Vin nng lng nguyn t Vit Nam

o Tin Khoa

vt l ht nhn hin i
Phn I: Cu trc ht nhn

Nh xut bn Khoa Hc v K Thut

H Ni - 2010
 T sch chuyn kho v gio trnh o to

Vin Nng lng Nguyn t Vit Nam

vt l ht nhn hin i
Phn I: Cu trc ht nhn

Tc gi: PGS. TS. o Tin Khoa

Chu trch nhim xut bn: TS. Phm Vn Din

Bin tp: ThS. Nguyn Huy Tin

Trnh by ba: Xun Dng

Nh xut bn Khoa hc v K thut

70 Trn Hng o - H Ni

In 300 cun, kh 19 x 27 cm ti Xng in NXB Vn ha Dn tc.

S KKHXB: 215-2010/CXB/18-17/KHKT, cp ngy 5/3/2010.

Quyt nh xut bn s: 65/QXB - NXBKHKT - 5/5/2010.

In xong v np lu chiu Qu II/2010.

2
 Li ni u

Vt l ht nhn (VLHN), mt trong nhng chuyn ngnh c s v truyn

thng nht ca vt l hin i, l mt mn hc chnh c dy ngay t nm

hc th hai hoc th ba cho sinh vin khoa vt l ca phn ln cc trng i

hc tng hp, i hc bch khoa... trn th gii. Khc vi nhiu chuyn ngnh

khoa hc, VLHN c mt vai tr rt c bit trong lch s nhn loi nh nhng

ng dng ca VLHN trong xy dng v pht trin cng ngh in ht nhn

(cng nh cng ngh v kh ht nhn ca mt s cng quc ln). T cui

th k 20 cho n nay, vi s pht trin mnh m ca cng ngh k thut ht

nhn trong nhiu lnh vc khc nhau ca y t, cng nghip, nng nghip... vic

ging dy VLHN c lan rng sang nhiu c s o to ca khng t cc

i hc y, cng nghip, nng nghip... trn th gii.

Ti Vit Nam, VLHN cng l mt mn dy truyn thng ca cc khoa vt

l cc trng i hc ln t vi thp k nay. Tuy nhin, do nhng l do khch

quan v ch quan khc nhau, cho n nay chng ta vn thiu mt b sch gio

trnh v sch chuyn kho chun cho o to i hc v sau i hc cng nh

nghin cu trong lnh vc VLHN. L mt nh khoa hc vi gn 30 nm cng

tc nghin cu v o to trong lnh vc VLHN, tc gi vit cun sch ny

da trn nhng kin thc, kinh nghim ca chnh bn thn vi mong mun

c ng gp cng cc ng nghip xy dng mt t sch chun v VLHN

hin i cho cc c gi Vit, c bit cho cc sinh vin khoa vt l ti cc

trng i hc cng nh cc nh nghin cu tr trong cc lnh vc khc nhau

ca khoa hc ht nhn Vit Nam. Sch ny c xut bn nh phn th nht

ca b sch v VLHN hin i v gii thiu vi bn c mt cch h thng

cc kin thc c bn ti thiu v cu trc ht nhn, mt lnh vc rt thit

yu ca VLHN. Nhng hiu bit v cu trc ht nhn l c s cn thit gip

ta nm c bn cht vt l ca cc qu trnh phn ng, phn r v tng tc

3
ca ht nhn. Phn th hai ca b sch ny tc gi s gii thiu vi bn c,

trong mt phong cch trnh by tng t, cc kin thc c bn v phn ng

ht nhn m bn c c th hiu c mt cch h thng sau khi c

lm quen vi ni dung ca phn th nht. Vi nhu cu hi nhp quc t ngy

cng cao, ting Anh tr thnh mt cng c khng th thiu c i vi cc

cng tc ging dy v nghin cu trong mi lnh vc. gp phn gip bn

c trong vic s dng nhng ngun ti liu tham kho quc t trong lnh vc

VLHN, tc gi c gng gii thiu tn cc nguyn t, ng v ht nhn bng

ting Anh cng nh t dng tng ng trong ting Anh ca a s chuyn t

thng gp trong VLHN ( trong ngoc n ngay sau ). Ngoi ra, i dng

gii thiu ngn gn v cc nh VLHN quc t c nhc n trong sch ny

cng c a vo ni dung ca sch gip bn c bit qua lch s VLHN

cng nh c c lng tn knh cn thit i vi nhng tn tui ln ny.

Mc d VLHN rt kh dy v hiu c khi cha c nhng kin thc c

bn v in ng lc hc, vt l nguyn t v c hc lng t, chng 1 ca

sch ny c vit bng mt ngn ng n gin gii thiu ngn gn nhng

xc tch v cc tnh cht vt l c trng ca ht nhn m c th hiu c i

vi cc bn c mi ch hc qua nhng kin thc c s ca vt l i cng.

Do , chng 1 c th c dng hc cng nh tham kho trong cc gio

trnh VLHN i cng cc trng i hc. Trong cc ngun sch tham kho

quc t c rt nhiu gio trnh hay c th c dng cng vi sch ny trong

hc tp v ging dy VLHN i cng. Tc gi chn lc v gii thiu vi

bn c mt s tn sch c th [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11] trong phn ti

liu tham kho. c bit, mt ngun gio trnh ting Vit m c th c tham

kho v b sung cho mt s ni dung ca chng 1 l gio trnh VLHN ca

tc gi Ng Quang Huy [12].

Do tng tc vt l bao trm trong VLHN l tng tc mnh, vi bn cht

4
vt l rt khc vi tng tc in t c trng cho vt l nguyn t v vt l

cht rn, ton b chng 2 c dnh gii thiu nhng tnh cht c bn nht

ca tng tc mnh gia cc nucleon, ht thnh phn cu trc ln ht nhn.

Bn cht vt l ca tng tc gia hai nucleon ch c th hiu c trn c s

cc kin thc ti thiu v i xng trong vt l vi m nn bn c cn tham

kho thm phn ph lc 4.1 ca chng 4 trong khi c chng 2. Ngoi ra,

cu trc ca deuteron v bi ton tn x gia hai nucleon cng c gii thiu

trong chng 2 minh ha c th tng tc nucleon-nucleon.

Chng 3 l ni dung chnh ca sch ny v gii thiu ngn gn, nhng xc

tch v y , nhng kin thc c bn v cu trc ht nhn. Do cu trc ht

nhn l lnh vc c nghin cu ch yu ca VLHN c bn, tc gi c gng

nhn dp ny cp nht bn c vi mt s ni dung mi ca cu trc ht nhn,

c bit l nhng hiu ng cu trc mi xut hin trong cc ht nhn khng

bn vi thi gian sng rt ngn m t c bn n trong cc gio trnh truyn

thng ca VLHN k trn. Ni dung chnh ca chng 3 c tc gi xy dng

da trn cc bi ging ca mnh cho sinh vin cao hc chuyn ngnh VLHN

ca Khoa Vt l, Trng HKHTN H Ni trong 6 nm va qua (2003-2008)

v c b cc theo th t truyn thng ca a s sch chuyn kho quc t

v cu trc ht nhn [13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25]. Tc gi

c gng gii thiu theo mt phong cch ring cc mu cu trc ht nhn,

vi cc cng thc ton hc c a vo theo logic trnh by bn cht vt l

ca cc mu cu trc khc nhau (i khi c hng dn chng minh ngn gn).

Tuy nhin, nhng cng thc chi tit rm r v kh hiu c b qua

bn c c th theo ri c ni dung trong tng trng hp m khng b bi

ri bi dng tng minh ca nhng cng thc ton phc tp. Ngoi ra, cng

vi nhng kin thc c bn tc gi cng mnh dn a vo chng 3 mt s

kt qu nghin cu mi trong lnh vc cu trc ht nhn (k c nhng kt qu

ca tc gi v cng s) cho bn c c th cm nhn c ng lc pht

5
trin mnh m ca VLHN hin i cng nh cc nh VLHN tr c th dng

sch ny tham kho trong cng vic nghin cu ca mnh.

T kinh nghim o to sau i hc trong nhng nm qua, tc gi thy rng

mt trong nhng kh khn chnh ca cc sinh vin nm cui hoc sinh vin

cao hc trong qu trnh hc tp v nghin cu cu trc ht nhn l s thiu ht

mt s kin thc c bn ca in ng lc hc, c hc lng t v l thuyt

tng i. y l mt bt cp kh nghim trng lm cho khng t cc hc vin

khng th nm c cu trc ht nhn mc cn thit, cha k c ngi

cn c quan nim sai v cu trc ht nhn nh mt mn l thuyt kh hc.

mt phn gip cc bn c khc phc kh khn ny, tc gi dnh ton b

chng 4 gii thiu chn lc mt s kin thc cn c tham kho ca c

hc lng t h tr qu trnh hc tp v nghin cu trong lnh vc VLHN.

Hi vng vi ni dung ca chng 4, bn c s thy d dng hn trong qu

trnh hc cu trc ht nhn theo sch ny hoc cc ti liu chuyn kho k trn.

Do nhng hn ch v thi gian, chc chn cun sch ny cn c nhiu thiu

st trong trnh by cng nh trong ni dung v tc gi rt mong c nghe phn

hi t cc bn c, ng nghip cng ng o cc em sinh vin chuyn khoa

VLHN chnh sa v b sung trong ln xut bn sau. Tc gi chn thnh cm

n GS. Bch Thnh Cng (Khoa Vt l, Trng HKHTN H Ni) ngh

v ng vin vit cun sch ny, GS. Nguyn Vn Giai (Vin VLHN, Trng

HTH Paris Sud, CH Php) c k mt s chng v c nhng gp quan

trng. Ngoi ra, tc gi cng cm n Vin Nng lng Nguyn t Vit Nam

khuyn khch v h tr vic xut bn sch.

o Tin Khoa

6
 Gii thiu

Tri qua hn 70 nm pht trin, VLHN v cc ng dng c nhng ng

gp to ln vo s pht trin kinh t - x hi ca nhiu quc gia trn th gii. Ti

Vit Nam t u nhng nm 60 ca th k trc VLHN c ging dy ti

Trng i hc Tng hp H Ni v c nghin cu, ng dng vo y t v a

cht vi nhiu kt qu bc u rt ng khch l. Trong na th k qua, vic

dy v hc VLHN vn c thc hin ti mt s trng i hc trong nc.

Nhiu sinh vin sau khi tt nghip v ang c nhng ng gp ng k cho

s pht trin ca ngnh ht nhn v mt s lnh vc ca nn kinh t quc dn.

Tuy nhin cho n nay chng ta vn cha c mt b sch gio khoa VLHN

bng ting Vit theo ng ngha ca n. Chng trnh o to VLHN ti cc

trng i hc cn nhiu bt cp v lun trong tnh trng khng n nh. S

u t ca Nh nc vo lnh vc o to quan trng ny cng ht sc khim

tn. Chnh v th m ngun nhn lc ht nhn hin nay ca nc ta rt hn ch

c v s lng ln cht lng. Nhm p ng nhu cu pht trin in ht nhn

v cc ng dng khc ca VLHN, nhiu trng i hc ang chun b o to

mt cch tch cc ngun nhn lc cho khoa hc v cng ngh ht nhn. Mt

trong nhng nhn t quan trng m bo cht lng o to l sm xut bn

c nhng b sch gio khoa chun v VLHN v Cng ngh ht nhn, vit

bi cc chuyn gia hng u ca Vit Nam trong lnh vc ny.

C s kin thc ca VLHN hin i c hnh thnh v xy dng trn c

s hai lnh vc tr ct, gn b hu c vi nhau, l cu trc ht nhn v

phn ng ht nhn. Nu nh a s cc s liu cu trc ht nhn c ghi o

trong cc phn ng ht nhn khc nhau th ngc li, tng tc v ng hc ht

nhn trong mt phn ng ht nhn bt k ch c th hiu c trn c s nhng

kin thc cu trc ht nhn lin quan. Mi cn b trong cc ngnh khoa hc

v cng ngh ht nhn, d cng v no, cng cn c trang b nhng kin

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thc c bn ti thiu v cu trc v phn ng ht nhn v nhng kin thc ny

l c s gip h hiu c bn cht vt l ca cc hin tng ht nhn v nm

chc c cc phng php k thut gii quyt nhng vn thng gp. Trn

tinh thn ny ti xin trn trng gii thiu phn I ca b sch VLHN hin i

ca PGS.TS. o Tin Khoa, trnh by cc kin thc c s v thit yu nht v

cu trc ht nhn. y l nhng kt qu c c kt t nhiu nm ging dy

chuyn cu trc ht nhn cho sinh vin cao hc chuyn ngnh VLHN cng

nh qu trnh hng dn hc vin cao hc v nghin cu sinh trong chuyn

ngnh ny ca PGS.TS. o Tin Khoa. Cun sch trnh by trong mt phong

cch s phm nh nhng nhng rt h thng v cc kin thc kinh in ca cu

trc ht nhn v ng thi cng c cp chn lc n mt s vn mi ca

VLHN hin i.

Cun sch ny c th c dng lm ti liu hc tp, tham kho v chuyn

kho cho sinh vin khoa vt l, hc vin cao hc, nghin cu sinh v cn b

nghin cu chuyn ngnh VLHN v cng ngh ht nhn ti cc trng i hc

v vin nghin cu Vit Nam.

GS.TSKH. Trn Hu Pht

Ch tch Hi ng Khoa hc, Cng ngh v o to

Vin Nng lng Nguyn t Vit Nam

8
Mc lc

M u . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

1 Cc tnh cht c trng ca ht nhn 18

1.1 Cc n v o lng c trng trong vt l ht nhn . . . . . . . 19

1.2 Khi lng v nng lng lin kt ht nhn . . . . . . . . . . . . 20

1.3 Kch thc, hnh dng v mt ht nhn . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

1.3.1 Kch thc v hnh dng ht nhn . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

1.3.2 Tn x electron v mt ht nhn . . . . . . . . . . . . 29

1.4 chn l, spin, spin ng v v moment in t . . . . . . . . 31

1.4.1 chn l v spin ht nhn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31

1.4.2 Spin ng v ca nucleon v ht nhn . . . . . . . . . . . 34

1.4.3 Moment in t ca ht nhn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37

1.5 bn ht nhn v cc qu trnh phn r phng x . . . . . . . 42

1.5.1 Phn r . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47

1.5.2 Phn r . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53

1.5.3 Phn r . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59

9
 1.5.4 Phn r proton, phn r neutron v phn hch t pht . . . 66

1.5.5 Tc ng sinh hc ca bc x ht nhn . . . . . . . . . . 70

1.6 Thng tin ph cp kin thc trn internet . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76

2 Tng tc mnh gia cc nucleon 77

2.1 Cc tnh cht c bn ca tng tc nucleon-nucleon . . . . . . . 78

2.2 Cc i xng vt l c bn v th tng tc NN . . . . . . . . . 79

2.2.1 Bt bin tnh tin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80

2.2.2 Bt bin Galilei . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80

2.2.3 Bt bin quay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80

2.2.4 Bt bin chn l . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81

2.2.5 Dng hm tng qut ca th tng tc NN . . . . . . . . 82

2.3 Mu tng tc NN ca Yukawa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83

2.4 Phn ng tn x nucleon-nucleon v cu trc deuteron . . . . . . 87

2.4.1 Tn x nucleon-nucleon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87

2.4.2 Cu trc ca deuteron . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91

3 Cu trc ht nhn 95

3.1 Cc mu cu trc ht nhn vi m . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97

3.1.1 Mu kh Fermi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97

3.1.2 Mu n ht c lp v c s ca mu v ht nhn . . . . 100

3.1.3 Phng php Hartree-Fock v trng trung bnh ht nhn 111

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 3.1.4 Hiu ng cp trong ht nhn v phng php BCS . . . . 115

3.1.5 Cu trc ht nhn kch thch v mu v . . . . . . . . . . 122

3.1.6 Phng php gi ht Bogolyubov . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132

3.1.7 Phng php gn ng pha ngu nhin . . . . . . . . . . 136

3.2 Mu kch thch dao ng tp th . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144

3.2.1 S bin dng ca b mt ht nhn . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144

3.2.2 Ht nhn nh mt dao ng t iu ha . . . . . . . . . . 146

3.3 Ht nhn bin dng v cc trng thi quay . . . . . . . . . . . . 152

3.3.1 Bin dng tnh v trng trung bnh ht nhn . . . . . . . 153

3.3.2 Cc trng thi quay tp th ca ht nhn . . . . . . . . . . 159

3.3.3 Cu trc ht nhn trong trng thi dao ng - quay . . . . 165

3.4 Cc trng thi cng hng khng l ht nhn . . . . . . . . . . . 169

3.4.1 IVGDR v quy tc tng . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169

3.4.2 Cc dng kch thch dao ng ht nhn . . . . . . . . . . 173

3.4.3 Mt chuyn dch ht nhn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175

3.5 Cc tnh cht c bn ca vt cht ht nhn . . . . . . . . . . . . 178

3.5.1 Mu kh Fermi cho VCHN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180

3.5.2 Mu Hartree-Fock v phng trnh trng thi VCHN . . . 181

3.6 Cu trc quark ca nucleon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185

4 Tham kho c hc lng t chn lc 189

11
4.1 Tm tt mt s i xng c bn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189

4.1.1 i xng tnh tin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190

4.1.2 i xng quay v ma trn quay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191

4.1.3 i xng gng v chn l . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195

4.1.4 i xng nghch o thi gian . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198

4.2 Moment gc v tensor cu . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201

4.2.1 Php cng moment gc v h s Clebsch-Gordan . . . . . 203

4.2.2 Tensor cu v ton t chuyn dch ht nhn . . . . . . . . 205

4.2.3 Spin v spin ng v . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207

4.3 Biu din lng t ha th cp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210

4.3.1 Cc ton t sinh v hy fermion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211

4.3.2 Cc trng thi n ht v n l trong mu v . . . . . . 213

4.3.3 Cc ton t sinh v hy boson . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214

4.3.4 Biu din ca cc ton t n ht v hai ht . . . . . . . . 215

4.4 Moment a cc in t v xc sut chuyn dch ht nhn . . . . 217

4.5 Li kt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222

Ti liu tham kho . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223

Ph lc cc minh ha mu . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228

12
 M u

Trong lch s nghin cu khm ph cu trc ca vt cht, nhng pht minh

c bn nht trong vt l thng gn lin vi vic tm ra nhng "ht" thnh phn

c bn cu trc ln vt cht v m trong thin nhin. Mc d cui th k 19

ngi ta bit rng ton b vt cht c cu trc t cc nguyn t, s tn

ti ca hn 100 nguyn t khc nhau trong bn tun hon Mendeleev ch

ra cho cc nh vt l thi thy rng bn thn cc nguyn t cng phi c

cu trc ring ca chng. Bc tranh hin i v cu trc nguyn t (vi ht

nhn c kch thc rt nh nhng mang ton b khi lng ca nguyn t c

bao vy bi cc lp electron) dn c hnh thnh sau nhng th nghim

ca Rurtherford v cng s nm 1911 trong nghin cu phn ng tn x ht

alpha () trn mt s nguyn t nng. Sau khi neutron c Chadwick pht

hin ra vo nm 1932, ht nhn nguyn t nhanh chng c khng nh

l c cu trc ln t cc ht proton (ht nhn ca nguyn t hydro) v ht

neutron (vi khi lng xp x bng khi lng ca proton v trung ho in

tch). Cho n nhng nm 50 ca th k trc, cng vi electron (e), proton (p)

v neutron (n) vt l ch c bit n neutrino ( ), mt ht lepton trung ho

in vi khi lng gn bng khng c Pauli tin on t nm 1930 trn c

s ca cc nh lut bo ton xung lng, nng lng v spin trong phn ng

phn r beta ( ), m n nm 1956 mi c tm ra trong phng th nghim.

C th ni trong cng mt giai on pht trin t nhng nm 50, vt l

nguyn t (chuyn ngnh nghin cu cu trc v tnh cht ng hc ca nguyn

t da trn cu trc cc lp electron) v vt l ht nhn (chuyn ngnh nghin

cu cu trc v phn ng ht nhn da trn tng tc gia cc nucleon, tn gi

tt chung cho p v n) c pht trin tng i c lp vi nhau. L do n

gin l ngoi tng tc Coulomb gia ht nhn v cc electron, cu trc phc

13
 Ex ~ 10 eV

Ex ~ 10 MeV

Ex ~ 1 GeV

Hnh 1: Kch thc v nng lng c trng cho cc trng thi kch thch ca nguyn t, ht
nhn v nucleon. Minh ha theo ti liu [26].

tp ca ht nhn thng khng c nh hng g n cc tnh cht vt l ca

nguyn t v ngc li cu trc v cc tnh cht vt l ca ht nhn c xc

nh bi tng tc mnh gia cc nucleon v khng chu nh hng ng k

g t s hin din ca cc lp electron trong nguyn t. Tuy nhin, a s cc

phng php o bc x ht nhn dng trong nghin cu VLHN thc nghim

hay trong cc ng dng k thut ht nhn u da trn nhng nguyn l c bn

ca vt l nguyn t cho cc qu trnh tng tc in t. Do , nhng kin

thc c bn ca vt l nguyn t l rt cn thit trong sut qu trnh hc tp v

nghin cu trong lnh vc VLHN.

14
 Vi s tin b khng ngng trong cng ngh my gia tc ht, t nhng nm

50-60 th k trc cc nh vt l lin tc pht hin ra nhng ht c bn khc

nhau m dn c quy t, xp loi vo trong cc nhm c trng da trn cc

tnh cht vt l ca chng. Bn thn proton v neutron cng c xc nh l

hai i din ca tp hp hn 100 ht hadron m tng tc vi nhau qua qu

trnh tng tc mnh. Cng t y, vt l ht c bn hnh thnh v pht

trin mnh m t c s ca VLHN. Mt trong nhng thnh tu c tnh cch

mng ca vt l ht c bn l s khng nh cu trc phc tp ca cc hadron

m trc vn c coi l nhng ht c bn (elementary particle) trong cu

trc vt cht. n cui nhng nm 60, mu cu trc quark ca hadron ra

i v tng bc c khng nh trn thc nghim trong nhng nm 70 - 80

ca th k 20. Theo , cc hadron c cu trc to thnh t 2 hoc 3 ht

quark v phn quark, nhng ht fermion c bn ca vt cht. S khc nhau

trong ln ca kch thc v nng lng c trng cho cc trng thi kch

thch ca nguyn t, ht nhn v nucleon c minh ha trn hnh 1. Ta d

thy rng vi kch thc ht cng nh th nng lng kch thch cc trng thi

vt l khc nhau ca ht cng ln. Vi kch thc c khng nh l nh

khong 1020 m, ht quark hin c coi l ht im (khng c kch thc hu

hn v khng c trng thi kch thch ring ca mnh). Vi mc ch gii thiu

mn VLHN hin i sao cho n gin, gn gng v d tip thu, phn ln nhng

kin thc VLHN c s trong gio trnh ny s c trnh by theo phng php

truyn thng, coi cc nucleon nh cc ht im trong cc m hnh cu trc v

phn ng ht nhn.

