the Khitan morelook
shapes
like more simple and, hence, archaic, as they lack the stem extension -n
22 24
and the postclitic element =e, as attested in the Proto-Mongolic cognates.The conventiona
chen-Manchu represents
The conventional view an innovative
that branch represents
Jurchen-Manchu of Tungusicanagainst the branch of Tungusic against the more conservative
innovative
On the Mongolic side, the proximal pronoun has the oblique stem
branch
more has recently
conservative been challenged
Ewenki-Ewen byhas
branch Alonso de labeen
recently Fuente (2011). by Alonso de la Fuente (2011). The issue is best s
challenged
ded. *e-x/n- > *n-,
he issue is best seen as unconcluded. which has been compared with the possibly pronominal 23
The current syst
ation for Khitan
The current was of
system introduced by Kane
Romanization (2008, 2009)
for Khitan by Kane (2008, 2009) and developed further by Wu Yin
and developed
was introduced
nen (2010).
urther by WuThe phonetic
Yingzhe reliability (2010).
& Janhunen of the Romanized
The phonetic shapes varies,of the Romanized shapes varies, and not all Roman
reliability
endregarded as fully
and verified.
not all Romanizations In be
may
developedthefurther
presentby
regarded paper,
as Wu the
fully Khitan&In
verified.
Yingzhe items
the are
present(2010).
Janhunen paper, the
TheKhitan items
phonetic are quoted both in th
reliability
t (linearized)
uoted both in and in
theRomanization,
theof original with avaries,
script (linearized)
Romanized shapes phonetic
and in approximation
andRomanization, with a phonetic
not all Romanizations may beapproximation given when releva
regarded as fully
iven when relevant verified. In the present paper, the Khitan items are quoted both in the original script
or possible.
(linearized) and in Romanization, with a phonetic approximation given when relevant
or possible.
24
All Khitan data are quoted from Kane (2009) and Wu Yingzhe & Janhunen (2010). On
the demonstrative pronouns, cf. also Wu Yingzhe (2009, 2011).
simple and, simple hence, and, archaic, hence, archaic, as they as lackthey the lack stemthe extension
stem exten -n
24 24
118 element SCRIPTA, =e,
element asVOLUME
attested
=e, as in
4 (2012) the Proto-Mongolic
attested in the Proto-Mongolic cognates.cognates.
simple
simple and, and, hence, hence, archaic, archaic, On the asas Mongolic
they
theythe
On lack
lack the
the stem
side,
Mongolic stem
the extension
extension
proximal
side, -n
pronoun-n and and hasthe
thethe postclitic
postcliti
obliqu
2424the proximal pronoun has th
element=e,
element =e,as asattested
attested
*n-, which inin the
the Proto-Mongolic
Proto-Mongolic
has been compared cognates.
cognates.
*n-, which has been compared with the possibly pronom with the possibly pronominal Kh
simple and, Onhence,
simple
simple
On theand,
the and,
Mongolic archaic,
Mongolic hence,
hence, side,as
archaic,
side, they
archaic,the
the lack
as
as they
proximal
proximal thepronoun
they stem the
lack
lack
pronoun extension
the stem
has
hasstem the
the -n and stem
extension
extension
oblique
oblique the-n postclitic
-n
stem and
and
*e-x/n-
*e-x/n-the
the po pp>
Khitan monosyllable n n un. un. This
This comparison
comparison
n un. This comparison remains
remains unverified,
unverified,
24 remains but but it it
24 unverified, but it wo
24
24 would seem
c,
ic, -n and the element
postclitic
*n-,
*n-, =e,
element
which
whichas
element attested
has=e,
=e,
hasKhitan as
as
been
been in -n-nthe
attested
attested
compared Proto-Mongolic
compared in
in the
thewith
withProto-Mongolic
Proto-Mongolic
the
thenow, cognates.
possibly
possibly cognates.
cognates.
pronominal
pronominal Khitan
Khitan monosyllable
monosyllabl
ic,as asasthey
they
theylacklack
would
lack the
theseem
the stem
simplestem
stemto extension
extension
correlate
extension with -n and
and
andthe
Khitan
Khitan the
theas
n.e postclitic
postclitic n.e
postclitic
une n.e une
une now,
which
now, which
formally
which formally corresponds
formally
-n correspon to th
he he Proto-Mongolic
Proto-Mongolic n
n On un.theand,
un.
cognates.
cognates. Mongolic
This
This
24 On
On
24
24
hence,
the
the
comparison
comparison Mongolicarchaic,
side,
Mongolic the
remains proximal
side,
remainsside, they
the
the lack
pronoun
proximal
proximal
unverified,
unverified, the but
butstem
has
pronoun
pronoun
it
it the extension
would
would oblique
has
has the
seemthe
seem stem
obliqueand
oblique
toto *e-x/n-
correlate
correlate the
stempostc
stem >
*e-
*e-
with*e
wit
the Proto-Mongolic corresponds cognates.
element to the
=e, as locative
Proto-Mongolic
attested case
locative
in theform case *e-x/n-e
locative
Proto-Mongolic form case upon
*e-x/n-e form this,
cognates. *e-x/n-e
upon a24 case
this, form
upona case also formattested also in
a
lique
de,
ide, the stem
the proximal
proximal*n-,
*e-x/n-Khitan
Khitan which
pronoun
pronoun *n-,
*n-,
> has
has
has which
n.e been
which
n.e
the
the une
unecompared
has
has
oblique
oblique been
been
now,
now,
stem
stem with
compared
compared
which
which
*e-x/n-
*e-x/n-the possibly
with
with
formally
formally
> > the
the pronominal
possibly
possibly
corresponds
corresponds pronominalKhitan
pronominal
to
todemonstratives
the monosyllable
Khitan
Khitan
the Proto-Mongolic
Proto-Mongoli monos
mono
mono
side, the proximal
this, pronoun
a case form has also the
(> oblique
Modern
attested (> stem
Mongolian
Modern
inside, *e-x/n-
*e-d/-x-e Mongolian
now >
odoo). (> The
odoo). demonstratives
The are, however are,
Khitanwith
monosyllable n
locative
locative un.
This
casen
casenOnform the This
comparison
un.
un.
form Mongolic
This
*e-x/n-e
*e-x/n-e remains
comparison
comparison upon
upon the proximal
unverified,
remains
remains
this,
this, aaelements
case pronoun
but
unverified,
caseunverified,
form
form itModern
would has
but
but Mongolian
itthe
itseem would
wouldoblique
to correlate
seem
seem stem to *e-x/
with
to correla
correla
correl
mpared
mpared
mpared with
with the
the
odoo).the possibly
possibly
possibly
The
*n-, pronominal
pronominal
pronominal
demonstratives
which among
has Khitan
been Khitan
Khitan
the
are, among monosyllable
mostmonosyllable
however,
compared monosyllable
the stable most
not
with stable
necessarily
the possibly ofalso
elementsalso attested
attested
a pronominal
among language,ofthe in
inwhich
a language,
most
*e-d/-x-e
*e-d/-x-e
Khitan ismonosyll
why
which now
now th
is
oneem
n remains to
remains correlateKhitan
(>(> with Khitan

Modern
ModernKhitan n.e

Mongolian
Mongolian une n.e
n.enow, une
une
odoo).
odoo). which
now,
now,
The
The formally
which
which
demonstratives
demonstratives corresponds
formally
formally are,
are,corresponds
correspondsto
however,
however, the Proto-Mongolic
to
to
not
notthe
the Proto-M
Proto-M
necessarily
necessaril
son remainsunverified,
unverified,
unverified, but
nbut
but it
un. ititwould
would
would
Thisexpect seem
seem
seem
comparisona toto
full
expectto correlate
correlate
correlate
correspondence
a full
remains with
with
with
correspondence
unverified, between but Khitan
between
itistowould and
Khitan Proto-Mongolic.
seem and Proto-M
onow,the which stable
locative
Proto-Mongolic among
among elements
caselocative
locative
the
the form of case
most
most acase language,
*e-x/n-e
stable form
stableform whichthis,
upon
*e-x/n-e
*e-x/n-e
elements
elements is why
aaalanguage,
upon
upon case there
this,
this, form aaiscase
no
also
case need
formattested
form also
also expect
inattested
attested a isisto
*e-d/-x-e in
inno correlate
now
*e-d/-x-e
*e-d/-x-
*e-d/-x-
ow,
now, which
whichformally
formally
formally Khitan corresponds
corresponds
corresponds
to
surprising
n.e to the
toune the
the theof
Proto-Mongolic
Proto-Mongolic
Proto-Mongolic
that
surprising
now,
ofKhitan
that
which
language,
the distal
Khitan
formally
which
which
pronoun
distal
corresponds
isis why
pronounwhy qi there
there
that
is
to the : plural
qi no
that
Proto-Mong
need
need
: plu to
t
ed in *e-d/-x-efull
(> correspondence
Modern
now
expect
expect (>
(>
aa fullMongolian
Modern
Modern
full between
correspondence
correspondence Mongolianodoo).
Mongolian Khitan The odoo).
odoo).
between
between and Proto-Mongolic.
demonstratives
The
The
Khitan
Khitan demonstratives
demonstratives
and
and are,
Proto-Mongolic.Ithowever,
Proto-Mongolic. is are,therefore
are, not
however,
however,
ItIt is
is necessarily
therefore
thereforenot
not nec
nec
no
no
n-e -e
e upon
upon
uponthis, this,
this,aaacase case
case form
form
formalso
locative also
alsoattested
case attested
attested
item totally
form inin
in *e-d/-x-e
item
*e-x/n-e *e-d/-x-e
*e-d/-x-e
different
totally
upon now
now
now
from
different
this, Mongolic
aqi fromform
case *te-.
Mongolic also
25 25
*te-. in *e-d/-x-e n
doo). ever,
doo). not
The
The notamong surprising
necessarily
surprising
surprising
demonstratives
demonstratives the
among
among that
most
that
that
are,
are, the
stable
the
the
the Khitan
most
most
Khitan
Khitan
however,
however, elements distal
stable
stable
distal
distal
not
not ofpronoun
elements
elements
pronoun
pronouna language,
necessarily
necessarily isis
of
of
is aa qi
qi that
which
language,
language,
that
that :::isplural
pluralwhyattested
which
which
plural
there
is
is why qi.t,
why is suggesting
qi.t,
qi.t, no
there
there need
suggesting is
is no to
noan an
odoo). The demonstratives (> Modern are,Mongolianhowever, odoo). not necessarily The demonstratives are, however, not necess
expect a full
expect
expect correspondence
aa full
full correspondence
correspondence between Khitan
between
between 25
25 and Khitan
Khitan Proto-Mongolic.
and
and Proto-Mongolic.
Proto-Mongolic. It is thereforeItIt is
is not
theref
there
y there isofaasuggesting
no need to an item totally different isisisfrom Mongolic *te-. demonstrations of the relationshi
25
ements
ements of of item
itemtotally
alanguage,
language, totally
which
which different
different
isisisNumerals.
why
why from
from there
there Mongolic
Mongolic no no
noneed *te-.
*te-.
need
olic.
lements
It is therefore
language,
surprising among
not
which
that
surprising
surprisingthethe most
Khitan
that
that
why stable
the
the
there
distal
Khitan
Khitan
One
Numerals.
elements
pronoun
of
distal
distal
theneed
One of
is
most
pronounato
pronoun

oftotolanguage,
qi
simple
the most simple
that
is
is :qi which
plural
qi that
that
demonstrations
:is why
: plural qi.t,
plural there
suggesting
isofno
qi.t,
qi.t,
thenee
an
sugges
sugge
sugge
re
nce
cencebetweenbetween
betweenKhitan Khitan
Khitanexpect and
and
andProto-Mongolic.
Proto-Mongolic.
Proto-Mongolic.
aOne fullof and Mongolic ItIt
andIt isis
is therefore
therefore
therefore
is
Mongolic offered not
isnot
not
by the
offered basic
by the numerals.
basic Most
numerals. numeral
Most roots
nume
ofcorrespondence between Khitan
*te-. and Proto-Mongolic. It is therefore
25 25
25
25
qi.t, item
suggesting totally
isisNumerals.qian item
item different
totally
totally from
different
different Mongolic from
from *te-.
Mongolic
Mongolic *te-.
distal
istal
distal pronoun
pronoun
pronoun Numerals.isNumerals.
qi
surprising One
qithat
that
that One :of
:plural
:thatthe
plural
plural the
the
written
the most

most
most
Khitan in simple
simple
qi.t,
qi.t, simple
qi.t,
two
written suggesting
suggesting
distal ways:
in demonstrations
demonstrations
demonstrations
suggesting twoeither
pronoun anan
ways:an by
is a qi
either of
of the
of
single the
the
by
that
relationship
relationship
relationship
acharacter,
:single
plural often
character,

between
between
forsuggestin
qi.t,
Khitan
Khita
cardinal
often for
Mongolic
Mongolic
Mongolic*te-. *te-.
*te-.
25
between and
25and
25 Mongolic
Mongolic
Khitan is
and is offered
offered
Mongolic
sequence by
by ofthe
sequencethe
is basic
basic
offered
characters, of numerals.
numerals.
by often
characters, the
25 for Most
Most
basic numeral
numeral
numerals.
ordinals.
often for In
ordinals.roots
roots
bothMost in
in Khitan
cases,
In Khitan
both it can
is can
cases, a be
qub
Numerals.
written
written item intotally
One
Numerals.
Numerals.
in two
two different
ofways:the
ways: One
One most offrom
of
either
either simple
the
theby by Mongolic
most
mosta a demonstrations
simple
simple
single
single *te-.
demonstrations
demonstrations
character,
character, ofoftenthe relationship
often for
for of
ofcardinals,
the
the relationship
cardinals, between
relationship or
or in
in Khitan
between
between
terms
terms
numeral roots in Khitan signscan with bea written
signs with a in
phonetic two ways:
value,
phonetic though
value, either
some
though by of asome thesinglesingle
of thecharacters single cha of
of
nship
tsimple
simple between and Mongolic
Khitan
sequence
sequence and
and of
of is
Mongolic
Mongolic offered
characters,
characters, is
is by oftenthe
offered
offered
often basic
forby
forby numerals.
the
the
ordinals.
ordinals. basic
basic In
In Most
numerals.
numerals.
both
both numeral
cases,
cases,Most
Most it
it roots
numeral
isnumeral
is a a in
question Khitan
question roots
roots in
ofin
of can Khitanbe
Khitan
syllabic
syllabi
st simpledemonstrations
demonstrations
demonstrations
character, of
often
Numerals. of
ofthe the
the
for relationship
One relationship
relationship
lack
cardinals, of orbetween
athephonetic
lack
most between
between
in atermsphonetic
simple Khitan
Khitan
Khitan
approximation.
of a sequence
approximation.
demonstrations From the
of characters,
of From
the combined the often
relationship information
combined between inform Khof
yby oots
ythethe in Khitan writtencan
signs
signs withbein two
written
written
with ways:
aanumeralinin
phonetic
phonetic two
two eitherways:
ways:
value,
value,by a
either
eithersingle
though
though by
by character,
aa
some
some single
single of
of the often
character,
character,
the singlesinglefor cardinals,
often
often
characters
characters for
for or in
cardinals,
cardinals,
for
fornumeralterms
numerals
numerals or
or of
in
in asti
ter
ter
stil
thebasicbasic
basicnumerals.
numerals.
numerals.
for ordinals. and Most
Most
Most
In
Mongolic numeral
both numeral spelling
cases, roots
roots
roots
ischaracters,
offeredit weininin
spelling
is a Khitan
Khitan
can Khitan
question
byoften the establish
we can
basiccan
can
can
of bebebethe
establish
syllabic
numerals. following the
signs basic
following
with a numeral
basic
phonetic stems: 2
stem
rinals, or sequence
in terms lack
lack of of
aaasequence characters,
sequence
phonetic
phonetic of
of
approximation.
approximation.often or
characters, for ordinals.
often
From
From for
forthe
the In
ordinals.
ordinals.both cases,
acombined InMost
In both
both it numeral
is
cases,
cases,a question itofroots
itofisisthe in
of
aa question Khitan
syllabic
question of
ofca
er by
by
byaaasingle
single
single character,
character,
value,character, though
written often
often
often insome for
for
twofor cardinals,
cardinals,
cardinals,
of
ways:hu.ur-
the ororinin
hur-,
single
either hu.ur- in
by terms
terms
4terms

hur-,
characters
a single of of
of 4combined
t.ur- acharacter,
afordur-, t.ur-information
numerals 5information
tau
dur-,
often still
for 5tau,
lack 7the
tau
cardinals,
atau,two
two
or da 7intypes
types
.lo-
2terms dodo
aftenquestion of signs
syllabic
spelling
spellingwith a
signs
signs
we
we phonetic
canwith
with
can a a
establish
establish value,
phonetic
phonetic the
thethough
value,
value,
following
following some
though
though of
basic
basic the
some
some
numeralsingle
26 of
numeral of the
thecharacters
stems:
stems: single
single 2 2
for
characters
characters numerals
ci.ur-
ci.ur- for
for
jur-,
jur-, still
numer
numer33
en
ten for for
forordinals.
ordinals.
ordinals.
phonetic
In
In both
both
bothcases,
Insequence cases,
cases,
approximation. of it ititisis
to isaFrom
characters, aaquestion
Mongolic question
question
tothe often ofof
2 combined
Mongolic *jir- of
for syllabic
syllabic
syllabic
(or *jr-),
2 *jir-
ordinals. information(orIn3*jr-),
*gur-,
both
26
ofcases, 34 *gur-,
the *dr-,
two itofis 45a*dr-,
types *tab-,
question 75 *dal-
*tab-,
of is7
syll

ue, ters
e, for numeralslack a phonetic
still
hu.ur-
hu.ur-lack
lack a
hur-,a
hur-, approximation.
phonetic
phonetic
4 4 approximation.
approximation.
t.ur-
t.ur- From
dur-,
dur-, 5the
5 combined
From
From
tau
tau the
the
tau,
tau, 77information
combined
combined

dada information
information
.lo-
.lo- the
dal-.
dal-. two of
Theof
The types
the
the two
two
similarity
similarit of tt
ue,though
though
thoughsome some
someof of the
the
ofsignsthesingle
single
singlecharacters characters
it woulditfor
characters for
for
be numerals
would numerals
numerals
impossible be basic still
still
still
to explain
impossible of55to the
explain situation2 2
the situation by assuming by borro
assumi
n of the twoofspelling
spelling
types
toto of
Mongolic we
Mongolic wewith
can
spelling
spellingcan 2 2 awe
we
*jir- phonetic
establish
establish
*jir- can
can
(or
(or thethevalue,
establish
establish
*jr-),
*jr-), following
following
26
26
33thethough
the
*gur-,
*gur-, basic
following
following4 4some
*dr-,numeral
numeral
*dr-, basic
basic the
*tab-,
*tab-,single
stems:
stems:
numeral
numeral 7 7 2
*dal-characters
2*dal-
stems:
stems:
is
isci.ur-
ci.ur-
2 2
for
jur-,
unmistakable,
unmistakable, numerals
ci.ur-
ci.ur- 3 ju
ju
and
an
ation.
tion.
ation.From From
Fromthe the
thecombined
combined
combined
lack abe information
information
information
phonetic numerals of of
of
approximation. the
the
thetwo
for
numerals two
the types
twopowers types
types
for
From theof of
of
thepowersten 100 of jau,
100 1000
teninformation jau, ming,
of1000 10ming 000
hehefollowing
the ci.ur- jur-,
following
following

jur-,
basic
basic
basic
33would
itithu.ur-
would
numeral
numeralhur-,

numeral hu.ur-
hu.ur-
be 4
impossible
impossible
stems:
stems:
stems:
hur-,
hur-,
hur-,2 22
t.ur-

44to
to dur-,
explain
explain
ci.ur-
ci.ur-
ci.ur-
t.ur-
t.ur-
t.ur- 5jur-,
jur-, dur-,
dur-,
dur-,
the
the
jur-,
tau tau,
situation
3 55
situation
33 combined
tau
7by
tau
by tau,
tau,
assumingda772.lo-
assuming
dal-.
da
da2222.lo-
borrowing.
borrowing. The
.lo- the
dal-.
dal-.
The
The two
similarity The
The
highetype
highe sim
si
si
spelling we can Mongolic
establish cognates:
Mongolic
26 the following 26
26
26 *jaxu-,
cognates: basic *mingga-,
26 *jaxu-, numeral and
*mingga-, stems: *tme-,2and though
*tme-,
ci.ur- they
though
jur-, ar
r- - dal-.
r-dur-, The to
dal-. Mongolic
similarity The
numerals
numerals to
to 2
similarity
Mongolic
Mongolic
for
for *jir-
the
the to(or
powers2
2
powers *jr-),
Mongolic
*jir-
*jir- of (or
of(or 3
2
ten
ten *gur-,
*jir-
*jr-),
*jr-),
100
100 (or
4
33 *dr-,
*jr-),
*gur-,
*gur-,
jau,
jau, 10005
100043
4 *tab-,
*gur-,
*dr-,
*dr-,
74
ming,55
ming, *dal-
*dr-,
*tab-,
*tab-,1010 is57
7
000unmistakable,
000*tab-,
*dal-
*dal- is
is
tum
tum unmistakab
unmistaka
also
also andhave
hav
ur- dur-,
dur-,555 tau tau
tau tau,
tau,
tau, 7
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ItIt(2010:
may byby we do
*jr-a/n
*jr-a/n
language,
be noted that
may nevertheless
nevertheless notbe know
sixty
sixty
we the
be noted do
noted whether
(2x3x10).
(2x3x10).
not
numeral
thatknow
that thethethe borrowing
whether
root for 2 root
numeral
numeral the
is
root happened
borrowing
harmonically
for befo
hap
for 22 isis harm
harm
the present paper 27 cf.
will
27 not also Yingzhe Janhunen 65-66).
constructions
onstructions
constructionsare, are,
are,inin
inprinciple,
On
ambiguous:principle,
On 26the
the
principle, teens well
teens
ambiguous:well
ambiguous:
Since well
palatal
the known,
known,
the
ininProto-Mongolic
Jurchen-Manchu,
known,
vocalism
palatal
palatal the
Jurchen-Manchu, the
the present
Proto-Mongolicpresent
present
the
isvocalism
suggested
vocalism cf.paper
cf. paper
isand
Janhunen
Janhunen
paper
Proto-Mongolic
is
reconstructions by will
will
will
suggested
suggested not
not
Para-Mongolic
(1993).
(1993).
not
and
*ji-txer
are, by Although
Althoughlineages.
inPara-Mongolic
by second
*ji-txer
*ji-txer
principle, these
these
(wife) Theitemsstructure
items
lineages.
second
second
well and
known, were
were
(wife)
(wife) The
possibly of
thecertainlythe
certainly
structure
and
and
present teens
*jirin
possibly
possiblyof in
borrowed
borrowe
two
paper theJu
*jt
*ji
wi
root
may for 2
ay nevertheless is
nevertheless harmonically
may neverthelessbe be
be noted
from noted
fromnoted that
that
thatthe
aaMongolic
Mongolic the
thenumeral
numeralfromroot
language,
language,
numeral root
wefor
that
we
root for
do
do 2not
attested
fornot
from 22isis harmonically
know harmonically
in
isknow
that the language
whether
whether
harmonically
attested in the of the Khitan
theborrowing
borrowing
language texts.
happened
of happened
the Khitan On
before
before the or
texts. reconstruction
or after
afterthe
On the splitan
therecons
split oo
ongolic 2 *jir- (or *jr-),26 3 *gur-, 4 *dr-, 5 *tab-, 7 *dal- is unmistakable, and
uld be impossible to explain the situation by assuming borrowing. The higher
rals for the powers of ten 100 jau, 1000 ming, 10 000 tum also have
golic cognates: *jaxu-, *mingga-, and *tme-, though they are less diagnostic,
they would have been more liable to be borrowed.
We also know the approximate phonetic shape of the Khitan numeral stem 9
numeral 9 is ~ yis. This comparison is wrong, however, for the Mongolian
is-. This item is often compared with the Modern Mongolian numeral 9 is ~ yis.
comparison isitem derives
wrong, from for
however, *yer-s/n (as also initem
the Mongolian 90 derives
*yer-e/n), an *yer-s/n
from innovation of the
Proto-Mongolic
lso in 90 *yer-e/n), an innovationlineage, of the Proto-Mongolic lineage, as isthe
as is also confirmed by data from teens in
also
rmed by dataJurchen-Manchu.
from the teens Another innovation in Mongolic is the numeral
in 6 *jir-
27 27
in Jurchen-Manchu. Another innovation
gu-xa/n
golic is the numeral (2x3), which(2x3),
6 *jir-gu-xa/n must which
have replaced
must havethe originalthe
replaced numeral
originallikely to
hide behind
ral likely to hide behind the
the Khitan character
character SIX. SIX. Judging
Judging by the the corre
corre-sponding
teen in Jurchen-Manchu, the Khitan item may have been nil-, but this
shape cannot yet be confirmed by the Khitan Small Script.
It may be noted further
sponding that the
teen
sponding in & Khitaninbasic
Jurchen-Manchu,
teen numerals seem
thetheKhitan toKhitan
item lack
may itemhavemaybee
Khitan data are quoted from Kane (2009) and Wu Yingzhe Janhunen Jurchen-Manchu,
(2010). On demon- the
anehu, item may
the Khitan
pronouns, the
have
cf. also stem
Wubeen
item extension
maynil-,
Yingzhe have shape
but
(2009,been *-pA/n
this
2011). cannot >
shape
nil-, but*-bA/n
yetcannot
this ~
be confirmed *-xA/n,
yet be confirmed which
by the Khitan is present
by the Small
Khitanin the
Script.
Small Script.
his
he case,
mall the Small
Script.
Khitan Mongolic
discrepancy
Script. hasitems for the
also been first
It may
explained decade
by be drawing 3 *gur-ba/n,
Itnoted
may thefurther
beRomanization
noted 4 further
that *dr-be/n,
theof Khitan
the
that 7the
*dal.u-xa/
basic
Khitan numerals
Khitan basic seem
nume
ter into question.n,Most and recently,
others. Wu
ThisYingzhe
element
extension (2011: 73-76)
might,
*-pA/n > has
then,
*-bA/nsuggested
represent
~ the an
*-xA/n, Romanization
innovation
which is te, specific
present in the Mongo
basic numerals seem to lack the
at the Khitan basic numerals seem to lack the stem stem extension *-pA/n > *-bA/n ~ *-xA/n, which is present in t
uent with Mongolic *te, though mun, which would correspond to Mongolic *mn this, has also
present
A/n,
proposed.which in the to the
Mongolic
is present such
Unfortunately, Proto-Mongolic
in theitems first
for decade
the
Mongolic items
reinterpretations lineage, 3
first
are notfor
*gur-ba/n,
though
decade
the
compatible 3 it 4is *dr-be/n,
also
*gur-ba/n, possible
4 7 *dal.u-xa/n,
that
*dr-be/n,
with the evidence supporting the7 and
Khitan others.
*dal.u-xa/n, andThio
-xa/n,
e/n, 7 and asnumeral
others.
*dal.u-xa/n,
manization qi, andsystem
This
established element
others. then,
was
on the basismight,
This of represent
secondarily
element then,
another an innovation
simplified;
represent
might,
(ethnonymic) specific
anininnovation
attestationfact,bywe Kanetodothe
specificProto-Mongolic
not know
(2009: to thewhat
73), lineage,
Proto-Mongoli
oto-Mongolic
oific
Wuto Yingzhe &lineage,exactthough
Janhunen
the
the Proto-Mongolic (2010:
shapes itpossible
ofis the
65-66).
lineage, also that
Khitan
though itthe
possible Khitan
numerals
is alsothat the numeral
were Khitan system
numeral
in absolute was secondarily
system
cardinal Onsimplified;sim
was secondarily
use. i
e the Proto-Mongolic reconstructions are,
know in principle,
whatknow thedo well
exact known,
not shapes the present
of3 shapes
the paper
Khitan will not
numerals were
condarily
ystem wassimplified;
secondarily
s them in the detail. the other insimplified;
fact, wethe
It may hand,
nevertheless
doin notfact,
Khitan
be noted
we
numerals
thatthe
what 2thejur-,
the Khitan
numeral
exact
root hur-,
for 2 is 4of the
dur- Khitan
harmonicallycontain thein absolute
numerals were in
erals
Khitanwere in absolute
numerals were cardinal
in absolutethe other
use. On
cardinal hand,
the other
use. On hand, thenumerals
Khitan 2numerals
jur-, 3 2hur-,jur-, 43dur-
hur-, contain
4 du
uous: palatal vocalismsegment is *r, which by
suggested most probably
*ji-txer second is a(wife)
derivative element.
and possibly Thistwo
*jirin element is
hur-,
ls 2 4
jur-,dur-
3 contain
hur-,
es), while velar also
vocalism 4 the
dur- segmentwhich
contain
is suggested *r,
the most probably
which
segment
by *jr-a/nmeaning most
*r,
sixty (2x3x10). is a derivative
probably is a element.
derivative This element
element. This is also
elementpresi
present in Mongolic, that it must represent an innovation
his element is also present in meaning
Mongolic,
e element. This element is also present in Mongolic,
he teens in Jurchen-Manchu, cf. Janhunen (1993). that
meaningit
Although must represent
that
these it must
items an innovation
represent
were certainly an common
innovation
borrowed to both
common thetoPro
bo
Mongolic language, commonwe do to notboth
knowthethe Proto-Mongolic
Para-Mongolic
whether the borrowinglineage.and the28Para-Mongolic
happened 28 thelineage.
before or after split of
28
mmon to both
nnovation the Proto-Mongolic
common and the Para-Mongolic
to both the Proto-Mongolic and lineage.
oto-Mongolic and Para-Mongolic lineages. The structure of the teens in Jurchen-Manchu differs
Terms
hat attested in the for the
language four
of the Khitan
Terms texts.Among
seasons. On the the
forTerms
the four surprises
reconstruction
forseasons.
the offered
and
fourAmong bysurprises
theofcomparative
connections
seasons.the
Among
the
the offered byoffered
surprises the comby
n numerals, cf. also Chingeltei (1997).
es offered
g the material
by the
surprises are
comparative
offered by the thematerial
terms
are thefor
comparative terms
arethe fourterms
for
the
material seasons,
the four which
for seasons,
the fourare virtually
which
seasons, identical
arewhich
virtually are identical
virtually in id
s,virtually
which are in
identical Khitan
virtually () andProto-Mongolic
in Khitan
identical ()Proto-Mongolic
inandKhitan () (*):
Proto-Mongolic (*): )*( :
and heu.r
heu.r
haur
haur ==*kabur
heu.r haurspring,
*kabur =spring,
*kabur ju3
spring
bur
haur spring,
= *kabur jun
ju33.un jun
spring, ==
summer, 3*jun
ju*jun
.un jun summer,

summer,
= *jun n.am.r
namur namur
n.am.r=namur*namur== *namurautumn,
autumn,
*namur u.ul
autumn,
ur = *namur autumn, autumn, u.ul
u.ul uul = *ebl)
u.ul uul
*bl uul =
(< winter.
= *bl
*bl (<
*ebl) Since
winter. the possibility
Since the of a wholesale
(< *ebl) winter. Since the possibility
possibility of a borrowing
wholesale is ext
borrow
esale
ity of borrowing
a wholesale of is extremely is
a borrowing
wholesale it must
unlikely, be a
extremelyitis unlikely,
borrowing mustquestion
extremely of
be aunlikely, cognates.
questionitofmust Moreover,
cognates. the
Moreover,
be a question Khitan items,
of the Khita
r,
es.the Khitancognates.
Moreover, items, when
the Khitan identical
not
items,
Moreover, fully
when
the with
Khitannottheir
identical fully
items,Proto-Mongolic
with whentheirnot counterparts,
Proto-Mongolic
fully show
identicalcounterparts,
with theira somewhat
show a so g
cs, counterparts,
show a somewhat show greater
a somewhat phonological
degree innovation.
of phonological
greater degree This would
of innovation. seem
This to confirm
would seem tothat Khitan
confirm waK
that
onfirm
uld seemthatto Khitan
confirm
27 was
thatgenerally
Khitan innovative,
more
was generally or also
innovative,more more
or worn,
also more
On the teens in Jurchen-Manchu, cf. Janhunen (1993). Although these items were
than Proto-Mongolic.
worn, than Proto-Mongolic.
ongolic.
han Proto-Mongolic. certainly borrowed from a Mongolic The terms for the
The
language, wefour
terms doforseasons
notthe also
fourwhether
know provide
seasons thealso anprovide
important
borrowing clue
an impo
ide an important happened
clue tobefore orthe
after
understanding
ons also provide an important clue to understanding innovations
the split
the of shared
the
innovations by Proto-Mongolic
Proto-Mongolic
shared and
by and
Para-Mongolic
Proto-Mongolic Para-Mongolic.
lineages.
and Para-MongThe
Para-Mongolic. TheThe structure
medial of the inteens
nasal *min Jurchen-Manchu
*namur in autumn
*namur differs
must
autumn from
represent
mustthat represent
attested
the same in segment
the language
the same as the
segment medial
as t
Mongolic and Para-Mongolic. The medial nasal *m
of the Khitan texts. On the reconstruction and connections of the Khitan numerals, cf.
segment
nt the same as the medialasobstruent
segment the(1997).*kabur
medial spring.
*b obstruent
in *kabur In other
*bspring.
in words,
In other words, it is a question of a suffix,re
it is a question of a suffix, possibly
also Chingeltei
of aa question
is suffix, possibly
of reconstructable
28 a suffix, Pre-Proto-Mongolic
as Pre-Proto-Mongolic *-pUr, which
*-pUr, is represented as *-mUr as
which is represented after
*-mU a
Using the possibly
method ofreconstructable
internal reconstruction, as the *r in 3 *gur- may be compared
hedis as *-mUr with
represented afterasthea syllable
*-mUr
*t present nasal
afterwith onset,
an
in aMongolic
syllable nasal
30and
with asan
onset,
*guc-i/n *-bUr
<and elsewhere.
as *-bUr
*gut-/n, though Possibly,
elsewhere. the element
Possibly,
the background of thisthe*(-)bl
element in *
he Possibly,
re. element *(-)bl in *bl
correspondence
the element is
*(-)bl also
winter
unknown. relevant
in *blis Thealso inrelevant
case
winter this
of 4iscontext.
*dr- 40In
in :this any may
context.
*dcin case,
Inbethe
any
morechange
case, *pchange
the
complicated > *m, which
*p > *m
yange
case,*pthe > *m, since
changewhich this>
*p basic
may*m,be digit
seen
which is also
case as
mayofaattested
progressive
becase
seen in
ofassome Mongolic
adistant
progressive languages
assimilation,
distant (Shirongolic)
is likely toas
assimilation, *der-,
is have
likelytaken
to haveplace ta
while the corresponding decade is present,
protolanguage of as a loanword, inand
Proto-Mongolic Tungusic in the unexpected
Para-Mongolic. 29 29
ly to have taken
ation, is likelyshape place
to have in the common
taken place in the common protolanguage of Proto-Mongolic and Para-Mongolic.
29 (*)deki(n), cf. Doerfer (1985: 78-79).
and Para-Mongolic.29
ngolic.
Kinship terms. Kinship In view
terms.ofInthe numerals
view of the and the terms
numerals and forthe the
termsfourforsea
th
termsand
erals for the
the terms
four seasons that
it is curious
for the four there
seasons itthat is no there is no overall correspondence in the realm ofterm
is curiousoverall correspondence in the realm of kinship kin
realm in
dence of the
kinship
realmterminology. Khitan
Severalkinship
of kinship terminology. Khitan terms,
Several kinship including ai father,
terms, including ai ia elder
father, ia elder
brother,
elder brother,
aiiafather, ia elder ausister,
and brother, elder
and have au no
sister, elder obvious
have no cognates on the Mongolic
obvious cognates on the Mongolicside. In s
numerals
he Khitan2numerals jur-, 3 hur-, 2 jur-, 4 dur-
3 hur-, contain
4 dur- thecontain
segmentthe *r,segmentwhich most *r, probably is a derivative elem
ent. ablyThis
erivative element
is a element.
derivative isThis
also
element. present
element This meaning
isinalsoMongolic,
element present isthat initmeaning
also must represent
Mongolic,
present that
in meaning it
Mongolic, an innovation
must represent
that it mustan commoninnovation
represent toan bothcommo
innovathe P
28
on common
ent anrepresent
must innovation to both the
common tocommon
an innovation Proto-Mongolic
both the to the Para-Mongolic
and
both thethe
Proto-Mongolic lineage.
Para-Mongolic
and the Para-Mongolic
Proto-Mongolic andlineage. 28
lineage. 28
28
8
ic lineage.28120 SCRIPTA, VOLUME 4 (2012)
Terms for the Terms four seasons. for the Terms Among
four seasons.
for the four
the surprises
Among seasons. offered
the Among by the
surprises theoffco
cs
urprises
ur Amongseasons. offered
theAmong by
surprises the comparative
theofferedsurprises by offered are the
material
the comparative terms
by the comparative for
are the
the
material materialfour
terms are seasons,
for
the theterms which
four for are
seasons,
the virtually
four whichseasons, identical
are virtu
whi
ch are four virtually identical incounterparts,
Khitan Proto-Mongolic
() in and (*): heu.r
Proto-Mongolic andhaur heu.r =(*):*kabur spring,
rseasons,
the which
seasons, are which
Proto-Mongolic virtually are identical
virtually Khitan
identical
show aProto-Mongolic
()
in Khitan
somewhat and ()(*):
greater degree of phono haur heu.r= *kabur haur
= *kabur spring, ju .un jun summer,
= *jun summer, n.am.r namur n.am.r = *namur autumn, = u.
heu.r
(*): haur heu.r = *kabur
logical haur
innovation. spring,
= *kabur
3
This spring,
would ju3.un seem jun toju= *junjun
3.un
confirm summer,
that = *jun
Khitan wasnamur n.am.r
generally = *namur
namur autu *
*n
amur
namur
n.am.r autumn,
= more
*namur
namur u.ul
autumn,
= *namur uul = *ebl)
autumn,
*bl
u.ul winter.
(<
uul
= *ebl)
u.ul Since
*bl uul the
winter.
(< = possibility
*ebl)
*bl Sincewinter.
(< of a wholesale
the possibility
Since the of borrowing
a wholesale
possibility ofis a
innovative, or also more
it unlikely,
must worn,
be ais than Proto-Mongolic.
wholesale
ossibility
Since ofborrowing
a wholesale
the possibility of isaextremely
borrowing
wholesale is extremely
borrowing itquestion
must beofitaunlikely,
unlikely,
extremely cognates.
question
must be aof Moreover,
cognates.of
question theMoreover,
Khitan item
cognates. th
M
oreover, theMoreover,The
Khitan items, terms for the
when the four
identical
not seasons
fully with also
their provide
Proto-Mongolic an important
counterparts, clue to
show a somewh
cognates.
uestion of cognates. the Khitan
Moreover, items, Khitan when identical
items, not when fullywith nottheir
identical fully Proto-Mongolic
with their Proto-Mongolic counterparts, coun sh
understanding the innovations phonological of shared innovation. by Proto-Mongolic
This would and Para-seem
erparts,
Mongolic
eir show a somewhat
counterparts,
Proto-Mongolic showgreater
counterparts, a somewhat degree
show a greater
somewhat phonological
degree greater innovation.
of phonological
degree of seem This towould
innovation. confirm Thisthat toKhitan
would confirmsee
m
his to confirm
wouldThis Mongolic.
that
seemwould Khitan
to confirm The was medial
generally
thatconfirm Khitanthatnasal
innovative, more *m
wasKhitan in
or
generally *namur
also
innovative, more autumn
worn,
or also
innovative, must
than
more or represent
Proto-Mongolic.
worn,
also more thanthe Proto-Mongol
worn, than Pr
Pro
ovation. seem to wasmore generally more
to-Mongolic.
so orn, more than same
Proto-Mongolic.
worn, segment
than Proto-Mongolic. as the medial obstruent
The terms *b in
for *kabur
the
The four
terms spring.
seasons
for the In alsoother
four words,
provide
seasons
The terms for the four seasons als analso important
provide cla
our s forprovide
seasons
the four an it is a
important
alsoseasons question
providealso clue of
to
an provide
importanta suffix,
the
understandinganclue possibly
innovations
importantto understandingreconstructable
the shared
clueinnovations by
to understanding as
Proto-Mongolic Pre-Proto-Mongolic
shared by Proto-Mongolic
the innovations and Para-Mongolic.
shared by Proto-Mongol Proto-Mongoand Para T
c and
Proto-Mongolic *pUr,
Para-Mongolic.
shared by Proto-Mongolic and which The is and
Para-Mongolic. represented
medial in *namur
Theasmedial
nasal
Para-Mongolic. *m autumn
*-mUrin The after
*namur
nasal medialmust
a syllable
*m represent
autumn
innasal*namur with
*mmust the
an nasal
autumn same
represent segment
onset,
mustthe as the
same segm
represent med
me
the
ame
epresent
mn segment
must the and asasthe*-bUr
same
represent medial
segment
the same as the*kabur
obstruent
elsewhere. segment medial asspring.
*b
Possibly, inobstruent
the theInelement
*kabur
medial other
*b in words,
spring.
obstruent *(-)bl
*kabur Initspring.
*b inisina *bl
other question
words, itofis awords,
In winter
other a suffix,
question itpossibl
isof a qua
estion
ords, In other itofisawords,
asuffix, possibly reconstructable Pre-Proto-Mongolic
is also relevant in this context. In any case, the change *p > *m, which
question it is of
a a suffix,
question possibly
of a suffix, as
reconstructable
possibly *-pUr,
Pre-Proto-Mongolic as
reconstructable which
Pre-Proto-Mongolic as is
*-pUr, represented
which *-pUr, is as *-mUr
represented
which after
is reas
rep
resented
which
olic *-pUr, may is as *-mUr
represented
which after as a syllable
*-mUr nasal
after with onset,
a an
syllable and nasal as
with *-bUr
onset,an elsewhere.
and
nasal as *-bUr
onset, Possibly,
and elsewhere.
as *-bUrthe element
Possibly,
elsewhere. *(-)bl
the Pos el
be is seen represented
as a case as *-mUr afterdistant
of progressive a syllable assimilation,with an is likely to have
ibly,
sewhere.
as *-bUrthe element
Possibly,
elsewhere. *(-)bl
the in *bl
element
Possibly, *(-)blalso
winter relevant
inprotois
*bl inalso this
winter context.
in relevant is also inInthis any
relevant case,
context. in the In change
this any
context. case, *pIn >any
the *m,
change whi
case,
taken place in thethe common element *(-)bl language *bl of winter
Proto-Mongolic is and Para-
he
.his change
In context.
any case, *p >
Inthe *m,
anychange which
case, may
*p >change
the be
*m, which case
seen of
*p > may as progressive
a
*m, which becase seen distant
ofasprogressive
may abecase assimilation, distant
seenofasprogressive
a is likely
assimilation, to have
distant assimilation, taken
is likely to pl
Mongolic. 29
protolanguage of Proto-Mongolic and Para-Mongolic. 29
sive likely
assimilation, to have taken
is likely to ishave
distant assimilation, place in
likely the
taken common
to have placetaken in theprotolanguage
common
place in theprotolanguage of Proto-Mongolic
common of Proto-Mongolicand Para-Mongolic and Pa
29
a-Mongolic.
fngolic and Para-Mongolic.
Proto-Mongolic and Para-Mongolic.29
29
Kinship terms. In view Kinship of the numerals Inand viewthe terms for the and
terms.Kinship ofKinship
terms. theIn numerals
view terms. of four
the
In view
seasons
the
numerals terms
of theand for the
the four
numerals termas
it is curious that there is
that no overall
there correspondence in the realm of kinship
nd
he
n view the
numeralsterms
of theand for the
thefour
numerals terms seasons
and for
thethe itfour
terms is curious the is
seasons
for four itnothat overall
isseasonsthere itcorrespondence
curious isthat
isnocurious noinoverall
overallis correspondence
there the realm ofin kinship
correspondence the realm tei
nrespondence
the realm
overall correspondence terminology.
of kinship
in the realm Several
terminology.
in of thekinship Khitan
realm of Khitan Several kinship
kinship
terminology.
kinship terminology. terms,
terms,
Khitan including
kinship
Several Several Khitan terms,
kinshipai father,
father,
including terms, aiia
ia
including elder
father, brothe
ai
ia
fa
her,
ding
erms, ai
including elder
iafather,
elder brother,
brother,
ai ia elder
father, and
and sister,
iaau
brother, elder
elder have
and sister, au have
no
sister,
brother, obvious
elder
and have
nosister,
au obvious
cognates
noelder obvious
have cognatesonnocognates
the onMongolic
obvious the on theside.
cognates Mon onI
the
o cognates Mongolic
obvious on Mongolic side.
the Mongolic
cognates side.In In
other
on the Mongolic other correspondences
casescases
side. In other the the
side. correspondences
cases are
correspondences
In other uncertain: cases are
the correspondences are mo
uncertain:
theuncertain: woman,are mother,
mo
uncertain: woman, wife
momow (pl
oman,
ain:are mother,
mo woman,
uncertain: woman, wife
(plural
momother,
mother,
woman, wife