T hnh 1 ta cng c th thy rng trong vng kch thc 1010 m vi nng
lng c trng cho cc trng thi electron trong nguyn t 10 electronvolt
(eV), ht nhn c th c coi nh ht im trong cc nghin cu cu trc

nguyn t. Tng t, ti kch thc 1014 1015 m vi nng lng c trng

cho cc trng thi kch thch ca ht nhn . 10 Mega electronvolt (MeV),

15
nucleon cng c th c coi nh ht im trong m t v nghin cu cu

trc ht nhn. nghin cu c cu trc bn trong ca proton v neutron

cng cc trng thi kch thch ca nucleon (cc mc cng hng ), ngi

ta phi tin hnh o cc phn ng va chm hadron ti nng lng 102 103
Giga electronvolt (GeV). Mc d kch thc c trng ca VLHN nm trong

khong 1014 1015 m, i tng nghin cu v ng dng ca VLHN ang

thc s bao trm cc i tng vt cht vi kch thc t nh nht cho n

20
ln nht m khoa hc c th nghin cu c (10 1020 m). Trong khi

VLHN c bn vn tip tc nghin cu cu trc bn trong ca nucleon ( kch

thc . 1015 m) hiu c c ch vt l phc tp ca tng tc mnh. S

hiu bit ngy cng tng v cu trc v tng tc ht nhn cho php ta c th

nghin cu qu trnh hnh thnh cc ng v ht nhn khc nhau trong chui

cc phn ng ht nhn v ang xy ra trong qu trnh tin ho v tr (nhng

phn ng c bn sinh to ra th gii vt cht). Nhng nghin cu nh vy c

th cho ta nhng kt lun rt quan trng v s hnh thnh cc vt th thin vn

nh sao neutron, sao ln trng...trong qu trnh tin ha v tr. T y xut

hin vt l thin vn ht nhn (nuclear astrophysics) nh mt hng chuyn

su quan trng ca VLHN hin i. Ngoi nhng lnh vc nghin cu c bn

ca VLHN, cc nghin cu VLHN ng dng l mt lnh vc thit yu trong

qu trnh pht trin khoa hc v cng ngh ca th gii. Cc ng dng ca

VLHN khng n gin ch tp trung trong lnh vc cng ngh in ht nhn

m thc t v ang c nghin cu v trin khai rng ri trong rt nhiu

lnh vc khc nhau. Trong , cc phng php chn on v iu tr ca y

hc ht nhn (nuclear medicine) hin ang c cng ng quc t nh gi

l nhng ng gp ln nht ca VLHN cho nhn loi. Tm quan trng cng

nh s hin din ca VLHN hin i cc kch thc c trng khc nhau ca

vt cht xung quanh ta c minh ha tm tt trn hnh 2.

16
Hnh 2: S hin din ca VLHN hin i cc kch thc c trng khc nhau trong th gii
xung quanh ta, khi u t cc ht thnh phn c bn ca vt cht c to thnh sau v n
ln (big bang) nh quark v lepton, n cc nucleon, ht nhn, nguyn t, phn t... Hin nay
k thut ht nhn cho php tch gi mt nguyn t bt k trong "by" nguyn t (atom
trap) quan st v nghin cu; cu trc ca mt phn t m (protein) cng c th c xc
nh chi tit bng k thut cng hng t ht nhn (NMR); cc t bo c th c nh du
bng ng v phng x; cc phng php VLHN c ng dng rng ri trong y hc, trong
nghin cu bin i kh hu ton cu (global climate); phn ng ht nhn l ngun sinh to
nng lng trong mt tri hay trong cc ngi sao khng l m thng kt thc s tn ti ca
chng bng nhng v n Supernova, l ngun nh sng v bc x in t pht ra t cc thin
h (galaxy) xa xi trong v tr. Minh ha ly t ti liu [27].

17
Chng 1

Cc tnh cht c trng ca ht nhn

Nh thy trn hnh 1, ht nhn c kch thc rt nh ngay trong nguyn t

cha n. Ht nhn c ng knh trung bnh khong 1014 m, t nht chc

nghn ln nh hn kch thc thng gp ca mt nguyn t. Do gn ton

b khi lng ca nguyn t nm tp trung trong ht nhn, mt vt cht

trong ht nhn l v cng ln: 3 1017 3

kg/m hay gn bng 300 nghn
A
t ln mt ca nc (H2 O). Mt ht nhn thng c k hiu bng Z X
A
(hoc tt l X) vi X l tn vit tt ca nguyn t ho hc, Z l s nguyn t

(atomic number) trong bn tun hon cc nguyn t ha hc (tham kho trang

web http://www.webelements.com) v A l s khi ca ht nhn nguyn t

A
(atomic mass number). Nhng thng tin cu trc ti thiu ca ht nhn Z X

l n cha Z proton v N = AZ neutron, c in tch bng Ze vi e l

mt n v in tch (bng in tch ca mt electron nhng mang du dng).

Nhng ht nhn c cha cng mt s proton Z nhng c s neutron N khc

nhau c gi l cc ng v (isotope); c cng mt s khi A nhng c Z

v N khc nhau c gi l cc ng khi (isobar); c cng N nhng c Z
khc nhau th c gi l cc ng tn (isotone). Do proton v neutron l hai

fermion (ht c spin 1/2) vi khi lng gn bng nhau mp mn , trong khun
kh i xng in tch (charge symmetry) p v n thng c xt gn ng

18
nh l hai trng thi lng t ca mt ht nucleon (xem chng 1.4.2). Khi

, s cc nucleon trong mt ht nhn chnh l s khi ca ht nhn nguyn

t, A = Z + N.

1.1 Cc n v o lng c trng trong vt l ht nhn

Vi kch thc (2 7 1015 m) v khi lng ( 1027 kg) rt nh ca ht

nhn nguyn t so vi cc i tng vt cht v m, n v di thng dng

trong VLHN l femtometer (1 fm = 1015 m) m c cng ng VLHN quc

t gi tt l fermi t lng knh trng nh VLHN gii thng Nobel ni ting

ca th k 20, Enrico Fermi. Do nng lng c trng trong VLHN c o

bng hng triu electronvolt (eV) n v nng lng hay dng nht l Mega

electronvolt v Giga electronvolt m c vit tt l MeV v GeV (1 MeV

= 106 eV v 1 GeV = 103 MeV, vi 1 eV 1.602189 1015 J). Tip y

ta xt h thc tng quan gia nng lng (E ), xung lng (p) v khi lng

ngh (m) t l thuyt tng i hp ca Einstein

E 2 = p2 c 2 + m 2 c 4 (1.1)

v d thy rng th nguyn ca p v m tin nht nn biu din qua th nguyn

2
ca nng lng v vn tc nh sng c ([p] = MeV/c v [m] = MeV/c ). Th

d, khi lng ngh ca proton v neutron thng c tnh tng ng bng

2 2
mp = 938.280 MeV/c v mn = 939.573 MeV/c . Do trong cc tnh ton ca

VLHN hay xut hin hng s Planck (~ 0.65822 1021 MeV s) v vn tc

nh sng (c 2.998 1023 fm/s), chng ta cn nh i lng sau

~c 197.33 MeV fm = 0.19733 GeV fm. (1.2)

H thc (1.2) thng hay c dng nh gi cc sai s (hay bt nh)

ca nng lng, xung lng, ta khng gian, thi gian... ca cc trng thi

19
vt l khc nhau ca ht nhn, s dng h thc bt nh Heisenberg

px ~/2 v Et ~/2. (1.3)

Th d, nu nh bt nh trong v tr khng gian ca ht nhn l 1 fm th

ta suy ngay c t (1.2) v (1.3) rng bt nh tng ng ca xung lng

l khong 98 MeV/c, hoc nu nh thi gian sng ca mt trng thi ht nhn

kch thch l 1022 s th bt nh ca nng lng trng thi ny l khong

3.3 MeV m thng c gn vi rng (width) ca nh ph trng thi trong

ph nng lng ht nhn. Cc hng pht trin ca VLHN hin i ang tp

trung rt nhiu vo nghin cu cc ht nhn khng bn (unstable nuclei) vi

thi gian sng v cng ngn v v th nhu cu k thut thit k v vn hnh

nhng h o ph ht nhn siu nhy lun l mt thch thc rt ln.

Trong cc tnh ton khi lng ht nhn, mt n v chun rt hay dng l

n v nguyn t khi (atomic mass unit, vit tt l u). C th, u = 1.660566

1024 g bng ng 1/12 khi lng ca nguyn t carbon thin nhin
12
C.

n v nguyn t khi u cng thng c cho bng khi lng ca mt

2
nucleon trong cc tnh ton VLHN, mnucleon = u = 931.494 MeV/c . Trong

th nguyn ny khi lng ca electron, proton v neutron tng ng bng

me 0.54858 103 u, mp 1.007276 u v mn 1.008665 u. Mt n v

chun khc hay gp l h s ca tng tc tnh in Coulomb gia hai ht nhn

mang in, vi th nguyn = [nng lng di], thng c dng trong

cc tnh ton VLHN nh sau: e2 /(40 ) = e2 1.44 MeV fm.

1.2 Khi lng v nng lng lin kt ht nhn

Mt trong nhng i lng c trng c bn nht ca ht nhn nguyn t l

nng lng lin kt m c th xc nh c t khi lng ca ht nhn. Trong

20
bn dng tng tc vt l c bn ca thin nhin: hp dn (gravitation), in

t (electromagnetic), mnh (strong) v yu (weak), ch c tng tc mnh (vi

cng hng nghn ln mnh hn tng tc in t) mi c cng

mnh gn kt cc nucleon gn trong ht nhn nguyn t, ti mt hng

trm nghn t ln ln hn mt trung bnh ca vt cht v m. Do , nng

lng lin kt ht nhn l mt trong nhng ch s quan trng nht ca tng

tc mnh. Theo nh ngha tng qut i vi mt h vt l bt k cu trc bi

nhiu ht tn ti lin kt trong mt trng thi lng t, nng lng lin kt

(binding energy) l mt i lng c trng cho h trong trng thi ny m

c hiu nh nng lng ti thiu phi c ph v c h ra cc ht cu

trc ln n. T cng thc (1.1) ca Einstein ta c nng lng lin kt B ca

ht nhn (trong trng thi c bn) c xc nh t chnh lch gia khi

lng ht nhn MA v tng khi lng cc nucleon thnh phn nh sau

MA = N mn + Zmp B/c2 . (1.4)

Do B ng vi du tr trong cng thc (1.4), bn thn B phi l mt i

lng dng m bo ht nhn c cu trc bn vng trc qu trnh ph v

56
(breakup) ht nhn thnh cc nucleon thnh phn. Th d ht nhn st 26 Fe,
mt trong nhng ht nhn bn nht trong thin nhin (cu trc t 26 proton

v 30 neutron), c nng lng lin kt B 492.254 MeV, trong khi ht nhn

nh nht ca thin nhin l ht deuteron d (cu trc t 1 proton v 1 neutron

2
v l ht nhn ca nguyn t hydro nng H) c nng lng lin kt rt nh

B 2.224 MeV. Cng v th m 56 Fe c ph bin (abundancy) ti 91.754%

2
tr lng cc ng v st trong thin nhin cn H ch c ph bin 0.015%
tr lng cc ng v hydro bi v d rt d dng b ph v thnh mt cp p v
n t do qua phn ng tch cp gy bi photon nh sng (photo-dissociation).

d dng phn bit c mc lin kt nucleon trong cc ht nhn khc

nhau, ngi ta thng xt n nng lng lin kt ring B/A, l nng lng

lin kt trung bnh trn mt nucleon (tng ng bng 8.79 MeV v 1.11 MeV

21
i vi
B/A (MeV) 56
Fe v d). T hnh 1.1 ta thy B/A 8 8.5 MeV i vi cc ng

Hnh 1.1: ph thuc vo s khi A ca nng lng lin kt ring B/A xc nh t thc
nghim (cc im). ng cong l hm B/A c tnh theo cng thc khi bn thc nghim
(1.11) vi aV = 15.56 MeV, aS = 17.23 MeV, aC = 0.7 MeV v aA = 23.28 MeV. Minh ha
theo ti liu [6].

v ht nhn trung bnh v nng. y l nng lng ln hn rt nhiu so vi

nng lng lin kt trung bnh ca electron trong nguyn t (e trong nguyn

t
1
H c nng lng lin kt B 13.6 eV). Vi k thut ht nhn tin b

khng ngng, ngy nay chng ta c khi lng ht nhn o c vi

chnh xc cao cho hn 3000 ng v ht nhn. Ton b kho tng d liu v

khi lng nguyn t (atomic mass) v rt nhiu cc thng s VLHN khc ca

tng ng v ht nhn hin c th tham kho c qua Internet, th d nh

trang thng tin v ng v ht nhn ca phng th nghim Berkley, Hoa K

22
(http://ie.lbl.gov/toi.html). Ch rng khi lng nguyn t bao gm khi

lng ht nhn, khi lng cc electron v nng lng lin kt chng trong

nguyn t v c k hiu thng nht l M (A, Z) trong sch ny.

Sau khi bc tranh cu trc ht nhn nguyn t dn c khng nh trong

nhng nm u th k 20, cc nh VLHN lun tm ti xy dng nhng m

hnh vt l hay cn gi ngn l cc mu (model) m t cu trc ht nhn.

Mu git lng (liquid drop model) l mt trong nhng mu cu trc ht nhn

u tin c Weizsacker xut t nm 1935 m t nng lng lin kt

ht nhn B mt cch thng nht cho tt c cc nguyn t trong bn tun hon.

Theo mu ny, ht nhn c coi nh mt git cht ht nhn cng khng nn

(incompressible) vi bn knh R v in tch Ze phn b ng u trong ton

git. V git cht ht nhn trong iu kin bnh thng khng th nn c

nn bn knh ca n phi t l thun vi s nucleon trong ht nhn theo cng

thc R = r0 A1/3 , vi r0 l mt hng s.

Tng t nh nng lng ngng t (condensation) ca git lng, nng lng

ton phn ca ht nhn phi c mt thnh phn t l thun vi th tch git

( )
4 3 4 3
V = R = r A. (1.5)
3 3 0
Thnh phn ny l s hng th tch (volume term) trong nng lng lin kt

ht nhn v c xc nh theo

EV = aV A. (1.6)

Ngoi ra, cng b mt (surface tension) ca git cht ht nhn cng c

ng gp vo nng lng ht nhn qua s hng b mt (surface term) vi du

dng, tng t nh trng hp git lng c hc

ES = 4R2 = (4r02 )A2/3 aS A2/3 . (1.7)

Theo mu git, Z proton c phn b ng u trong mt hnh cu bn knh

R v s hng Coulomb trong nng lng lin kt ht nhn c xc nh t

23
tng tc ca Z(Z 1)/2 cp proton trong ht nhn nh sau
6 e2 Z(Z 1) Z2
EC = aC 1/3 . (1.8)
5 80 R A
12
Do nhng ht nhn c s proton v neutron bng nhau (Z = N) nh C hay
16
O thng c cu trc lin kt bn vng hn cc ng v ca chng c Z = N ,
mt s hng bt i xng (asymmetry term) vi du dng c a vo nng

lng ht nhn tnh n hiu ng gy bi s khc nhau gia cc s proton

Z v s neutron N
( )2
N Z (N Z)2
EA = aA A aA . (1.9)
N +Z A
S hng cui cng ca nng lng ht nhn l s hng cp (pairing term), c

a vo m t bn lin kt khc nhau gia ht nhn c s Z v N cng

chn hay cng l. Do hiu ng tng tc cp (pairing interaction) m s c

bn c th trong chng 3.1.4, mt cp proton (pp) hoc neutron (nn) ha tr

thng lin kt vi phn li cn li ca ht nhn bn cht hn so vi mt p

hoc n ha tr n l. C th, s hng cp c xc nh (trong n v MeV)

gn ng [6] theo


12/A

1/2
nu N chn, Z chn

EP = (N, Z) +12/A1/2 nu N l, Z l . (1.10)



0 nu A l

Ta d thy t (1.10) rng mt ht nhn chn-chn (even-even) vi N v Z u

l s chn c nng lng lin kt ln hn ht nhn l-l (odd-odd) k m

c c N v Z l s l. T cc h thc (1.6) - (1.10) ta c nng lng lin kt B

ca ht nhn trong trng thi c bn (ground state) c tnh theo cng thc

Weizsaecker nh sau

(N Z)2 Z2
B = E = aV A aS A 2/3
aA (N, Z) aC 1/3 . (1.11)
A A
H thc (1.11) cn c gi l cng thc khi bn thc nghim (semi-

empirical mass formula) m c th dng nh gi khi lng ht nhn

24
theo cng thc (1.4). Nng lng lin kt ca hu ht cc ng v ht nhn tn

ti trong thin nhin u c th c m t kh chnh xc qua h thc (1.11)

nh trnh by trn hnh 1.1. Do , h thc (1.11) hin cn c dng nh

gi khi lng ca cc ht nhn khng bn vi thi gian sng rt ngn ang

c tng hp v nghin cu trong cc trung tm VLHN quc t.

1.3 Kch thc, hnh dng v mt ht nhn

1.3.1 Kch thc v hnh dng ht nhn

Ta c th thy trn hnh 1 rng trong gii hn kch thc di c trng cho

VLHN (1 10 fm) ht nhn nguyn t c kch thc hu hn th hin qua

bn knh R ca ht nhn. Do , hnh dng ph bin thng c dng m

t ht nhn trong cc chng trnh vt l trung hc ph thng l mt qu cu

(sphere) vi bn knh R. Trn thc t, hnh dng ca ht nhn phc tp hn

nhiu. Ngay nhng th nghim tn x trn ht nhn trong nhng nm 30 ca

th k 20 pht hin ra rng mt ht nhn (nuclear density) dao ng

trong khong 0 0.17 nucleon/fm

3
gia tm hnh cu v gim tng i

nhanh v khng trong mt khong cch 26 fm (xem hnh 1.2). Nhng th

nghim tn x electron nng lng cao trn ht nhn trong nhng nm 60-70

(xem chi tit di y) khng nh rng mt ht nhn thng gim t tm

n b mt ca ht nhn theo mt dc (slope) nht nh sao cho 0 /2

ti bn knh RA = r0 A1/3 , vi r0 1.1 fm nh minh ha trn hnh 1.2. Nh

vy mt ht nhn vi s khi trung bnh nh

120
Sn s c bn knh RA 5 fm
(khong 10 nghn ln nh hn bn knh "qu o" ca electron trong nguyn

t hydro).

Mc d mt s ln ht nhn c th c xt gn ng nh c dng hnh

25
Hnh 1.2: Dng phn b c trng ca mt nucleon dc theo bn knh r ca ht nhn vi s
khi A = 12 238 c xc nh t cc phn ng tn x n hi ca cc ht v electron
trn ht nhn. Minh ha ly t ti liu [3].

cu vi mt nucleon ngoi b mt nh hn nhiu so vi bn trong ht

nhn, khng t ht nhn c khng nh l c hnh dng khc hnh cu

(non-spherical shape). thng l nhng ht nhn c moment t cc in

(electric quadrupole moment) Q2 = 0 trong trng thi c bn, ngha l nhng

ht nhn ny ch t c trng thi vi nng lng thp nht khi b mt ht

nhn tr thnh bin dng (deformed) khi b mt hnh cu. Th d minh ha

12
trn hnh 1.3 cho thy ht nhn carbon 6 C c Q2 < 0 v b mt ca n c

dng "dt" (oblate) theo hng trc i xng ca ht nhn, ngc li c hai ht
24 160
nhn magie (magnesium) 12 Mg v gadolini (gadolinium) 64 Gd u c Q2 > 0
v b mt ca chng c dng "ko di" (prolate) theo trc i xng.

a s cc ht nhn bn (stable nuclei) tn ti trong thin nhin u c cu

26
Hnh 1.3: Hnh dng khc hnh cu ca cc ht nhn 12 24 160
6 C, 12 Mg v 64 Gd (ng cong lin)
so vi hnh cu (ng cong ngt) tng ng c cng mt th tch. Trong khi 12 C c dng b
"bp dt" (oblate) bi bin dng t cc m (2 < 0), hai ht nhn cn li c dng b "ko
di" (prolate) bi bin dng t cc dng (2 > 0). Minh ha theo ti liu [3].

trc ng vi mt ht nhn m t trn hnh 1.2 v c ng knh ht nhn

D 2.2 A1/3 fm. Tuy nhin, t nhng nm 80 ca th k 20 khi nhiu ng

v ht nhn khng bn (unstable nuclei, xem chi tit chng 1.5) vi thi

gian sng rt ngn bt u c to ra trong phng th nghim ngi ta pht

hin ra mt s ht nhn nh khng bn c nhng nt cu trc rt khc thng

so vi cc ht nhn bn. Th d nh cu trc vng ho quang (halo structure)

11 11
ca cc ht nhn khng bn beryli (beryllium) 4 Be v liti (lithium) 3 Li khi

mt hoc hai neutron ha tr (valence neutron) nh v ti khong cch kh xa

t khi tm so vi cc nucleon khc. T ta c ng knh ht nhn ln bt

thng nh mt trong nhng nt cu trc c trng ca cc ht nhn halo (xem

27
Hnh 1.4: Hnh dng v kch thc ca ht nhn khng bn 11
3 Li vi cu trc "halo" to bi hai
neutron ha tr so vi hnh dng v kch thc ca hai ht nhn bn 48 208
20 Ca v 82 Pb. Minh ha
theo ti liu [26].

11
minh ha hnh dng v kch thc ca ht nhn halo 3 Li so vi kch thc
48 208
ca cc ht nhn bn canxi (calcium) 20 Ca v ch (lead) 82 Pb trn hnh 1.4).

V ht nhn khng bn c thi gian sng rt ngn, s hiu bit ca chng ta

v cu trc v cc c trng vt l ca nhiu ht nhn khng bn cn hn ch

v v th, nh cng ngh my gia tc hin i cng cc th h detector mi,

nghin cu cu trc cc ht nhn khng bn ang c tin hnh rng ri

nhiu trung tm VLHN quc t.

28
1.3.2 Tn x electron v mt ht nhn

Vi ng knh ch trong vng 10 fm, hnh dng chi tit ca ht nhn ch c

th quan st c khi ta "soi chiu" ht nhn bng cc chm bc x nng lng

cao. y c th l cc chm bc x in t (laser), electron, proton, neutron,

ht hoc cc ht nhn nng hn m thng c bit n nh cc ion nng

(heavy ion)... iu kin quan trng l bc sng ca chm bc x nh vy

phi nh hn kch thc ca ht nhn. Vi bc sng de Broglie ca mt ht

c xung lng p xc nh theo = h/p, mt chm e c gia tc n nng

lng Ee = 500 700 MeV s c = 2.48 1.77 fm v c th c dng

nghin cu chi tit hnh dng ht nhn. Do tng tc gia electron bn ti

v ht nhn bia l tng tc in t gia e v cc proton nm lin kt trong

ht nhn, th tn x electron - ht nhn s ph thuc trc tip vo phn b in

tch ht nhn c (r) theo phng trnh Poisson ca in ng lc hc. Tit din
tn x n hi e trn ht nhn c th c biu din di dng
( )
d d
= |F (q)|2 , (1.12)
d d Mott

vi (d/d)Mott l tit din tn x Rurtherford ca e trn mt in tch im

(point charge) c in tch bng in tch ton phn ca ht nhn (eZ ) m

thng c gi l phn ng tn x Mott (do Nevill Francis Mott, gii thng

Nobel vt l 1977, o c ln u tin vo nm 1929). q = p p l xung

lng chuyn (momentum transfer) xc nh t chnh lch gia hai vector

xung lng ca e trc v sau phn ng tn x. T h thc (1.12) ta thy tha

s |F (q)|2 chnh l hm cha cc thng tin v kch thc hu hn ca ht nhn.
Trong khun kh gn ng Born (Born approximation) cho tn x electron -

ht nhn, F (q) c xc nh l hm bin i Fourier (Fourier transform) ca

mt in tch ht nhn

F (q) = exp(iqr/~)c (r)d3 r, q = 2p sin(/2). (1.13)

29
Hnh 1.5: Tit din tn x n hi electron vi nng lng 750 MeV trn ht nhn 40
20 Ca
(d/d 10) v 48
20 Ca (d/d 0.1). Minh ha t ti liu [9].

Tn x n hi electron - ht nhn lun bo ton xung lng p = |p| ca

electron v xung lng chuyn q xc nh ng thi gc tn x theo h thc

(1.13). Vi tit din tn x n hi electron nng lng cao o chnh xc cho

mt khong gc tn x ln (xem hnh 1.5) ta c th xc nh chun xc c

Fexp (q) t tit din d/d thc nghim. Lc , hnh dng mt in tch

ht nhn c (r) c th xy dng c t php bin i Fourier ngc

1
c (r) = 3
Fexp (q) exp(iqr/~)d3 q. (1.14)
(2)
Rt nhiu cc phn ng tn x n hi electron- ht nhn, k hiu l (e, e),
c o ti cc trung tm gia tc khc nhau trong khong 50 nm qua xc

30
nh dng phn b in tch ht nhn c (r) cho hu ht cc ng v ht nhn

bn v cc ng v khng bn m c thi gian sng trung bnh di cho ton

b th nghim (e, e). i vi cc ng v khng bn c thi gian sng ngn,

vic nghin cu phn b mt ht nhn ch c th tin hnh trong cc phn

ng tn x proton, ...trn ht nhn (thc t ngi ta o phn ng tn x chm

thc cp ng v khng bn trn cc bia p, ...). Tuy nhin c ch tng tc

mnh trong mt phn ng tn x nh vy phc tp hn nhiu so vi tng tc

in t trong phn ng (e, e) v v th c (r) khng th xc nh c chnh

xc nh trong cc phn ng (e, e).