wife mo.t)
mother, bu and
(plural
(plural grandfather
wife (plural mo.t) bu (in
and
grandfather
and
mo.t) bubu
bu (in
ai id.)
grandfather
grandfather
and have bu(in
(inbeen
aiid.) compared
bu aibeen
have id.w
her have
(inbeen
bu ai
id.) compared
buaiaiid.)
bu
have been with
id.) have Mongolic
compared
have been woman
beencompared with *eme
compared resp.
Mongolicwith with *eb-gen
womanMongolic
*eme
Mongolic resp. old
*eme
woman *ememan,
*eb-gen
woman but
resp. old the
resp.man,
*eb-gen issue
*eb-old cannot
but the man, be
issue bc
bu
told theman,
*eb-gen issueold cannot
but
gen the man,
old
man, bebut
issue considered
cannot
but
thethe issue beascannot
issue fully
considered
cannotbebeconsidered as fully as
considered as fullyfully concluded. The 30
ded. 30 30
d. The The comparison
comparison
comparison betweenbetween
between b.qob.qo
b.qo child
child
child (plural
(plural
(plural 30 b.hu.n)
b.hu.n)
b.hu.n) and
and andMongolic
The
3030
concluded.
concluded. TheThe
concluded.comparison
comparison 30
The
concluded. between
between
comparison b.qo
b.qo
between
comparison child
child

between (plural
(plural
b.qo
childb.qo b.hu.n
(plural b.hu.
child
olic
c ld *baga
*baga
(plural small*baga
small

b.qo child (plural b.hu.n) > small
child
> child
Mongolic
Mongolic
b.hu.n) >is child
is
also
andalso
*baga is also
problematic.
*baga problematic.
28
Using
Mongolic small problematic.
small the
and30
method
>
*baga> 28
child
child of
Using
smallinternal
isis also
the also 28
28
methodreconstruction,
problematic.
> small problematic.
Using
child of internal
the
is method
also the *r in
reconstruction,
of 3 *gur-
internal
problematic. may*rbeincompare
the
reconstruction, compar
3 *gur-th
Mongolic Mongolic
*guc-i/n <*baga
*gut-/n, though >the child
background is alsoofproblematic.
here
There
*r in 3are, are,
*gur- however,
however,
may There 3also
beincompared also
thegood
are, good
however,
with
There and
There3the and non-trivial
*t
are, non-trivial
also
present
are, good
however,
however, correspondences.
incompared correspondences.
and Mongolic
also
*talso non-trivial
good
good 30 *guc-i/n
andMongolic
and TheseThese
correspondences.
<in
non-trivial
non-trivial30 include
*gut-/n, include
*guc-i/n though Thesethethis
< *gut-/n,
correspondences.
correspondences.
correspondenc
background
though These theofbac
These thi
in
construction,
oblematic.
of internal the *r
reconstruction, *gur- may
*r in be compared
*gur- of 4may
*dr- There
with
be : 40
the are,
*dcin
of 4
however,
present
with
There may
*dr-
in
the
are,
be
: 40
*t
more also
present
however,
*dcin
good
complicated
may be
and
also non-trivial
good
since
more thisand
complicated basic corresponden
non-trivial
digit
since isthis cor
alsobasiatt
haa.ha
ground<naha of
naha this
the(plural correspondence
(plural isna.ha.n.er)
na.ha.n.er)
unknown. The case
maternal
is maternal uncle
uncle = *der-,of
*naga-cu
= 4 *dr-
*naga-cu : 40
id., id.,*dcin
may be more complicated
/nthough *gut-/n,
correspondences. include
background
though the of

These this
background
correspondence
na.ha
na.ha
include naha
naha
ofnaha
this (plural
(plural unknown.
(plural
correspondence
na.ha

naha The case
is(plural na.ha.n.er)
asna.ha.n.er)
unknown. Thewhile case maternal
maternal
maternal
na.ha.n.er) uncle
uncle
uncle ==*naga-cu
*naga-cu id.,
id
ore
non-trivial
ince
this
x.i bebasic
x.i
complicated
in may
keu
correspondences.
keu
more digit is this
younger
younger
since
complicatedalsobasicattested
sister
sister
sincedigit
These
in=
this some
is *ke
=

also
basic*ke
include
languages
Mongolic
child,
child,
attested
digit is

(Shirongolic)
in
alsoand
some
na.ha
languages
and very
attested very
Mongolic
naha
inprobably

probably
some
(plural
(Shirongolic)
languages
Mongolic

deu asthe*der-,
(Shirongolic)
deu deu
corresponding
deu while asmaternal
na.ha.n.er)the decade
*der-, uncle
materna
corresponding
while is the
prese =c
ernal
n.er)rrespondinguncle
maternal ==
decade *naga-cu
*naga-cu
uncleis k.i
k.i=
present, ~*naga-cu
~
id.,

as a k.i
x.i
x.i
k.i
Tungusic
id.,
loanword, ~
keu
keu
~ younger
in
in the
k.i x.i
younger
x.i keu
keu
unexpected
~
Tungusic sister younger
sisteryounger
x.i
in =
shape
the = *ke
keu *ke sister
child,
(*)deki(n), child,
sister
younger
unexpected
Tungusic in the = =
cf.
shape and
and
*ke
Doerfer
sister child,
very
very
child,
(*)deki(n),
unexpected probably
(1985:
= probably
*ke
shape cf. and
78-79).
child,
Doerfer
(*)deki(n),
very deu
(1985deu
pro
and
cf. D
r-,
veolic)
while
the
asdeu.un)
*der-,
deu.un)corresponding
while
younger
younger decade
the corresponding
brother
brother is=29present,
decade
*de(x)
= *de(x) asisid.apresent,
31
id.loanword,
31
29In In twoastwo inloanword,
aitems,items, Khitan in would
Khitan would3131
ke and very
child, and
probably very (genitive
(genitive
deu
probably deu deu The
deu.un)
deu.un)
(genitive
deu deu
deureconstruction
younger
younger
(genitive deu.un)
The ofbrother
the
brother original
deu.un)
younger
reconstruction 29
29
= = consonant
*de(x)
*de(x)
younger
brother
of the id. behind
id. InIn
brother
original= *de(x)the
twotwo
consonant variation
= items,
items,
id. In
behind *b
31 Khitan ~ *m
Khitan
two
the 31w
vait
oerfer
expected(*)deki(n),(1985:
shape 78-79).
cf.(*)deki(n),
Doerfer (1985: cf. Doerfer
78-79).(1985: 78-79). (genitive deu.un) The younger
reconstruction brother
of the =
original *de(x)
consonant id.
have
=oehind
d. have
31 athe
n *de(x)
inal In
thetwo
monosyllabic
aoriginal
of consonant
monosyllabic
variation31 *b ~
id.items, In two
behind
consonant
root
seem
Khitan
the seem
*m rootis(CV)
items, to
variationto
behind
(CV)
not
wouldhave
have where
athe
Khitan
*b where
course,
a~variation
trivial
seem *m Mongolic
toMongolic
amonosyllabic
task,
wouldis
and
monosyllabic
not of
have
*bseem ahas
it is course,
a~ trivial
*m
has
possible
root
rootanotbisyllable,
monosyllabic
to is have
task,aand
(CV) bisyllable,
that
(CV)atrivial
a of
*b
itcourse, would
iswhere
where root
monosyllabic apparently
possible
task, andapparently
bethat
Mongolic
(CV)
of it aisroot
Mongolic better
*b awould
has
possible
where achoice
has
(CV) abe
athat than
a*bbetter
bisyllable,
Mongolicbisyllable,
where
*p. In
wouldhaschoice
Mongolic
other
appare
aappar
be a be
bisy
i
tha
e:ive:
er
choiceku ku
ku
than ku person
*p. person
In other (genitive
(genitive
items, the involves

variation *x,
ku..un)
ku..un)
also as in = the numerals,
*k-xn
=
involves *k-xn*x, id.,
as in
in 32which
id.,
involvesthe
*x, *m
32 numerals,
n.o
as isn.o
in present
no
inno
the which in
numerals, Mongolic
*m isin present
which832*nai-ma/n
32 in
*m Mong
is p
pr
licwould
ssible
ere has be
that
Mongolic a better
a bisyllable,
*b wouldhas a derivative:
choice
be aderivative:
than *p.
apparently
better
bisyllable, choice In
a ku
other kunotku
derivative:
than
apparently
do ku
items,
*p. person
In
know aperson
the
other
variation
derivative:
what ku (genitive
(genitive
ku
items, also
person
the

variation
ku ku (genitive
alsoku..un)
person ku..un) ==*k-xn
(genitive *k-xn
ku..un)
id.,
id., wa
=ku..un)
*k-xn n.n=
ne sent
e= in
*n-kr
=
which Mongolic
*n-kr
numerals, *m is
29
inid., The
id., reconstruction
8 *nai-ma/n.
friend.
present
which friend.
32 in
*m Mongolic In
is present For
In
the32the
8inof
the
item the
time
item
*nai-ma/n.
Mongolic original
being
For
8 consonant
wen.ai.ci
the
*nai-ma/n. timedothe
n.ai.ci not
naiji
phonetic
behind
know
naiji
being
For the we the
what
do
friend
time
shape
friendnot
beingthe
=
ofphonetic
variation
know the
*nai-ji
=
we *b
what
*nai-ji
corresponding
~id. *m
shape
theid. isofnot
phonetic the Khitan
shapenumeral
acorresponding of the cor Kh
n)
esponding = *k-xn
ku..un) id.,
=numeral
trivial
Khitan *k-xn
task, spouse
spouse
of
was. n.o
course, =
no=
id.,Onnumeral
the
*n-kr
*n-kr
and spouse
foritn.o
Khitan the id.,
is no id.,
possible
terms
friend.
friend.
four=spouse
*n-kr
seasons,
that
for the cf.
*b InIn
=id., thethe
*n-kr
also
would
four item
Toyodaitem
friend.
be the
seasons,
for

id.,
In
a (1998). the
friend.
better
cf.
four also n.ai.ci
choice n.ai.ci
item
Toyoda
seasons,
naiji

Inthan
cf. the naiji
(1998).
also item
*p. friend
Toyoda
friend
Inn.ai.ci
(1998).
= =
naiji *nai
*na
n.ai.c f
nches hape
he
ranches of
phonetic the
havehavecorresponding
shape
afriendof
derivative;the
a derivative; Khitan
corresponding
the the root root Khitan
*nai was.
*nai On
numeral
friendship the
friendship Khitan
was. On
isthe terms
is the
preserved Khitan
preserved terms
inin in
Mongolic,
Mongolic,
m
oda ai.ci
naiji
(1998). other
n.ai.ci items,
naiji both
= both
the branches
*nai-ji branches
variation
friend id. = have
both
also have
*nai-ji a
involvesa
branches
id. derivative;
derivative;
both *x, have
as in
branches the
a the root
root
derivative;
numerals,
have *nai
*nai
a friendship
the friendship
which
derivative; root *m *nai
is is
present
the is preserved
preserved
friendship
root in*nai in in
is
friendshiMonMon
pres
also
dship
*nai scf.also
also
is
Toyoda
attested
attested in(1998).
preserved
friendship in
other
Mongolic other
is in 8derivatives
and derivatives
*nai-ma/n.
and ititisisalso
Mongolic,
preserved inFor
also like like
the
attested *nai-r
attested
and
Mongolic, *nai-r
ittime
isinalso
in concord,
being
other
and concord,
other itwe do festivity.
derivatives
attested
is infestivity.
not
derivatives
also know
other
attested likewhat
like in*nai-rthe phonetic
*nai-r
derivatives
other concord,
concord,
like *nai-r
derivatives shape ofconcord,
festivity.
festivity.
like *nai-r conc festiv
the corresponding Khitan numeral was. On the Khitan terms for the four seasons, cf. also
concord,
ke *nai-rfestivity. concord, festivity.
ucture.
tructure. Khitan Toyoda
Khitan seems (1998).
seems to to have have been been characterized
characterized by
Root
Root structure.
structure. Root Khitan
Khitan
structure. seems
Root seems totoby
Khitan
structure. the
have
havethe same
seems same
beentype
been
Khitan to type
have
seemsof of
characterized
characterized basic
beenbasic
to have by bythe thesame
characterized
been same type
bytype
characterize theofof
tic
actic restrictions
30
restrictions WuasYingzhe
asthe the (2009)
otherother argues,
Altaic
Altaic certainly
languages,
languages, correctly,including that inboth
including some
both cases
Jurchen
Jurchen a Khitanand and character
rized by
n characterized the same
can imply by the phonotactic
type phonotactic
of basic
same type
a hidden
restrictions
initialof
restrictions
phonotactic as as
basicIfphonotactic
vowel.
thethe
restrictions other
the Khitan phonemic
other Altaic
Altaic
as
restrictions the languages,
other languages,
shapesaswere Altaic
the something including
including
languages,
other Altaic like
both
both Jurchen
Jurche
including
languages,
ongolic.
Mongolic.
ges, This
including
ic languages, This means,
emeboth
means,
including among
Jurchen
ebu
among
resp.Proto-Mongolic.
Proto-Mongolic.
both
the
other
and other things,
things,
This
This
Proto-Mongolic.
Jurchen
cognateship and
with
that that
means,
means, there there
Proto-Mongolic.
Mongolic
were
among
among
This
would
were no
other
means,
be
no
othersyllable-initial
This
in
syllable-initial
nothings,
things,
amongmeans,
doubt. that
that
other amongor
there or were
there
things, were
other thatno nothere
things,syllable-init
syllable-in
werethe
that n
final
e-final consonant
there were
things, consonant clusters.
clusters.
no syllable-initial
that there Most
syllable-final
syllable-final
were no syllable-initialMost lexicallexical
consonant
consonant
or syllable-final itemsitems are
orsyllable-finalare
clusters.
clusters.bisyllabic
bisyllabic
Most
consonantconsonant Most ((C)V(C)CV(C)),
((C)V(C)CV(C)),
lexical
lexical
clusters. Most items
items
clusters. areare
lexical bisyllabic
bisyllabic
Mostitems lexical ((C)V(C)CV
((C)V(C)C
are itemsbisyllabic are
xical re
areare
are also also
bisyllabic
items conspicuously
conspicuously
are but
((C)V(C)CV(C)),
bisyllabic many
butthere many
there monosyllables.
aremonosyllables.
are
((C)V(C)CV(C)), also
alsothere
but butAmong
conspicuously
conspicuously
are also Among
there manythealso
many
conspicuously
are the latter,
latter, those
monosyllables.
monosyllables.
conspicuouslythose
many ending ending
Among
Among
monosyllables. the
thelatter,
many monosyllables. latter,
Among those
thosetheAme
onant
nsonant
. Among theAmong
nosyllables. ((C)VC)
((C)VC) can can
latter, those have
in
the have
inaalatter,direct
direct
consonant
consonant
ending cognates
cognates
in((C)VC)
a((C)VC) in
consonant in
Mongolic,
incan Mongolic,
can have
havedirect
((C)VC) as
direct as
in
can in
the the
cognates case
cognates
have can case of
direct of
ininhave
Mongolic,
Mongolic,
cognates
direct in as asMongolic,
ininthe thecaseincase ofo
as
33 33those ending a consonant ((C)VC) cognates Mon
tent
nt
Mongolic,
gnates > >household
inhousehold
as in the =case
Mongolic, =*ger.
go.er
go.er
as *ger.
inoftent

the Khitan
tent Khitan
case >go.er of has,
>household has,
household
however,
tent however,
go.er > =household
=tent
*ger.also
*ger. also> many
3333 many
Khitan
Khitan = monosyllabic
household monosyllabic
has,
*ger. has, 33however,
however,
*ger.33has,
=Khitan also
also
Khitan many
many
however, has,monosy
monos
also m
howev
ems stems((C)V), ((C)V),a type a type absent
vowel
vowelabsent in inProto-Mongolic
stems
stems Proto-Mongolic
((C)V),
((C)V),aatype type (except
(except
absentin
absent inininpronouns).
pronouns).In Inthethe
Proto-Mongolic
Proto-Mongolic (except
(exceptininpronouns). pronouns).I
concluded.30 The comparison be
30
30
ed.
ed. concluded.
The
The comparison 30
comparison between
between
The comparison betweenb.qo
b.qo child
child
b.qo (plural
(plural child
(plural Mongolic
b.hu.n)
b.hu.n)
and
and *baga small
b.hu.n) and > child
ic
c *baga
*baga small
small >> child
child
Mongolic *baga small > child is also problematic. is
is also
also problematic.
problematic. There are, however, also
There
There are, are, however,
however,
There are,also also
however, good
good and Khitan:
and Understanding
alsonon-trivial
non-trivial
good and correspondences. the Language
correspondences.
non-trivial Behind the
These Scripts

These include
correspondences. na.ha
include naha
These include (plural
121
30
.ha
ha
ed. Thena.ha
naha
naha comparison
(plural
(plural naha
between
(plural b.qo
na.ha.n.er)
na.ha.n.er) child (plural
maternal
maternal
na.ha.n.er) uncle
uncle
maternal =
= *naga-cu
*naga-cu
uncle k.i
b.hu.n)
=id.,
id., ~

*naga-cu x.i
and id., younger s
keu

ic *bagax.i
x.i~keu
k.i small
keu
younger > child
younger
x.i keusister is also
sister
younger problematic.
== *ke
*ke child,
sisterchild,
= *ke and
andchild,
very
very probably
probably
and very (genitive
deu
deu deu
probably deu deudeu.un)
deu younger
eThere
e

(genitivedeu.un)
deu.un)
are, however,
*de(x)
younger
younger also
deu.un)id.31good In
brother
brother two
younger and= items,
=non-trivial
*de(x)
*de(x)
brother Khitan 31
31would
=correspondences.
id.
id. In
In two
*de(x) two seem 31 to haveseem
items,
id. items, In two These
Khitan
Khitan a include
monosyllabic
items, wouldtoKhitan
would have a would root
monosyllabic roo
een
.ha
have
have naha

seem b.qo
to (plural
aa monosyllabic
monosyllabic
have (CV)
child
awhere
(plural
root
root
monosyllabic Mongolic
(CV)
(CV)na.ha.n.er)
root has
where
where (CV) a bisyllable,
b.hu.n)
maternal
Mongolic
Mongolicwhere and has
has aaapparently
uncle
Mongolic = *naga-cu
bisyllable,
bisyllable, aapparently
has a apparentlyderivative:
id.,
bisyllable, a ku kua person (g
aapparently
ve:
ve:
also

problematic.
x.i ku
kukeu
derivative: ku
ku person person
younger
person
ku ku sister
(genitive
(genitive
person =*ke
(genitive ku..un)
ku..un)
ku..un)
child, and = *k-xn
very
== *k-xn
*k-xn
ku..un) probably id.,*k-xn
id.,
id.,
=
3232
32
spouse

deun.o
n.o
id.,deu32 = spouse
no
no *n-kr
n.o no =id., friend.
31
od
e== and
*n-kr
*n-kr
spouse non-trivial
deu.un) = *nkr
id.,
id., younger
friend.
*n-kr id.,
correspondences.
friend. id., friend.
Inbrother
In the
the item
friend. item=In the
the item
These
*de(x)

In include
n.ai.ci
n.ai.ci
id. Innaiji
two
naiji n.ai.ci
items,
friend
friend
n.ai.ci naiji
Khitan
naiji both
friend
== *nai-ji
*nai-ji branches
would
friend =
id.
id.= *nai-ji id.a derivative;
have
na.ha.n.er)
have
anches
nchesboth ahavebranches aamaternal
monosyllabic
have derivative;
derivative;
both root
branches
have auncle
the(CV)
the = where
root
root
have
derivative; *naga-cu
*nai
*nai
a the id.,*nai
Mongolic
friendship
friendship
derivative;
root has
the is
isapreserved
root bisyllable,
preserved
friendship isin
*nai friendshipin and
apparently
Mongolic,
Mongolic,
preserved it is also
is in attested
a Mongolic,
preserved in in other der
32
er
ve:
also
also =

and *ke
ku
attested
attested ku
it is child,
also inperson
in other
other and
attested
Mongolic, very
(genitive
derivatives
derivatives
in
and probably
other it is like
like
also*nai-r
*nai-r
derivatives deuconcord,
ku..un)
attested deu
concord,
like = other
*k-xn
*nai-r
in festivity.
festivity.
concord, id.,
derivatives festivity.n.o*nai-r
like no concord,
other
= *n-kr = *de(x) id.,festivity. id.31 In In
friend. two theitems, item Khitan n.ai.ci would naiji friend = Root *nai-ji structure.
id. Khitan seems to
CV)
ucture.
ucture.
anches Rootwherehave
Khitan
Khitan Mongolic
a derivative;
structure. seems
seems has
Khitan to
to haveathe
havebisyllable,
seems rootbeen
been *nai
to haveapparently
friendship
characterized
characterized a by
been characterized byis thepreserved
the same same in
bytype thephonotactic
type Mongolic,
of
of basic
same basic type restrictions
of basic as the o
32
itive
also
ctic
ctic attestedku..un)
restrictions
restrictions

phonotactic in restrictions
other
as
as the the=derivatives
*k-xn
other
other id.,
Altaic
Altaic like *nai-r
languages,
n.o
languages, noincluding
concord, including festivity. both
both Proto-Mongolic.
Jurchen
Jurchen andJurchen This
and and means, am
Root structure.asKhitan the other
seems Altaic
to havelanguages, been characterized including both
by the same type
the
Mongolic.Proto-Mongolic. This means, among other things, that there were no syllable-initial or clusters
item
ongolic. This
This
means,
means, n.ai.ci among
among naiji friend
other
other things,
things,= *nai-ji
that
that id.
there
there were
were no
no syllable-initialsyllable-final
syllable-initial or
or consonant
of basic phonotactic restrictions as the other Altaic but languages,
there including
eucture.
root
-final
final *nai
Khitan
consonant
consonant
syllable-final friendship
seems
clusters.
clusters.
consonant toisMost preserved
have
Mostclusters.been
lexical
lexical initems
Mongolic,
characterized
Most items are
lexical by theare
are bisyllabic
bisyllabic
items same basicare also conspicuously
type of((C)V(C)CV(C)),
((C)V(C)CV(C)),
((C)V(C)CV(C)),
bisyllabic
atives
eecticare
are like
restrictions
also
also *nai-r both
conspicuously
conspicuously as Jurchen
concord,
the other
many
many and
festivity.
Altaic Proto-Mongolic.
monosyllables.
monosyllables. languages, Among
Among This the
including means,
the both
latter,
latter, among Jurchen
those
those other
in latter,
aending
consonant
ending and things,((C)VC)
that can hav
but there are also conspicuously many monosyllables. Among the those ending
Mongolic.
sonant
sonant
in a ((C)VC) This means,
((C)VC)
consonant there can
can were
among
have
have
((C)VC) no
direct
direct
can syllable-initial
other cognates
have things,
cognates directin that
in or
cognates syllable-final
there were
Mongolic,
Mongolic, in as asno consonant
in syllable-initial
in
Mongolic, the
the case
caseasgo.erof
of the
in
clusters.
tent
or Most
case>ofhousehold
= *g
ave
-final
ent
ent been
>>consonant
go.er household
household
tent lexical
characterized ==items
>clusters. *ger.byMost
*ger.
household are
33 bisyllabic
33
the =same
Khitan
Khitanlexical
*ger. type33 ((C)V(C)CV(C)), but there are
has,
has, itemsof
however,basic
however,
Khitan arehas, bisyllabic
also
also
however, many
many ((C)V(C)CV(C)), vowel
monosyllabic
monosyllabic
also also stems
many conspicuously
((C)V), a type abs
monosyllabic
r are
etems
tems Altaic
vowel also
((C)V),
((C)V), stems amany
languages,
conspicuously
a typetype
((C)V), monosyllables.
including
absent
absent many
a type both
in monosyllables.
in Among
Proto-Mongolic
Proto-Mongolic
absent Jurchen theAmong
and
in Proto-Mongolic latter,
(exceptthe
(except thoseinlatter,
in ending
pronouns).
pronouns).
(except those inin pronouns).
a consonant
comparative
ending
In
In the context
the In ((C)
the it seems th
gtiveother
sonant
ative things,
((C)VC)
context
context itVC)
it thatcan
seems
seemscan
there
havehave
that were
that direct
direct
the
the no cognates
comparative context it seems that the monosyllabic vowel stems in Khitan are an on the M
syllable-initial
cognates
monosyllabic
monosyllabic in in Mongolic,
or
Mongolic,
vowel
vowel stems
stemsasas in
in in
in the
the case
case
Khitan
Khitan of
archaic
ofare
are trait
an
an go.er tent
eliminated
33
Most
ent
trait lexical
>
traitarchaic household
eliminated
eliminated items
trait >on household
on are= *ger.
the
the
eliminated bisyllabic
Mongolic
Mongolic on= the*ger.
Khitan side
side byKhitan
((C)V(C)CV(C)),
33
has,
Mongolicby however,
way
way side ofhas,
of however,
secondary
secondary
by also
way many also the
many
monosyllabic
of suffixation,
suffixation,
secondary above-mentioned
asmonosyllabic
as in
in
suffixation, as in items ku
any
tems monosyllables.
ve-mentioned
e-mentioned
the ((C)V),
above-mentioned a type
items
items
vowel Among
ku
ku absent
stems person,
person,
items theinku
((C)V), latter, those
Proto-Mongolic
no
no spouse.
spouse.
aperson,
type ending
absent (except
in
no spouse. Proto-Mongolicin pronouns). (except In the Importantly,
in pronouns).the method
irect
ative
mportantly, cognates
context
mportantly, the
the itIninmethod
Importantly, Mongolic,
seems
method
the that
of
the
comparative as inmonosyllabic
the
of internal
internal
method theof case
reconstruction
reconstruction
contextinternal of
it seems vowel allows
allows
reconstruction stems
that the inallows
monosyllabic
monosyllabicKhitan
monosyllabic stems are
vowel
vowel
monosyllabicto an be established
vowel stems also for
vowel
33
otrait beKhitan
be eliminated
established
established
stems tohas, however,
on
also
also
beinestablished
Khitanthe aaalso
forMongolic
for are very
veryanmany
also forside
early
early
archaic a monosyllabic
by
stage
stage
very traitway
of
ofeliminated
early theofstage
the secondary
Mongolic
Mongolic ofon thethe suffixation,
lineage,
lineage,
Mongolic
Mongolic
collective
as inas
as lineage,
in theinnouns
the
side byaswayinformed
the
of
by *-d (
vete in
ve-mentioned
nouns
nounsProto-Mongolic
collective formed
formed items
nouns by
by ku
*-d(except
*-d
formed person,
(for
(for in*-d
countables)
countables)
by pronouns).
no (for spouse.
and
and
countables)In
*-s
*-s the
(for
(for andliquifiables).
liquifiables).
*-s (for Onlythese
Only
liquifiables). one
one isofofso
Only faroneidentified
of in the
secondary suffixation, as in the above-mentioned items ku person, no
the monosyllabic
mportantly,
so
sothese
far
far identified
identified
is so thefar methodvowel
in
in theofKhitan
the
identified stems
internal
Khitan in in
the Khitan
reconstruction
Small
Small Khitan Script
ScriptareSmall an allows
database:
database:
Script monosyllabic

database: blood
ci.i.is
ci.i.is
vowel
cis> blood
cis ci.i.is relative
cis = *ci-s
spouse.
ongolic
>>be blood side
established
blood
blood >byblood
relative
relative way == of
also forsecondary
*ci-s-/n
*ci-s-/n
relative a very = suffixation,
early
blood,
blood,
*ci-s-/n stage
presupposing
presupposingof as
blood, thein Mongolic
the
the monosyllabic
presupposing monosyllabiclineage, Asroot
as may
root
the monosyllabic in*ci.the
*ci.be seen, this item show
root *ci.
son, no spouse. Importantly, the method of internal reconstructionthat allows this monosyllabic
group of nouns was fo
ve benouns
be seen,
Asseen, may formed
this
this beitem item byshows
seen, *-d
this(for
shows the
itemthe countables)
shows theand
collective
collective suffix
suffix *-s*-s
collective (foralso
*-s alsoliquifiables).
suffix in
in *-s
Khitan,
Khitan, alsoOnly suggestingone of suggesting
suggesting
in Khitan,
vowel stems to be established also for a very early stage of
Proto-Mongolic the Mongolic
sinternal
so
group
groupfar this
that reconstruction
identified
of
of nouns
nouns
groupwas in
of the
was allows
formed
formed
nouns Khitan wasmonosyllabic
alreadySmall
already
formed inScript
in the
the vowel
already database:
common
common ci.i.is
in theprotolanguage
protolanguage
common of cis
of
protolanguage the
the of thePara-Mongo
and
very>
Mongolic early
blood
ongolic and
Proto-Mongolic stage
relative
and lineage,
of=the
Para-Mongolic
Para-Mongolic as
*ci-s-/n
and in
Mongolic the
Para-Mongolic collective
blood,
lineages.
lineages. 34
lineage,34 nouns
presupposing
lineages. 34formed by *-d (for countables) and *-s
as in the the monosyllabic root *ci.
countables)
be seen, thisand (for
item *-sliquifiables).
(for liquifiables).
shows Only one
the collective Only of one
suffix these ofisalso
*-s so far in identified
Khitan, suggesting 5.inDiachronic
the Khitanphonology Small
Khitan
hronic
sronicgroup Small
phonology
phonology
of nouns
5. Diachronic Script
Script was database:
database:
phonology formed already ci.i.is in thecis
ci.i.is cis
commonbloodprotolanguage
> blood relative of the= *ci-s-/n
34
n blood,
Mongolic and blood, presupposing
presupposing
Para-Mongolic the lineages.
monosyllabic the monosyllabic
root *ci. root *ci. As may No be systematic
seen, thispictureitem of Khitan
he No
ematic
ematic systematic picture of Khitan phonology is yet possible to draw. We cannot, forthe exact co
collective
picture
picture suffix
of
of *-s
Khitan
Khitan also in
phonology
phonology Khitan, is
is suggesting
yet
yet possible
possible to
to draw.
draw. We
We instance,
cannot,
cannot, for
for reconstruct
med
hronic already
,, reconstruct
reconstruct
instance,phonology in
the
the the
reconstructexact
exact common
configuration
configuration
the exact protolanguage of
of thethe systems
configuration of the
systems of the of
of vowels
vowels and
systems and This is
consonants.
consonants.
of vowels anddue to the nature of the
consonants.
due
duelineages.
to
to thethe 34 31
The only problem in the item for younger brother is that the Romanization of the
This is nature
nature
due to of of
thethe
thenaturescript,
script, of which
which
the script, involves
involveswhichmultiplemultiple
involves cases
cases
multiple of
of both
bothcases under-
under- of both under-
character is not verified by independent information. The genitive form confirms,
ematic picturehowever, of Khitan that phonology
the underlying is syllable
yet possible ended in tou, draw.suggestingWe cannot, 30
thatWuthe for
Yingzhe (2009) argues,
Romanization is certainl
,
ngzhe reconstruct
ngzhe Wu
30
(2009)
(2009)Yingzhe the
argues,
argues, exact
correct. certainly
certainly
(2009) configuration
argues, correctly,
correctly,
certainly thatof the
thatcorrectly,
in
in some systems
some cases of
casesinaasome
that vowels
Khitan
Khitan and
character
casescharacter
a Khitan consonants.
hidden
can
cancharacter
imply initial
imply aa can imply avowel. If the Khitan
due
initial
initialto the
vowel.
vowel. nature
If
If
hidden initialMongolic 32the
the of the
Khitan
Khitan script,
phonemic
phonemic whichshapes
shapes involves
were
were multiple
something
something likecases
like eme
eme of resp.
resp.cognateship
both under-
ebu
ebu the
the with Mongolic would be in
vowel. If *kxnthe Khitan has thephonemicvariant *kmn shapes(as were in Written
something Mongol 31 and
like eme Oirat),
resp.suggesting
ebu the
The only problem in the item for y
honology
ip
ip with
with Mongolic
Mongolic
cognateship is yet would
that
with possible
would thebebeoriginal
Mongolic in
in nonoto draw.
doubt.
woulddoubt.
shape be inWe was cannot, (with
*k-pn
no doubt. for early dialectal nasalization of the medial
ly
y problem
problem
31
in
in the
the item
item for
for younger
younger brother
brother is
is that
that the
the Romanization
Romanization of
of the
the verified
character
character is
is by
not
not independent information. T
iguration The only of argues,
the consonant).
problem systems in the ofitem vowels for younger
and brother is that the Romanization of the character is not
consonants.
yngzhe (2009)
y independent
independent
verified byinformation.
information.
independent
certainly
TheKhitan
exactThe
The correctly,
genitive
genitive
information.
reading
that confirms,
form
form
The
of
in some cases
confirms,
genitive
theboth Khitan formhowever,
however,a Khitan
confirms,
word is difficult that
that character
the
the
however,underlying
underlying can syllable
ended
that
to reconstruct. the
imply
in u,a suggesting
syllable
underlying syllable that the Roman
ebuThe the comparative
33
ript,
u,initial
u, whichvowel.involves
suggesting
suggesting
ended in u, thatIf the
that the multiple
the Romanization
suggesting Romanization phonemic cases
isis correct.
that the Romanization
of
shapes
correct. were under-
is correct.
something like eme resp.32
Mongolic *kxn has the variant *
ip with Mongolic evidence
would bewould
in suggest the shape ger, but the orthographical
no doubt. image
original is exceptional
shape
lic
ic *kxn
*kxn
32
has
has the
Mongolic the variant
*kxn
and variant
has*kmn
might *kmn
the variant
imply (as
(as in
somethingin Written
Written
*kmn (asMongol
more Mongol
in Written
complex, and
andespecially
Oirat),
Oirat), suggesting
Mongol suggesting
and Oirat),
as character
far that
that
33as the
the was
the
suggesting
vowel
*k-pn
that
quality the (with early
is the Khitan w
ly
hape
hape problem
was
was that in
*k-pnthe
*k-pn item
(with for
(withcases
earlyyounger
earlyadialectal
dialectal brother is
nasalization
nasalization that the Romanization of the The is not
exact reading of
orrectly,original
yctindependent
shape was
ininformation.
some *k-pn
concerned. The
(with early
Khitan
genitive character
form canof
dialectal of
confirms,
the
the medial
imply medial
nasalizationa
however,
consonant).
consonant).
of the medial consonant).
that the underlying
suggestsyllable
the shape ger,
act
onemicreading
reading
33
Theshapes of
of the
exact the Khitan
Khitan
reading
were word
ofword
something the isis difficult
difficult
Khitan
like word
eme to
to reconstruct.
reconstruct.
is
resp.difficult
ebu toThe
theThe comparative
comparative
reconstruct. The evidence
evidence
comparative would
would evidence wouldbut the orthog
u,
he suggesting
edoubt.
shape
shape ger,
ger, that the Romanization is correct. complex, especially as far as the vowel
suggest thebut
but the
shapethe ger,
orthographical
orthographical image
image isis exceptional
but the orthographical exceptional
image isand and might
might imply
exceptional imply
and something
something
might34 imply more
moresomething more
lic *kxn
especially
especially ashas
asis
far the
farthat
as
as thevariant
the *kmn (as in Written Mongol and Oirat), suggesting On that
the thePre-Proto-Mongolic collect
ger
hape
complex,
brother especiallythevowel
vowel
as farquality
quality
Romanization isisof
as the vowel concerned.
concerned.
thequality is concerned.
character
34was *k-pn (with early dialectal nasalization of the medial consonant).
is not Mongolic side, these nouns are always
Pre-Proto-Mongolic
Pre-Proto-Mongolic
genitive On the collectives
collectives
Pre-Proto-Mongolic
form confirms, however, in
in
that *-d
*-d resp.
collectivesresp.
the underlying *-s,
*-s,
in *-dcf.
cf. Janhunen
Janhunen
resp. *-s, (1996:
(1996:
cf. 210-215).
210-215).
Janhunen
syllableThe comparative evidence (1996: On
On the
the
210-215). On the
act
side,
side,reading of theare Khitan word is difficult to element
reconstruct. for bethewould
blooditemisthat
alsothe
theitem
base for the Khita
heion is these
these
Mongolic
shape
nouns
nouns
correct.
ger,
side, are
but
always
always
these
the
nouns expanded
expanded
are always
orthographical
by
by the
image
the element
expanded
is
by*-U/n.
exceptional
*-U/n. ItIt may
the element
and(2004),
may*-U/n.
be
be noted
might imply
noted that
that
It may
something
the item
noted
more
isis for
also
alsoblood
the
the base
base for
for the
the Khitan
Khitan term
term for
for filial
filial piety,
piety, see
see Kane
Kane (2004), Shimunek
Shimunek
is also the base for the Khitan term for filial piety, see Kane (2004), Shimunek (2007: 71). (2007:
(2007: 71).
71).
shows the collective suffix *-s also in Khitan, suggesting that this group
of nouns was formed already in the common protolanguage of the Proto-
Mongolic and Para-Mongolic lineages.34
5. Diachronic phonology
No systematic picture of Khitan phonology is yet possible to draw. We

cannot, for instance, reconstruct the exact configuration of the systems
of vowels and consonants. This is due to the nature of the script, which
involves multiple cases of both under- and over-differentiation, as well
as a considerable amount of orthographical variation. We also have to
reckon with the possibility that Khitan changed in the course of time: the
currently available corpus of Khitan Small Script texts covers a period of
over a hundred years (c. 1041-1171),35 while some of the orthographical
conventions are likely to date from the time when the script was created
(924-925). In general, work on the Khitan phonological system is closely
connected with the reconstruction of Liao Chinese, a little known form
of speech, transitional between local Late Middle Chinese and Early
Mandarin.36 On the other hand, Khitan phonology is likely to share many
features with Jurchen on an areal basis.
In the following some general points of relevance in the diachronic
context are discussed in comparison with the Proto-Mongolic lineage:
Vowel Rotation. As a working hypothesis it is reasonable to assume that