1.4 chn l, spin, spin ng v v moment in t

1.4.1 chn l v spin ht nhn

Mi mt trng thi vt l ca ht nhn, t trng thi c bn cho n cc trng

thi kch thch (excited states) khc nhau, u c c trng bi mt chn

l (parity) v spin ht nhn xc nh. y l hai s lng t quan trng c

trng cho hm sng ht nhn v v th hm sng ny thng c k hiu nh

J |J , (1.15)

trong l chn l v J = |J | l spin ht nhn. chn l c gn lin

vi tnh cht ca trong php bin i phn x gng P trong khng gian ta

(xem phn tham kho 4.1.3)

P J (r) = J (r) = J (r). (1.16)

T tnh bt bin ca trng thi ht nhn i vi php bin i P ta d dng

suy ra = 1. Trng thi c = +1 c gi l trng thi vi chn l

dng (positive parity) v tng t khi = 1 ta c trng thi vi chn

31
Hnh 1.6: Ph nng lng cc trng thi kch thch ca ht nhn 209
83 Bi m thng c m t
trong mu v nh cc mc nng lng n ht ca proton ha tr chuyn ng trong trng
trung bnh ca ht nhn li 208
82 Pb. Nhm cc trng thi nm gn 2.6 MeV tng ng vi proton
ha tr trng thi j = 9/2 cp vi ht nhn li 208
Pb nm trong trng thi kch thch

Jcore = 3 . Spin tng ca cc trng thi ny c xc nh t tng vector J = j + J core , do
J = 3/2+ , 5/2+ , 7/2+ , ..., 15/2+ . Minh ha t ti liu [3].

32
l m (negative parity). Spin ht nhn J l moment gc (angular momentum)

ton phn xc nh t tng moment gc ca cc nucleon tham gia cu trc ln

trng thi J . Do proton v neutron l cc ht fermion vi spin s = 1/2, cc

trng thi n ht (single-particle states) ca nucleon phi c spin bn nguyn

j m c xc nh trong mu v ht nhn (xem chi tit trong mc 3.1.2) nh

tng vector j = l + s, vi l l moment qu o (orbital angular momentum) ca

nucleon trong trng trung bnh ht nhn (nuclear mean field) v chn l l

= (1)l . Trong th d trnh by trn hnh 1.6, ph nng lng ca ht nhn

209
bismut (bismuth) 83 Bi c th c m t kh chnh xc trong mu v nh cc

mc nng lng n ht ca proton ha tr (valence proton), hay l ht proton

209
th 83 ca ht nhn Bi chuyn ng trong trng trung bnh ca ht nhn
208
ch 82 Pb. C th, ta c ba mc nng lng n ht thp nht ca proton ha

tr c spin j = 7/2 , 9/2 v 13/2+ , ng vi l = 3, 5 v 6 (m c k hiu

tng t nh trong ph nguyn t bng cc mc f, h v i). Trong ba trng thi
208
ny, bn thn ht nhn li (core nucleus) Pb nm trong trng thi c bn

ca n vi Jcore = 0+ . Khi ht nhn li
208
Pb nm trong trng thi kch thch

vi

Jcore = 3 ti nng lng Ex = 2.61 MeV, trng thi tng ng ca
209
Bi

s c cu trc t ht proton ha tr cp vi ht nhn li kch thch, vi spin

tng xc nh theo J = j + J core v chn l tng = (1)l core . Nh

vy, chn l v spin ht nhn l hai s lng t quan trng nht c trng

cho cu trc ca ht nhn trong tng trng thi vt l ca n. y l hai i

lng vt l lun c bo ton trong cc qu trnh bin i ht nhn gy bi

tng tc mnh. Lun nh rng spin ht nhn c th nguyn ca moment gc

lng t, ngha l J phi c tnh n nh ~J trong cc tnh ton ng hc

v cu trc ht nhn.

33
1.4.2 Spin ng v ca nucleon v ht nhn

Nh tho lun trn, proton v neutron l hai fermion c khi lng gn

bng nhau mp mn v thng c xt gn ng nh l hai trng thi lng

t ca mt ht nucleon. y l h qu ca tnh cht c lp in tch (charge

independence) ca tng tc mnh gia hai nucleon. C th, tng tc cp

pp, nn v np gn bng nhau khi cc cp nucleon-nucleon (NN) ny nm trong

cc trng thi vt l c cng cc s lng t ca spin tng S = s1 + s2 , v

moment qu o L ca chuyn ng tng i ca h hai nucleon. Trong i

xng c lp in tch nh vy, hm sng n ht ca nucleon c thm mt s

lng t mi tng ng vi spin ng v (isotopic spin, hay c gi ngn l

isospin v k hiu bng t). Thnh phn spin ng v ca hm sng nucleon c

cu trc tng t nh thnh phn spin v hm sng ton phn ca mt trng

thi n ht c dng

lst l (r)s (sz )t (tz ). (1.17)

Mc d l spin trong khng gian tru tng ca i xng c lp in tch,

spin ng v t cng c cc tnh cht nh spin s ca nucleon (t = 1/2 vi hnh

chiu ln trc z xc nh theo tz = 1/2). Nh vy, c hai hm s v t cng

c chung mt dng spinor Dirac sau

( ) ( )
1 0
s(t) () = , s(t) () = . (1.18)
0 1

Theo qui tc s dng rng ri trong VLHN (ngc du vi qui tc tng t

trong vt l ht c bn) neutron c m t nh nucleon nm trong trng thi

t () t (tz = 1/2) v proton ng vi t () t (tz = 1/2).

Spin ng v t cng cp c vi nhau theo quy tc cng moment gc p

dng cho spin s v trng thi ca mt cp NN tng tc vi nhau c spin v

spin ng v ton phn c xc nh tng ng l S = s1 + s2 v T = t1 + t2

34
 (b)
(a)

Hnh 1.7: (a) Ph ca trng thi c bn v cc trng thi kch thch trong cp ht nhn gng
7
3 Li v 74 Be; (b) Ph ny trong ba ht nhn ng khi 62 He, 63 Li v 64 Be, vi cc trng thi tng
t ng khi (IAS) thuc v tam mc spin ng v T = 1 c ni vi nhau bng ng ngt.
Minh ha theo ti liu [4].

(xem chi tit trong phn tham kho 4.2.3). Tuy nhin, spin ng v ch c th

cp vi nhau ch khng cp trn vi spin v moment qu o v spin ng v

ton phn ca ht nhn c xc nh hon ton qua tng vector spin ng v

ca cc nucleon thnh phn

A
A
T = ti Tz = tiz = (N Z)/2. (1.19)
i=1 i=1

Tng t nh spin ht nhn, spin ng v ca ht nhn cng l mt i lng

vt l c bo ton trong cc qu trnh tng tc mnh. Do , trong khun

35
kh i xng c lp in tch hm sng ht nhn (1.15) c dng sau

J J T = J (r)T |J T , (1.20)

vi J (r) xc nh trong khng gian ta ba chiu bnh thng v T trong

khng gian tru tng ca spin ng v. Nu nh t bt bin quay (rotational

invariance) trong khng gian ba chiu (xem phn tham kho 4.1.2) ta c hm

sng J (r) l tp hp ca 2J + 1 hm sng thnh phn tng ng vi cc gi

tr cho php ca hnh chiu J trn trc quay (Jz = J, J + 1, .., J 1, J ),
th hon ton tng t ta cng c T l tp hp ca 2T + 1 hm sng thnh

phn trong khng gian spin ng v, tng ng vi cc gi tr Tz = T, T +

1, .., T 1, T . Do mi ht nhn c Tz = (N Z)/2 hon ton xc nh,

cc trng thi (1.20) c cng spin ng v T vi hnh chiu Tz khc nhau ch

c th nm trong nhng ht nhn ng khi (c cng A nhng N v Z khc

nhau). Cc trng thi ny thng c gi l cc trng thi tng t ng

khi (isobaric analog state, vit tt l IAS) ng vi a mc (multiplet) 2T + 1

ca spin ng v T. V c cng mt hm sng J (r) trong khng gian ta

, cc trng thi IAS phi c J nh nhau v cu trc vt l rt gn nhau. Hai

7
th d in hnh c trnh by trn hnh 1.7. Ht nhn bn liti 3 Li v ht nhn
7
khng bn beryli 4 Be c bit n nh mt cp ht nhn gng (c cng s

khi A = 7 v s proton ca ht nhn ny bng s neutron ca ht nhn kia v

7
ngc li). Trong khun kh i xng c lp in tch Li (Tz = 1/2) v 7 Be
(Tz = 1/2) c th c m t gn ng nh hai trng thi ca mt nh mc

spin ng v (isospin doublet) vi T = 1/2. Nu b qua dch ca cc mc

nng lng ht nhn gy bi cc ng gp khc nhau ca th nng tng tc

Coulomb, ph ca trng thi c bn v cc trng thi kch thch trong cp ht

nhn gng ny phi c cu trc hon ton tng t v l cc cp trng thi

IAS ca cc nh mc spin ng v T = 1/2 vi J khc nhau. Tng t, cc

trng thi 0+ trong ba ht nhn

6
He (Tz = 1), 6
Li (Tz = 0) v
6
Be (Tz = 1)
cng c th c m t nh ba trng thi IAS ca tam mc spin ng v (isospin

36
triplet) T = 1.

1.4.3 Moment in t ca ht nhn

Nh gii thiu mc 1.3, kch thc v hnh dng ht nhn c th c

nghin cu chi tit qua cc phn ng tn x electron trn ht nhn. C ch ca

phn ng ny l tng tc in t gia ht e bn ti v cc ht proton nm

trong ht nhn. Cc proton lin kt trong ht nhn thng c mt phn b in

tch c (r) nht nh c trng cho cu trc ca ht nhn c nghin cu. Ti

bn knh khong cch R t khi tm ht nhn (R > RA ) ta c th tnh in

(electrostatic potential) sinh bi cc proton c xc nh nh sau

c (r) 3
(R) = d r, (1.21)
|R r|
vi tch phn c ly theo ton b th tch ca ht nhn. Dng h thc khai

trin 1/|R r| theo chui cc hm cu (spherical harmonics) ta c th biu

din th trn di dng

l
4 1
(R) = Ylm (R) c (r)rl Ylm (r)d3 r, (1.22)
2l + 1 R l+1
l=0 m=l

vi r = r/r , l hai gc ca vector bn knh r trong h ta cu. i

lng xc nh bi tch phn (1.22)

Qlm = c (r)rl Ylm (r)d3 r (1.23)

l moment a cc in (electric multipole moment) ca phn b in tch c (r).

Cc a cc thng gp trong VLHN l n cc (monopole) vi l = 0, lng cc
(dipole) vi l = 1, t cc (quadrupole) vi l = 2, bt cc (octupole) vi l = 3 v
thp lc cc (hexadecupole) vi l = 4... v a cc (multipolarity) c xc
nh bng 2l . T h thc (1.22) ta thy mi moment a cc in 2l c 2l + 1 s
hng thnh phn v v th moment Qlm l mt tensor cu bc l (xem phn tham

37

kho 4.2.2). T dng lin hp phc ca hm cu Ylm (r) = (1)m Ylm (r), ta

c Qlm = (1)m Qlm . Nh vy, thay cho 2l + 1 s hng thnh phn ca Qlm
ta ch cn xc nh l+1 s hng l xc nh ton b moment a cc

in 2l .

a) Moment n cc in ch c mt thnh phn duy nht

1 eZ
Q00 = c (r)Y00 (r)d r = 3
c (r)d3 r =
4 4
Q00 eZ
(R) = 4 Y00 (R) = . (1.24)
R R
Nh vy, ti khong cch R >> RA thnh phn n cc ca th (1.22) chnh

l th Coulomb ca ht nhn (xc nh nh th Coulomb ca in tch im

eZ ti tm ht nhn).

b) Ba thnh phn ca moment lng cc in hp thnh mt tensor cu

bc nht (xem phn tham kho 4.2.2) v y cng l ba ta cu ca vector

moment lng cc in Q1 . Do mt in tch ht nhn lun l mt i lng

dng c (r) > 0, t biu thc ca vector moment lng cc in trong h ta
Descartes ta c Q11 = Q11 = Q10 = 0

{Q1m , m = 1, 0, 1} Q1 = c (r)rd3 r = 0. (1.25)

c) Moment t cc in c xc nh hon ton qua ba moment thnh phn

Q2m = c (r)r2 Y2m (r)d3 r, m = 0, 1, 2. (1.26)

Nu nh ht nhn c dng i xng hnh cu th mt in tch ht nhn

l mt i lng ng hng, ngha l c (r) c (r). Khi , d dng chng

minh c moment t cc in (1.26) bng 0 da trn tnh trc giao ca hm

cu nh sau

4
Q2m = 4 c (r)r dr Y2m (r)Y00 (r)dr = 0. (1.27)
0

38
Nh vy, nu moment t cc in Q2 ca mt ht nhn khc khng th chc

chn ht nhn s c hnh dng bin dng (deformed shape) khi i xng

hnh cu nh cc th d trnh by trn hnh 1.3. Moment t cc in cn c th

c biu din qua h ta Descartes vi r (x1 , x2 , x3 ) di dng

(2)
{Q2m } Qij = c (r)(3xi xj r2 ij )d3 r, i, j = 1, 2, 3. (1.28)

Tensor Qij = 3xi xj r2 ij c gi l ton t t cc in (electric quadrupole

operator). Tng t nh moment t cc in, cc moment a cc in vi l>2

cng ch khc khng khi ht nhn c hnh dng khc vi hnh cu.

Do t tch (magnetic charge) khng tn ti nn moment t ht nhn c

hon ton xc nh bi spin ht nhn. Cc ht nhn chn-chn c spin trong

trng thi c bn bng khng (Jg.s. = 0+ ) nn moment t tng ng cng bng

khng. Cc ht nhn l thng c Jg.s. bng moment gc ton phn j ca

nucleon ha tr trong lp v ngoi cng v moment t ht nhn lc hon

ton c xc nh bi moment t ca nucleon ha tr. Do j c xc nh t

tng vector ca moment qu o v spin ca nucleon, j = l + s, moment t

ht nhn c xc nh tng ng theo = l + s . i vi chuyn ng

qu o ca nucleon, ch c moment qu o ca ht proton (mang in tch

+e) mi to ra moment t tng ng. Do ta c th xc nh l di dng

{ }
gl = N i vi p
l = gl l, . (1.29)
gl = 0 i vi n
gl l h s t hi chuyn (gyromagnetic ratio) ca chuyn ng qu o

v hng s N = e~/(2mp ) 3.1525 1014 MeV/Tesla l magneton ht

nhn. Khc vi moment qu o, spin l moment gc ni (intrinsic angular

momentum) ca nucleon v moment t spin l i lng khc khng i vi

c proton v neutron
{ }
gs = 5.5856 N i vi p
s = gs s, , (1.30)
gs = 3.8261 N i vi n

39
 j

Hnh 1.8: S vector xc nh moment t ca ht nhn trong hin din ca t trng B.

Minh ha theo ti liu [8].

vi gs l h s t hi chuyn ca spin. Nu nh proton v neutron l hai ht

im vi khi lng gn bng nhau (mp mn u) v cng spin 1/2 th s

ca proton v neutron phi l hai i lng gn bng nhau. S khc bit rt ln

gia proton v neutron trong gi tr s l bng chng thc nghim khng nh

proton v neutron khng phi l hai ht im v chng phi c cu trc hu

hn ring ca mnh (xem thm chi tit trong mc 3.6). Moment t ton phn

ca nucleon ha tr c xc nh theo

= l + s = gj j = gl l + gs s. (1.31)

Mt khc, j, l v s l cc ton t moment gc vi cc tr ring tng ng c

40
xc nh vi hm sng n ht nucleon |(ls)j nh sau

j 2 |(ls)j > = ~2 j(j + 1)|(ls)j,

l2 |(ls)j > = ~2 l(l + 1)|(ls)j,
s2 |(ls)j > = ~2 s(s + 1)|(ls)j. (1.32)

T h thc (1.32) ta c h s t hi chuyn gj ca nucleon ha tr c xc

nh theo

j(j + 1) + l(l + 1) s(s + 1) j(j + 1) l(l + 1) + s(s + 1)

gj = gl + gs .
2j(j + 1) 2j(j + 1)
(1.33)

Trong thc nghim, moment t ht nhn ch c th o c khi ht nhn nm

trong t trng vi vector moment t hng theo vector t trng B . Lc

|| = gj jz ; jz = j, j + 1, ..., j 1, j (1.34)

vi jz l hnh chiu ca j ln trc z (trc hng theo vector trng B nh

minh ha trn hnh 1.8). Theo qui c chung ca VLHN, moment t ht nhn

c xc nh t h thc (1.34) theo gi tr cc i ca jz , ngha l = gj j .

Do j = l + s v s = 1/2, ta c j = l 1/2 v moment t c xc nh theo
gs 1 1
= + (j )gl nu j = l + (1.35)
2 [ 2 ] 2
j gs 3 1
= + (j + )gl nu j = l . (1.36)
j+1 2 2 2
9
Th d, ht nhn 4 Be c j = 3/2 ng vi trng thi neutron ha tr c l=1
v ta tnh c t (1.35) moment = 1.913 N (so vi gi tr thc nghim

exp 1.1776 N ); 136 C c j = 1/2 ng vi neutron ha tr c l = 1 v ta

tnh c t (1.36) moment = 0.638 N (so vi exp 0.7024 N ). khc
bit gia cc gi tr tnh ton ca so vi s liu thc nghim cho ta thy hm
sng trng thi c bn ca ht nhn cn phi cha nhng thnh phn bc cao

vi cu trc phc tp hn hm sng n ht ca nucleon ha tr.

41
1.5 bn ht nhn v cc qu trnh phn r phng x

56
T th d ca Fe v deuteron trnh by chng 1.2 ta thy rng ph

bin ca mt ng v ht nhn bt k trong thin nhin ph thuc trc tip vo

nng lng lin kt ca n. Cng trn c s nng lng lin kt ht nhn (1.4)

ngi ta thng phn loi cc ng v ht nhn tn ti trong thin nhin ra hai

nhm: ht nhn bn (stable) v cc ht nhn khng bn (unstable) hay l cc

ng v phng x (radioactive isotopes). i lng c bn c trng cho

bn (stability) ca mt ng v ht nhn l thi gian sng (life time) hay thi

gian bn r (half-life time) t1/2 m bng khong thi gian cn cho 1/2 s lng

ng v ht nhn ny trong mt mu nghin cu b phn r. Nhng ht nhn

bn thng c thi gian sng rt ln nh ht proton (ht nhn ca nguyn t

hydro) c t1/2 1014 nm, l mt trong nhng d kin m bo cho s tn ti

bn vng ca vt cht trong v tr bao quanh ta. Trong khi , ht neutron t

do trong chn khng c t1/2 615 giy v n phn r rt nhanh qua phn ng
phn r thnh proton, electron v phn ht neutrino nh sau

n p + e + e + 0.782 MeV. (1.37)

Tuy nhin, nu c nm lin kt trong trng thi c bn ca mt ng v ht

12 16 56
nhn bn nh C, O, Fe... ht neutron vn c th tn ti gn nh vnh cu

cng ng v ht nhn . Ph thuc vo thi gian sng t1/2 , mi mt ng

v ht nhn khng bn u c khuynh hng t chuyn sang mt trng thi

ht nhn khc qua mt qu trnh phn r ht nhn (nuclear decay) hay cn

c gi l phn r phng x (radioactive decay). Ba qu trnh phn r ht

nhn thng gp nht trong thin nhin l phn r alpha (qu trnh phn r
4
ht nhn km theo s pht ra cc ht nhn He m cn c gi l ht ), phn
r beta (qu trnh phn r ht nhn pht ra cc electron e hay positron e+ m
cn c gi l cc ht v +) v phn r gamma (qu trnh phn r ht

42
nhn pht ra bc x photon nng lng cao hay cn c gi l bc x ).

Chng ta bit rng vt cht v m m con ngi c th nhn v cm nhn

c xung quanh mnh thng c cu trc bi cc ng v ht nhn bn v

cc ng v khng bn vi thi gian bn r rt ln. Cho n nhng nm 70-80

ca th k 20, nghin cu VLHN ch yu ch c tin hnh vi nhng ht

nhn bn v v cc ng v khng bn vi thi gian sng di (gm khong vi

trm ng v c biu din bng cc vung en trong hnh 1.9). Tuy nhin,

cc tnh ton cu trc ht nhn d on s tn ti ca 5000 7000 ng v

ht nhn khng bn, vi thi gian sng c th ngn ti t1/2 1010 1013
giy hoc nh hn v nhng tnh cht vt l c nhiu khc bit so vi cc ng

v ht nhn bn. Mng cc ng v ht nhn khng bn c biu din trn

hnh 1.9 nh mt vng lnh th xa l cha c bit ti (terra incognita) nm

gia hai ng gii hn ca s neutron N (neutron drip-line) v s proton Z

(proton drip-line). Cng s pht trin mnh m ca k ngh my gia tc trong

thp k 90 ca th k 20, nghin cu VLHN hin i thc s bc sang mt

giai on mi vi s pht trin mnh m ca cc hng nghin cu phn ng

v cu trc ht nhn vi cc ng v ht nhn khng bn m cn c gi l

cc ht nhn l (exotic nuclei), c tch online t cc chm th cp cc sn

phm ca phn ng ht nhn trc tip.

Trc khi xt c th tng dng phn r ht nhn, ta cn lm quen vi nh

lut phn r phng x (radioactive decay law) m c th c trnh by tm

tt nh sau: gi s mt ht nhn khng bn phn r t pht (spontaneous decay)

chuyn t trng thi |i sang trng thi |f vi mt tc phn r (transition

rate) v ti thi im t = 0 ta c mu (hay l ngun phng x) vi N (0) ht

nhn m. Khi , s ht nhn m cn tn ti ti thi im t s c xc nh

t phng trnh vi phn tuyn tnh sau

dN (t)
= N (t) N (t) = N (0) exp(t). (1.38)
dt
43
 Proton drip-line

Super
Heavies
N=Z

Sn isotopes

Ni isotopes

Neutron drip-line
N=28
Isotones

Hnh 1.9: V tr ca khong 250 ng v ht nhn bn (cc vung en) trong tp hp ca

5000 7000 ng v ht nhn khng bn m t bng vng din tch mu vng nm gia hai
ng gii hn (drip-line) ca s proton Z v s neutron N . Minh ha t ti liu [29].

H thc (1.38) cn c bit n nh nh lut phn r phng x, vi i

khi cn c gi l hng s phn r (decay constant). T nh ngha ca

ta c th xc nh c thi gian sng trung bnh (mean lifetime) ca ht

nhn m trong trng thi ban u |i l = 1 . Tuy nhin, i lng

c tham kho thng xuyn hn trong cc qu trnh phn r ht nhn l thi

gian bn r t1/2 m c th d dng c xc nh c t h thc (1.38) l

t1/2 = ln 2 0.693 . Hot phng x (radioactivity) a(t) ca ngun

phng x ti thi im t c nh ngha l s phn r trong mt n v thi

gian ghi o c ti t v c xc nh t s ht nhn m ti t nh sau

dN (t)
a(t) = a(t) = N (0) exp(t). (1.39)
dt
D thy t (1.39) rng a(t) l i lng gim vi thi gian theo hm m v

chnh l l do ti sao cc ngun phng x dng trong cc lnh vc ng dng

44
bc x khc nhau phi lun c thay nh k bng cc ngun mi m

bo duy tr c chc nng ng dng ca n. Hai n v chnh o hot

phng x a l Curie (Ci) v Becquerel (Bq), vi Ci k nim Marie Curie

(hai ln gii thng Nobel trong vt l v ha hc) ngi pht minh ra hai

nguyn t phng x quan trng l radi (radium) Ra v poloni (polonium) Po,

Bq k nim Henri Becquerel (ng gii thng Nobel vi Pierre v Marie

Curie) tc gi pht minh ra phn r phng x ca ht nhn urani (uranium) U.