Khitan originally had a vowel system similar to Pre-Proto-Mongolic. This
system would have comprised 8 vowels, divided into 4 back (*a *o *u
*) and 4 front (*e * * *i), as well as 4 lower (*a *e *o *) and 4 higher
(* *i *u *) vowels. A similar system, with minor modifications, may be
34
On the Pre-Proto-Mongolic collectives in *-d resp. *-s, cf. Janhunen (1996: 210-215).
On the Mongolic side, these nouns are always expanded by the element *-U/n. It may be
noted that the item for blood is also the base for the Khitan term for filial piety, see
Kane (2004), Shimunek (2007: 71).
35
These datings are based on the most recent summary of Khitan Small Script epitaphic
documents by Wu Yingzhe (2012).
36
On Liao Chinese, cf. Kane (2009: 227-264). Tentative outlines on Khitan phonology
are given by Shimunek (2007: 38-52) and Takeuchi (2007).
chen on an areal basis. many features with Jurchen onfeatures
an arealwith
basis.
many
many features withJurchen
Jurchenon
onan
anareal
arealbasis.
basis.
g some general points of relevance inInthe
thediachronic
followingcontext are points of relevance in the diachron
some general
In
Inthe
thefollowing
followingsome
somegeneral
generalpoints
pointsofof
n with the Proto-Mongolic lineage:
discussed in comparisondiscussed
with the Proto-Mongolic lineage:

discussedinincomparison
comparisonwith
Khitan: Understanding the Language Behind the Scripts
withthe
theProto-Mongol
Proto-Mongo
123
working hypothesis it is reasonableVowel Rotation. to assume As athat workingKhitanhypothesis it is reasonable to assum
Vowel
Vowel Rotation.
Rotation. As As aa workingworking hypothesis
hypothesis itit
system similar to Pre-Proto-Mongolic. This system
originally had a vowel system would have
similar toaavowel
Pre-Proto-Mongolic. This syste
reconstructed for
originally
originally had
had vowel system
system similar
similar totoPre-Pro
Pre-Pr
ivided into 4 back *)Proto-Turkic,
(*a *o *ucomprised and 4 8front vowels,
Proto-Tungusic,
(*e * * *i),
divided as and
into 488back
even Proto-Koreanic.
(*a divided
*o *u *) and 4backfront (*e
comprised
comprised vowels,
vowels, divided into
into 44back (*a
(*a *
*o *) and 4All over (*
higher the *iregion,
*u *) thevowels.
4system
lower A has, however,
(*asimilar
*e *o system,
*) undergone a process *i of
*u vowelvowels. A s
well as well
well asand
as 44 lower4 higher
lower (*a*e
(*a (*
*e*o *o*) *)*)and
and44 higherhigher (* (*
ons, may be reconstructed
rotation, in which for
withProto-Turkic,
the original Proto-Tungusic,
front vowelsmay
minor modifications, withhave
with minor bebeen
minor raised and velarized,
reconstructed
modifications,
modifications, for
may
may Proto-Turkic,
bebe reconstruct
reconstruc Pr
nic.
ic. All over the region, the
while the original system
and back has,
even vowels however,
Proto-Koreanic. undergone
have been lowered
All overa and,
the in
region, some the languages,
system has, however
and
andeven evenProto-Koreanic.
Proto-Koreanic.All Alloveroverthe theregion,
region,
ion, in which pharyngealized.
the original front A vowels
typical have
example been ofraised and ofthe
theineffect vowel rotation
process of vowel rotation,process
process which
of
of vowel
vowel original
rotation,
rotation, ininis
front the the
vowels
which
which thehave
origin
originbe
ginal back vowels have been
development lowered
the pair and,
ofvelarized, *u
while inthe
- * =some languages,
phonetically
original back [u -
vowels y] to o
have - u =
been [o - u],
lowered as and, in so
velarized,
velarized,while whilethe theoriginal
originalback backvowelsvowelshave have
cal example of the effect of pharyngealized.
vowel rotation isAthe development
observed in languages such as Manchu, typical Dagur,
example
pharyngealized.andofKorean.
pharyngealized. theAAeffect37
typical
typical ofexample
vowel
example rotation
of
ofthe iseffec
theeffec the
honetically [u - y] to o - u =of[othe - u], as *u observed
- * in languages [u - y] to o - u = [o - u], as observed
37 Vowel rotation in pair
37 Northeast Asia= phonetically
is of
aofrelatively
the
thepairpair*u recent
*u--* *phenomenon,
==phonetically
phonetically not [u
[u--y] y]totooo-
r,, and Korean. such 37
yet observable
in Northeast Asia is a relativelywithas Manchu,inDagur,
certainty
recent
and
suchKorean.
such
Proto-Mongolic.
phenomenon, not
as
asManchu,
Manchu,
yet
Dagur,
Dagur,and
It is, therefore, and Korean.3737
Korean.
important
nty to note that
ty in Proto-Mongolic. seems Vowel
It is,ittherefore, to haverotation in Northeast
beentopresent in Vowel
Vowel
Khitan. Asia is a relatively
rotation
rotation
Although ininthe
Northeast
Northeast
vowelrecent Asia
Asia phenom
isis aa r
observableimportant
with certainty note in that
observable
observable
it
Proto-Mongolic.
with
with certaintyIt
certainty is, intherefore,
in Proto-Mongolic. important
Proto-Mongolic. ItI
resent letters
esent in Khitan. contained
Although the in the Romanizations
vowel lettersbeencontained should
ininthenot be taken at face value,
seems to have present
seems
seems toKhitan.
to have
have Although
been
been present
present theinin vowel
Khitan.
Khitan. letters
Althouco
Althou
not be taken at there
faceare examples
value, there suggesting
are examples the developments
suggesting the at * > u and *u > o,
Romanizations should not be taken
Romanizations
Romanizations face
should
shouldvalue, notthere
not be
be takenare at
taken examples
at face
faceval vas
and *u > o, as in in uni uni
uni uni ox
ox == *ni-xe/n
*ni-xe/n
developments * > u and cow,
cow, on-
onon-
*u > o, as* to
in > ride =
uniand uni *unu- id.
developments
developments * >u u and *uox
*u >>o,o,= as*ni-xe/n
asinin un u
d. The ultimateThe ultimate
impact of vowelimpact
on-rotation
to ofride
vowel
is=the rotation
reduction
*unu- id. is of
The the thereduction
ultimate impact of ofthevowel paradigm rotation is the re
on-
on- to
to ride
ride == *unu-
*unu- id.
id. The
The ultimate
ultimate impact
impact o o
mple five-vowel systema (a
towards simple u).38
e paradigm 38
i o five-vowelWe dosystem
towards nota know
simple whether
(a paradigm
eparadigm
i five-vowel We
o u).38 towards do not
system know whether
o u).38 We system
(a e ifive-vowel do not (
towards aasimple
simple five-vowel system
iss stage, but there
Khitan arehad
indications
Khitanof,
reached this
had at stage,
least, abut
reached neutralization
thisthere
stage, arehad
butindications
there are thisof, stage,
at
indications least, of,athere
at least,
Khitan
Khitan had reached
reached this stage, but
but there areaini
are
s.uni night = *sni id.
neutralization between On
between *the other
* and hand,
and *, cf.there
*, cf. iss.uni
also night
s.uni night == *sni
*sni id.
id. On
On the
the

between
between* *and and*, *,cf. cf.s.uni night=hand
s.uninight other =*s
*s
neral neutralization of rounded
other hand, there 39
vowels,
evidence of cf.
a e.g.
more the
is also evidence ofevidence
numerals
general a more of
3 general
neutralization neutralization
of rounded vowels,of cf. e.g.
39 evidence ofaamore more general
generalneutralization
neutralization of
ofro rt
ur- vs, 4 t.ur- dur- = *dr-. t.ur- 39
rounded vowels, cf. e.g. thehur-
hu.ur- = *gur-
numerals vs, 4hu.ur-
3hu.ur-
hu.ur- hur- hur-dur-
hur- = *gur-
==*gur-
*gur-= *dr-.
vs,
vs,
vs,44 t.ur- t.ur-dur-
dur
t.ur- dur- = *dr-.39
Preservation of *p. Another widespread areal feature in Northeast Asia

onn the
the most
most recent
recent summary
summary of of Khitan
Khitan Small
Small Script
Script epitaphic
epitaphic documents
documents
35 most by by
concerns the original strongare(voiceless/aspirated) recentlabial stop ofon(*p), which
35
These datings based on35the These
Thesedatingsdatings summary
are
arebased
based on Khitan
the
themostmostSmall
recentScript
recent epitaph
summary
summary o
hasTentative
been variously Wu Yingzhe (2012).
spirantized (> f),
WuWuvelarized
Yingzhe
Yingzhe (>
(2012).
(2012). x), pharyngealized
ne
ne (2009:
(2009: 227-264).
227-264). Tentative outlines
outlines
36 on
on Khitan
Khitan phonology
phonology are
are given
given by
by
On Liao Chinese, cf. Kane3636(2009: On
OnLiao 227-264).
Liao Chinese,
Chinese, Tentative
cf. Kaneoutlines
cf.Kane (2009: on
(2009:227-264). KhitanTentativ
227-264). phonolo
Tentativ
dd Takeuchi
Takeuchi (2007).
(2007).(> h), or lostShimunek (> ) in (2007:almost
38-52)all andlanguages
Takeuchi
Shimunek
Shimunek
and language
(2007).
(2007:
(2007: 38-52)
38-52) and
and
families
Takeuchi
Takeuchi
of
(2007).
(2007).
of
of the
the areal
areal and
and typological
typological background
background
37 of
of vowel
vowel rotation
rotation inin the
the languages
languages
For a general discussion of3737 the
For
Forareal
aageneraland typological
general discussionbackground
discussion ofofthe arealof
theareal and vowel
and rotationb
typological
typological
unen
nen (1981).
(1981). This
This model
model of of vowel
vowel rotation
rotation has has recently
recently been
been challenged
challenged by
by
of Northeast Asia, cf. Janhunen ofof (1981).
Northeast
Northeast ThisAsia, model
Asia, cf.
cf. of vowel (1981).
Janhunen
Janhunen rotation
(1981). has model
This
This recently
model ofofbe
vv
claims
claims that that the
the diachronic
diachronic process
process took
took place
place in in the
the opposite
opposite direction,
direction, that that
Ko Seongyeon (2011), who claims KoKo that the diachronic
Seongyeon
Seongyeon (2011),
(2011), whoprocess
who claims
claims took
that place
thatthe
the in the oppos
diachronic
diachronic prp
pharyngeal
pharyngeal (RTR (RTR == retracted
retracted tongue
tongue root)
root) harmony
harmony to to palatal
palatal harmony.
harmony.
is, from an apertural and/or pharyngeal is,
is,from
from anan(RTR
apertural
apertural= retracted
and/or tongue root)
and/orpharyngeal
pharyngeal (RTR
(RTRharmony
==retracte
retracto
inor
nor relevance
relevance to to37the
the
Fornumber
number
a general of
of oppositions
oppositions
discussionthe in
in the
of the
the paradigm,
paradigm, and
and the
the two two
Although issueareal
is ofand typological
minor relevance
Although
Althoughin the
background
to the number of vowel
of rotation in the paradi
oppositions
alatal
alatal andand apertural)
apertural)
in thecoexist
coexist in
in Northeast
languages Northeast Asia,
Asia, the
of Northeast the arguments
arguments presented
presented intheThis
issue
issueisisofofminor
minorrelevance
relevancetotothe thenumber
numbe
types of vowelAsia, cf. Janhunen
harmony (palatal
types
types
(1981).
and apertural)
ofofvowel
vowelharmony
model
harmony
ofinvowel
coexist(palatal Northeast
(palatal and
rotationAsia, thecoexist
andapertural)
apertural) argumi
coexist
do
do notnot seem
seem toto be
behas
tenable.
tenable.
recently beenfavour challenged by Ko Seongyeon (2011), who claims that the diachronic
of the revised model do not seem
favour
favour torevised
be tenable.
darily
darily increased
increased by process
by the took place
the introduction
introduction38 ofofinaa new
the opposite
new set
set of direction,
of palatal
palatal vowels,
vowels, asofof
that
as the
has
hasthe revised
is, from
model
modeldo donot
anintroduction
apertural of
notseem
seemtotobe
and/or
betenable.
tenable.
The system can be secondarily3838
The
Theincreased
system
system by
can
can the
bebesecondarily
secondarily a newby
increased
increased set of introd
bythe
the palata
intro
l as
as inin several pharyngeal
several varieties
varieties of (RTRhappened
of Mongolic.
Mongolic. = retracted tongue root)
in Korean, as well as harmony
in several to palatal
varieties harmony.
of Although
Mongolic. the
issue also
is of the
minor relevance of to the
happened
happened inin Korean,
Korean, as
as well
well as
as inin several
several varieties
varieties ofofMoMo
wenumber of 39
oppositions
f course,
course, to to consider
consider also the possibility
possibility
39 of analogical
analogical levelling
levelling between in the paradigm, and the two
39 between
In numerals have, of course,
In
In to consider
numerals
numerals we
we also the
have,
have, of
of possibility
course,
course, to
to of analogical
consider
consider also
also thle
th
types of vowel harmony consecutive (palatal
items.and apertural) coexist in Northeast Asia, the arguments
consecutive
consecutive
presented in favour of the revised model do not seem to be tenable. items.
items.
38
The system can be secondarily increased by the introduction of a new set of palatal
vowels, as has happened in Korean, as well as in several varieties of Mongolic.
39
In numerals we have, of course, to consider also the possibility of analogical levelling
between consecutive items.
fspread
ation ofareal
*p. Another
Preservation feature
*p. Another of *p. in
widespread Northeast
widespread
Another arealwidespreadAsia feature
feature
areal concerns
in areal
Northeast the
infeature Asia
Northeast concerns the
Asia concerns
in Northeast the
Asia concerns the
ed)
g original labial stop
the
(voiceless/aspirated)
strong (*p),
region,
(voiceless/aspirated) which
including
labial labial
strong (voiceless/aspirated) has
stop (*p),been
Turkic,
stop variously
labialMongolic,
which
(*p), has
stopwhich Tungusic,
(*p), been
has
which and
variously even
been Japonic.
beenhasvariously variously
40
zed pharyngealized
f), velarized While
(> f), velarized
spirantized (>(> f),x), h), x),
(>vowel orrotation
pharyngealized
(>
velarized lost(> (>
pharyngealized )(> inh),almost
x), seems toor
pharyngealized h),all
(>have
lost proceeded
(>
or )
(>losth),in from
(>oralmost
)lost east
all
in(>almost
) in toall
west, the
almost all
flanguage
the
eslanguages region,
and language and including
families
spirantization
families
language Turkic,
of the region,
ofofthe
families Mongolic,
including
theregion,
strong
of theincludingTungusic,
Turkic,
labial
region, stop Mongolic,
moved
Turkic,
including Tungusic,
in
Mongolic,
Turkic, theMongolic,
opposite
Tungusic,direction,
Tungusic,
notation seems to have proceeded from east to (Turkic)
west,
40 40
nic.and While
Japonic.
even vowel
While
being
Japonic. rotation
40
vowel
most While seems
rotation
ancient
vowelin to have
seems
the
rotation toproceeded
west have
seems from
proceeded
to have and east
from
most
proceeded to east
west, to west,
recent
from in the
east east
to west,
onial stop
of
antization the moved
strong
of the in the
labial
strong opposite
stop
labial moved direction,
stop in
moved the being
opposite
in the mostdirection,
opposite being
direction, most
being
the spirantization (Tungusic of theandstrongJaponic). labialTherestop movedis only in one thelanguage
oppositefamily ofmost
direction, being
the most
Altaic
inost
west therecent
westinin
(Turkic) the
and
(Turkic) east
most (Tungusic
and recent
mostand in and
the
recent Japonic).
east
inthis (Tungusic
the east There
the and
eastJaponic).
(Tungusic There
ancient the west
sphere, (Turkic)
Koreanic, in most
which recent in
phenomenon is and
(Tungusic
totallyJaponic). There
and Japonic).
absent. 41 There
fanguage
the
isoneonly Altaic
family
language sphere,
of the
family of
one Importantly,
language Koreanic,
Altaic
familythe in
sphere,
Altaic
of the whichsphere,
Altaic this
Koreanic, in
Koreanic,
sphere, which in
Koreanic, this
which in this
which this
41 41 the41strong labial stop is also preserved in Khitan. The same
totally
enon is absent.
phenomenon totally isabsent.totally absent.
ial stop seems to haveinbeen the Thesituation in early Jurchen, while spirantization (>
ntly, theisImportantly,
mportantly, also
strong thepreserved
labial
strongthe stop
labial isKhitan.
strong also
stop preserved
is also
labial stop same
preservedseems
isinalso
Khitan. The same
in Khitan.
preserved inThe seems
sameThe
Khitan. seemssame seems
heybeen
toJurchen,
situation
havethebeen
f)intook
while
situation early
the
place
inJurchen,
in later
spirantization
early in
situation
Jurchen,
(>
while
Jurchen,
early tookasplace
f)Jurchen,
spirantization
while
attested
spirantization
while
inf) Manchu.
in(>spirantization
took
(> f)place
Theinstatus of Khitan
took(> place
f) took in place in
hu.
as The
attested
chen, as status
ininManchu.
attested this
of in respect
Khitan The
Manchu. in was
this
status
The known
respect
of Khitan
status already
was
of known
in this
Khitan from
respect
in therespect
this lexical
was knowndataknown
was preserved in
later Jurchen, as attested in Manchu. The status of Khitan in this respect was known
served
he from lexicalinfrom
the Chinese
Chinese
data
lexical rendering,
rendering,
preserved
data in
preserved asas
Chinesein
inin rendering,
poin=
Chinese =Chinese
aspo in
rendering, time =in Pre-Proto-Mongolic
as po = as
in
po po=po po = *pon
already the lexical data preserved rendering,
po
(= Jurchen
oto-Mongolic
Pre-Proto-Mongolic
time (=po) Jurchen
*pon >
= Pre-Proto-Mongolic (= pon)
Proto-Mongolic
Jurchen
*pon (= Jurchen > Proto-Mongolic
po) *xon
*pon (= po)> > Modern
Proto-Mongolic
Jurchen *xon
> Proto-Mongolic> Modern
*xon
po) > Proto-Mongolic > Mongolian
Modern
*xon > Modern on year.
*xon > Modern
42
eian have
year. a Today,
42
on year.
Mongolian few onmore
Today,
42
wewe
Today,
year. examples,
have
have
42
we afew
a have
Today, including
few amore
more
we few
have examples,

examples,
more
a few p.ar including
including
examples,
more p.ar
p.ar
including
including
examples, par(a)
p.arpeople
p.ar
a/n
e : (plural)
= *para
people
par(a) == > *xara-d
*para
people *para
*xara/n=>> >
*xara/n
*para ar(a)d
:*xara/n
(plural) id.,
: *xara-d
> :*xara/n
(plural)
(plural) : *xara-d
(plural)p.ul.uh
*xara-d
> ar(a)d >>ar(a)d
ar(a)d
id.,
*xara-d id.,
>id.,
ar(a)d id.,p.ul.uh
p.ul.uh p.ul.uh
pulu(-h)
p.ul.uh
more
rcalary
h) =month
intercalary
pulu(-h) *ple-x month
intercalary more,
< more
intercalary =extra,
month
<month
more <<=as
*ple-x well
more,
more
*ple-x
more =as
extra, extra,
=*ple-x
*ple-x
more, asmore,
wellasas
more,
extra,
well
extra, as
as
as well as
well
ural)
pur(e)s *pre-s
descendants
p.r.s pur(e)s seeds.
descendants = (plural) =
descendants *pre-s
(plural) = seeds.
*pre-s
(plural) seeds.
p.r.s pur(e)s descendants = (plural)*pre-s seeds.
*pre-s seeds.
ke
of
zation theVery
*k. strong muchlabial
of like
of *k.Spirantization
Very stop
much the*p, the corresponding
strong
like labial stop velar
*p,stopthe corresponding velar
Spirantization *k. Very ofthe
much *k.strong
like
Very the labial
strong
much *p,
labial
like the corresponding
stopstrong
the *p, thelabial velar
corresponding
stop *p,velar the
ohas spirantization
tended
stopalso*k has to
tendedundergo
also (>
to x) and
undergo
tended to pharyngealization
spirantization
spirantization
undergo (> x) and
(>
spirantization (>
x) h),
pharyngealization
and (>pharyngealization
x) and (> h), (> h), (> h),
pharyngealization
corresponding velar stop *k has also tended to undergo spirantization (>
suages
rely (> loss
more ), ofinNortheast
(>
rarely the
),
loss in(> Asia.
languages
the), inThis
ofthe
languages tendency
Northeast
of Northeast
languages isoftypically
Asia. This
Asia.tendency
Northeast This isThis
tendency
Asia. typically
is typically
tendency islanguages
typically
hose languages x) and
that pharyngealization
preserve, (> h), more rarely loss (> ), in the
ore
d/or
older prominent
more
and/or in
prominent
more those thoseorin
inlanguages
prominent have thatuntil
languages
those thatrecently
preserve,
languages orthat
preserve, have oruntil
haverecently
preserve, until
or have recently
until recently
entact.
find the of Northeast
development Asia.
*k > hThis
as atendency
relatively *kisdevelopment
typically
early
h *k older and/or more prominent
d, *p Therefore,
preserved,intact.*pTherefore,we find
intact. we thefind
Therefore, development
the
we development
find the > as >a relatively
h as
*k a > early
relatively
h as a early
relatively early
Korean
nenon languages
inand in those
Jurchen-Manchu,
like
languages languages
Korean
like and
Korean
43
that
while preserve,
Jurchen-Manchu,
and in the
Jurchen-Manchu, or
Proto-43 have43until recently
while in the
while Proto-
43
in the preserved, *p
Proto-
phenomenon in languages like Korean and Jurchen-Manchu, while in the Proto-
urkic)
ic ge (as itwell
lineage
Mongolic is(asintact.
much
lineage Therefore,
in later.
aswell Turkic)
as inwell
(as is we
Depending
it as
Turkic) much find
onlater.
in itTurkic)
is muchtheitlanguage,
the development
Depending
later.
is much on *k
Depending
later. the > as language,
hthe
language,
on
Depending a onrelatively early
the language,
nt tual
elopmentmay restrictions;
have
the development phenomenonit
contextual
may havemay is particularly
in languages
restrictions;
contextual common
it
restrictions;
have contextual like
is that
Korean
particularlyit is
and Jurchen-Manchu,
common
it is particularly
restrictions; that
commoncommon
it is particularly it that it is that itthe
is
43
while in is
vowels.
fore
onlypresentoriginal
before back
onlyoriginal vowels.
before backoriginal vowels.
back vowels.
ct,
an, examples
we have,
n Khitan, In we ofhave,
40 in
Khitan, preserved
fact,
we fact,*kexamples
inexamples
have, inbefore
of preserved
fact, original
of preserved
examples front
*k ofbefore original
*k before
preserved front
*koriginal
before front
original front
The phenomenon is also attested in a few Uralic languages. Starting with Pelliot
genitive
as kuinku
vowels, ku
person
ku
as (1925),
in ku..un)
(genitive
person
ku = *k-xn
ku person
particular
(genitive
attention
id.

(genitive The
ku..un) variation
= *k-xn
ku..un)

in comparative id.
= *k-xn
ku..un)
Altaic The
studies variation
id.
= has The
been variation
*k-xn id. The
paid to thevariation
h-stage,
unger
k.i
in sister
~x.i
keu
k.i =~*ke
x.i
though thechild
younger
keu
implications
younger
x.i keumight
sister suggest
=sister
of *ke
the issue
younger that child
=child
have
*ke
sister there
might
not suggest
always
= *ke that
beensuggest
might
child there
correctly
might understood.
that
suggest therethat there
so
yndency
to in this
spirantize
to position,
41
*k
spirantize
Another another
also *kin this
also
language possible
position,
in this
family in example
another
position,
which the
was a tendency to spirantize *k also in this position, another possible example being
possible
another
phenomenon example
possible
is not being
example
attested being
is Amuric, being
today
may
to
x.ui.ri or may
arrive,
to not
which
arrive, correspond
representedmay
which byor the
may
may to Proto-Mongolic
single
not
or maylanguage
correspond
not *kr-
(isolate)
to
correspond
x.ui.ri to arrive, which may or may not correspond to Proto-Mongolic *kr- of Ghilyak
Proto-Mongolic
to (Nivkh),
Proto-Mongolic but
*kr- earlier
*kr- distributed
spirantization more is widely
confirmed in Manchuria,
by including,
heu.r quite
haur =possibly, the northern neighbourhood of
ginal back vowels,
id.44original
ore Before back
original
Korean.
spirantization
vowels,
back spirantization
vowels, isspirantization
confirmed byis
is confirmed byheu.r

confirmed haur
heu.r
by =haur
heu.r = haur =
42
On this item, cf. Kane (2009: 68, 122-123). The Jurchen word is, of course, a
few 40 is Uralic
borrowingStarting from some early Mongolic form of speech. It may be noted that the Khitan
on
enomenon Thealso islanguages.
attested
also
phenomenon in aisfew
attested
reading also inUralic with
a few
attested
is though
po, while
Pelliot
languages.
Uralic
inMongolic
a few (1925),
Starting
languages.
Uralic
and
particular
with Pelliot
Starting
languages.
Jurchen with (1925),
Pelliot
Starting
suggest the with
particular
(1925),
Pelliot
presence particular
of (1925), particular
a final nasal, i.e.
snrative
been paid
Altaic
comparative
attention to the
studies h-stage,
Altaic
in comparative has been
studies
Altaic paid
has the
been
studies implications
to the h-stage,
paid
has to
beenthe of
paid the
though
h-stage,
to issue
the
the implications
though
h-stage, the of the
the implications
implications
though issue
of the issueof thediffer
issue
d.have *pon. There are also other cases in which Khitan and the Proto-Mongolic lineage
een
always correctly
been
not alwaysunderstood.
correctly
been understood.
correctly understood.
phenomenon in
is the
not use of theisfinal
attested nasaltoday
Amuric, *n inrepresented
nominals. The by reasons underlying these differences are
ge
r41 family
Anotherinfamily
language which
language in the phenomenon
which
family the isthe
phenomenon
in which notphenomenon
attested is Amuric,
is not attestedis not today represented
is attested
Amuric, istoday by
represented
Amuric, by
today represented by
(Nivkh), not known.
gethe singlebut
(isolate)
language of43earlier
Ghilyak
(isolate)
language distributed
(Nivkh),
of(isolate)
Ghilyak more
but
of(Nivkh),
Ghilyak widely
earlier
but in Manchuria,
distributed
earlier
(Nivkh), more widely
distributed
but earlier more in
distributed Manchuria,
widely morein widely
Manchuria,
in Manchuria,
ghbourhood
ossibly, The neighbourhood
of Korean.
the northern spirantization of of *k in Jurchen-Manchu has been the object of some dispute.
quite possibly,
including, quite the northern
possibly, northern Korean.
theneighbourhood of Korean.of Korean.
neighbourhood
However, the development seemsis, toof
have beena regular
123).
. item,
Kane
42 The
On cf.this Jurchen
(2009:
Kane
item, 68,
(2009:word
cf.122-123).
Kane is, of
68, (2009: course,
The 68,
122-123). Jurchen a borrowing
The word
Jurchen
122-123). The from
word some
course,
is,
Jurchen ofword borrowing
course, ainborrowing
is, of
initial position, as maintained
from some
course, from somefrom some
a borrowing
erm
ngolic noted
of formthat
speech. the
of It Khitan
may
speech. be reading
It noted
may bethatis
noted po,
the while
Khitan
that the Mongolic
reading
Khitan
early Mongolic form of speech. It may be noted that the Khitan reading is po, isand
po,
reading while
is po,Mongolic
while and
Mongolic
while and
Mongolic and
asal,
eJurchen
uggest i.e.the
presence *pon.
of aThere
presence
suggest final are
nasal,
theofpresence also
a final other
i.e.nasal,
of*pon. cases
There
i.e.
a final in which
*pon.
nasal, areThere
also
i.e. Khitan
other
are
*pon. alsoand
cases
There otherin also
are which
cases inKhitan
other which
cases and
Khitan
in whichandKhitan and
use
ic Mongolic
the of
lineage the differ
final nasal
lineage
Proto-Mongolic in differ*n
thelineage
use inof
in nominals.
thetheusefinal
differ The
nasal
of the
in the reasons
final
use *n in
ofnasal underlying
thenominals.
*n innasal
final The *nreasons
nominals. The underlying
reasons
in nominals. The underlying
reasons underlying
re
erences not differences
these known.
are not known. are not known.
Manchu
on 43 of *k
irantization hasinofbeen
The spirantization *k the
Jurchen-Manchu object
in Jurchen-Manchu
of *k in ofhassomebeendispute.
thebeen
has
Jurchen-Manchu However,
object hasofobject
the some
been the ofdispute.
the some However,
object dispute.
of someHowever,the
dispute. the
However, the
pur(e)s descendants = (plural) *pre-s seeds.
Spirantization
SpirantizationSpirantization
ofof*k.
*k.Very
Verymuch muchof *k.like
like the
Verythestrong
stronglike
much
Spirantization labial
labial
ofthe stop
*k.stop
strong
Very*p,
*p,much
the
thecorrespondin
labial correspondi
stopthe
like *p,strth
stop
stop *k
*k has
has also
also
stop tended
tended
*k has
ntization of *k. Very much like the strong labial stop *p, stop totoundergo
undergo
also tended spirantization
spirantization
to undergo
*k has also tended
the corresponding (> (> x)x) and
and
spirantization pharyngealization
pharyngealizatio
(>
velar to undergo spirantx) and pha
*k has also tended to more
more
undergorarely
rarely loss
loss
more(>(>),
spirantization ),in(>
rarely inthe
the
loss
x) languages
languages
(> ),
and more in of ofNortheast
the
rarely
pharyngealization Northeast
languages
loss (> Asia.
(> Asia. This
This
ofh),Northeast
), in the125tendency
tendency isisof
Asia. This
languages tyt
Khitan: Understanding the Language Behind the Scripts
older
older and/or
and/or more
more
older prominent
prominent
and/or
rarely loss (> ), in the languages of Northeast Asia. This more inin those
those
prominent
older languages
languages in
and/or is
tendency that
those
morethat preserve,
preserve,
languages oror
thathave
have
prominent in those langu
typically until
until
preserve, reo
preserved,
preserved,
and/or more prominent in those languages *p*p intact.
intact.
preserved, Therefore,
Therefore,
that *ppreserve, wewe find
find
intact. preserved, the
Therefore, the
or have until development
development
weintact.
*p find
recentlythe *k*k > > h h
development
Therefore, asas a arelatively
relative
we find *k >theh
4343 44
phenomenon
phenomenon
rved, *p intact.Proto-Mongolic
Therefore, we lineage inin languages
languages
phenomenon
find the(as development like
like
in Korean
Korean
languages
phenomenon
*k > h as and
and
like Jurchen-Manchu,
Jurchen-Manchu,
Korean
a relatively in and
languages
early while
while
Jurchen-Manchu,
like Korean ininthethe
an
well as in Turkic) it is much later. Depending
omenon in languages Mongolic
Mongolic
like Korean lineage
lineage (as
Mongolic (as well
well asasininTurkic)
lineage Turkic)
(as 43 itas
well
Mongolic itisisinmuch
much
Turkic)
lineage later.
later.
it Depending
(as isDepending
wellmuchas inlater.ononDepend
Turkic)the
thelan
Depen itlai
on the thelanguage,
the development the and
development may
Jurchen-Manchu,
development
may have
have may
contextual
contextual
while
haverestrictions;
contextual in
restrictions;
therestrictions;
it it
Proto-
isisparticularly
particularlyit is common
common tht
golic lineage (as well as incommonTurkic) that the development
it is itmuch later. only may
Depending have
the contextual
development
on the language, restrictions;
may have it is
contextual particula
restr
particularly
present
present only
only before
before
present isonly
present
original
original back
back
before before back
vowels.
vowels.
original original back vowels.
vowels.
evelopment may have contextual restrictions; it is particularly presentcommon only before that original
it is back vowels.
In Khitan, we have,
InInKhitan,
Khitan, inwe fact,
we have,
In examples
have, ininfact,
Khitan, weofexamples
fact, preserved
examples
have, in Khitan,
In fact,*kpreserved
ofof before
preserved
examples
we have, original
*k *kin
of before
before
fact, origina
preserved origin
examp*k
nt only before original back vowels.
front vowels,
vowels,
vowels, as
asasin
inin kuku ku
ku
ku person
person
person
in ku ku
vowels,ofaspreserved (genitive
(genitive
(genitive
person
vowels, ku..un)
ku..un)
in(genitive
kufront =
=
= *k-
*k-xn
*k-xn
ku..un)id.
id.The
The
= *kva v
In Khitan, we have, in fact, examples *k beforeasoriginal ku person (genitive
xn id. The
inin variation
k.i
k.i
ls, as in ku ku person (genitivein ~ ~ in

x.i
k.i k.i
x.i ~
keu
keu
~
ku..un) younger x.i
younger
x.i
in
= *k-xn keu
sister
sister
keuid. younger
k.i = =*ke
younger
The *ke
~ sister
child
child
sister
variation =
x.i keu *ke
might
might
= *ke suggest
suggest
childsist
younger tha
mi th
child was
was
might a atendency
tendency
suggest that
wastoto spirantize
a spirantize
there was
tendency a*k*k also
also
tendency
to
k.i ~ x.i keu younger sister = *ke child might suggest that there inin
spirantize
was this
a this
to position,
position,
spirantize
*k
tendency also in
to another
*k another
thisalso possible
in possible
this
position,
spirantize *k example
examp
another
also in po
this
position,

a tendency to spirantize 44*kanother x.ui.ri
x.ui.ri to
possibleto
arrive,
arrive,
example which
x.ui.riwhich
to
being may
may
arrive,
oror maymay
which not
not
x.ui.ri maycorrespond
correspond
to or may
arrive,
arrive, to
not to Proto-Mongolic
Proto-Mongol
correspond
which may or to
ma P
44 also in this44 position, another possible example being
44
id.
may orwhich
x.ui.ri to arrive, id. Before
may notBefore original
original
maycorrespond id.
or may not to back
back
Before vowels,
vowels,
original
Proto-Mongolic
correspond spirantization
spirantization
back 44 vowels, is
*kr- id.
toid.Proto-Mongolic
Before isconfirmed
confirmed
spirantization
44
original Before byby
is
backoriginal
*kr-
heu.r
confirmed heu.r
vowels, spirantiza by
Before originalback
backvowels,
vowels,spirantization
spirantization isis confirmed
confirmed by heu.r haur haur = = *kabur
spring.4040Again, caution 40 should be exercised with regard to the letters used
The
Thephenomenon
phenomenon 40 isisalso
The
The also attested
phenomenon
phenomenon *kabur
attested inin
is 40spring.
isa aalso
few
few
also Uralic
Uralic
attested
attested
The in
inAgain,
languages.
languages.
phenomenon aa few caution
Starting
few UralicStarting
Uralic
is should
with
also languages.with
languages.
attested Pelliot
in befew
Pelliot exercise
(1925),
(1925),
Starting
aStarting with
with
Uralic p
in the Romanization
attention (<k
attentioninincomparative
comparative
attention
attentionx Altaic
h>),
Altaic
in the
studies
in comparative
comparativeexact
studies hashas phonetic
been
been
Altaic
Altaic
the Romanization paid
paidto
studies
attentionstudiestovalues
thethe
has
has h-stage,
been
been and
h-stage,
paid
paid
(<k xparticular
in(1925),
comparative h>),Altaicphonemic
though
though
to
to thethe
the
the studiestheimplications
implications
h-stage,
h-stage,
exact phonetic though
though
has been paid of
vat
of
th
th
phenomenon is also attested
have
havein
nota always
notfew Uralic
always been
been languages.
correctly
correctly Starting
understood.
understood. with Pelliot
relationships
on in comparative Altaic*kabur
studies of which
spring.
has been are
have
have
41 Again,
paid not
not
not known.
always
always
caution
the h-stage,
tofamily
beenItcorrectly
been
which should
though may
correctly
have
are be
be
thein noted
understood.
understood.
not always
notexercised
known. that,
been It at
withmay least
correctly be
regard at the
understood.
noted that,
toattested
the at leu
letters
inimplications ofattested
the issue
4141
Another
Another language
language
41 family
Another
Another ininwhich
which
language
language thethephenomenon
family
family phenomenon
41 which is
whichlanguage
Another the
theisnot
not attested
phenomenon
phenomenon
family isin
isAmuric,
is
isAmuric,
not today
today
not attested
which the represe
isrepre
is
phenomenAmu
Amu
level ofthe
ot always been correctly Romanization,
understood.
theRomanization a spirantized
(<k x language
h>), velar
spirantized
the exact in Khitan
velar
phonetic can
in also
Khitan
values correspond
can
andbut also
phonemic to
correspond ininto
relationsh Mbt
should
nther
should be
beexercised
exercised with
the
with regard
single
single
regard totothe
language the
languagethe
the letters
(isolate)
(isolate)
letters
single
single used
ofof
used
language inin
Ghilyak
Ghilyak (Nivkh),
(isolate)(Nivkh),
(isolate)
the of but
but
of Ghilyak
singleGhilyak earlier
languageearlier distributed
distributed
(Nivkh),
(Nivkh),
(isolate) but more
moredistributed
earlier
earlier
of Ghilyakwidely
widely
distributed
(Nivkh), Ma
mo
m
eexact
exactphoneticthe
language family Mongolic
in which
phoneticvalues
which
including,weak
the
andare
including,
valuesand quitevelar
phenomenon
not known.
quite
phonemic
phonemic stop
possibly,
possibly,
including,
including,is *g,
not
Itquite
the
the
relationships as
attested
in
northern
northern
quite
relationships 3
maypossibly,
be 3is Amuric,
hu.ur-
ofofnoted
neighbourhood
possibly, hu.ur-
neighbourhood
the today
the northern
northern
including, hur-
hur-
that, quite
ofof Korean.=
represented
=
atneighbourhood
least
Korean. *gur-.
*gur-.
at the
neighbourhood
possibly,
by
the oflevel
of ofneighbourhoo
Korean.
Korean.
northern Romanizat
ngle language (isolate) of4242 Ghilyak
OnOnthis (Nivkh),
thisitem,
item, cf.cf.but
42Kane
Kane earlier
(2009:
(2009: distributed
68,68,
cf.122-123).
122-123).more widely in word
Manchuria,
OnThe The Jurchen
Jurchen theword is,is,ofofcourse,
course, a aborrowing
borrowing Thefro frJ
42
spirantized velar On
On
in this
this
Khitan item,
item,can cf. Kane
Kane
also (2009:
(2009:
correspond
42 68,
this68, 122-123).
122-123).
item,to cf. The
The
Mongolic
Kane Jurchen
Jurchen
(2009: word
weak
68, word is,
is, of
velar
122-123). of course
cours
stop
e noted
be
ing, noted that,
that,atatthe
quite possibly, least
least atat
northern
early the
the level
level
neighbourhood
earlyMongolic
Mongolicform ofof
formRomanization,
early
Romanization,
early of
ofof Korean.
speech.
speech.Itform
Mongolic
Mongolic Itmay
form
aa
mayof bebe
of noted
noted
speech.
speech. that
that
It
It the
may
may theKhitan
be
be Khitan
noted
noted reading
reading
that
that the
the isismay
po,
Khitan
Khitan po,bewhile
while
reading
reading Mong
Mon is
is
lso correspond Vowel
totothe contraction.
in 3 hu.ur-
Mongolic The
weak Proto-Mongolic
hur-
velar =stop*gur-. Vowel lineage contraction.
early Mongolic
ahad a medial The
form Proto-Mongolic
of speech.
velo-laryngeal It lineage h
noted tha
also correspond
his item, cf. Kane the
(2009: Mongolic
68,
Jurchen122-123).
Jurchen suggest
suggestweak
The
thethe velar
Jurchen
presence
Jurchenpresence
Jurchen ofof*g,
stop
word
suggest
suggest a*g,
ais,
final
the
the as
ofas
final course,
nasal,
nasal,
presence
presence i.e.
Jurchen i.e.
of
of borrowing
*pon.
aa*pon.
finalThere
final
suggest There from
the are
nasal,
nasal, are
i.e.
i.e. some
also
presence alsoother
*pon.
*pon. other
a cases
ofThere
There cases
finalare inalso
in
arenasal,which
alsowhich
other
other
i.e. Kh
*pKcc
Mongolic form ofspirant
speech.the *x
It [h],
may bewhich the
noted
theProto-Mongolic
Proto-Mongolic islineage
that
the represented
the Khitan
lineagediffer
Proto-Mongolic
Proto-Mongolic
*x as
reading
differinin [h],
theause
the
lineage
lineage
which
segment
useisofpo,
ofthe
differ
differ
is
thefinal
inin
while represented
final
in theWritten
theMongolic
nasal
nasal
use
use of *n
of *n in
the
the
as
Mongol,
and a segment
innominals.
nominals.
final
final but
nasal
nasal The
The
*n
*n use
innominal
Writte
reasons
inreasons
in nominal unuf
n suggest the presence ofVowel athese
final nasal, i.e.are *pon. There are in also other the Proto-Mongolic
caseslineagein whichhad lineage
Khitan and differ in the of the
which has these beencontraction.
lost inthese
differences
differences all
are
thesenot The
extant
not known.
known.
differences
differences areall
Proto-Mongolic
Mongolic
are not
not extant
known.
known.
these Mongolic
languages,
differences and arelanguages,
a medial
even
not known. and
in Middle even in Mids
velo-laryngeal
oto-Mongolic lineage differ 4343in the use of the
TheThespirantization
spirantization 43 final nasal
*kinin*n
ofofspirantization
*k in nominals.
(long
Jurchen-Manchu
Jurchen-Manchu vowels The
has and
hasreasons
been
been underlying
diphthongs)
thethe object
object as
ofof a
some result.
some dispute. The
dispute. seg
Howe
How
Mongolic
Mongolicare
differences notMongol,
lineage
lineage had
known.
*x [h],
aawith
medial
haddevelopment which
medialvowel is 43
represented
The
The
contraction
velo-laryngeal
velo-laryngeal spirantizationas
(long
spirant
spirant a segment
of
of
vowels *k
*k
43 in
in
The and in Written
Jurchen-Manchu
Jurchen-Manchu
spirantization
diphthongs) Mongol,
of *khas
has been
as in but
been the
a result. which
the object
object
Jurchen-Manchu hasof
of bee
som
som
has
in development
all extant seems
seems
Mongolic to to
development
developmenthave
have been
been
seems
seems
languages, regular
regular
origin to
toandhavein
have
and in initial
even initial
been
been
may
development in position,
position,
regular
regular
in some
Middle
seems in
in as as maintained
initial
initial
cases
Mongol,
to maintained
have position,
position,
even
with
been byby
haveasNher
as
vowel
regular Nher (1999
(199
maintained
maintained
been
in contro
initia
segment
segmentininWritten
aspirantization Written
The segment
of *k in Mongol,
Mongol,
Jurchen-Manchu
different
different but
itselfbut which
was
explanation,which
explanation,has has
ofcf.cf.
been
different
different has
aVovin been
the
Vovinbeen
heterogeneous
object
(1997).lost
lost
(1997).cf.
explanation,
explanation, of some origin
cf. possibility
Vovin
Vovin dispute.
(1997).
(1997).and may in
However, some (1997).
the cases
(long vowels and diphthongs) by as the different
a result. Theexplanation,
that
segment there cf. Vovin
may
itself also
was have
of existed
a toheteroge
s,pment
es, and seems
andeven toMiddle
eveninin have been
Middle
even
4444 regular
haveMongol,
Mongol,
been
This
This in
with initial
with
original.
correspondence vowel
correspondence44vowel
44 position,
This
This The
as
contraction
contraction
45 would
would issue
bebe
correspondence
correspondence maintained
is
valid complicated
valid if ifThis
the
would
would
44 byKhitan
the Nher
Khitan
be
be valid
valid (1999);
byitem
correspondencethe
item
if
if theis
the isfor
possibility
to to aberead
be
Khitan
Khitan
would
45 that
read
item
item
be hur-,
hur-,
is
is to
valid ifbut
but
thethe
be
be the
read
read
Kh
nt explanation,
s aaresult.
as result.The cf. Vovin
segment
Thethere
segment origin
(1997).
itselfand
itself
orthographical was
orthographical may
was ofof
image in
imageaa some
heterogeneous
may
orthographical
orthographical cases
heterogeneous
may actually
actually though
image
image even
point
point
may
may tothe
have
toa a comparative
been
different
different
actually
actually original.
pointshape.
point shape.
to
to material
aa In In any
any
different
different does
The
case,
case,
shape. not
issue
there
shape. there
In
In allow
isto
must compl
must
any
any the
have
hav
case,
case
s correspondence wouldmay be also
valid have
if existed
theregard
Khitan original
item ismay to 3be
sequencesdiphthongs
orthographical
read hur-,
with (like
but
awith
image
3medialthe *aipeculiar
*x *au), though
may actually point a diffe
ven have
even have been
been by
original.
original.the 45possibility
difference
difference
45 with
The
The with
to aissue
regard
issue that
isto there
istocomplicated
difference
difference thethe numeral
numeral
with
with
complicated regard
regard also
3hur-.
hur-.
to
to have
the
the numeral
numeral
difference existed original
3 hur-.
hur-.
regard to (like *axi *axu).
diphthongs
thea numeral 3 hur-. (like *a
raphical image may the comparative material does not allow them to be distinguished reliably
actually point
though the
different
comparative
shape. In any case,
doesProto-Mongolic
there must
*x be have been
is,distinguished
in any case, normal
also
ynce
alsohave
have
with existed
to theoriginal
existed
regard original diphthongs
diphthongs (likematerial
(like *ai
*ai*au),
*au), not allow them to reliably
fromnumeral
sequences
sequences
3 hur-.
with
with aamedial
medial *x
*x (like
(like *axi
probably
*axi *axu).
be
*axu). understood as diphthongs in Khitan,
ldoes
doesnot
notallow
allowthemthemtotobe bedistinguished
distinguishedreliably reliablyfrom from
Proto-Mongolic *x is, in any*xcase,
Proto-Mongolic innormally
is,However,any case, represented
the ascounterpart
segmentalrepresented
normally zero in what asof zeroProto-Mo
in wha
e*axi
*axi*axu).
*axu).
nanyanycase, may probably
normallyprobably
case,normally represented
represented bebe asunderstood
understood
aszero
zeroininwhat as diphthongs
Khitan
as diphthongs
what may
may when in Khitan, as in
a 100
in Khitan, as in 100 jau jauas=in*j5
followed by rounded jau
vowel,
hthongs
hthongsininKhitan,jau =
Khitan, asas *jaxu/n.
However,
inin100
100 However,
the
jau
jau jauthe
segmental
jau segmental
haur =counterpart
counterpart
==*jaxu/n.
*jaxu/n. *kabur
of Proto-Mongolic of Proto-Mongolic
spring. The *bfact
alsothatseemstheretoisbenol
*b also
rpart ofofProto-Mongolic
erpart Proto-Mongolic*b seems
Khitan to
when
*balso be
alsoseems lost
followed in
seemstotobe Khitan
by a
belost confirmed
when
rounded
lostinin followed
vowel, by the
asby inuse
a5 of
rounded
the
tau characters
vowel,
tau = as
*tabu/n, jau andh
vowel,asasin
ded vowel,
nded inin55 haur
tau tautau
tau = *kabur
tau= ==*tabu/n, spring.
*tabu/n, The jau.tau
fact jautau
that there punitive
is no
heu.r haur = *kabur spring. The fact
heu.r
heu.r medial commissioner
consonant in =these
ca
ct that
act thereisthat
thatthere isno confirmed
nothere
medial
medial is consonant
no by
medial in
consonant the use
consonant
inthese of the
thesecases character
characters
in these
cases
tau
jau in
and the