Quy c quc t s dng Bq nh l n v o hot phng x trong h n

v SI (1 Bq ng vi mt phn r trong 1 giy) v 1 Ci = 3.7 1010 Bq.

212
Bi t1/2 = 60.55 pht

f=64.06 %

Q=2.254 MeV

212
Po

f=35.94 %
Q=6.207 MeV

208
Tl

Hnh 1.10: S phn r ca 212

83 Bi: phn r thnh ht nhn con 208
81 Tl theo t l nhnh f v
phn r thnh ht nhn con 212
84 Po theo t l nhnh f .

45
 Phn r ht nhn c th l phn r n nhnh khi xy ra trong mt knh

phn r (decay mode) nht nh hoc c th l phn r a nhnh (multimodal

decay) khi xy ra cng mt lc trong vi knh phn r khc nhau. T th d

212
trn hnh 1.10 ta thy ng v ht nhn bismut 83 Bi c th r cng mt lc theo

hai nhnh phn r v thnh hai ht nhn con tng ng l tali (thallium)
208
81 Tl vi xc sut r f = 36% v poloni 212
84 Po vi xc sut r f = 64%. Hai

xc sut thnh phn f v f cn c gi l cc t l nhnh (branching ratio)

vi hai hng s phn r tng ng l v . Trong trng hp ny hng s

phn r ton phn c xc nh bng tng cc hng s phn r thnh phn

v h thc (1.38) s c dng

dN (t)
= N (t) N (t) N (t) = N (0) exp[( + )t]. (1.40)
dt
D thy rng hai t l nhnh trong trng hp ny l f = / v f = / .
Trong trng hp chung khi phn r ht nhn xy ra mt lc trong nhiu nhnh

th hng s r ton phn v cc t l nhnh thnh phn c xc nh theo

= i fi = i / i / k . (1.41)
i k

Thng ta rt hay gp cc qu trnh phn r ht nhn xy ra tip ni nhau

(khi ht nhn sn phm ca phn ng r th nht tr thnh ht nhn m trong

phn ng r tip theo...). Nhng qu trnh phn r kiu ny c gi l phn

210
r chui (sequential decay). Th d, 83 Bi l ht nhn khng bn (t1/2 = 5.013
210
ngy) phn r thnh ht nhn 84 Po vi xc sut r f = 100%. Bn thn
210
84 Po cng l mt ht nhn khng bn (t1/2 = 138.376 ngy) v phn r tip
206 206
thnh ht nhn 82 Pb vi xc sut r f = 100%. Ht nhn sn phm cui 82 Pb

l mt ng v ch bn, tn ti trong thin nhin vi ph bin 24.1%.

210
83 Bi 210
84 Po + e + e + 1.161 MeV (1.42)

206
82 Pb + + 5.407 MeV.

46
Mt qu trnh phn r chui AB C vi cc hng s phn r A , B
c m t bi h 2 phng trnh vi phn sau

dNA (t)
= A NA (t) (1.43)
dt
dNB (t)
= B NB (t) + A NA (t).
dt
Nu ti thi im t=0 trong ngun phng x khng c ng v B, ngha l

NB (0) = 0, ta d dng tm c nghim cho NB (t) di dng sau

A
NB (t) = NA (0)[exp(A t) exp(B t)]. (1.44)
B A
Trong trng hp ht nhn sn phm C l mt ht nhn khng bn v phn r

tip tc th ta phi a thm vo h phng trnh (1.43) phng trnh vi phn

sau cho NC (t)

dNC (t)
= C NC (t) + B NB (t) + A NA (t). (1.45)
dt
Hon ton tng t c th xy dng h phng trnh cho mt chui phn r ht

nhn nhiu chng A B C D E ....

Cc phng php th nghim thng thng dng o bc x phn r ht

nhn (s dng cc loi detector kh, bn dn...) c th c tham kho trong

gio trnh VLHN ca tc gi Ng Quang Huy [12].

1.5.1 Phn r

Phn r l qu trnh phn r t pht (spontaneous decay) ca ht nhn xy

ra trong c ch tng tc mnh. Phn ng r ca mt ng v ht nhn vi

s khi A c k hiu nh sau

(A, Z) (A 4, Z 2) + + Q . (1.46)

47
 226
Hnh 1.11: Vt ca cc ht (tia mu vng) pht ra t phn r ca mu phng x 88 Ra
(hnh trn ) ghi li c trn mt tm nh nh tng (photo-emulsion plate). Minh ha ly
t th vin nh khoa hc [28].

Trong (A, Z) c gi l ht nhn m (parent nucleus), ht nhn sn phm

ca phn r (A 4, Z 2) c gi l ht nhn con (daughter nucleus) v ht
4
l ht nhn heli (helium) 2 He. Q l nng lng pht ra cng vi phn r

, c ngun gc t chnh lch gia khi lng ht nhn m v tng khi

lng ca ht nhn con v ht . Q cn c gi l gi tr Q ca phn ng

(Q value) v c xc nh t cc khi lng nguyn t nh sau

Q = [M (A, Z) M (A 4, Z 2) M (4, 2)]c2 . (1.47)

48
Mt trong nhng th d phn r in hnh l qu trnh r ca ht nhn
226
radi 88 Ra, mt trong nhng ngun phng x mnh nht trong thin nhin

vi t1/2 1600 nm (xem hnh 1.11). Phn ng r ny c Pierre and

Marie Curie pht hin ra nm 1898, nh du mt mc quan trng trong lch

s pht trin ca VLHN.

D thy Q > 0 l iu kin cn thit u tin cho qu trnh phn r

c th xy ra. Tuy nhin, y cha phi l iu kin cho mt qu trnh phn

r xy ra. Th d, nu ta xt phn r ca ht nhn bismut thnh ht nhn

tali
209
83 Bi 205
81 Tl + + 3.137 MeV. (1.48)

Do Q 3.137 MeV > 0, phn ng (1.48) v nguyn tc c th xy ra.

209
Trong thc t, Bi l mt ng v ht nhn bn v phn ng phn r (1.48)

khng bao gi quan st c. Hiu ng ny c th c gii thch n gin

209
nh sau: gi s ht c hnh thnh di b mt ca Bi t 2 cp

neutron v proton (xem hnh 1.12), n phi c mt ng nng hay xung lng

p > 0 c th d dng thot khi ht nhn m. Ti im khi u ca

phn r , khong cch R gia 2 tm khi (center of mass) ca ht v

205
ht nhn con Tl phi khng nh hn tng bn knh ca 2 ht nhn ny,

R > RC = R + RTl 1.1 (41/3 + 2051/3 ) = 8.23 fm, vi nng lng ca

ht dn tip nhn gi tr Q ca phn ng r (E Q ). Xung lng p ca

ht ang nm lin kt trong h +205 Tl c th c xc nh gn ng theo

h thc sau

p = 2m [E VNuclear (R) VCoulomb (R)], (1.49)

vi VNuclear (R) v VCoulomb (R) l th tng tc ht nhn v th tng tc

Coulomb gia ht v ht nhn con

205
Tl. Ti cc khong cch R > RC ,
th ht nhn thng l rt nh so vi th Coulomb (v tng tc mnh l tng

tc ch hin din khong cch ngn) v p s c xc nh chnh t E v

49
Hnh 1.12: S hnh thnh ht t 2 cp neutron v proton di b mt ht nhn m. Qu
trnh phn r xy ra nh hiu ng ng hm ca c hc lng t, khi nng lng ht
khng qu nh n c th "chui qua" ngng Coulomb (1.50). Minh ha t ti liu [4]

VCoulomb . Tuy nhin, vi nng lng E 3.137 MeV v

e2 Z (Z 2) 1.44 2 81
VCoulomb (RC ) = = = 28.34 MeV, (1.50)
RC 8.23
ta c E VCoulomb (RC ) 25.2 MeV < 0. Nh vy, trong trng hp ny

ta c E nm qu thp so vi ngng Coulomb (Coulomb barrier, xem hnh

1.12) ca th tng tc + (A 4, Z 2) v v th qu trnh phn r khng

th xy ra c. Ngay c trong trng hp cc ht nhn r in hnh vi hot
226
mnh nh 88 Ra (hnh 1.11 v 1.13), E vn nm thp hn so vi ngng

Coulomb. Trong thc t, a s cc phn ng phn r xy ra c nh hiu

ng ng hm (tunnel effect) ca c hc lng t khi xc sut ghi o c

50
 226
Ra t1/2 = 1600 nm J=0+

f =
0 .0
1-

07
0.601 MeV

%
f =9

f =
4+
0.448 MeV
5.5
4 .4 5

4%

%, Q

2+
=4 .8

0.186 MeV
t1/2 = 0.3 ns
71 M
eV

0+
g.s.
222
Rn t1/2 = 3.82 ngy

226
Hnh 1.13: S phn r ca Ra. Cc mi tn xin k hiu cc qu trnh r n cc
trng thi khc nhau ca ht nhn 222 Rn theo cc t l nhnh f tng ng. Cc chiu mi
tn thng k hiu bc x pht ra t cc dch chuyn in t gia cc trng thi kch thch v
222
trng thi c bn ca Rn.

ht t do (free -particle trn hnh 1.12) pha ngoi ngng Coulomb ln

hn khng, ngha l | (R >> RC )|2 > 0. Mt qu trnh phn r thng

l a nhnh v sinh ra ht nhn con trong nhng trng thi kch thch khc
226
nhau. Trong th d trnh by trn hnh 1.13, 88 Ra phn r thnh ht nhn con
222
radon 86 Rn nm ng thi trong trng thi c bn v 3 trng thi kch thch

khc nhau. Trong nhng trng hp nh vy ta quan st k tip c bc x

sinh bi dch chuyn ca ht nhn con t cc trng thi kch thch v trng

thi c bn. Qu trnh phn r ca 226

88 Ra trn hnh 1.13 cng c th quan st
c nh mt giai on trung gian ca chui phn r khi u t phn r

51
Hnh 1.14: S chui phn r ca ng v ht nhn urani t nhin 238
92 U biu din theo trc
s neutron N v s proton Z . Thi gian bn r ca cc ht nhn sn phm trung gian c ch
ra ngay trc dng nhnh phn r tng ng (ch n v thi gian 1 annum=1 a=1 nm, 1
d=1 ngy, 1h=1 gi). Minh ha t ti liu [9].

238 206
ca ng v urani 92 U t nhin m cui cng dn ti ht nhn sn phm 82 Pb

(xem hnh 1.14). Phn ng u tin ca chui phn r trn hnh 1.14

238
92 U 234
90 Th + + 4.27 MeV (1.51)

chnh l qu trnh phn r u tin quan st c bi Henri Becquerel vo

nm 1896, thng c nhc n nh khi im ca VLHN hin i. Mt c

trng quan trng ca phn r l ht pht ra c nng lng hon ton c

xc nh bi gi tr Q v v th ph nng lng bc x phn r thng l

mt ph gin on (discrete spectrum) vi cc nh ng vi cc nhnh phn

52
r v cc trng thi khc nhau ca ht nhn con nh th d trnh by trn hnh

1.13. Do nng lng Q sinh ra t phn r c phn chia ng thi cho

ng nng ca ht bay ra v chuyn ng git (recoil) ca ht nhn sn phm

nn nng lng o c ca ht bay ra c xc nh theo
M (A 4, Z 2)
E = Q . (1.52)
M (A 4, Z 2) + M (4, 2)
i vi qu trnh phn r (1.51) ta d dng tnh c E 4.20 MeV, nh

hn nhiu so vi ngng Coulomb VCoulomb (RC ) 30.41 MeV. Do , hot

phn r ca qu trnh (1.51) cng rt nh (hng triu ln yu hn hot

226 238
phn r ca Ra) v y l l do ti sao U t nhin c thi gian bn r

rt ln, t1/2 4.5 t nm.

1.5.2 Phn r

Khc vi phn r , phn r l phn ng r t pht ca ht nhn xy ra trong

c ch tng tc yu. Mt trong 3 qu trnh c bn nht ca phn r l qu

trnh chuyn mt ht nhn khng bn (A, Z) giu neutron (neutron rich) sang
mt ht nhn ng khi (A, Z +1), khi mt neutron trong ht nhn m r thnh

proton cng vi cp lepton (e , e ) theo c ch (1.37)

(A, Z) (A, Z + 1) + e + e + Q . (1.53)

Phn ng (1.53) cn c gi l phn r ca ht nhn (A, Z), vi Q > 0.

Trong lch s pht trin vt l hin i, phn ng r c mt vai tr rt

ng nh. Nm 1930, khi s tn ti ca ht neutrino cn cha c bit n,

Wolfgang Pauli (gii thng Nobel vt l nm 1954 cho pht minh ra nguyn

l loi tr lng t) trong khi nghin cu phn ng r ca ht nhn

14
C

14
6C 14
7N + e + 0.156 MeV (1.54)

53
 137
Cs t1/2 = 30.07 nm, J=7/2+

f=94.4 %
E=0.514 MeV

t1/2 = 2.552 pht, Ex=0.662 MeV

11/2-

f=5.6 %
E=1.176 MeV

trng thi bn, Ex=0

3/2+
137
Ba

Hnh 1.15: S r ca 137

55 Cs. Qu trnh phn r ch yu dn n ht nhn con 137
56 Ba
trong trng thi kch thch vi J = 11/2 ti 0.662 MeV (f 94.4%) v trng thi c
bn vi J = 3/2+ (f 5.6%). Bc x o c trong phn ng r ny c nng lng

E 0.66 MeV ng vi dch chuyn ca 137
56 Ba t trng thi 11/2 v trng thi c bn.

14
a ra gi thuyt rng m bo s bo ton moment gc (vi C c spin

0,
14
N c spin 1 v e c spin 1/2, moment gc ca 2 v phn ng trn khng

th bng nhau!), xung lng v nng lng trong phn ng r phi c mt

ht fermion (spin 1/2) trung ha in c sinh ra cng vi e trong qu trnh

phn r dng (1.54), vi khi lng hoc bng 0 hoc v cng nh (do ht
ny c gi t nhng nm 30 l ht neutrino m phi i n nm 1956

mi quan st c trong phng th nghim). Mt trong nhng th d phn r

in hnh l qu trnh r 137

ca ht nhn xezi (cesium) 55 Cs, mt ng v

phng x nhn to sinh ra ch yu t cc phn ng phn hch ht nhn (nuclear

54
 Ph phn r ca 137Cs
Electron quan st c

0.514 MeV 1.176 MeV

Nng lng electron (MeV)

Hnh 1.16: Ph phn r ca 137

55 Cs. Do nhnh r n 137
56 Ba trong trng thi kch thch
J = 11/2 c xc sut r 94.4%, a s e ghi o c c nng lng nm trong khong
0 < Ee < 0.514 MeV. Ph cc e sinh bi nhnh r n 137
56 Ba trong trng thi c bn (xc
sut r 5.6%) c nh nh hn v nm tri rng trong khong 0 < Ee < 1.176 MeV.

fission) vi t1/2 30.07 nm (xem hnh 1.15). Vi spin v chn l J = 7/2+ ,

137
Cs phn r 137
ch yu thnh ht nhn bari (barium) 56 Ba trong trng thi

kch thch 11/2 ti 0.662 MeV. Thi gian bn r ca trng thi kch thch ny
t1/2 2.552 pht l rt ln so vi thi gian sng trung bnh ca mt ht nhn
137
kch thch, do Ba (11/2 ) cn c gi l trng thi ng phn (isomer

state) ca
137
Ba v l ngun bc x kh mnh (E 0.662 MeV) sinh bi

dch chuyn ca
137
Ba t trng thi ng phn 11/2 v trng thi c bn. Ph
nng lng e pht ra t phn r 137
ca 55 Cs c minh ha trn hnh 1.16.

Do phn r n trng thi ng phn 11/2 l ch yu (f 94.4%), a s e

c nng lng nm di ngng 0.514 MeV. Ph cc e sinh bi nhnh r n
trng thi c bn (f 5.6%) ca 137 Ba c nh thp hn v nm tri rng ti
ngng 1.176 MeV. Dng ph lin tc ca mt phn r nh trn hnh 1.16

55
l mt hin tng kh gii thch nht khi ngi ta cn cha bit n s tn ti

ca phn neutrino (l ra ph e ch c mt vi nh gin on hon ton xc

nh bi cc gi tr Q ). Trong thc t, mt phn nng lng sinh ra t mt

phn ng r lun c chuyn thnh ng nng ca ht hoc bay ra v

v th nng lng ca e nm trong mt ph lin tc gii hn bi gi tr Q .

137
Vi thi gian bn r hn 30 nm ca Cs, bc x pht ra k tip t phn

r c th duy tr lin tc trong mt thi gian di s dng trong cng ngh

137
chiu x v y hc ht nhn. Tuy nhin, bn thn nguyn t Cs rt d dng

tham gia phn ng ha hc (a n chy n) mi khi c tip xc hoc ha

137
tan trong nc nn vic s dng Cs trong cng ngh chiu x tng i hn

ch. Thay cho ngun

137
Cs, bc x sinh t phn r ca ht nhn coban
60
(cobalt) 27 Co, mt ng v phng x nhn to vi t1/2 5.27 nm (c sn
59
xut bng cch chiu bc x neutron ln ng v coban t nhin Co), ang
60
c s dng rt rng ri trong cng ngh chiu x. c bit, Co l ngun

bc x quan trng nht c dng trong y hc ht nhn chn on v iu

tr ung th. Vi spin v chn l J = 5+ 60

ca trng thi c bn, 27 Co phn r

60
ch yu v hai trng thi kch thch ca ht nhn con nicken (nickel) 28 Ni,

trng thi 4+ ti 2.50 MeV (vi xc sut r > 99.9%) v trng thi 2+ ti 1.33

MeV (vi xc sut r < 0.1%). K tip sau e c pht ra t phn ng r

60
l qu trnh r vi hai photon c pht ra lin tip khi ht nhn con 28 Ni

dch chuyn t hai trng thi kch thch v trng thi c bn (xem hnh 1.17).

Thng thng bc x sinh bi chuyn dch gia cc trng thi ca mt ht

nhn ch pht ra trong mt khonh khc rt ngn ( 1012 giy), do ch c

bc x pht ra km theo phn r l c th duy tr lin tc c trong mt

khong thi gian di cho cng ngh chiu x nu thi gian bn r ca ngun
137 60
l di nh cc trng hp Cs v Co. Ta cng nn nh rng phn ng r

ca
60
Co c mt v tr rt quan trng trong lch s pht trin vt l hin

i. Nm 1956, Chien Shiung Wu (mt n gio s vt l ngi M gc Hoa)

56
 60
Co t1/2 = 5.272 nm, J=5+
f=99.925 %

4+
t1/2 = 3.3 ps
2.506 MeV

f=0.057 % 1

t1/2 = 0.77 ps
2+ 1.333 MeV

trng thi bn
0+ g.s.
60
Ni

Hnh 1.17: S r ca 60
27 Co vi ht nhn con 60
28 Ni trong trng thi kch thch 4+ ti
2.506 MeV (xc sut r 99.925%) v trng thi 2+ ti 1.333 MeV (xc sut r 0.057%). 60
28 Ni
dch chuyn tip v trng thi c bn sau khi cc bc x 1 v 2 c k tip pht ra.

khng nh qua cc kt qu o phn b ca e pht ra t phn r ca

60
Co l chn l khng bo ton trong cc qu trnh tng tc yu (xem

chi tit trong mc 4.1.3). Pht minh ny thc s l mt bc ngot i vi

s pht trin ca vt l ht c bn. Gio s C.S. Wu cng l ngi ph n

u tin c bu lm Ch tch Hi Vt l Hoa K (nm 1975).

Phn r + c th xy ra trong hai dng phn ng khc nhau: phn r +

chuyn ht nhn khng bn (A, Z) giu proton (proton rich) sang ht nhn

ng khi (A, Z 1)

(A, Z) (A, Z 1) + e+ + e + Q + (1.55)

57
 40
K t1/2 = 1.277 x 109 nm, J=4-

EC

7%

.6

f =8
C=
10
t1/2 = 1.12 ps

9.28
+
fE

EC
+
2 1.461 MeV

%
%

.001
7 %

f =0
0.04 0+ trng thi bn
fEC =

40
Ca

trng thi bn
0+ 40
Ar

Hnh 1.18: S phn r 40 40

19 K v ht nhn con 20 Ca trng thi c bn (nhnh , f
89.28%), v ht nhn con 40
18 Ar trng thi kch thch 2+ ti 1.461 MeV (nhnh EC, fEC
10.47%) v trng thi c bn (nhnh + , f 0.001%; nhnh EC, fEC 0.2%). Bc x
sinh bi dch chuyn 2+ 0+ .

v phn ng bt electron (electron capture hay cn c vit tt l EC) khi ht

nhn (A, Z) bt mt e trong nguyn t cha n tr thnh ht nhn ng

khi (A, Z 1)

(A, Z) + e (A, Z 1) + e + QEC . (1.56)

Gi tr Q ca 3 loi phn ng phn r c xc nh t cc khi lng nguyn

t ca ht nhn m v con nh sau

Q = [M (A, Z) M (A, Z + 1)]c2 ; (1.57)

Q + = [M (A, Z) M (A, Z 1) 2me ]c2 ; (1.58)

QEC = [M (A, Z) M (A, Z 1)]c2 . (1.59)

Ch rng trong h thc (1.58) khi lng ca e v phn ht ca n (ht

positron) e+ c coi l bng nhau.

58
 Khi lm quen vi nng lng lin kt ht nhn chng ta thy t h thc

(1.10) rng mt ht nhn chn-chn vi N v Z u l s chn c lin kt bn

cht hn ht nhn l-l k m c N v Z u l l. Qu trnh phn r ht nhn

lin quan vi hiu ng ny l hin tng mt s ht nhn l-l khng bn c

th phn r a nhnh theo c ba knh r , + v EC tr thnh 2 ht nhn

con ng khi k vi nng lng lin kt ln hn: (A, Z) (A, Z 1).

40
Trong th d trnh by trn hnh 1.18 ta c ht nhn l-l 19 K, mt ng v kali

(potassium) t nhin vi thi gian bn r gn 1.3 t nm, phn r v ht

40
nhn ng khi chn-chn 20 Ca trng thi c bn vi xc sut f 89.28%;
40
phn r a nhnh v ht nhn ng khi chn-chn argon 18 Ar trng thi kch

thch 2+ ti 1.461 MeV (nhnh EC vi fEC 10.47%) v trng thi c bn

(nhnh + vi f 0.001% v nhnh EC vi fEC 0.2%). K tip l bc

40
x sinh bi chuyn dch ca 18 Ar t trng thi kch thch 2+ v trng thi

c bn: 2+ 0+ . 40
Vi thi gian bn r rt di ca 19 K cng t l nhnh phn

r EC ch hn 10%, bc x trn l qu yu v khng dng trong cng ngh

40
chiu x c. Tuy l mt nguyn t phng x, K li c bit n nh mt

trong nhng nguyn t c ch cho sc khe con ngi v thng c a vo

c th chng ta qua ng n ung trong mt s dng rau, hoa qu.