isis cases is confirmed by the use ofword
tau
for the tau.li.a
Chinese har
term
racters
aracters jau
jauandand jau.tau
tau
taufor jautau
for the
theChinese punitive
Chinese term
term though
the phonological
commissioner = *jawtaw background
(zhaotao). of thisTherebususe
issioner ==
missioner character
*jawtaw
*jawtaw tau inThe
(zhaotao).
(zhaotao). theuse
The word
use ofof
the
the The fate of *x in monophthongoid
tau.li.a hare = *taula-i id. is also signi contex
by Nher (1999); for a different explanation, cf. comparisons
Vovin (1997). like n un = ?*e-x/n-
tau.li.a
tau.li.ahare
hare though
= = *taula-ithe
*taula-i phonological
id.
id. is
is also
also why
background
significant,
significant, of this rebus remains unclear.46 are u
44
This correspondence The would be valid if
fate of *x in monophthongoid
4646 the Khitan
be offered by item is to be read
qa emperor,
contexts hur-,
in Khitan but the
butisthislessitem is amb
clear, wh
ound
oundofofthis
thisrebus
peculiarremains
rebus remains unclear.
unclear.
orthographical image may actually point to a different shape. In any case, there
phthongoid
phthongoidcontexts
contexts
must have why comparisons
ininbeen
Khitan
Khitan isisless
a difference like
clear,
lesswithclear, n
which
which
regard
either
un
to the = *ka.n
?*e-x/n- prince
isisnumeral 3 hur-. are or *kaxa.n
uncertain. A emperor
possible on
example the M
n==?*e-x/n-
?*e-x/n-are be
uncertain.
areOn
45
uncertain. offered
*x in Mongolic, by
AApossible
possible qa emperor,
example
example
cf. Janhunen
qa.ha.n
would
would
(1999). but this of
item theis emperor
ambiguous, is
In earlier research, this segment was often
also
since enigmatic
it could since
corresp it
ut this
but itemisisconfused
thisitem ambiguous,either
ambiguous, *ka.n
with since
*g, with
since itprince
itwhich orgraphically
*kaxa.n
coulditcorrespond
could is
correspond na.ha naha
emperor
indinguishable
toto on inthe maternal
Mongolic
Written uncle
Mongol. side. =The*naga-cu
genitiveid.
emperor
emperoron onthe qa.ha.n
theMongolic
Mongolicside. of
side.Thethe emperor
Thegenitive
genitiveisreadings
also should
enigmatic be
since kaga
it seems : kaga-n,
to contain in awhich
medial case
*g
oenigmatic
enigmaticsince na.ha
sinceititseems
seems totocontainnaha
contain maternal
aamedial
medial*g, to
*g,uncle Turkic *kaga.n, rather than to
asasinin = *naga-cu id. It is possible that the actual K Mongolic *kaxa
le ==*naga-cu
cle *naga-cuid. id.ItItreadings
isispossible
possibleshouldthat
thatthebe
thekaga
actual:Khitan
actual seems toininvolve
kaga-n,
Khitan which case an unknown
the Khitan network
word wouldof borrowin corre
a-n, ininwhich
ga-n, whichcase
casethe to Turkic
theKhitan
Khitanword *kaga.n,
wordwould rather
wouldcorrespond than
correspond to Mongolic *kaxa.n. Altogether, this is a wor
Vowel elision. The loss of vowels in non-initial sy
ay also
ility that have
there existed
may original diphthongs (like *aialso *au), of a though the comparative (like *ai *m
result. (long
lt.sequences
The The vowels
segmentsegment
with abyand
itself
sequences alsothe
itself
medial have
possibility
diphthongs)
was *xwas existed that
aaofheterogeneous
ofsequences
(like a*axi
as original
there
heterogeneous
a*axu).
result. may diphthongs
The segment have(like existed
itself*aiwas original
*au), diphthongs
heterogeneous
ial does not allow them 45towith be medial
distinguished *x
with (like
a medial
reliably *axi *axu).
*x (like *axi
from 45 *axu). sequences with a medialfr*
ve mparative
have origin
been been material
andoriginal.
original.
Proto-Mongolic may though
does
45 inThe somenot
the
The
issue
*x
Proto-Mongolic allow
comparative
cases
issue
is, them
is
even
is complicated
in any *xtohavematerial
complicated
case, benormally
is, indistinguished
anydoes
been not allow
original.
case, represented reliably them
The from to be
issue
asrepresented
zero inisdistinguished
complicated
what may in reliably
ke *axi *axu). Proto-Mongolic *x is, normally
in any case, normally asrepresented
zero
Proto-Mongolic what may
as zero
oth aexisted
have
veprobably medial
by existed be*x understood
the original (like
possibility sequences
original
probably *axi thatbe *axu).
diphthongs with
diphthongs
there
asunderstood maya medial
(like
diphthongs (like
also
*ai as *x
have
*ai
*au),
in (like
*au),
Khitan,
diphthongsexisted *axi as *axu).
original
inin 100
Khitan, diphthongs
asjau in jau
100 (like
= *aijau
*jaxu/n.
jau *au),= *jaxu/n.*
innot any case, normally representedprobablyasbe zero understood
inis, what mayas diphthongs in Khitan, probably as in be jau ja
100understood
otMongolic
es though
allow
However, allowthem *xthe
them
126 is,
to in
be
segmental
However, any
comparative
todistinguished case,
Proto-Mongolic
be distinguished
the normally
material
counterpart
segmental
However, reliably does ofrepresented
reliably
SCRIPTA,
the
*x
not
from
counterpart from
allowin any
VOLUME
Proto-Mongolic
segmental
as
them 4 zero
case, to*b
(2012)
ofcounterpart in
benormally
Proto-Mongolic what
distinguished
also may
ofseems
represented
Proto-Mongolic
reliably
*btoHowever,
alsobe lost seemsas in zero
from
*b to in what
be
also lost
seems inm
xi iphthongs
understood
*axu).
sequences in as Khitan,
diphthongs
with probably
a as
medial in in
be100
*x
Khitan,
understood
(like jau as
*axi jau
in as 100
*axu). = *jaxu/n.
diphthongs
jau jau
in Khitan,
= *jaxu/n. as in 100 jau the jausegmental
= *jaxu
axu). Khitan when followed Khitan when by afollowedrounded
Khitan when vowel,
by afollowed as in 5by
rounded a tau
vowel, as
roundedtau in 5=vowel,*tabu/n,
tauas tau
in 5= heu.r
*tabu/n,
tau tau heu.r
= *tabu/n
ynterpart
se, segmental
case,
haurnormally
of Proto-Mongolic
normally
= *kabur counterpart
Proto-MongolicHowever,
represented
represented
haur spring.
=*kaburofas The
*b
*x as
zero
also
Proto-Mongolic
the segmental
is,
zero
factinin
spring.
seems
any
in
what
that what
case,
may
there
The
to*bmay be
counterpart
is also lost
normally
fact that no seems
medial
inof Proto-Mongolic
to
represented
therefact be
consonant
is no lost asin
in zero Khitan
*b
these in alsowhat
cases when
seems
ismay followed
to caseslost
be by
unded vowel, as in 5 tau haur
tau = =*tabu/n,
*kabur spring. heu.r The thatmedial there consonant
is haur
no medial = in
*kabur thesespring.
consonant inis
followed
ngsin probably
in Khitan,
Khitan,
confirmed by the
a
bybe
as incharacters
roundedKhitan
asunderstood
the in
100use100 vowel,
when
of by the
jau
the jau
as as
jau
jau and
followed
in 5
diphthongs
charactersjau =
=of*jaxu/n. tau
tau
by a for
tau
*jaxu/n. rounded
in Khitan,
jau the
and = Chinese
*tabu/n,
vowel,
as
tau term
as
inforand
100 in
the heu.r
5

Chinese jau.tau
tau
jaufor tau
jauterm jautau
=
=Chinese*tabu/n,
*jaxu/n. heu
confirmed confirmed use bythe characters
the use of the jau
characters tau jau and the tau fortermtheuse of
Chines
turfact that there
ofspring.
However,
jau.tau punitive
Proto-Mongolic
Proto-Mongolic jautau The isfact
the no
haur medial
commissioner
that
segmental
*b
punitive *b
also = there
*kabur
also
seems
consonant
is
counterpart
seems
commissioner to =
spring.
no beto
medialin
be
lost ofthese
*jawtaw
=The
lost
in
cases
consonant
fact
Proto-Mongolic
in that
*jawtaw
isin
(zhaotao). there
these The
*b is cases
(zhaotao). no
alsouse of
medial
is
seems
Thetheconfirmed
character
consonant
to
use be
of lost
the by ininthe
these cases
jau.tau jautau jau.taupunitive jautau commissioner
punitive =
commissioner
*jawtaw = (zhaotao).
*jawtaw The use
(zhaotao). of the
T
wel,
haracters
the
vowel, useinasof
Khitan
as
character

5in the
when

5jau
tau
and
characters
confirmed
tau
in the
followed
charactertau

tau
=
tau by
=tau
*tabu/n,
word
for
byjau
*tabu/n,
a the
the and
rounded
in
the
Chinese
use
of tau
tau.li.a the
vowel,
heu.r
tau.li.a
word
term
for
heu.r
characters
asthe
hare
hare

Chinese
5=
in tau.li.a
= taujau
*taula-i
*taula-i term
tau
hare and
id.
id. ==isis
alsotaujau.tau
*tabu/n,

also
*taula-i for theisjautau
significant,
significant,
id. Chinese
heu.r
also
punitive
term
significant,
mmissioner =*kabur *jawtaw character
(zhaotao). tau
The inuse the word tau.li.a hare = *taula-i id. is als
au
hat
there punitive
thoughthere
haur
is no is=medial
the no
though

phonological
though jau.tau
commissioner
medial the spring.
consonant
the jautau
consonant
phonological =in
backgroundThe
phonological punitive
in
these fact *jawtaw
these that
background
cases
of this commissioner
cases
background there
isrebus isofthis
(zhaotao).
isof themedial
noremains
of this The
rebus = unclear.
rebus use
consonant
remains
46 incharacter
of*jawtaw
the unclear. (zhaotao).
these 46 is
46 cases tau in
The usetheofw
tau.li.a hare = though
*taula-i id.the is phonological
also significant, background ofremains
this rebus unclear.
though remains
the unclear.46 b
phonological
taujau
ers in the
jau
confirmed
and
The word
and
fate by

tau
The character

oftau
the
for
fate *x use
for
the
ofintau.li.a
of
the the tau
inChinese
Chinese
*xmonophthongoidhare
in
characters
term
monophthongoid the =
term word
*taula-i

jau

contexts id.
andis tau.li.a

in46 also
Khitan significant,
tauKhitanforhare
isthe less =clear,
Chinese*taula-i term
which id. is
is also
whichsignifica

ground of this rebus The
remains fate of
unclear.*x The in 46 fate
monophthongoid
of *xcontexts
in monophthongoidin
contexts is less
in Khitan clear,
contexts is which
less
inThe clear,
Khitan
46fate is of less
*x inis
cl
onological
oner
rwhy = jau.tau
= background
comparisons jautau
*jawtaw
is *jawtaw
why
why though(zhaotao).
like
comparisons
comparisons of
punitive thethis
(zhaotao).
n phonological
unrebus
commissioner
The
like= Theuse remains
?*e-x/n-
use
of
n
n background
of
the
un = unclear.
the
are=
= uncertain.
?*e-x/n-
?*e-x/n- of this
*jawtaw A rebus
are
are (zhaotao).
possible
uncertain.
uncertain. remains
example
A The
A unclear.
use
would
possible
possible of the
example would
nophthongoid contexts in why comparisons
Khitan is less clear, likewhich n is un = ?*e-x/n- arewhy uncertain.
comparisons A possible ex
ate
au.li.a of
betau.li.a *x in
character
hare
offered monophthongoid
hare
by = tau
=offered
qa*taula-i
*taula-i in id. The
the
emperor, id.
word
is fate
contexts
is
alsobut of
also
*xsignificant,
significant,
this inintau.li.a
Khitan
monophthongoid is less
hare item=clear, contexts
*taula-i which id.in isissince
Khitan
also it is less
significant, clear,like
which
un = ?*e-x/n- example
be are would
uncertain. bybe
be A offered
qa46 emperor,
possible byitem qa
example
isbut
qa ambiguous,
emperor,
this
emperor,
would but
is since
but thisit item
ambiguous, could iscorrespond
is
46 ambiguous,
ambiguous,
be could
offered
tosince
by correspond
it could
qa emp to
sons
dthis of this
either like
though
rebusrebus

*ka.n n
the
remainsun
prince
either why =
phonological
remains ?*e-x/n-
comparisons
or unclear.
unclear.
*ka.n *kaxa.n 46
prince are
background uncertain.
like
emperor
or
*kaxa.n n
of this Aun possible
rebus
on emperor
the = ?*e-x/n-
Mongolic example
remains
on are
side.
the would
uncertain.
unclear.
The
Mongolic genitive
side.A possible

The genitive example wo
,butqathis itemsince isfate it could
ambiguous, correspond
either
since *ka.n
itclear,
could to either
prince
correspond *ka.n
or *kaxa.n prince
to item emperor or *kaxa.n on the emperor
eitherMongolic *ka.n side. The ge
ongoid
oid qa.ha.n emperor,
contexts
contexts ofThe in
the be
inbutKhitan
Khitan offered
emperor
qa.ha.n ofthis *xitem
is
of isby
in
less
is
the alsois
clear, qa
ambiguous,
monophthongoid
less enigmatic
emperor
qa.ha.n
emperor,
which
of iswhich
thealso is since
since
emperor
isbutititseems
contexts
enigmatic this
could
is also
correspond
insince
to is itambiguous,
Khitan
contain
enigmatic seems to
is aless medial since
clear,
it*g,
to emperor
since contain seems
itas
which intoprince
acould
medial iscorrespond
*g, as
contain
or *
in
a me
.n
prince emperor on
orcomparisons
*kaxa.non thethe Mongolic
eitherMongolic
emperor *ka.n on side.
side.
prince
the The
The
Mongolic genitive
genitive qa.ha.n of the qa.ha.n is
of the emperor
*e-x/n-
x/n- why na.ha
are are uncertain.
uncertain.
naha A like
maternal
na.ha A
possible possible
naha
n
uncle un
example example
maternal
na.ha ==or *kaxa.n
?*e-x/n-
would
*naga-cu
naha
would
uncle side.
id.emperor
are
=
maternal
The
It genitive
uncertain.
is uncle
*naga-cu possible onid. A
=
the that
It Mongolic
possible
is
*naga-cu the
possible example
actual
id.
side. Khitan
that
It is
The
would
the
possible
genitive
actual
Khitan
that the
lso
he
his enigmatic
emperor
item
be offered also
is should issince
ambiguous,by enigmatic
also it
qa.ha.n qaseems
enigmatic
since since
of
emperor,to
it contain
since
the
could it itseems
emperor
but athis
seems
correspond medial to
isto
item contain
toalso *g,
contain
to as inaa medial
enigmatic
is ambiguous, medial since *g,
since *g,itas ascould
inin
itseems to na.haanaha
na.ha
contain
correspond medial mater
tocorrespond *g, as
temreadingsis ambiguous, be
readings since
kaga it could
should : readings
kaga-n,
be correspond
kaga in
should which
: kaga-n,
be case
kaga inthe Khitan
which
: kaga-n, case wordinthe would
whichKhitan casecorrespond
word the would
Khitan word wou
nahancle
peror =
either on*naga-cu
maternal thenaha
*ka.n uncle
Mongolic id.
prince
It
maternal = is
na.ha possible
*naga-cu
side.
or uncle
naha
*kaxa.n
The that
=
id.
genitive the
*naga-cu
maternal
It
emperoris actual
possible
id.
uncle
on Khitan
It
that
the is
= possible
*naga-cu
the
Mongolic actual that
id.
Khitan
side. Ittheis
The actual
readings
possible
genitive Khitan
that should
the be
actual kaga
Khi
or to on Turkicthe Mongolic
*kaga.n,
to caseTurkic side.
rather The than
*kaga.n,
to genitive
torather
Turkic Mongolic thancorrespond
*kaga.n, *kaxa.n.
to Mongolic
rather Altogether,
than *kaxa.n.
to Mongolic this is*kaxa.n.
Altogether, a wordthis thatis a wordthis
Altogether, thati
aga-n,
ld
gmatic be in
kaga
qa.ha.n which
since readings
: kaga-n,
it
of seemsreadings
the the
should in
emperor
to Khitan
which
contain be
should is word
kaga
acase
alsobe
medial : would
kaga
the kaga-n,
enigmatic Khitan
*g, : kaga-n,
as inword
since
in which it in
would case
which
seems the
correspond
to case Khitan
contain the to
word
Khitan
a medial Turkic
would
word*g, *kaga.n,
would
as in rathe
correspo
atic seems sincetoitinvolveseems seems to
an contain
unknown
to involve a medial
network
an to unknown *g, of as in
borrowings.
=naga-cu
aga.n, to Mongolic
rather correspond
id.than *kaxa.n.
totopossible
Turkic tothat
Mongolic
seems
Altogether,
Turkic
*kaga.n, *kaga.n,
involve
this ratheranetwork
isKhitananword unknown
than
of borrowings.
that network of borrowings.
toItMongolic *kaxa.n. theseems
actualtoKhitan
Altogether, involve
this is aanword unknt
*naga-cu id.na.ha
It isItnahais
possible maternal the*kaxa.n.
that uncle
the
actual rather
actual = Altogether,
Khitan than
*naga-cu to id. Mongolic
this isispossible
a word
*kaxa.n. thatAltogether,
that
network
lve an of
unknown borrowings.
this isnetwork
seems
aKhitan
word toof
of involve
that borrowings.
:seems an
whichin
Vowelwhich
readings case
elision.
case the should
the
Khitan
The
Vowel be
loss kaga
word
elision. word would
vowels
The
Vowel
kaga-n,
would intounknown
correspond
loss
elision.
involve
correspond
in
non-initial
of which
vowels
The loss
network
an unknown
case
syllables
in non-initial
of vowels
of Khitan
the borrowings.
is network
a intrivial
syllablesword of
non-initial
borrowings.
would
process
is aVowel correspond
observed
trivial
syllables process observed
is a trivial proc
Mongolic
golic to*kaxa.n.
in many Turkic
*kaxa.n.
languages.*kaga.n, Altogether,
Altogether, The rather this
phenomenon than
this
is a is
to
worda Mongolic
word
may that that
concern *kaxa.n. all Altogether,
short (single) this
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e was may
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preserved vowels. the strongest
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for in favour
diachronic
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y, Rybatzki (2010:
during the Turkic
188-189). counterpart
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Rybatzki
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languagesmedial
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vowels.
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Khitan in aby
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elision and
language
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).guages
OnSmall
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diachrony Script,
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of cf.ofe.g.
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Turko-Mongolic
vowels.
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In Turkic 165-166).
itemand item
Korean,
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hare, hare,
the
for diachrony
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). cf., most Mongolic identification
(2010:of188-189).Khitan during the early phases of the decipherment
isons with other languages
external withcomparisons
preserved with
vowels. other In languages
Turkic andwith
Korean,
preserved
for instance,
vowels. In Turkicofand theKorean, for instan
recently, Rybatzki
47 Khitan Small Script, cf. e.g. Kara (1975: 165-166). On the diachrony of the Turko-
a language
nguage The
can diachronic
caneasily
be be easily factestablished
of vowel and elision
and demonstrated
in a language by by can be easily established and demonstrated by
Mongolicestablished
item for hare, demonstrated
cf., most recently, Rybatzki (2010: 188-189).
with external
preserved
preserved comparisons
vowels. vowels. In with
In Turkic Turkic
and otherandlanguages
Korean, Korean, for
with
for instance, instance,
preserved vowels. In Turkic and Korean, for instance,
47
The diachronic fact of vowel elision in a language can be easily established and
demonstrated by external comparisons with other languages with preserved vowels. In
Turkic and Korean, for instance, the phenomenon is confirmed by comparisons such
as Turkic *er man = Mongolic *ere, Korean kom bear = Japanese kuma. Another
language that has lost vowels is Ghilyak, as may be seen from examples such as Ghilyak
camng shaman = Manchu saman. Note that all these examples involve areal contacts
(loanwords), rather than cases of genetic relationship.
feature of Jurchen-Manchu (a
ure of Jurchen-Manchu (and certain forms of Mongolic) featuremakes the loss ofopen
ofisfeature
Jurchen-Manchu vowels second
(and syllables
in certain (the of
forms so-c M
In Khitan, the nature of the script it often of Jurchen-Manchu
difficult to verify (and certain f
n second syllables (the so-called Mittelsilbenschwund). open second syllables (the In
so-called Khitan, the nature
Mittelsilbensch of
the nature
presence or script
absence of vowels open second syllables (the so-called Mitt
In Khitan, the of the makes it oftenindifficult all positions,
In Khitan,to verify including
the or
thenatureabsence
presence evenofword-
of the vowels
script in all p
initially. Many Khitan characters, irrespective of Inwhat Khitan, the
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urchen-Manchu of
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ature of Jurchen-Manchu
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acters,
econd
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that certain suffixes
m.ri
nating variants, Manchu although suggests it is not necessarily most probably
a question
suggested
of retained
regular
thethem.
harmony.
fact48that
vowel This
It is is, ending
certain
also
suffixes
importan
in
Even
so, the so,
Even circumstance
the
so, circumstance
the that
circumstance final
that vowels
final
that vowels
final are retained
vowels are retained
are
alternating in Jurchen-Manchu
retained in Jurchen-Manchu
variants,
alternating in Jurchen-Manchu
although
variants, it is
although not itnecessari
is not
mony. 48
It is alsoincidentally,
important also
to note suggested by the fact that certain suffixes
elements ending
(diphthongs in and co
tst Khitan
ggests that that Khitanmost Khitan most
probably probably
most also
probably also that
retained also the
retained
them. counterparts
retained them.
This them.
harmony. This of
48 Mongolic
is, incidentally,
is,
This Itincidentally,
harmony. is, also
is 48alsolong vowel
incidentally,
important
It is also also
to note that
important to the
notecou th
ments (diphthongs a vowel and (-CV)
contracted have positionally
vowels) are alternating
in Khitan variants,
rendered although
additional
by using itvowel
is notletters, as
yggested
ted thebyfact thebythat fact
thecertain
that that
fact certain
suffixes
certain suffixes
ending
suffixes ending
in ending
a vowel
in a in vowel
(-CV)
a vowel
elements (-CV)
have (-CV)positionally
have
(diphthongs
elements positionally
have positionally
(diphthongs and contracted ar
and contracted vowels) v
tional
variants,
ting
ernating vowel
variants, although
variants, necessarily
letters,
although it isas itnot
although ainquestion
is
is
itnecessarily
not of regular
t.qo.a
necessarily
not a question
necessarily vowel
chicken
a question a harmony.
of = regular
question *tak-xa
of
48
Itvowel
regular is also
mu.ho.o
id., asimportant
vowel snake
= to *moga-i id
additional additional regular
vowel of letters,
vowel vowel
in
letters, as in t.qo.a
c
ho.o
ny.t is48also
rmony. snake
It 48 is=note
is important
Italso *moga-i
important
also that
to note
important the
id.,
to that counterparts
and
noteto thealso
thatcounterparts
note of
theMongolic
the counterparts
that tau.li.aof Mongolic
counterparts
mu.ho.o long
hare
of of=vowel
Mongolic
snake
mu.ho.o
*taula-i
long
Mongolic = elements
vowel
long time
*moga-i
snake
id. For
vowel
long (diphthongs
being
=id.,
theand
vowel
*moga-i
we cannot
alsoid.,
reconstr
and alsotau
tsbeing
iphthongs
ements we
(diphthongs cannot
andand
(diphthongs reconstruct
contracted
contracted
and contracted
and the
vowels)
vowels)
contracted Khitan
vowels) areshapes
are
vowels) in
inareKhitan
Khitanof Khitan
intime
are such
inrendered items
rendered
beingKhitan weby
rendered with
byusing
rendered
cannot any but
using
by the
by orthography
certainty,
additional
using
reconstruct using vowel
the Khitan suggests
shapes
time being we cannot reconstruct the Khi
the
nal
owelvowel
ditional orthography
letters,
vowel letters, suggests
letters,
asletters, as
in asin in
as that they
int.qo.a may
t.qo.a
t.qo.a have
chicken
chicken
t.qo.a involved
chicken =
= *tak-xa
chicken complex
*tak-xa
the= orthography
*tak-xa
= id., id.,
*tak-xa vowel
id., (diphthongs
id.,elements
mu.ho.o or long
snake vowels)
have al
but but the
orthography

suggests that they may
suggests that they mi
hthongs
o snake
ake
u.ho.o or=long
= snake
*moga-i =
*moga-i vowels)
=id., *moga-i
*moga-iand also
id.,also id.,in
id.,
and and Khitan.
also
also
tau.li.a
tau.li.a tau.li.a
hare
tau.li.ahare hare
= *taula-i
(diphthongs =
=(diphthongs
hare *taula-i
or =id. *taula-i
For
*taula-i
long id. the
vowels) id.
Forid. For
the
Foralso the time
in Khitan.
or long vowels) also in Khitan
we
eingcannot
me we cannot
being we reconstruct reconstruct
being
cannot we thecannot
reconstruct Khitan
the Khitan shapes
reconstruct
the Khitanshapes
of shapes
such of items
the such
Khitan
of such items
withshapes any
withcertainty,
items ofany
with such certainty,
anyitems certainty, with any
ography
t orthography suggests
the orthography suggests that
suggests they
that may
they
that have
may
they *have
involved
may involved
have complex
involved complex vowel
complex vowel
elements
vowel elements elements
certainty, but the orthography suggests that they may have involved *
orongs long
phthongs or vowels)
long or longvowels)also inalso
vowels) Khitan.in Khitan.
also in Khitan. It has to be stressed that only
complex vowel elements (diphthongs or long vowels) also in Khitan.
s to be stressed that only a small selection of diagnostic It has to lexical beIt stressed properties
and phonological of Khitan has been
has to bethat only athat
stressed small only selection
a small of sele di
erties of Khitan has been discussed * * above. * Much more remains
properties of Khitan to be even
has said, more
been and remains to
discussed be disco
above. Mu
* properties of Khitan has been discussed
n more remains to be discovered. What is, however, evencertain moreeven is that the
remains consistent
material iswith What the status of
moretoremains be discovered.
to be discovered. is, howe
Wha
has istent
stressed
o betostressed with
bethat stressedthe
only status
that aonly small
that of
a small
only Khitan
selection
a small selectionas
of a Para-Mongolic
diagnostic
selection of diagnostic lexicallexical
of diagnostic
consistent andlanguage.
phonological
lexical
with andthe The between
phonological
andwith distance
phonological
status Khitan
of status and
KhitanofasKhitan Proto-Mo
a Para-M
consistent the as
ween
fies ofKhitan
Khitan Khitan and
hasKhitan Ithas
been has beento be
Proto-Mongolic
discussed stressed
discussed above. that
isabove.
clearly
Much only large
Much
more a smallenough
more
remains selection
to
remains
to havebe of
to made
said, diagnostic
be communication
immediate
said,
and and lexical and between the t
operties of has been discussed above. Muchbetween more Khitanremains and to be said,
Proto-Mongolic
between Khitan and Proto-Mongolic is cl and is clearly large
munication
more
emains
en more remainstoremains
be to phonological
between
discovered. the
betodiscovered. two properties
What What
be discovered. speech
is, however,
What of Khitan
communities
is, however,
is, certain
however, has
certain been
impossible.
is that
communication discussed
iscommunication
certain the
that At
ismaterial
the
that
betweenthe above.
similarities
material same,
theismaterial
the Much
the are
istwoisspeech moreconspicuous
communi e
between the two speech
larities
with
ent
nsistent the are
with status
withthe remains
conspicuous
status
theof status oftoKhitan
Khitan be
enough
of said,
asKhitan
a as to and have
Para-Mongolic even
abeen
aasPara-Mongolic more
evident
Para-Mongolic remains
language.
similarities evenlanguage.
language. Theto
forbe the
distance
The speaker.
discovered.
nave
distance
The native
distance The
What real is,situation ma
similarities are conspicuous enoughbeen
are conspicuous enough to have to h
nker.
tan
tween The
Khitan
and real situation
however,
Proto-Mongolic
Khitanand Proto-Mongolic
and may
certain
Proto-Mongolic have
is clearly been
isisclearly
that
large
is clearlymodified
the material
large
enough enough
large toby is
have
enough
speaker. theto presence
consistent
made
have
Theto have madewith
immediate
real of
made idioms
intermediate
thereal
immediate
situation status
immediate
mayof which
ofhaveKhitan we have
beenhave no
modifie di
speaker. The situation may bee
ms
unication
ion ofbetween
mmunication which betweenwe ashave
the
betweenatwo
the no thedirect
Para-Mongolic
speech
two speech
two information.
communities
speech language.
communities The
impossible.
communities distance
impossible.
idioms Atwhich
impossible.
of between
the Atsame, the
weAtwhich Khitan
same,
the same,
the
have no theAs
and
direct farProto-
the as the position o
information.
idioms of we have no direct inform
are As
itiesconspicuous
milarities far as
are conspicuous the
are conspicuous position
Mongolic
enough enoughof Khitan
istoclearly
have
enough to havebeenon
large
to have the
been archaicinnovative
enough
evident evident
been toevident
even have even
forAs made
the for
evenfarnave scale
immediate
the
forthe naveis
native
the the situation
concerned,
communication
native is ambiguous. Ev
as As farnave
position as thenative
ofposition
Khitan on Khitan
of the archa on
situation
eeaker.
r. real Thesituation
The is
real real ambiguous.
situationmay
situation have
maythe Even have
been
may so,been at
modified
have least
modified
been phonologically,
by thebythe
modified presence
the
by presence Khitan
of
theimpossible. intermediate
presence of may terized
be
intermediate
of At charac-
intermediate as an innovative langu
between two speech communities situation the issituation
ambiguous. is the same,
Even
ambiguous. so,the at
Even leastso,phono
at le
ed
hich
oms aswe
of which ofanwhich
haveinnovative
we no have
wedirect nolanguage,
have direct
information.
no direct which
information.
information. in most respects terized had evolved
as terized
an innovative thanlanguage,
more the lineage
rapidly which leadingin to Prr
most
as an innovative language, which
the
rAsasfar lineage
the
Asasposition
farthe asleading
position
theofposition toofProto-Mongolic.
Khitan Khitan
on Khitan
of theonarchaicinnovative
the Many
onarchaicinnovative
the areal
archaicinnovative
than the innovations
scale scale
is concerned,
lineage isreached
scale earlier
concerned,
leading toKhitan
is concerned, than the Proto-Mongo
Proto-Mongolic. Many
than the lineage leading to Proto-Mongo
eerissituation
uation than
ambiguous. theis ambiguous.
is ambiguous. Proto-Mongolic
48
Even
An example Even
so, at so,
is
Even leastlineage.
offered by least
at The
atso,phonologically,
least the dativereasons
phonologically, case
phonologically,Khitan for
ending,
earlier than the
Khitan
may different
Romanized
Khitan be
may charac-
be
may
the Proto-Mongolic evolution
as speed
charac-
-de
be ~ -do
charac- must
of ~ -du, be cf. searched
lineage. The in
rea
earlier than the Proto-Mongolic lineage
nution as
ized must
innovative
anas an be
innovative searched
Kane
language,
innovative (2009:
language, in136-138).
which thewhich
language, geographical,
in mostThe
whichinnature
most
respects
in most demographical
ofrespects
vowel
had harmony
evolved
respects
evolution had evolved
had and
must more political
inevolved
Khitan
bemore isIn
rapidly
searchedmore the
situation.
still anin
rapidly centuries
open
the issue.
rapidly precedingdem
geographical, th
evolution must be searched in the geograp
he
eage centuries
e lineage
theleading preceding
leading
toleading
Proto-Mongolic. the
to Proto-Mongolic. Liao period,
ManyMany Khitan
areal areal had
innovations become
innovations reached the rapidly
language growing
of a and highly mo
an lineage to Proto-Mongolic. Many Inarealthe innovations In thereached
centuries Khitan
reached
preceding
centuries Khitan Khitan
the
preceding Liao period, the LiaoKhitan peri
dly
rlierthegrowing
than Proto-Mongolic
than theandProto-Mongolic
the Proto-Mongolic highlylineage. mobile population,
lineage.The
lineage. reasons
The The which,
reasonsfor
reasons moreover,
the
for different
rapidly the
for
growing contacted
different
the speed
different
and on speed
speed
of
highly a mobile
wide
of highly of population, whic
rapidly growing and mobile popula
ust
on be
olution must searched
be searched
must bein theingeographical,
searched theingeographical,
the geographical,demographical
demographical and political
demographical and political
andsituation.
political situation.situation.
the phenomenon is confirmed by com
ries
centuriespreceding
the centuries preceding the Liao
preceding the Liao period,
the Liao period,
Khitan
period,Khitan
had Khitanbecome
had had become the
become language
the language ofbearof
the language a a of a kuma. Another l
= Japanese
henomenon is confirmed by comparisons such as Turkic *er man = Mongolic *ere, Korean kom
similarities are conspicuous enough to have been evident even for the
nave native speaker. The real situation may have been modified by the
presence of intermediate idioms of which we have no direct information.
As far as the position of Khitan on the archaicinnovative scale is
concerned, the situation is ambiguous. Even so, at least phonologically,
Khitan may be characterized as an innovative language, which in most
respects had evolved more rapidly than the lineage leading to Proto-
Mongolic. Many areal innovations reached Khitan earlier than the Proto-
Mongolic lineage. The reasons for the different speed of evolution must be
searched in the geographical, demographical and political situation. In the
centuries preceding the Liao period, Khitan had become the language of a
rapidly growing and highly mobile population, which, moreover, contacted
on a wide scale with a variety of other speech communities. For the Proto-
Mongolic lineage, such a period of intensive growth and contacts was yet
to come.
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<asiemajeure@yahoo.com>

Janhunen Khitan Understanding The Language Behind The Scripts Scripta 4 2012

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Janhunen Khitan Understanding The Language Behind The Scripts Scripta 4 2012

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Khitan: Understanding the Language

Behind the Scripts

In the global context of ancient scripts and their decipherment it is not

SCRIPTA, Volume 4 (October 2012): 107-132

1. The Khitan Scripts

As far as Khitan is concerned, the situation is complicated by the

continuation of a local Manchurian variety of the Chinese script. It is

using a limited number of graphically simple syllabic signs (syllabograms),

one segment (consonant or vowel) to sequences of up to three segments.

2. The Khitan language

in Chinese transcription and glossing, and, second, the Khitan loanwords

It used to be more difficult to determine what genetic group (language

Khitan. All other extant and historical Mongolic languages represent

3. The position of Khitan

The availability of direct information on Para-Mongolic in the form of

Khitan could perhaps be read in terms of the lexical and grammatical

belong to the basic vocabulary; moreover, they also comprise a number of

No systematic picture of Khitan phonology is yet possible to draw. We

Vowel Rotation. As a working hypothesis it is reasonable to assume that

Preservation of *p. Another widespread areal feature in Northeast Asia

Alonso de la Fuente, Jos (2011). Tense, Voice and Aktionsart in Tungusic:

Tyrskie stely XV veka: Perevod, kommentari, issledovanie kitaiskix,

Janhunen, and Michael Weiers (eds.) Tumen Jalafun Jecen Ak:

London & New York. 57-82.

Juha A. Janhunen [Received 10 May 2012;

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