1.5.3 Phn r

Khc vi phn r v khi ht nhn sn phm l nguyn t khc so vi nguyn

t ht nhn m, qu trnh phn r ca mt ht nhn gn lin vi chuyn dch

ca ht nhn ny t mt trng thi kch thch v mt trng thi kch thch khc

hoc trng thi c bn vi nng lng thp hn (nh qu trnh phn r ca

ht nhn sn phm to thnh t cc phn ng phn r trnh by trn hnh 1.15

v 1.17). Cng nh bn cht vt l ny ca phn r , cc th nghim o bc

x ca ht nhn lun l mt cng c rt quan trng ca VLHN thc nghim

59
trong cc nghin cu cu trc ht nhn. Do ht photon l lng t ca trng

in t, cc qu trnh dch chuyn ht nhn pht ra bc x c gi l cc

chuyn dch in t (electromagnetic transition) mc d trong nhiu trng

hp nhng chuyn dch nh vy c gy bi qu trnh tng tc mnh xy

ra trong mt phn ng ht nhn trc tip (direct nuclear reaction). Mt qu

trnh chuyn dch in t lun bo ton nng lng, moment gc (hay spin ht

nhn) v chn l (xem chi tit trong phn tham kho 4.4). Chnh t nhng

nh lut bo ton ny m ta c nng lng, moment gc v chn l ca ht

photon pht ra t qu trnh phn r hon ton c xc nh, khc vi qu

trnh phn r khi chnh lch trong nng lng hoc spin ht nhn trc

v sau phn ng c phn b ng thi vo nng lng v moment gc ca

hai ht e v e . C th, nu ht nhn c nng lng, spin v chn l trong trng

thi u (trc khi pht bc x ) v trng thi cui tng ng l Ei , Ji , i v

Ef , Jf , f th nng lng ca bc x pht ra c xc nh t chnh lch

gia hai mc nng lng

E ~ = Ei Ef . (1.60)

Vi gi tr c trng E 1 MeV, ta xc nh c bc sng ca bc x

2c 2~c
= = 2 197.33 fm 1.24 1012 m. (1.61)
E
Nh vy bc x l sng in t c bc sng (trong khong pm) hng trm

nghn ln ngn hn bc sng ca nh sng bnh thng (400 700 nm) v v

th tia c th c dng soi chiu vt cht trong kch thc nh hn c bn

knh nguyn t. Tuy nhin, vi nng lng mc hng triu electron volt, bc

x tia c th c tc ng hy hi i vi cu trc vi m ca phn t DNA

khi chiu trc tip vo t bo sng.

Bn thn photon, lng t ca trng in t, l mt ht boson c spin 1.

V th, moment gc J ca photon (J = l + s , vi l v s tng ng l

60
 S (E)

ER dE ER ER+dE E

Hnh 1.19: rng c trng ca mt trng thi ht nhn kch thch xc nh t nh ph

tng ng.

moment qu o v spin ca photon) phi l nguyn dng (J = 1, 2, 3, 4...).

i vi photon pht ra t chuyn dch in t gia hai trng thi ht nhn

|Jii |Jff , ta c moment gc ca photon J c xc nh t h thc tam

gic sau

|Ji Jf | 6 J 6 Ji + Jf , (1.62)

m bo s bo ton moment gc J i = J f + J . ng thi vi moment

gc, chn l cng phi c bo ton trong qu trnh chuyn dch in t

(xem chi tit v php cng moment gc v chuyn dch in t trong cc phn

tham kho 4.2.1 v 4.4) v ta c i f = 1. Nh vy, chn l ca photon

phi l dng nu nh i = f v m nu i = f . Ngoi ra, = (1)J

nu chuyn dch |Jii |Jff l chuyn dch in (electric transition, k hiu
bng EJ ) v = (1)J +1 nu l chuyn dch t (magnetic transition, k

61
hiu bng M J ). Hon ton nh trong in ng lc hc, bc x vi J = 1
c gi l bc x lng cc (dipole), vi J = 2 l bc x t cc (quadrupole),
vi J = 3 l bc x bt cc (octupole)... Nh vy, a cc (multipolarity)

ca bc x c xc nh bng 2J . Do J > 0, khng tn ti n photon

ng vi chuyn dch E0 v phn r E0 ca cc trng thi kch thch n cc

(monopole excitation) 0+ trong ht nhn thng xy ra theo hai bc, qua mt

trng thi 2+ trung gian (vi hai photon pht ra t cc chuyn dch E2 tng

ng). Trong th d trnh by trn hnh 1.17 ta c bc x pht ra theo hai

60
bc vi 1 sinh bi chuyn dch Ni t trng thi 4+ v trng thi 2+ v 2
60
t chuyn dch Ni t trng thi 2+ v trng thi c bn. D suy t quy tc

(1.62) rng bc x 1 c th ng vi chuyn dch in E2, E4 v E6 trong

khi 2 ng vi chuyn dch E2. Tuy nhin, trong thc t bc x 1 ch c th

sinh bi chuyn dch E2 v trng thi kch thch 4+ ca

60
Ni c thi gian bn

r rt ngn (t1/2 = 3.3 pico giy). Cc bc x ca chuyn dch E4 v E6

c cng rt yu so vi bc x E2 (xem phn tham kho 4.4), cha k thi
gian sng trung bnh ca EJ photon vi J =4 v 6 l vo khong mt pht

hoc lu hn [31] so vi photon bc x E2. Vi nhng l do , ta c th hon

ton loi tr bc x ca cc chuyn dch E4 v E6 trong trng hp ny.

Thi gian sng trung bnh ca mt trng thi kch thch ( = t1/2 / ln 2)
c th c nh gi t rng (width) ca nh trng thi kch thch ny

trong ph (xem hnh 1.19) theo h thc bt nh Heisenberg

~/2, (~ 6.582 1022 MeV s). (1.63)

Thng thng cc trng thi kch thch ht nhn c 1016 s v ta xc nh

c t h thc (1.63) rng ca mt trng thi nh vy trong ph ch

khong vi eV. Do , o chnh xc c ph nng lng ht nhn phn

gii (resolution) ca detector phi cao c th nh v c cc trng thi

kch thch khc nhau, nht l khi nhng trng thi nm k gn nhau trong

62
Hnh 1.20: (a) S phn r ca 133 133
56 Ba v 2 trng thi kch thch ca 55 Cs ti 0.437 v 0.384
MeV, km theo bc x t cc dch chuyn gia cc trng thi kch thch v trng thi c bn
133
ca Cs; (b) Ph ca cc dch chuyn trn o bi detector bn dn Ge(Li); (c) Vn ph
nhng o bi detector nhp nhy NaI(Tl). Minh ha t ti liu [30]

63
ph ht nhn. T minh ha trn hnh 1.20 ca ph bc x sinh bi cc chuyn
133
dch in t gia cc trng thi kch thch v trng thi c bn ca Cs ta thy

ph chi tit ch c th o c vi detector bn dn Ge(Li). Phn b cc nh

ph ny tr nn nhe v mt ht chi tit khi ph c o bng detector

nhp nhy NaI(Tl), vi phn gii nng lng 20 40 ln thp hn so vi

detector bn dn Ge(Li). Tuy nhin, vi gi thnh r v quy trnh vn hnh n

gin v d dng, detector nhp nhy NaI(Tl) vn c s dng rng ri trong

cng ngh ng dng bc x (cc chi tit k thut ca cc thit b o bc x

ht nhn c th c tham kho thm trong chng 7 ca gio trnh [12]). i

vi cc ht nhn khng bn nm gn cc ng gii hn (dripline) ca cc s

neutron v proton, cc trng thi kch thch thng c thi gian sng v cng

ngn 1019 1022 s v rng tng ng nm tri rng trong khong

nhiu MeV. o c bc x t phn r ca nhng trng thi ny, cc h

detector siu nhy vi phn gii rt cao v ang c dng ln ti cc

trung tm VLHN quc t dng trong cc nghin cu cu trc ht nhn (xem

hnh 1.21).

Phn r ca cc trng thi kch thch ht nhn cng c th xy ra khng

c bc x pht ra ngoi m thay vo l bc x e . Trong nhng trng

hp ny, nng lng pht ra t dch chuyn in t gia cc trng thi ht nhn

c truyn sang cho cc electron cc lp K hoc L ca nguyn t nh

bt cc e ny ra khi nguyn t (nh mt qu trnh ion ha nguyn t). Qu

trnh ny c gi l bin ha ni (internal conversion, vit tt l IC). Ch

l ph nng lng ca e pht ra trong trng hp IC l hon ton xc nh

(hay cn c gi l n sc) ch khng nm trong mt ph lin tc nh cc

e pht ra t phn ng r . C th, nng lng electron Ee pht ra t qu

trnh IC gy bi dch chuyn ht nhn |i |f c xc nh theo

Ee = (Ei Ef ) e , (1.64)

64
Hnh 1.21: H detector cu trc hnh cu nng 11 tn, vi b mt kt cu t 110 detector bn
dn Germanium dng o ph kch thch ht nhn ti phng th nghim quc gia Lawrence
Berkeley (Hoa K). Minh ha ly t ngun [28]

vi e l nng lng lin kt ca e trong lp K hoc L ca nguyn t.

Tm li, nghin cu phn r ca ht nhn l mt trong nhng phng

php quan trng nht trong nghin cu cu trc ht nhn (dng o ph nng

lng kch thch ht nhn). Chng ta c th tham kho cc thng tin chi tit

v cu trc ph nng lng ca phn ln cc ng v ht nhn bn v khng

bn c nghin cu trong ti liu [32] hoc trn trang Web ca Phng th

nghim Quc gia Brookhaven (Hoa K): http://www.nndc.bnl.gov/nudat2/.

65
1.5.4 Phn r proton, phn r neutron v phn hch t pht

Ngoi ba qu trnh phn r , v , cc ht nhn khng bn cn c th phn

r theo hai knh phn r proton v neutron vi hng s phn r (xc sut phn

r) nh hn nhiu so vi cc knh phn r v . Cc ng v ht nhn nm

gn ng gii hn proton (proton drip-line trn hnh 1.9) l nhng ng v

khng bn giu proton (proton rich isotopes) v thng phn r + . Tuy nhin,
mt s ht nhn nm st ng gii hn proton c nng lng lin kt proton

ha tr (valence proton) thp n mc m qu trnh phn r proton (phn r

ht nhn pht ra 1 hoc 2 proton) c th xy ra. Qu trnh phn r proton cng

thng xy ra k tip sau mt phn ng r + khi ht nhn con ca phn r +

nm trong mt trng thi kch thch v tip tc phn r proton thnh ng v

k n c s proton Z thp hn mt n v. Qu trnh phn r proton u tin

c cc nh vt l Anh quc pht hin ra nm 1970 l nhnh phn r proton

53m 53
ca ng v Co (ht nhn Co trong trng thi ng phn vi thi gian

bn r t1/2 245 ms) thnh ng v st 52

26 Fe trong phn ng phn r sau

53m
27 Co 53
26 Fe + e+ + e + 8.302 MeV
52
26 Fe + p 1.599 MeV (1.65)

vi cc xc sut r tng ng f + 98.5% v fp 1.5%. Do nguyn t

cha ht nhn con ca phn ng phn r proton (1.65) c tha mt electron,

ta thng o c e pht ra k tip ngay sau (1.65). Gi tr Q ca phn r

proton c xc nh t cc khi lng nguyn t ca ht nhn m v con nh

sau

Qp = [M (A, Z) M (A 1, Z 1) me mp ]c2 . (1.66)

53m
Trong hai nhnh phn r (1.65) ca Co, nhnh phn r + c gi tr Q + > 0
v phn ng r + l phn ng ta nhit (exothermic), cn nhnh phn r proton
c Qp < 0 v phn ng r proton l phn ng ht nhit (endothermic).

66
 i vi cc ng v ht nhn giu neutron (neutron rich isotopes) nm gn

ng gii hn neutron (neutron drip-line trn hnh 1.9) qu trnh phn r phng

x chnh l phn r . Tuy nhin, qu trnh phn r neutron cng hay quan
st c ngay sau phn ng r khi ht nhn con ca phn r nm trong

mt trng thi kch thch v tip tc phn r neutron thnh ng v k n c

s neutron N thp hn mt n v. Th d nh phn r ca ht nhn nit

17 17
(nitrogen) N thnh ht nhn con O trong trng thi kch thch 3/2+ vi

Ex = 5.869 MeV m phn r neutron tip v ht nhn oxy bn 16 O,

17
7N 17
8O + e + e + 7.871 MeV
16
8O + n + 1.726 MeV (1.67)

Neutron pht ra t cc phn ng r ht nhn kiu (1.67) c gi l bc x

neutron beta tr ( -delayed neutron emission) v c k hiu bng n.

Hin tng pht neutron beta tr l mt hiu ng rt quan trng c s dng

trong cng ngh iu khin l phn ng ht nhn v bc x n c pht ra

sau mt khong thi gian kh di so vi thi gian xy ra phn ng phn hch

ht nhn v v th h thng cc thanh iu khin trong l phn ng c th c

iu chnh kp thi duy tr hot thch hp cho cc phn ng phn hch

ht nhn gy bi neutron.

Trong cc qu trnh phn r ht nhn c mt c ch phn r m thng

t c nhc n trong cc gio trnh VLHN c. l qu trnh phn hch

t pht (spontaneous fission, vit tt l SF) ca ht nhn xy ra trong c ch

tng tc mnh, khi ht nhn m phn tch thnh hai ht nhn mnh (fragment

nucleus) c khi lng gn bng nhau ng thi vi mt vi neutron c pht

ra (xem hnh 1.22). Mc d v bn cht vt l ca phn hch t pht c phn

tng t vi phn r khi ht nhn m phn r thnh hai hi nhn sn phm

(ht thc t l ht nhn 4 He), cc phn ng SF thng c t l nhnh rt thp

238
so vi r . Th d trong trng hp ht nhn urani 92 U, ta c t l nhnh

67
Hnh 1.22: S phn hch t pht ca mt ng v ht nhn nng thnh hai ht nhn mnh
vi khi lng gn bng nhau cng mt vi neutron. Minh ha theo ngun [33].

(branching ratio) vo khong 1 s kin SF trn 2 triu phn r . Chnh v

th m SF thng hay b ln t bi phn r v kh quan st c trn thc

nghim (phn ng SF u tin c cc nh VLHN ca Lin X pht hin ra

nm 1940). Qu trnh SF ca mt ht nhn c th xy ra trong nhiu nhnh r

khc nhau, vi nhng ht nhn sn phm khc nhau v cc neutron c pht

ra trong cc khonh khc thi gian khc nhau. Do , cc ht nhn con cng

nng lng pht ra t qu trnh SF khng th tin on chnh xc c. Th d

nh ngi ta ch xc nh nng lng pht ra t phn ng phn hch t pht

256
ca ht nhn fecmi (fermium) 100 Fm thng nm trong khong 190 MeV, vi

mt trong nhng nhnh r chnh l

256
100 Fm 140
40 Xe +112
46 Pd + 4n + 229.1 MeV. (1.68)

Thng mt phn ng SF din bin kh phc tp, vi mt s neutron c pht

ra trong khong thi gian 1014 s ngay sau phn hch m c gi l neutron

nhanh (prompt neutron). Mt s neutron c pht ra sau mt khong thi

gian chm hn nhiu (thng l t phn r neutron ca cc ht nhn sn phm

68
ca phn ng phn hch u tin) v c bit n nh neutron tr (delayed

neutron). Tng t nh i vi neutron beta tr, lng neutron tr sinh bi phn

ng phn hch ht nhn cng c vai tr quan trng trong qu trnh iu khin

l phn ng ht nhn qua vic dch chuyn h thng cc thanh nhin liu

duy tr mc hot an ton cho l phn ng.

Hnh 1.23: Qu trnh thay i cao ca ngng th phn hch t pht trong khi ht nhn m
t bin dng v tch dn thnh hai ht nhn mnh vi khi lng gn bng nhau. Minh ha t
ti liu [4].

Khc vi qu trnh phn r m c th c m t vi m qua s hnh thnh

ban u ca ht di b mt ht nhn m v sau tch dn khi ht nhn

theo c ch ca hiu ng ng hm (xem hnh 1.12), din bin phc tp ca

qu trnh SF ch c th hnh dung tng t trong mt bc tranh v m da trn

mu git lng ht nhn. C th, i vi mt ht nhn bin dng (deformed

nucleus) c s khi ln i khi nng lng ton phn li gim khi ht nhn

69
thay i b mt v chuyn sang mt hnh dng yn nga (saddle) nh minh

ha trn hnh 1.23. Qu trnh SF c th xy ra c hay khng ph thuc trc

tip vo ngng th phn hch (fission barrier) gia hai phn u yn nga

VFB (R) = VNuclear (R) + VCoulomb (R), (1.69)

vi R l khong cch ni hai tm khi ca hai u yn nga. cao ca

ngng SF nm trong khong 6 8 MeV i vi ht nhn c s khi A > 238

v gim kh nhanh ti gn bng khng cng vi tng ca t s Z 2 /A v

th tng tc Coulomb trong (1.69) gim nhanh hn nhiu so vi tng ca

th tng tc ht nhn. Sau khi VFB gim n mc thp nht m c th cho

php ht nhn t phn r theo hiu ng ng hm lng t, qu trnh SF s

xy ra trong vng thi gian rt ngn khong 1022 s, tng ng vi giai on

separation trn hnh 1.23.

1.5.5 Tc ng sinh hc ca bc x ht nhn

Sau khi lm quen vi cc c ch phn r ht nhn cng cc dng bc x tng

ng, chng ta cn phi nm c nhng kin thc ti thiu v cc tc ng

sinh hc ca bc x ht nhn i vi cc dng c th sng. Nu nh bc x

in t ca nh sng mt tri hoc bc x c trng trong cc th nghim vt

l nguyn t v vt l cht rn (vi nng lng trong khong vi eV) ch c th

c hiu ng sinh hc ng k sau mt qu trnh tip xc trc tip ko di, bc

x ht nhn vi nng lng trong khong nhiu MeV c th c tc ng ph

hy i vi t bo sng sau mt khong thi gian tip xc rt ngn. V l do

ny m vic nghin cu nh hng sinh hc ca bc x ht nhn l mt lnh

vc chuyn su rt c trng ca VLHN hin i.

Hiu ng tc ng sinh hc chnh ca bc x ht nhn trong qu trnh tng

tc ca bc x vi cc t bo sng c gy bi cc phn ng ion ha, kch

70
Hnh 1.24: M phng ng hc cu trc ca mt phn t DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid), c
quan quyt nh cu trc gen v qu trnh phn chia ca mt t bo trong c th sng. Cc
nguyn t c lin kt vi nhau dc theo 2 chui xon (vi ng knh vng xon di khong
2 nm): carbon (mu xanh l cy), oxy (mu vng), nit (mu xanh), photpho (mu ) v hydro
(mu trng). Minh ha t ngun [28].

thch v thay i cu trc cc nguyn t, phn t trong t bo. Nhn ca mi t

bo l mt phn t hu c DNA (xem hnh 1.24) c cu trc chi tit bi b

m gen quyt nh s tng trng v phn chia ca t bo. Bc x ht nhn c

th gy ra qu trnh ion ha trc tip phn t DNA km theo s ph v vng

chui xon ca phn t DNA. Ngoi ra, bc x ht nhn cn c th ion ha

cc phn t nc (H2 O) trong t bo, to ra ion hydroxyl (OH) m rt d tip

tc tham gia cc phn ng ha hc c tc ng hy hoi n phn t DNA

nhn t bo. Hu qu nh nht ca cc qu trnh ion ha trn l ci cht ca t

71
bo m thng khng c nhng hu qu nguy him tip theo. Tuy nhin hu

qu nng n hn l s phn chia bt bnh thng ca t bo c nhn DNA

b hy hi nhng vn sng tip tc. y l nguyn nhn ca cc dng bnh u

bu, ung th... gy bi bc x ht nhn. Mc nguy hi ca cc dng bc

x khc nhau cng kh khc nhau: ht thng c tc dng ion ha tp trung

ti mt khong khng gian nh xung quanh n v nh vy bc x c tc

ng sinh hc nguy him hn cc ht electron hoc positron pht ra t bc x

(do e chuyn ng nhanh hn nhiu so vi ht c cng mt nng lng

nn tc dng ion ha c tri rng trong mt th tch ln ca c th sinh hc

v v th mc nguy him thp hn).

Tc ng sinh hc ca bc x ht nhn t l thun vi liu hp th bc x

(absorbed dose of radiation) nhn bi c th sng. n v ca liu hp th bc

x trong h SI l gray, ng vi nng lng 1 jun ca bc x c hp th bi

1 kg vt cht (1 Gy = 6.24 1012 MeV/kg). Ngoi ra, n v rad cng vn

cn c dng cho liu hp th bc x (1 Gy = 100 rad). Trong thc t liu

hp th bc x thng c xc nh trung bnh cho mt c th hoc cho mt

b phn trong c th sng. Do c s khc nhau trong mc nguy hi ca cc

dng bc x khc nhau nh bn trn, nn mi bc x ht nhn cn c

gn lin vi i lng trng s bc x (radiation weighting factor) khng th

nguyn wR . Th d, cc bc x tia X, , c wR = 1; bc x proton vi nng

lng trn MeV c wR = 2 v bc x c wR = 20. Trng s bc x ca

neutron ph thuc rt mnh vo nng lng: wR = 5 i vi neutron c nng

lng thp hn 10 keV, wR = 20 khi neutron c nng lng nm trong khong

100 keV En 2 MeV v wR = 5 khi neutron c nng lng En > 20 MeV.
nh gi mc nguy him ca bc x, ngi ta dng n v tng hp ca

liu hp th bc x v trng s bc x l siviert (Sv). C th, liu bc x trong

n v Sv tng ng vi s lng Gy ca liu hp th bc x nhn vi trng

s bc x tng ng wR . Trong thc t, liu bc x thng c tnh trong n

72
v millisiviert (mSv) hay n v rem (1 Sv = 100 rem hay l 1 rem = 10 mSv).

i vi cc ngun bc x c ngun gc thin nhin liu hp th bc x

trung bnh bi mt c th ngi thng nm mc mt vi mSv/nm. C th,

bc x ht (proton, muon...) trong ma ro tia v tr nng lng cao vo kh

quyn tri t lm cho mi ngi trong chng ta hp th mt liu bc x trung

bnh 0.25 mSv/nm ( mc cao ca mt nc bin). Liu ny c th tng

ti khong 4 mSv/nm i vi c dn vng ni sng trn cao 4000 m trn

mt nc bin. Trong c th ca mi chng ta lun c s hin din ca mt s
40
ng v phng x t nhin v ng k nht l ht nhn K. y l mt ng v

phng x vi thi gian bn r t1/2 1.277 t nm v vo c th chng ta cng

40
vi thc n hng ngy. T hnh 1.18 ta thy rng K c th phn r theo cc

nhnh khc nhau, vi cc t l nhnh 89% ca phn r v 40 Ca v 11%

ca qu trnh bt electron (EC) v trng thi 2+ ca 40 Ar, ni tip bi phn r
40 40
v trng thi c bn ca Ar. T nhng phn r ny ca K, c th ngi hp

th mt liu bc x khong 0.17 mSv/nm, gn bng ton b liu hp th bc

x t phn r ca cc ng v phng x khc tn ti trong c th. Ngoi ra, c

th chng ta cng thng xuyn phi hp th bc x t cc ng v phng x

thin nhin nm trong nn t, sn v tng xi mng ca nh xy... m ng k

222,220
nht l cc ht nhn phng x radon Rn, sn phm phn r ca urani
238 238
U v thori (thorium) Th t nhin. Bn thn ht nhn radon cng tip tc

l ngun pht phng x (xem hnh 1.14) v s c tc ng khng tt cho sc

khe nu thng xuyn c a vo phi theo ng h hp (do vic gi

gn phng c thng thong trong cc ta nh l rt cn thit). Trung bnh mt

c th ngi hp th mt liu bc x khong 2.2 mSv/nm t cc ngun bc x

c ngun gc thin nhin.

Ngoi cc ngun bc x thin nhin, chng ta cn phi thm vo liu hp

th bc x t cc ngun bc x nhn to gn lin vi cc hot ng ca x

73
Hnh 1.25: Liu bc x chiu trc tip ln ton b c th ngi khng c vt qu 15 mSv
trong mt tun. Trong khng c qu 3 mSv i vi mt (A); 6 mSv i vi ton lp da
(C); 15 mSv i vi vng da u, c, chn, tay (D); 3 mSv i vi ni quan nm su 5 cm
(E); 3 mSv i vi vng ng mch mu (F). Minh ha theo ti liu [2]

hi hin i k t gia th k 20 cho n nay. D thy nht l cc ngun bc

x c s dng trong y t (tia X, tia t cc thit b chp ct lp CT...). Th

d, ngi ta nhn trung bnh mt liu bc x 0.2 mSv sau 1 ln chp phi bng

tia X v gn 10 mSv sau 1 ln chp CT ct lp. Theo trung bnh Ty u, mi

ngi nhn mt liu bc x khong 0.4 mSv/nm t cc dch v y t. Ngoi ra,

cc giai on ca cng ngh in ht nhn (c bit cc qu trnh x l, ct

gi cht thi phng x...) cng gp phn tng nh liu hp th bc x nhn to

v mt ngi sng gn nh my in ht nhn c th nhn trung bnh mt liu

bc x khong 0.5 mSv/nm, cao hn khng ng k so vi liu trung bnh.

74
Tuy nhin, i vi cc c nhn c tip xc trc tip thng xuyn vi bc x

ht nhn theo yu cu ngh nghip cc iu khon ca lut an ton bc x phi

lun c tun th nghim tc liu bc x hp th i vi 1 ngi khng

c vt qu 20 mSv/nm.

Nh vy, ngoi s t ngi c tip xc trc tip thng xuyn vi cc ngun

bc x trong cng vic, liu hp th bc x t cc ngun t nhin v nhn

to trung bnh ca mi ngi trong chng ta l khong 2.7 mSv/nm. nh

gi nh hng tim tng ca bc x ht nhn i vi sc khe con ngi, ta

c th tham kho nhng nghin cu c lp ca cc t chc quc t. Th d,

U ban Quc t v An ton bc x (International Commission on Radiological

Protection, vit tt l ICRP) khuyn co rng xc sut trung bnh b pht bnh

ung th him ngho l 4% trn 1000 mSv bc x ht nhn hp th. Nh vy,

vi liu hp th bc x trung bnh t cc ngun phng x t nhin v nhn to

nu trn, xc sut ny ch khong 4 0.0027% = 0.0108% trong mt nm i

vi mt ngi bnh thng. Con s ny nhiu ln thp hn xc sut mc bnh

ung th him ngho gy bi tc phong sng khng iu , thi quen nghin

ht thuc l, mt trng sng nhim... (khong 0.11% hng nm Vit

Nam). i vi mt ngi c tip xc thng xuyn vi bc x ht nhn trong

cng vic hng ngy, vi liu bc x hp th trung bnh 1.5 mSv/nm, xc sut

pht bnh ung th him ngho cng ch l 4 (0.0015 + 0.0027)% = 0.0168%

trong mt nm. Tuy nhin, cc i tng chuyn nghip ny cng phi tun

th nghim ngt lut an ton bc x sao cho liu bc x hp th trong mt tun

lm vic khng c vt qu 15 mSv/ngi v nhng gii hn liu c th cho

cc b phn ca c th lun c bo m (xem hnh 1.25).

Tm li, nhng tc ng sinh hc ca bc x ht nhn khng phi l mt e

da i vi sc khe con ngi khi cc quy nh ca lut an ton bc x lun

c tun th nghim tc. Hn th na, cng nh vo cc hiu ng tc ng

75
sinh hc m bc x ht nhn v ang c ng dng rng ri trong y hc

iu tr rt hiu qu nhiu dng bnh ung th, u bu. C th Vit Nam,

137 60
bc x pht km theo phn r ca Cs v Co (xem hnh 1.15 v 1.17)

ang c s dng rt rng ri cho cc mc ch y t trn.

1.6 Thng tin ph cp kin thc trn internet

Vi cc ng dng ngy cng tng ca cng ngh ht nhn trong cc lnh vc

kinh t v x hi, vic ph cp nhng kin thc c bn v ht nhn nguyn t

cng cc tnh cht vt l v cc ng dng c trng nht c a rng ri

ln internet. Bn c c th b sung thm cho nhng kin thc va c lm

quen chng 1 bng nhng thng tin ph cp v ht nhn m c th c

tham kho min ph trn internet, th d nh cc trang Web sau y

http://ie.lbl.gov/education/isotopes.htm

http://www.atomicarchive.com/sciencemenu.shtml

http://www-nds.iaea.org

http://nucleardata.nuclear.lu.se/Database

http://www.nndc.bnl.gov.

76
Chng 2

Tng tc mnh gia cc nucleon

Ht nhn l mt h lng t cu trc t nhiu nucleon, tn ti c trong cc

trng thi lin kt nh tng tc mnh (strong interaction) gia cc nucleon.

Ngoi ra, tng tc gia hai ht nhn xy ra trong mt qu trnh phn ng va

chm ht nhn-ht nhn (nucleus-nucleus collision) m hay c gi l tng

tc ht nhn theo bn cht vt l cng l mt qu trnh tng tc mnh. Nu

nh tng tc in t lin kt cc ht electron v ht nhn trong nguyn t c

th gii thch v xy dng c t nhng nguyn l c bn (first principles)

ca in ng lc hc lng t, th bn cht vt l ca tng tc mnh vn

l mt i tng nghin cu phc tp ca vt l nng lng cao v tng tc

nucleon-nucleon (NN) dng trong a s cc tnh ton nghin cu ca VLHN

vn c xy dng theo cc m hnh vt l gn ng. T nhng nm cui th

k 20 cho n nay, tng tc gia hai nucleon ti nng lng 102 GeV v

cao hn c th c m t kh chun xc da trn cc nguyn l c bn

ca cu trc quark ca nucleon. Tuy nhin, mt mu vi m cho tng tc NN

nng lng thp da trn cc bc t do quark dng nht qun trong cc

tnh ton cu trc v phn ng ht nhn vn l mt thch thc ln ca VLHN

hin i. Di y, cc tnh cht c bn v m hnh ngn gn ca tng tc

NN c trnh by trn c s cc bc t do nucleon trong ht nhn.

77
2.1 Cc tnh cht c bn ca tng tc nucleon-nucleon

Bn cht ca tng tc NN rt phc tp v v th khng t cc tnh cht vt l

c bn ca tng tc NN ch c xc nh bn thc nghim (empirically) t

cc nghin cu phn ng tn x nucleon-nucleon v cu trc ca deuteron,

ht nhn duy nht trong thin nhin c to thnh t hai nucleon. Di y

l tm tt mt s c trng c bn nht ca tng tc NN.

200 MeV

100 MeV

1 fm 2 fm r
0

-50 MeV

Hnh 2.1: Dng c trng cho thnh phn xuyn tm ca th tng tc NN ti cc khong cch
khc nhau gia hai nucleon c spin tng S = 0 v spin ng v tng T = 1.

Tng tc NN c cng 100 1000 ln mnh hn tng tc in t

78
 nhng ch tc dng khong cch ngn (short range), vi bn knh tng

tc trung bnh 1 fm (xem hnh 2.1). Tng tc NN thay i t lc

y (repulsive force) ti khong cch nh sang lc ht (attractive force)

ti khong cch r & 0.6 fm v qua duy tr c bo ha phn b

nucleon trong tm ht nhn.

Tnh cht c lp in tch (charge independence): tng tc cp pp, nn

v np xp x bng nhau khi cc cp NN ny nm trong cng mt trng

thi vt l ca cp (c cng spin S = s1 + s2 , spin ng v T = t1 + t2

v moment qu o L ca chuyn ng tng i)

Tng tc NN ph thuc vo spin v spin ng v ca cp nucleon tng

tc (spin and isospin dependence) v v th n c thnh phn tensor vi

cng tng tc ph thuc vo nh hng spin ca tng nucleon so

vi hng vector bn knh ni hai nucleon.

Tng tc NN khng ch bao gm lc hai ht (two-body force) tc dng

gia hai nucleon m cn c thnh phn lc ba ht (three-body force)

tc dng cng mt lc gia ba nucleon. Tnh cht c trng ny l mt

trong nhng nguyn nhn dn n s ph thuc ca tng tc NN gia

hai nucleon lin kt trong ht nhn vo mt nucleon trong ht nhn.

y l s khc nhau chnh trong tng tc gia hai nucleon t do (free

NN interaction) v tng tc gia hai nucleon lin kt trong ht nhn m

thng c gi l tng tc NN hiu dng (effective NN interaction).

2.2 Cc i xng vt l c bn v th tng tc NN

hiu c bn cht ca tng tc ht nhn, chng ta cn lm quen vi mt

s tnh cht bt bin (invariance) ca th tng tc cp vNN gia hai nucleon

79
c ngun gc t nhng i xng vt l c bn. Trong dng tng qut, vNN
thng ph thuc vo v tr khng gian r , vector xung lng p, spin s = ~/2
v spin ng v t = /2 ca hai nucleon tng tc

vNN = v(r 1 , r 2 , p1 , p2 , 1 , 2 , 1 , 2 ). (2.1)

Tuy v c cng dng tng minh l vector ma trn Pauli, l ton t tc

dng trong khng gian ta bnh thng cn ch tc dng trong khng gian

i xng in tch ca spin ng v (xem phn tham kho 4.2.3).

2.2.1 Bt bin tnh tin

vNN khng thay i nu cp nucleon tng tc c tnh tin sang mt v tr

mi trong khng gian ta (translational invariance). y l dng bt bin

c bn nht ca vt l (xem chi tit trong phn tham kho 4.1.1). Do vNN
ch ph thuc vo khong cch tng i gia hai nucleon r = r1 r2.

2.2.2 Bt bin Galilei

vNN khng ph thuc vo s la chn h ta qun tnh (inertial frame) cha

cp nucleon tng tc. y l bt bin tnh tin trong khng gian xung lng

v h qu chnh l vNN ch ph thuc vo vector xung lng tng i ca h

hai nucleon p = p1 p2 .

2.2.3 Bt bin quay

y l bt bin tng ng vi i xng quan trng nht trong VLHN (xem

chi tit trong phn tham kho 4.1.2) v n i hi vNN khng thay i khi cp

nucleon tng tc c quay sang mt v tr mi trong khng gian (rotational

80
invariance). Do ta phi c vNN l mt i lng v hng (scalar) trong

khng gian ta , vi cng tng tc khng ph thuc vo hng ca

vector r v(r) = v(r). Ngoi ra, cc t hp vector ba chiu trong cc thnh

phn ca vNN cng phi lun m bo tnh v hng. Th d thnh phn tng

tc spin-qu o (spin-orbital interaction) c dng

vLS (r)L.S vLS (r)(r p).( 1 + 2 ). (2.2)

Tng t, hm ph thuc spin (spin dependence) ca vNN cng c dng v

hng trong khng gian ba chiu t l vi ( 1 . 2 ), (r. 1 ) v (r. 2 ). c

bit, bt bin quay cng c m bo i vi cc php quay trong khng gian

spin ng v v do hm ph thuc spin ng v (isospin dependence) ca

vNN cng phi c dng v hng t l vi ( 1 . 2 ).

2.2.4 Bt bin chn l

y l bt bin tng ng vi php bin i phn x "gng" (1.16) trong khng

gian ta (xem chi tit trong phn tham kho 4.1.3) v i hi chn l ca

cp nucleon tng tc l mt i lng c bo ton (parity invariance). T

h thc (4.22) ca bin i phn x gng, ta c tng tc NN phi tha mn

v(r, p, 1 , 2 , 1 , 2 ) = v(r, p, 1 , 2 , 1 , 2 ). (2.3)

Nh vy, hm ph thuc xung lng (momentum dependence) ca vNN ch c

th xut hin di dng hm ca p = |p| hoc (r.p).

81
2.2.5 Dng hm tng qut ca th tng tc NN

Trn c s cc tnh cht bt bin trn, th tng tc NN thng c biu din

di dng mt hm ca khong cch r gia hai nucleon tng tc nh sau

vcentral (r) = v0 (r) + v (r)( 1 . 2 ) + v (r)( 1 . 2 ) + v (r)( 1 . 2 )( 1 . 2 ).

(2.4)

Th (2.4) ch l phn th xuyn tm (central potential) ca tng tc cp gia

hai nucleon, khng ph thuc vo xung lng. Cng vi (2.4), ngi ta cn

phi tnh n thnh phn th spin-qu o (2.2) v c bit l th tensor m

cn hay c gi l lc tensor gia hai nucleon

[ ]
(r. 1 )(r. 2 ) ( 1 . 2 )
vtensor (r) = [t0 (r) + t (r)( 1 . 2 )] . (2.5)
r2 3
Khc vi lc xuyn tm (2.4) c hon ton xc nh ti mi khong cch r
gia hai nucleon, lc tensor (2.5) li c th c cng khc nhau tng ng

vi cc gc khc nhau gia spin nucleon s = ~/2 v r v v th lc tensor

cn c bit n nh lc khng xuyn tm (non-central force). Lc tensor c

mt vai tr rt quan trng trong m t vi m cu trc ht nhn vi th d kinh

in nht l cu trc ca deuteron ch m t c chnh xc khi c tnh n

lc tensor (2.5).

Trong hc tp v nghin cu cu trc ht nhn dng biu din truyn thng

ca tng tc xuyn tm (2.4) qua cc ton t trao i ta khng gian, spin

v spin ng v gia hai nucleon tng tc P r , P v P (xem biu thc ca

cc ton t trao i trong phn tham kho 4.2.3) cng hay c dng

vcentral (r) = vW (r) + vM (r)Pr + vB (r)P + vH (r)Pr P . (2.6)

Cc s hng trong (2.6) c k hiu bng nhng tn tui ln ca vt l hin

i (W = Wigner, M = Majorana, B = Bartlett v H = Heisenberg). S dng

dng tng minh (4.62)-(4.64) ca cc ton t trao i ta gia hai nucleon

82
tng tc, ta c th biu din cc cng thnh phn ca tng tc xuyn

tm (2.6) qua cc cng thnh phn ca (2.4) nh sau

vW (r) = v0 (r) v (r) v (r) + v (r), vM (r) = 4v (r)

vB (r) = 2v (r) 2v (r), vH (r) = 2v (r) + 2v (r). (2.7)

2.3 Mu tng tc NN ca Yukawa

Nghin cu bn cht vt l ca tng tc mnh l mt trong nhng thch thc

ln nht ngay t nhng nm u ca pht trin VLHN hin i. Nm 1934

Hideki Yukawa (nh vt l u tin ca Nht Bn c tng gii thng Nobel

nm 1949) a ra gi thuyt rng tng tc NN xy ra nh qu trnh trao i

mt ht boson c spin bng khng v khi lng khc khng gia hai nucleon,

tng t nh qu trnh trao i photon (boson c khi lng bng khng v

spin bng 1) trong tng tc in t. Ngoi ra, Yukawa cn d on l ht

boson ny c th c to ra trong cc phn ng va chm nucleon-nucleon

nng lng cao v ht boson ny tng tc mnh vi nucleon v ht nhn. Trn

c s khong cch tng tc 2 fm gia hai nucleon, Yukawa a ra khi

lng ca ht boson ny l mB 100 2
MeV/c . T biu thc cho nng lng

ca ht boson

E 2 = p2 c2 + m2B c4 (2.8)

ta thu c phng trnh ca c hc lng t cho hm sng boson sau khi thay

E i~ v p i~
t
2 B
~2 2
+ ~2 c2 2 B = m2B c4 B . (2.9)
t
Phng trnh (2.9) chnh l phng trnh Klein-Gordon cho cc ht boson vi

spin bng khng. Do phng trnh m t trng thi ca ht boson t do khng

83
ph thuc vo thi gian nn ta c B l nghim ca phng trnh tnh (static

equation) sau
( m c )2 1 ( r) ~
B
B =
2
B B (r) = exp , a = . (2.10)
~ r a mB c
Chn khong cch a = 2 fm ta c mB 98.7 2
MeV/c . Tng t nh th

Coulomb sinh bi mt in tch im, hm B (r) c th c coi nh th

boson (bosonic potential) sinh bi mt nucleon v tng tc cp NN c th

c m t bi qu trnh trao i boson (boson exchange) gia hai nucleon.

Trong mt m hnh nh vy, cng tng tc NN ng nhin s phi t l

thun vi B (r) v ta c
g2 ( r)
v(r) = exp . (2.11)
r a
Ging nh nh in tch trong tng tc Coulomb gia hai ht mang in, g
l hng s tng tc mnh gia hai nucleon m cn hay c gi l hng s

tng tc (coupling constant). Dng hm (2.11) nay c gi trong VLHN l

hm Yukawa v thng c dng biu din cc thnh phn ph thuc vo

bn knh tng tc ca vNN . Th d, v(r) ca mi s hng trong (2.4) hay (2.6)

thng c xc nh qua tng ca 3 hoc 4 hm Yukawa vi cc cp gi tr g
v a khc nhau.

S tn ti ca ht boson Yukawa c cc nh VLHN tin hnh tm ngay

t nhng nm 30-40 ca th k trc. Trong thi gian ny, cng ngh my gia

tc cha c pht trin nn s ch ca cc nh vt l tp trung ch yu

vo vic ghi o bc x ht trong ma ro tia v tr xung kh quyn tri t

(nu boson Yukawa thc s c sinh ra trong cc va chm NN nng lng

cao th n phi c sinh ra trong cc va chm ca proton trong tia v tr vi

ht nhn cc nguyn t trong kh quyn). Nm 1947, Powell cng cng s

ln u tin pht hin c ht boson Yukawa trong ph bc x tia v tr trn

cao hng nghn mt trn mt nc bin m sau c gi l ht -meson

84
 n p p n p n

+ 0 -

n p n n p
p

Hnh 2.2: Gin minh ha tng tc NN trong mu Yukawa nh cc qu trnh trao i cc

ht pi-meson ( + , , 0 ) gia hai nucleon tng tc. Nhng gin kiu ny cn c gi
l gin Feynman (do Richard Feynman, nh vt l M gii thng Nobel, tc gi ca cc
m hnh tng tc ht c bn a ra u tin).

2
(hay ngn l pion) vi spin bng khng v khi lng khong 140 MeV/c .

Cng vi s pht hin ra cc pion (tn ti ba ht pion c khi lng gn bng

nhau v in tch khc nhau: 0 trung ha in v vi in tch bng e),

mu Yukawa c pht trin ln thnh l thuyt meson (meson theory) ca

tng tc mnh m hin nay vn l mt phng php c s m t tng tc

NN qua cc qu trnh trao i meson (meson l t chung gi cc ht boson

tng tc mnh c khi lng m m ). C th, tng tc gia hai nucleon

nm cch nhau r 1.4 fm c th c m t chnh xc bng cc qu trnh

trao i pion (
+
, , 0 ) nh minh ha trn hnh 2.2. Trong trng hp chung,
th tng tc NN ti cc khong cch khc nhau c m t qua cc qu trnh

trao i cc meson c khi lng khc nhau nh - v meson vi khi lng

tng ng khong 600 v 800 MeV [34].

Ngy nay, vt l hin i khng nh c proton v neutron khng phi

l nhng ht c bn m c cu trc bi ba ht quark (ht fermion c bn

ca tng tc mnh). Cu trc quark ca nucleon c th quan st gin tip

85
Hnh 2.3: Gin Feynman minh ha tng tc gia proton v neutron c m t trong QCD
nh qu trnh tng tc mnh gia cc ht quark (cc ng mu , xanh v xanh l cy) qua
trao i gluon (ht boson mang in tch mu biu din bng vng xon mu tng ng).

c trong cc th nghim va chm nucleon-nucleon nng lng cao (xem

chi tit chng 3.6 di y). Khi , tng tc gia proton v neutron trn

hnh 2.2 c th c m t nh mt qu trnh tng hp cc qu trnh trao i

gluon (boson c spin bng 1, lng t ca tng tc mnh) gia cc ht quark

(xem hnh 2.3). Tng t vi in tch trong tng tc in t, trng thi mt

ht quark trong tng tc mnh c m t bi mt s lng t mi: in tch

mu (color charge). Ba ht quark lun c lin kt trong mt nucleon sao cho

nucleon l trung ha mu (color neutral). Tuy nhin khi hai nucleon tng tc

vi nhau nh th d trn hnh 2.3 th cc cp quark tng tc truyn in tch

mu cho nhau qua trao i gluon. Do , l thuyt lng t ca tng tc mnh

xut pht t cc bt t do quark v gluon c gi l sc ng hc lng t

(quantum chromodynamics, vit tt l QCD). Mc d QCD c hnh thnh

v pht trin t hn 30 nm nay, l thuyt ny khng th ng dng c cho

vng nng lng thp m t tng tc gia cc nucleon nm lin kt (c

ng nng trung bnh Ekin 20 40 MeV) trong ht nhn. V th, l thuyt

meson ca tng tc mnh hin nay vn l mt trong nhng cng c chnh

86
nghin cu tng tc NN nng lng thp.

C l ng gp ln nht ca Yukawa khng ch l d on c s tn

ti ca -meson nh lng t trao i trong tng tc NN, m l a ra c

c ch trao i boson (boson exchange) trong tng tc vt l, iu c

khng nh sau trong l thuyt QCD cho tng tc mnh cng nh trong

m hnh thng nht cc tng tc in t v yu.

2.4 Phn ng tn x nucleon-nucleon v cu trc deuteron

Trn y ta lm quen vi cc tnh cht c bn v dng th tng tc cp

gia hai nucleon. Trong vng nng lng thp ca VLHN, tin cy ca mt

mu th tng tc gia hai nucleon t do thng phi c kim nh trn hai

i tng thc t: tn x nucleon-nucleon v cu trc ca deuteron.

2.4.1 Tn x nucleon-nucleon

i vi phn ng tn x NN, mt tng tc NN hon chnh s cho hm sng

tn x m t chnh xc c tit din tn x (scattering cross-section) v

dch pha (phase shift) xc nh t cc th nghim o phn ng tn x ca hai

nucleon. hiu tm tt c cc c trng c bn ca phn ng tn x NN,

ta cn lm quen vi phng trnh tn x lng t trong dng n gin, da trn

Hamiltonian sau cho hai nucleon tng tc.

p21 p22
H= + + vNN (|r 1 r 2 |), (2.12)
2m1 2m2
vi p v m l xung v khi lng ca nucleon. Sau khi thc hin php bin

i sang cc ta tng i (relative) v khi tm (center of mass, vit tt l

87
c.m.) vi M = m1 + m2
m1 p1 m2 p2
p1 , p2 P c.m. = p1 + p2 , p = , (2.13)
M
m1 r 1 + m2 r 2
r 1 , r 2 Rc.m. = , r = r1 r2, (2.14)
M
Hamiltonian (2.12) c tch ra hai thnh phn tng i v khi tm nh sau

P 2c.m. p2
H = H(P c.m. ) + H(r, p) = + + vNN (r), (2.15)
2M 2
vi = m1 m2 /M l khi lng rt gn (reduced mass). Tip tc bin i

Hamiltonian (2.15) t h ta phng th nghim (laboratory frame) sang h

ta khi tm (c.m. frame) trong khng gian xung lng (P c.m. 0, p p

v Elab. Ec.m. ) v ta c hm sng ca h hai nucleon k (r) l nghim ca

phng trnh Schroedinger sau

[ 2 ]
~ 2
+ vNN (r) k (r) = Ec.m. k (r). (2.16)
2
i vi phn ng tn x n hi, dng tim cn ca k (r) c dng
eikr 2Ec.m.
k (r)|r eik.r + f () , vi k2 = . (2.17)
r ~2
k c gi l s sng (wave number) v hon ton c xc nh bi nng

lng tn x, vi vector xung lng ca h NN c xc nh theo p = ~k.

S hng u ca (2.17) l hm sng phng (plane wave) m t trng thi ca

cp NN trc khi tn x m cn c gi l sng ti (incident wave). S hng

th hai m t trng thi ca cp NN sau tn x, vi f () l bin tn x

(scattering amplitude). T (2.17) ta c phn b cng sng ra (outgoing

wave) theo cc hng khc nhau ca gc tn x c xc nh bi f (). Tit

din vi phn (differential cross-section) ca phn ng tn x, mt i lng

o c trc tip t thc nghim, c xc nh theo

d
= |f ()|2 . (2.18)
d
88
Nu ta ch xt n thnh phn khng ph thuc vo spin ca vNN (r) th moment
qu o L ca cp NN l i lng c bo ton v k (r) c th c khai

trin theo chui cc a thc Legendre (xem thm phn ph lc)

RL (k, r)
k (r) = L (k, r, ) PL (cos ), (2.19)
r
L=0 L=0

viRL (k, r) xc nh t phn bn knh (radial part) ca phng trnh (2.16)

[ ]
~2 d2 L(L + 1)
RL (k, r) + vNN (r)RL (k, r) = Ec.m. RL (k, r). (2.20)
2 dr2 r2
T (2.20) ta thy L chnh l moment qu o ca cp NN tn x. Chui (2.19)
c gi l khai trin sng thnh phn (partial wave expansion). Nu ta khai

trin dng tim cn (2.17) theo sng thnh phn th s thu c bin tn x

di dng

1
f () = (2L + 1)eiL sin L PL (cos ). (2.21)
k
L=0
Gc L l dch pha tn x (scattering phase shift) ca trng thi cp NN

vi moment qu o L. T dng tim cn ca hm sng (2.19)

RL (k, r) (2L + 1) [ 2iL ikr ]
e e ()L eikr (2.22)
r 2ikr
ta thy tng tc vNN (r) chnh l nguyn nhn lm cho pha ca sng ra b lch
i so vi pha ca sng n v lch pha ny c xc nh bi L . Hiu ng
trn i vi sng tn x c moment qu o L = 0, gy bi v(r) c dng h

th vung, c minh ha trn hnh 2.4 v ta thy L l i lng ngc du

vi th tn x. Tm li, tin cy ca mt mu tng tc NN ph thuc vo

kh nng ca mu ny trong vic m t chnh xc dch pha tn x xc nh

t thc nghim.

Dng hm sng tn x (2.19) ch tng ng vi th tn x khng ph thuc

vo spin v spin ng v ca hai nucleon. Trong thc t, cc thnh phn ca

vNN u ph thuc trc tip vo spin v spin ng v v trng thi cp NN c

89
Hnh 2.4: S minh ha sng phn vi L = 0 c tn x bi th y V (r) > 0 tng ng
vi 0 < 0 v th ht V (r) < 0 tng ng vi 0 > 0. ng cong ngt m t sng khng b
tn x khi V (r) 0.

moment qu o L phi cp vi hm sng spin v c xc nh cng vi hm

sng spin ng v nh sau

= |(LS)JT > [L S ]J T . (2.23)

Nh vy hm sng tng qut ca mt cp NN bt k c xc nh bi moment

gc ton phn J = |J | = |L + S|, moment qu o L, spin tng S v spin

ng v tng T. K hiu quang ph thng dng trong VLHN cho hm sng

[L S ]J ca cp NN l
2S+1
(L)J . Nh cc k hiu ph n ht, (L) = S khi
L = 0, (L) = P khi L = 1, (L) = D khi L = 2... Do spin v spin ng v ca

nucleon bng 1/2, ta c S = |s1 + s2 | = 0 hoc 1 v T = |t1 + t2 | = 0 hoc 1.

Trng thi cp NN c S = 0 c gi l trng thi spin n mc (spin singlet)
v trng thi c S =1 l trng thi spin tam mc (spin triplet), tng t i

vi spin ng v ta cng c cc trng thi spin ng v n mc T = 0 v spin

ng v tam mc T = 1. Th d trn hnh 2.5 cho ta thy tng tc NN xy

dng trong l thuyt meson [34] c th m t kh chun xc dch pha tn

1 3
x ca cc trng thi S0 v S1 xc nh t th nghim tn x NN ti cc nng

lng khc nhau.

90
Hnh 2.5: dch pha tn x ca cc trng thi 1 S0 v 3 S1 xc nh t th nghim tn x NN
ti cc nng lng khc nhau. ng cong l L=0 c tnh trong l thuyt meson ca vNN .
Minh ha t ti liu [34].

2.4.2 Cu trc ca deuteron

2
Ht deuteron (ht nhn ca nguyn t hydro nng H, k hiu l d) l ht nhn
duy nht trong thin nhin c cu trc t hai nucleon. d l trng thi ca

cp proton-neutron lin kt vi nhau bi nng lng lin kt 2.225 MeV v

c spin v chn l J = 1+ , spin ng v T = 0, moment t d = 0.857 N
2
v moment t cc in Q2 = 0.282 e fm . Nhng s liu cu trc ny ca

deuteron thng xuyn c dng kim nh thnh phn tng tc proton-

neutron trong cc mu tng tc NN khc nhau. C th, ngi ta xc nh

hm sng d ca deuteron t nghim ca phng trnh Schroedinger sau cho

h proton-neutron
[ 2 ]
~ 2
+ vpn (r) d (r) = Ed d (r). (2.24)
2
Do chn l = ()L ca deuteron l dng nn moment qu o L phi

l s chn. Ngoi ra, J = |L + S| = 1 nn ta ch c hai kh nng L = 0 hoc

2, tng ng vi spin tng S=1 hoc 0. Nu ta ch hn ch trng thi vi

91
 Sz=1 Sz=0

Hnh 2.6: B mt mt ca deutron trong hai trng thi vi hnh chiu spin Sz = 0 v Sz = 1
c tnh theo l thuyt chun ca tng tc nucleon-nucleon. Minh ha t ti liu [27].

L=0 th |d |3 S1 vi T = 0. Trong trng hp ny hm sng d cng

nh l mt in tch ca deuteron, c (r) 0.5 |d (r)|2 , s l hm c

i xng cu v nh vy moment t cc in Q2 = 0 theo cng thc (1.26).

Moment t ca deuteron gn bng tng cc moment t ca proton v neutron

khi moment qu o L=0

d = p + n 2.792 N 1.913 N = 0.879 N , (2.25)

khong 14% ln hn gi tr thc nghim. Trn thc t, deutron c dng mt

rt khc mt hm phn b i xng cu (xem hnh 2.6) v cc tnh ton

s dng nhng mu l thuyt chun ca tng tc NN lun cho nghim ca

phng trnh (2.24) di dng t hp ca hai trng thi S (vi L = 0) v D (vi

L = 2) nh sau
|d 0.98 |3 S1 + 0.20 |3 D1 , (2.26)

vi xc sut 4% ca deuteron nm trong trng thi

3
D1 . Hm sng (2.26)

tng ng vi tr ring ca phng trnh (2.24) Ed 2.225 MeV, ng bng

nng lng lin kt thc nghim ca deuteron, ng thi cc gi tr tnh ton

92
ca Q2 v d cng rt gn st cc gi tr thc nghim. Cn nhn mnh rng

thnh phn trng thi D ch c th xut hin c trong |d nh tc dng ca

lc tensor (2.5) trong tng tc vpn (r).

Deuteron cng l th d in hnh minh ha s ph thuc ca tng tc NN

vo spin v spin ng v ca cp NN. C th, tng tc NN ch c th gi cp

proton-neutron vi spin ng v T =0 trong mt trng thi lin kt vi nng

lng cp <0 khi spin S =1 . Nu spin S = 0, cp proton-neutron ch c

th l cp NN tng tc t do vi nhau trong mt qu trnh phn ng tn x

NN (nng lng cp > 0). Ngoi ra, tng tc NN cng khng th lin kt cp
3 3
proton-proton hoc cp neutron-neutron trong cc trng thi S1 v D1 tng

t nh (2.26) i vi cp proton-neutron. L do n gin l d c spin ng v

T =0 trong khi cc cp pp v nn u c spin ng v tng T = 1. Hiu ng

ph thuc spin ng v trong trng hp ny cn c th gii thch c trn

c s nguyn l loi tr Pauli ca c hc lng t (Pauli exclusion principle).

Theo nguyn l Pauli th hm sng ca mt cp fermion ng loi (identical

fermion) phi l phn i xng (antisymmetric) i vi php hon v tt c cc

ta ca hai fermion. Nh vy, hm sng ca cc cp pp v nn phi tha

mn h thc

pp (1, 2) = pp (2, 1) v nn (1, 2) = nn (2, 1). (2.27)

i vi mt trng thi cp NN c L, S, T xc nh, yu cu (2.27) ca nguyn

l Pauli c th rt gn c v quy tc chn lc (1)L+S+T = 1 (xem chi

tit trong phn tham kho 4.2.3). Ta d thy quy tc ny khng c tha mn

i vi cp pp v nn trong trng thi

3
S1 vi (1)0+1+1 = 1 = 1 v trng
3
thi D1 vi (1)2+1+1 = 1 = 1 nn cc trng thi ny ca cc cp pp v nn
khng th tn ti ngay c nh mt knh ca phn ng tn x NN. Vi T = 1,
thnh phn spin ng v ca hm sng cp pp hoc nn l hm i xng, do
iu kin (2.27) ch c tha mn khi thnh phn spin-qu o ca hm sng

93
cp l phn i xng. C th, nu spin tng ca cp S =1 (khi thnh phn

spin ca hm sng cp pp hoc nn l hm i xng) th thnh phn qu o

ca hm sng cp phi l mt tch phn i xng (antisymmetrized product)

ca hai thnh phn qu o tng ng ca hai hm sng n ht

1
pp (1, 2) = [p1 (1)p2 (2) p1 (2)p2 (1)] (2.28)
2
v tng t i vi nn (1, 2). H thc (2.28) chnh l trng hp c bit ca
nh thc Slater (3.29) trnh by di y cho trng hp h hai nucleon (bc

nh thc bng 2).

94
Chng 3

Cu trc ht nhn

Ht nhn nguyn t l mt h nhiu ht phc tp, c cu trc t cc nucleon

lin kt vi nhau bi tng tc mnh. Ni chung, m t c cu trc ht

nhn trong mt trng thi vt l, ta phi gii phng trnh Schroedinger cho

hm sng v nng lng ca ht nhn trong trng thi ny

HA A = EA A . (3.1)

T chng 1.2 ta bit rng nng lng lin kt trung bnh ca mt nucleon

trong ht nhn l khong 8 MeV, nh hn nhiu nng lng ngh ca nucleon

(mc
2
938 MeV). Ngoi ra, ng nng trung bnh ca mt nucleon trong ht
nhn l khong Ekin 20 40 MeV nn vn tc chuyn ng ca nucleon

trong ht nhn s l khong v 2Ekin /m 0.2 c 0.3 c (tng ng

vi v 2 /c2 0.04 0.09). Do , dng phng trnh Schroedinger ca c

hc lng t khng tng i tnh (non-relativistic quantum mechanics) l mt

im khi u hp l ca cc phng php nghin cu cu trc ht nhn. Cho

n nay, hai cch tip cn chnh gii phng trnh (3.1) l cc phng php

vi m (microscopic approach) v cc mu tp th (collective model).

Trong cc phng php vi m, ton t Hamiltonian HA c xy dng trn

cc bc t do nucleon v hm sng A cng c tm di dng hm ph

95
thuc tng minh vo cc ta khng gian (r ), spin (s) v spin ng v (t)

ca tng nucleon

A
~2 2 1
A
HA = i + v(i, j), (3.2)
i=1
2m 2
i=j
A = (r 1 , s1 , t1 ; r 2 , s2 , t2 ; ... ; r A , sA , tA ). (3.3)

Tng tc cp v(i, j) = vNN (i, j) + vC (i, j), vi vNN (i, j) l tng tc mnh

gia hai nucleon i v j , vC (i, j) l tng tc tnh in Coulomb gia i v j

khi c hai u l proton. V nguyn tc, phng trnh (3.1)-(3.2) ch c th

gii chnh xc c cho ht nhn vi A=2 v A = 3. i vi cc ht nhn

c A > 4, phng trnh ch c th gii c bng mt phng php gn ng

(approximation) thch hp. Ngoi ra, c ch tng tc mnh gia hai nucleon

rt phc tp nn mi mt phng php gn ng gii bi ton cu trc ht

nhn cn phi c gn vi mt m hnh tin cy ca vNN . Mt phng php

gn ng nh vy thng c gi l mt mu cu trc vi m (microscopic

structure model).

Khc vi cc mu vi m, cc mu cu trc tp th c xy dng t cc

bc t do c trng cho ton b ht nhn m hay c gi l cc ta tp th

(collective coordinates). Th d nh vector bn knh tm khi R v moment

in t cc ht nhn Q2

1
A A
R= r i , Q2m = ri2 Y2m (r i ). (3.4)
A i=1 i=1

Sau khi hm Lagrangian ht nhn c xy dng da trn cc ta tp th

v mt vi thng s vt l v m, hm ny c lng t ha thu c

Hamiltonian HA cho phng trnh (3.1). T h thc (3.4) ta d thy l cc

ta tp th cng c th c biu din qua cc ta tng ng ca tng

nucleon trong ht nhn v v th cc mu cu trc tp th thng c c s vi

m xy dng trn cc bc t do nucleon.

96
3.1 Cc mu cu trc ht nhn vi m

T nm 1935 Hans Bethe (gii thng Nobel, cha ca vt l thin vn ht

nhn) a ra gi thuyt rng cc nucleon trong ht nhn c th c m t

gn ng nh h cc nucleon khng tng tc vi nhau nhng c lin kt

bi mt th n ht (single-particle potential) Us.p. . Ta d dng thu c m

hnh n gin ny khi biu din Hamiltonian (3.2) di dng

A [ ]
1
A A
~2 2
HA = i + Us.p. (r i ) + v(i, j) Us.p. (r i ). (3.5)
i=1
2m 2 i=1
i=j

Nu ta chn mt th n ht Us.p. sao cho hai s hng cui trong Hamiltonian

(3.5) trit tiu nhau th Hamiltonian ht nhn c th biu din c di dng

tng cc Hamiltonian n ht ca tng nucleon trong ht nhn

A A [ ]
~2 2
HA = Hi = i + Us.p. (r i ) . (3.6)
i=1 i=1
2m

Phng trnh Schroedinger (3.1) vi Hamiltonian ht nhn xc nh theo (3.6)

chnh l mu n ht c lp (independent particle model, vit tt l IPM) do

Bethe a ra t nm 1935. Tuy l mt gi thuyt kh n gin, IPM chnh l

mu cu trc vi m u tin v l c s nn tng xy dng mu v ht nhn

sau ny.

3.1.1 Mu kh Fermi

Dng th n gin nht ca mu IPM c th c xt n l hp th vung

(square potential well). Trong trng hp ny ht nhn c xt gn ng nh

mt hp khi cha A nucleon chuyn ng c lp khng tng tc vi nhau

v c lin kt bi mt hp th vung cnh a, vi Us.p. (0 < x < a) = 0 v

Us.p. (x = 0 hoc x = a) = v tng t cho cc ta y v z . Trong mu vi

97
m n gin ny, m cn c gi l mu kh Fermi (Fermi gas model), hm

sng n ht ca mi nucleon c xc nh t phng trnh Schroedinger sau

~2 2
(r) = E(r), r = (x, y, z). (3.7)
2m
T iu kin bin (r) = 0 trn b mt ca hp th (khi mt trong 6 iu kin
sau c tha mn: x = 0, x = a, y = 0, y = a, z = 0, z = a), ta d dng

thu c nghim ca phng trnh (3.7) di dng

(x, y, z) sin(kx x) sin(ky y) sin(kz z) (3.8)

and kx a = nx , ky a = ny , kz a = nz , (3.9)

vi nx , n y v nz l cc s nguyn dng. Tr ring ca phng trnh (3.7) c

xc nh vi mi b ba gi tr (nx , ny , nz ) nh sau

~2 2 ~2 k 2
E(nx , ny , nz ) = (k + ky + kz )
2 2
. (3.10)
2m x 2m
H thc (3.10) cho ta ph gin on (discrete spectrum) cc mc nng lng

ca cc trng thi n nucleon (3.8). Vector xung lng ca nucleon c xc

nh theo p = ~k.

Trong khng gian ba chiu ca vector k m c gi l khng gian xung

lng (momentum space) mi trng thi n nucleon c hon ton xc nh

trong mt hnh lp phng c cnh /a v th tch l (/a)3 . Theo yu cu ca

nguyn l Pauli, trng thi n nucleon trn phi l duy nht trong mt hnh

lp phng nh vy v ta c s trng thi n nucleon cho php trong khong

khng gian xung lng nm gia k v k + dk

1 4k 2 dk
dn(k) = 4 , k = |k|. (3.11)
8 (/a)3
H s 1/8 m bo ch xt cc gi tr dng ca kx , ky v kz l cho tt c

cc trng thi n nucleon cho php trong ton b lp k nm gia k v k + dk ;

h s 4 l h s suy bin (degeneracy factor) spin v spin ng v ca nucleon,

98
tng ng vi cc hnh chiu sz = 1/2 v tz = 1/2. Tng s cc trng

thi n nucleon cho php trong khong nng lng 0 6 6 E = ~2 k 2 /(2m)

c xc nh theo
k
4 k3
n(k) = dn(k )dk = . (3.12)
0 3 2(/a)3
Nu kF l xung lng tng ng vi mc nng lng n ht cao nht (nng

lng Fermi) th s khi A ca ht nhn c th c xc nh nh sau

4 kF3 2V 3
A= k , (3.13)
3 2(/a)3 3 2 F
vi V = a3 l th tch ca hp khi vung cnh a. T , mt nucleon trong
hp khi v xung lng Fermi c th c biu din qua nhau theo
( )1/3
2 3 2
= A/V = 2 kF3 kF = . (3.14)
3 2
Vi mt nucleon trung bnh trong tm cc ht nhn trung bnh v nng

(A > 12) l 0.17 3

nucleon/fm ta d dng xc nh c xung Fermi
1
kF 1.36 fm v nng lng Fermi F = ~2 kF2 /(2m) 38.7 MeV. ng

nng trung bnh ca nucleon trong mu kh Fermi c xc nh theo

F
1 3
Ekin = dn()d = F 23.2 MeV. (3.15)
A 0 5
Nu ta m t ht nhn gn dng nh mt qu cu vi bn knh R v th tch

V = 4R3 /3, th d thu c t h thc (3.14)

R = r0 A1/3 , r0 1.12 fm, kF r0 1.52. (3.16)

Tuy l mt m hnh cu trc vi m n gin ca ht nhn, mu kh Fermi cung

cp cho chng ta nhng kin thc c s ti thiu tip tc hiu c cc mu

cu trc ht nhn vi m phc tp. Ngoi ra, mu kh Fermi cn c dng

tnh ton mt cc mc kch thch nng lng cao trong cc nghin cu phn

ng dn ti ht nhn hp phn (compound nucleus) hoc nh gi s hng

i xng trong cng thc khi bn thc nghim (1.11) ca nng lng lin kt

ht nhn...

99
3.1.2 Mu n ht c lp v c s ca mu v ht nhn

T nhng nm 50 ca th k 20, khi nhng bng chng thc nghim xut hin

ngy cng nhiu khng nh rng cc nucleon trong ht nhn c phn b theo

cu trc v (shell structure) tng t nh cu trc cc lp v electron trong

nguyn t, mu n ht c lp tip tc c pht trin m t cu trc

Hnh 3.1: ph bin ca cc ng v ht nhn chn-chn trong thin nhin. Cc im cc

i tng ng vi cc s neutron N v s proton Z bng s magic ht nhn. Minh ha t ti
liu [8]

100
v ca ht nhn. Bng chng thc nghim in hnh nht l s tn ti ca cc

s magic ht nhn (nuclear magic number) 2, 8, 20, 28, 50, 82 v 126 c

ngha vt l tng t nh cc s magic nguyn t (atomic magic number) 2, 10,

18, 36, 54, 80, 86. C th, nng lng lin kt ca cc ht nhn c s neutron

hoc proton bng s magic ln hn ng k so vi cc ng v ht nhn nm k

(xem hnh 1.1), khi cc lp v c lp kn (fully occupied shells) bi neutron

hoc proton. c bit, nhng ht nhn magic kp (double-magic nuclei) vi N

4 16 40 56 208
v Z u l s magic nh 2 He, 8 O, 20 Ca, 28 Ni v 82 Pb l nhng ht nhn tn

ti rt bn vng trong thin nhin nh c nng lng lin kt ln hn so vi

a s cc ht nhn khng magic (non-magic nuclei). Nng lng lin kt ca

mt ht nhn ng nhin phi t l thun vi ph bin ca n trong thin

nhin v hiu ng ny c th hin rt r qua phn b ph bin cc ng

v ht nhn chn-chn trong thin nhin (xem hnh 3.1), vi cc im cc i

tng ng vi nhng ht nhn c N hoc Z l s magic.

Tng t nh nng lng ion ha (ionization energy) nguyn t (nng lng

tch mt electron ha tr lp v ngoi cng) t cc gi tr cc i khi s electron

bng s magic nguyn t, nng lng tch neutron hoc proton (neutron or

proton separation energy) cng tin n cc gi tr cc i ca mnh khi N

hoc Z bng cc s magic ht nhn. Nng lng tch neutron Sn hoc proton

Sp c xc nh t nng lng lin kt B ca ht nhn nh sau

Sn = B(N, Z) B(N 1, Z) v Sp = B(N, Z) B(N, Z 1). (3.17)

Do nng lng lin kt ht nhn c N l s magic phi ln hn so vi cc ht

nhn ng bn cnh trn trc s neutron, t h thc (3.17) ta suy ra nng lng

tch neutron Sn ca cc ht nhn c N l phi i qua cc im cc tiu mi

khi N 1 l s magic ht nhn. iu ny c th c khng nh d dng t

tp hp cc gi tr Sn thc nghim ca cc ht nhn l-chn trn hnh 3.2.

Mt d kin thc nghim quan trng na l moment t cc in Q2 ca cc

101
Hnh 3.2: Nng lng tch neutron Sn ca cc ht nhn l-chn (N l s l v Z l s chn).
Cc im cc tiu tng ng vi nhng ht nhn c mt neutron ha tr nm ngoi cc lp
neutron c lp y hon ton, vi N 1 bng s magic ht nhn. Cc s ng cui ng
ni cc im thc nghim l hiu s N Z . Minh ha t ti liu [17]

102
ht nhn magic kp u bng khng. iu ny khng nh l cc ht nhn ny

c dng hnh cu trong khng gian ta , thng c gi ngn l ht nhn cu

(spherical nucleus), vi hm sng trng thi c bn c i xng cu theo cng

thc (1.26). Nh vy th trng trung bnh (mean field potential) trong mu

IPM cho cc ht nhn cu s phi c dng th xuyn tm Us.p. (r) Us.p. (r).
T nhng kin thc c s ca c hc lng t khng tng i tnh ta bit rng

hm sng n ht ca mt nucleon chuyn ng trong mt th xuyn tm

Us.p. (r) ca trng trung bnh ht nhn c hon ton xc nh bi s lng

t chnh (principal quantum number) n, moment qu o l v hnh chiu m

ca n
Rnl (r) Rnl (r)
nlm (r) = Ylm (, ) Ylm (r), (3.18)
r r
vi Ylm (r) l hm cu ca gc thn r = (, ) xc nh hng ca vector bn

knh r trong h ta cu. Cc mc nng lng n ht Enl tng ng vi

cc trng thi (3.18) khng ph thuc vo hnh chiu m ca moment qu o

v v th mi mc Enl c suy bin (degeneracy) bng 2l + 1 (ta c nhiu

nht 2l + 1 nucleon c th c cng nng lng Enl ). Thnh phn bn knh

Rnl (r) ca hm sng cng cc tr ring tng ng c xc nh t phng

trnh Schroedinger sau

[ ]
~2 d2 ~2 l(l + 1)
+ + Us.p. (r) Rnl (r) = Enl Rnl (r), (3.19)
2m dr2 2mr2
vi Rnl (0) = 0 v Rnl (r ) 0 v y l trng thi lin kt (bound state)
ca nucleon trong ht nhn. Ngoi ra, hm Rnl (r) c th bng khng ti cc

gi tr hu hn khc ca r v s cc im ny c gi l s nt (number of

nodes) ca hm sng. S nt ca mt hm sng n ht nl bng s lng t

chnh n ca n (xem hnh 3.3). Tng t nh k hiu ph electron trong vt l

nguyn t, cc trng thi vi l = 0, 1, 2, 3... c k hiu trong VLHN bng s,
p, d, f... v tng ng ta c tp hp cc "qu o" 1s, 2s, 3s,... 1p, 2p, 3p,...

1d, 2d, 3d,... S hng ~2 l(l + 1)/(2mr2 ) tng ng vi mt th y khi l = 0

103
v v th c gi l th ly tm (centrifugal potential).

Hnh 3.3: Tng ca th trng trung bnh (hp th vung c bn knh R) v th ly tm cng
cc mc nng lng Enl v hm sng n ht nl xc nh t nghim ca phng trnh (3.19).
Minh ha t ti liu [24].

V nguyn tc, th trng trung bnh ca nucleon trong ht nhn phi c

xc nh vi m t tng tc ca tng nucleon trong ht nhn vi (A1) nucleon

cn li trn c s mt tng tc NN hiu dng chun xc (xem phng php

Hartree-Fock trnh by di y). Tuy nhin, cc c trng c bn ca hm

sng v ph n ht (single-particle spectrum) ht nhn gn lin vi cu trc

v cng c th c m t trong IPM vi mt s mu n gin ca Us.p. (r) nh

dng hp th vung trnh by trn hnh 3.3 hoc mu th dao ng t iu ha

(harmonic oscillator, vit tt l h.o.) m thng c dng gii thiu trnh

104
t cc mc n ht ht nhn

m 2 r2
Uh.o. (r) = U0 + . (3.20)
2
Nu ta lp th h.o. (3.20) vo phng trnh (3.19) th hm sng n ht Rnl (r)
c th c xc nh trong mt dng hm gii tch ca cc a thc Laguerre

v tng ng vi nng lng n ht

[ ]
3
Enl = ~ 2(n 1) + l + U0 . (3.21)
2
D thy rng cc trng thi n ht c cng s N = 2(n 1) + l s c cng

mt gi tr nng lng Enl . Do , mi mt gi tr N c dng k hiu

mt lp v dao ng t iu ha (h.o. shell) tng ng. Cc trng thi thuc v

cng mt lp dao ng t nh 1d,2s hay 1g,2d,3s... phi c cng mt chn

l ( =+ nu N l s chn v = nu N l). Mc d th (3.20) khng

phi l m hnh thc t ca Us.p. (r), tp hp cc hm sng h.o. vn c

s dng rng ri trong VLHN nh tp hp cc hm c s (basis) dng khai

trin hm sng ht nhn trong cc tnh ton cu trc. Ngoi ra, cc lp v dao

ng t N vn c dng trong mu v ht nhn phn chia cc mc n ht

theo cc nhm lp v h.o. vi nng lng tng dn (1~, 2~, 3~, ..., N ~
nh minh ha trn hnh 3.4).

Cho n nay, dng th bn thc nghim (empirical) ph bin nht ca Us.p. (r)

m vn c dng rng ri tnh ton cu trc cc trng thi n nucleon

trong ht nhn l th Woods-Saxon (vit tt l WS)

U0
UWS (r) = . (3.22)
1 + exp[(r R)/a]
i vi cc ht nhn c khi lng trung bnh v nng, bn knh ca th

R 1.3 A1/3 fm v nhe (diffuseness) ca th a 0.65 fm. Cc trng

thi n ht n ht ca th WS c cng s N = 2(n 1) + l khng cn suy

bin nh trong trng hp th h.o. na v cc mc Enl ch cn suy bin bc

105
2l + 1 ng vi cc thnh phn c hnh chiu m ca l khc nhau trong hm sng
n ht nlm . T thc nghim ta c spin ca cc ht nhn l- chn (N hoc Z
l l), cu trc bi mt nucleon ha tr (valence nucleon) nm ngoi mt li

chn-chn (N v Z u l chn), lun l mt s bn nguyn (half-integer) nh

1/2, 3/2, 5/2, 7/2... Nh vy, thnh phn tng tc spin-qu o (spin-orbital

interaction, vit tt l tng tc l.s.) trong th trng trung bnh ht nhn chc

chn l mnh v khng th b qua c nh trong cc tnh ton ph n ht

electron trong nguyn t. Nh tng tc Vl.s. gia moment qu o v spin ca

nucleon, mi trng thi n ht trong ht nhn c xc nh bi moment gc

tng j m thng c gi l spin ca trng thi , nlm nljm . Hm sng

n ht by gi phi tha mn phng trnh Schroedinger sau
[ ]
~2 2
+ Us.p. (r) + Vl.s. (r)l.s nljm (r) = Enlj nljm (r). (3.23)
2m
V Us.p. (r) v Vl.s. (r) c i xng cu, ta c th biu din nljm di dng

Rnlj (r)
nljm (r) = lml sms |jmYlml (r)s (ms ), (3.24)
r mm l s

vi lml sms |jm l h s Clebsch-Gordan (nh ngha chng tham kho

4.2.1) ca php cng vector gc j = l + s v s (ms ) l hm spinor (1.18) ca

nucleon. Tng trong (3.24) c ly theo tt c cc hnh chiu ml v ms ca

vector moment qu o l v spin s = 1/2. Tch v hng ca ton t moment

qu o l v spin s tc dng ln hm sng nh sau
2l.snljm (r) = lj nljm (r) = ~2 [j(j + 1) l(l + 1) 3/4]nljm (r) (3.25)

Do s = 1/2, moment gc ton phn ch c th l j = l 1/2 v ta c

{ }
~l
2
nu j = l + 1/2
lj = . (3.26)
~2 (l + 1) nu j = l 1/2
Phng trnh (3.23) d dng c rt gn v dng sau
[ ]
~2 d2 ~2 l(l + 1) lj
+ + Us.p. (r) + Vl.s. (r) Rnlj (r) = Enlj Rnlj (r),
2m dr2 2mr2 2
(3.27)

106
Cc tnh cht c trng ca hm sng Rnlj (r) cng tng t nh bn

trn i vi Rnl (r). iu ng ch y l vai tr ch cht ca tng tc

spin-qu o Vl.s. trong m t chnh xc spin bn nguyn j ca cc mc n ht

v th t ca chng trong ph ht nhn xc nh t thc nghim. Do th tng

tc spin-qu o Vl.s. (r) l th ht (attractive potential, Vl.s. (r) < 0) ta suy c

t h thc (3.26) rng lj Vl.s. (r) < 0 i vi mc Enlj=l+1/2 v lj Vl.s. (r) > 0
i vi mc Enlj=l1/2 . Nh vy, trong ph nng lng n ht ht nhn ta

lun c Enlj=l+1/2 < Enlj=l1/2 i vi bt k cp mc no c cng n v l. Ta

c th thy r th t tch mc ny qua s cc mc nng lng n proton

Enlj trong ht nhn trn hnh 3.4, vi khong cch gia cc mc c xc nh

t nghim ca phng trnh (3.27) ng vi cc thng s ca th trng trung

bnh UWS v th tng tc spin-qu o Vl.s. c iu chnh theo ph thc

nghim. Ch l i vi cc proton trong ht nhn, ngoi th (3.22) trng

trung bnh cn c thm ng gp ca th tng tc Coulomb gia cc proton

m c th c xc nh tng i chnh xc theo cc phng php ca in

ng lc hc.

Trong trng thi c bn ca ht nhn cc nucleon s lp y cc mc nng

lng n ht Enlj theo th t chiu tng ca nng lng, bt u t mc thp

nht 1s1/2 . Nguyn l Pauli cho php s nucleon cng loi ln nht c th

nm cng trong mt lp v nlj bng 2j + 1 v y chnh l suy bin

ca mc Enlj tng ng vi cc gi tr m khc nhau ca hnh chiu spin

trng thi j ln trc z. Th d, cu hnh (configuration) cc trng thi n

18 2 4 2
proton v neutron trong ht nhn O tng ng l (1s1/2 ) (1p3/2 ) (1p1/2 ) v
2 4 2 2 18
(1s1/2 ) (1p3/2 ) (1p1/2 ) (1d5/2 ) . Nh vy 8 proton v 8 neutron trong O lp

y cc mc s, p thp nht v cc mc ny to thnh cc lp v ng (closed

shell) u tin ca cu trc v, ging nh cu hnh trng thi c bn ca ht

16 18
nhn magic kp O. Hai neutron ha tr ca O nm trong trng thi 1d5/2 ,

tng ng vi lp v m (open shell) c 4 v tr trng v s neutron cc i cho

107
 20

Hnh 3.4: S cc mc n ht Enlj ca proton trong ht nhn xc nh t nghim ca

phng trnh (3.27), vi cng tng tc spin-qu o Vl.s. iu chnh theo ng th t cc
mc nng lng xc nh t thc nghim. Ct ngoi cng bn tri l trnh t cc lp dao ng
t N ~ cng chn l ca lp (even = +, odd = ). S trong ngoc n l
suy bin ca mc v s trong ngoc vung l tng s proton cn lp y cc mc n ht.
Minh ha t ti liu [14].

108
 18
php trong mc d5/2 l 6. Trong thc t, nhiu tnh cht cu trc ca O c
16
th c m t da trn m hnh cu trc O + 2n. Theo th t nh vy, ht
40
nhn magic kp Ca c cu hnh cc trng thi ca 20 proton v 20 neutron
2 4 2 6 2 4
ging nhau l (1s1/2 ) (1p3/2 ) (1p1/2 ) (1d5/2 ) (2s1/2 ) (1d3/2 ) . Ht nhn ng
40 40
khi vi Ca l K vi 19 proton v 21 neutron cng c cu trc cc lp
40
v u tin ging nh ca Ca, nhng lp v proton ha tr 1d3/2 ch cha 3
40
proton v c mt v tr trng. Ht neutron ha tr ca K nm trong mc 1f7/2
40
v cp vi proton ha tr mc 1d3/2 cho spin v chn l ca K trong

trng thi c bn l J = 4 . V th m trng thi c bn ca

40
K cn c

k hiu ngn l [ d3/2 f7/2 ]4 (vi v l hai k hiu ph hay dng trong

cu trc ht nhn cho cc mc proton v neutron).

T hnh 3.4 ta cng thy cc mc n ht c quy t li thnh cc lp v

chnh (major shell) cch nhau bi nhng khong nng lng ln hn khong

cch trung bnh gia cc mc trong mt lp v m thng c gi l nhng

khe lp (shell gap). Nguyn l Pauli i hi s cc nucleon lp y cc mc

n ht sau mi lp v chnh phi tun t bng 2, 8, 20, 28, 50, 82 v 126. y

chnh l cc s magic ht nhn m c khng nh t tp hp nhiu s liu

thc nghim khc nhau nh bn trn. Do khe nng lng gia cc lp v

chnh ln, nng lng tch neutron Sn hoc proton khi ht nhn ng nhin

phi ln i vi cc ht nhn magic khi cc neutron hoc proton lp y cc

mc kt thc mt lp v chnh. Nhng kt qu m t ph n ht ht nhn ca

mu IPM da trn nghim ca phng trnh Schroedinger (3.27) c Maria

Goeppert-Mayer v J. Hans D. Jensen (cc tc gi chnh ca mu v ht nhn)

a ra ln u tin t nhng nm 50 ca th k trc [14], da trn m hnh

i xng ht nhn ca Eugene Paul Wigner (mt nh vt l M gc Hungary,

cha ca l thuyt i xng trong vt l lng t). Nhng ng gp v cng

quan trng cho VLHN hin i ca ba tn tui ny mang li cho h gii

thng Nobel vt l nm 1963.

109
 Hm sng ton phn A v nng lng E ca ht nhn c xc nh t

nghim ca phng trnh (3.27) cho cc hm sng nljm v nng lng Enlj
n ht. C th, nguyn l Pauli i hi hm sng phi l tch phn i

xng (antisymmetrized product) ca cc hm sng n ht, cn nng lng

ton phn E n gin bng tng cc nng lng n ht

1
A A
A (r 1 , r 2 , ..., r A ) = P P ji mi (r i ), EA = Eji . (3.28)
A! i=1 i=1
P

Tp hp s lng t ca trng thi n ht c vit tt l ji tz ni li ji , trong

hnh chiu spin ng v ca neutron tz = 1/2 v ca proton tz = 1/2.

Ton t P l php hon v (permutation) s th t (i = 1, 2, ..., A) ca hai ch s
trng thi ji mi bt k, vi P bng +1 i vi mt php hon v chn v -1 i

vi mt php hon v l tha mn yu cu ca nguyn l Pauli. Theo nh

ngha ny ca P , hm sng A chun (normalized) v phn i xng chnh l

nh thc di y m cn c bit n trong c hc lng t nh nh thc

Slater (Slater determinant)

 
 
 j1 m1 (r 1 ) j1 m1 (r 2 ) j1 m1 (r A ) 
 
 
1  j m (r 1 ) j2 m2 (r 2 ) j2 m2 (r A ) 
A = det  . 2 2 .. . . (3.29)
A!  .. .
..
. .. 
 
 
 jA mA (r 1 ) jA mA (r 2 ) jA mA (r A ) 

Trong biu din lng t ha th cp (second quantization) ca c hc lng

t (xem chi tit trong phn tham kho 4.3), mi trng thi n ht c biu

din ngn gn theo jm |jm = a+

jm |0, vi a+
jm l ton t sinh (creation

operator) trng thi n ht |jm v |0 l hm sng chn khng. Tng t,

ajm c dng k hiu ton t hy (annihilation operator) trng thi n ht

|jm. Khi , tnh cht phn giao hon (4.67) ca cc ton t a+
jm cho php ta

110
biu din hm sng phn i xng (3.29) di dng tch n gin sau

A
|A = j1 m1 aj2 m2 aj3 m3 ...ajA mA |0
a+ + + +
ji mi |0.
a+ (3.30)
i=1

Tm li, trng thi c bn ca cc ht nhn cu (c bit l cc ht nhn

magic kp) c th c m t chun trong mu IPM bi tp hp cc nghim

ca phng trnh Schroedinger (3.23), khi ta c la chn hp l cho th trng

trung bnh v tng tc spin-qu o. Cho n nay, mu IPM vn c s dng

rng ri xy dng cc hm sng n ht lm h hm c s cho mu v ht

nhn (nuclear shell model). T mt phin bn IPM n gin trong nhng nm

50 ca th k trc, mu v ht nhn hin i c pht trin v hon thin

rt nhiu m t khng ch trng thi c bn m cn tp hp phc tp cc

trng thi kch thch khc nhau ca ht nhn.

3.1.3 Phng php Hartree-Fock v trng trung bnh ht nhn

Dng th hin tng lun WS ca trng trung bnh ht nhn (3.22) v ang

c s dng rng ri trong cc tnh ton IPM cho ph n ht ca ht nhn.

L do chnh gii thch s thnh cng ny l th WS c hnh dng (shape)

rt tng t vi th trng trung bnh ht nhn c tnh ton vi m t cc

bc t do nucleon. Trong c hc lng t khng tng i tnh, phng php

Hartree-Fock (HF) c dng t nhiu thp k qua nghin cu vi m th

trng trung bnh (mean-field potential) ca mt h a fermion nh tp hp

cc electron trong nguyn t hoc cc nucleon trong ht nhn.

Dng phng trnh HF cho cc trng thi n ht trong ht nhn c th suy

t mt php bin i hnh thc Hamiltonian ht nhn (3.2)

[ ]
A
~ i
2 2
HA = + v(|r i r i |) . (3.31)
i=1
2m i <i

111
Hnh 3.5: Dng th trng trung bnh ca proton Up (r) v neutron Un (r) cho cc trng thi
n ht ca mt ht nhn c khi lng trung bnh v nng. Do c tng tc y Coulomb
gia cc proton, th Up (r) khng su bng Un (r) v tr thnh th y Up (r) > 0 khong
cch ln. Phn th y ny thng c gi l ngng Coulomb (Coulomb barrier).

Nu ta c th kt ni tng theo i ca tng tc cp v(|r i r i |) gia hai nucleon

i v i vi th trng trung bnh ht nhn cho mt trng thi n ht i bt k

Ui (r i ) th Hamiltonian (3.31) d dng a c v dng (3.6). Vi mc ch

nh vy, ta thay tng tng tc cp bng tng cc gi tr trung bnh ca n theo

hm sng n ht |i nh sau

v(|r i r i |) Ui (r i ) = i |v|i , (3.32)
i <i i <i

vi i |v|i = i (r i )v(|r i r i |)i (r i )d3 ri . (3.33)

Nguyn l Pauli yu cu hm sng ca cp NN tng tc phi l phn i xng

v php phn i xng ha (antisymmetrization) hon ton tng ng vi

vic dng trong h thc (3.33) tng tc cp v di dng

v(|r i r i |) v(|r i r i |)(1 Pii ), vi Pii = Piir Pii Pii . (3.34)

Trong , Piir , Pii v Pii tng ng l cc ton t trao i (4.62) - (4.63)

112
cc ta khng gian, spin v spin ng v gia hai nucleon i v i . Th d,

Piir i (r i )i (r i ) = i (r i )i (r i ) v Pii s (ms )s (ms ) = s (ms )s (ms ).

Nu v l tng tc Coulomb gia hai proton th Pii Piir bi v lc tnh in

khng ph thuc vo spin v spin ng v ca hai proton tng tc. Khi v l

thnh phn xuyn tm (2.4) ca tng tc NN ta c th biu din

v(r)Pii vD (r)Piir Pii Pii = vEX (r)Piir , (3.35)

vi vD (r) l thnh phn trc tip (direct) v vEX (r) vD (r)Pii Pii l thnh

phn trao i (exchange) ca th xuyn tm (2.4). Tng t, cc thnh phn

spin-qu o v tensor cng bao gm cc thnh phn trc tip v trao i

sau khi c phn i xng ha theo (3.34). Sau khi th trng trung bnh

(3.32) c "phn i xng ha" theo (3.35), ta c th biu din phng trnh

Schroedinger (3.23) di dng sau

[ ]
~2 2i
+ UD (r) i (r) + UEX (r, r )i (r )d3 r = Ei i (r). (3.36)
2m
Thnh phn cha th trc tip UD c gi l s hng Hartree (Hartree term),

vi th nh x (local)UD c xc nh theo

UD (r) = i (r )vD (|r r |)i (r )d3 r . (3.37)
i <i

Thnh phn cha th trao i UEX c gi l s hng Fock (Fock term), vi

th phi nh x (non-local) UEX c xc nh theo

UEX (r, r ) = i (r )vEX (|r r |)i (r). (3.38)
i <i

Ta thy phng trnh Schroedinger (3.36) thc t l mt phng trnh vi tch

phn (integro-differential equation) do c cha th trao i phi nh x ca

trng trung bnh. Phng trnh (3.36) c gi l phng trnh Hartree-

Fock v n c dng hon ton tng t vi phng trnh HF xc nh cc trng

thi n electron trong nguyn t do Douglas Rayner Hartree (mt nh vt l

113
v ton hc ngi Anh) v Vladimir Aleksandrovich Fock (mt tn tui ln

trong lch s pht trin vt l nc Nga) a ra t nhng nm 30-40 ca th

k trc. Cc php bin i (3.32)-(3.35) thc ra ch l hnh thc minh ha

cho bn c cu trc ca phng trnh HF. thu c chnh xc phng trnh

(3.36) ngi ta phi p dng phng php bin phn (variational method) ca

c hc lng t i vi nng lng trung bnh ca ht nhn, da trn c s

Hamiltonian (3.31) v hm sng phn i xng (3.29) ca ht nhn.

Hnh 3.6: Ph nng lng cc trng thi n ht ca ht nhn ch 208 Pb thu c t cc tnh
ton HF s dng cc phin bn mi (M3Y-P5 v D1S) ca tng tc NN hiu dng trong ht
nhn v cc mc thc nghim (Exp) tng ng. Minh ha t ti liu [35].

114
 Do c hai th trc tip v trao i ch c th xc nh c theo (3.37)-

(3.38) khi ta bit dng tng minh ca hm sng n ht i , phng trnh

HF l mt bi ton t hp (self-consistency problem) v ch c th gii c

bng mt phng php lp (iteration method) thch hp. C th, ngi ta bt

u gii phng trnh (3.36) dng UD , UEX xc nh bi mt h hm sng th

(trial wave function) m thng l nghim ca phng trnh (3.23) vi mt th

WS, nghim va thu c t phng trnh HF s c dng tnh cc th

UD , UEX theo (3.37)-(3.38) cho phng trnh HF (3.36) ti vng lp tip theo

tm h hm sng n ht mi. Qu trnh lp ny c dng li sau khi ngi

ta t c hi t cn thit trong nghim ca phng trnh HF. Vi s pht

trin khng ngng ca VLHN hin i, cc mu tng tc NN hiu dng v cho

cc nucleon lin kt trong ht nhn ngy cng c hon thin v c dng

thng xuyn trong nhng tnh ton HF xc nh ph nng lng v hm

sng ca cc trng thi n ht (xem hnh 3.6) v t m t cc tnh cht cu

trc ca ht nhn trong trng thi c bn. Mt trong cc mu thng dng cho

tng tc NN hiu dng l tng tc Skyrme vi khong cch tng tc bng

khng, v(r) Vs (r). Khi , UEX l mt hm th nh x ging nh UD

v th trng trung bnh ht nhn Us.p. = UD + UEX s c mt dng nh x

(local shape) rt gn vi dng th bn thc nghim WS biu din trn hnh 3.5.

3.1.4 Hiu ng cp trong ht nhn v phng php BCS

Mu n ht c lp IPM cng nh phng php HF u c th dng m

16 40 56
t rt thnh cng cu trc ca cc ht nhn magic kp nh 8 O, 20 Ca, 28 Ni v
208
82 Pb. Tuy nhin, i vi cc ht nhn chn-chn c lp v nucleon ha tr
18 42
cha c lp y nh 8 O, 20 Ca... th cc mu cu trc trn khng th gii

thch c ti sao spin v chn l ca cc ht nhn ny trong trng thi c

bn lun l Jg.s. = 0+ . Th d, cu trc v ca cc neutron trong ht nhn 188 O

115
 2 4 2 2
l (1s1/2 ) (1p3/2 ) (1p1/2 ) (1d5/2 ) , vi 8 neutron lp y cc mc s v p thp

nht ng vi s magic u tin (N = 8) ca cu trc v cn 2 neutron ha tr

nm trong lp v m 1d5/2 . i vi mt lp v |j c lp y bi 2j + 1

neutron, spin ton phn J= j bao gi cng bng khng v cc neutron ny

c j nh hng trong khng gian sao cho m = j, j + 1, ..., j 1, j . Tuy

nhin, i vi mt lp v m th J khng nht thit phi bng khng (xem

hnh 3.7) v spin tng ca 2 neutron trong lp 1d5/2 v nguyn tc c th nm

trong khong 0 6 J 6 5. Do , ngoi trng trung bnh ht nhn chc chn

cn tn ti mt tng tc cp c bit sao cho cc nucleon trong lp v m

nlj ca mt ht nhn chn-chn lun tng i cp vi nhau cho spin tng bng

khng. Tng tc cp ny s c tho lun tip di y nh hiu ng cp

(pairing effect) nhn mnh s khc bit ca n i vi phn tng tc cp

ca vNN trong (3.31) m c hin din trong th trng trung bnh ht nhn.

j
j m=j m=j

j m=-j
j
m=-j+1

J=0 J=0

Hnh 3.7: S hnh hc cp spin ca hai nucleon ha tr trong mt lp v m vi hai nh

hng khc nhau ca spin nucleon j . Spin ton phn J c th nm trong khong 0 6 J 6 2j .

116
 Ngoi d kin v spin ca cc ht nhn chn-chn, bng chng thc nghim

in hnh nht cho hiu ng cp l khc bit r rng trong nng lng lin

kt ca mt ht nhn chn-chn v mt ht nhn l nm k (1.10) v v th m

nng lng tch neutron Sn hoc proton Sp (3.17) ca cc ht nhn chn-chn

cng ln hn so vi cc ht nhn l bn cnh. Hiu ng cp chnh l nguyn

nhn ca s khc bit ny: do c mt lc cp mi i nucleon trong cng mt

lp v m c spin tng bng khng, ta cn phi c mt nng lng ln hn

tch mt nucleon ha tr ra khi ht nhn. C s d liu thc nghim ca

Sn(p) cho ta bit rng cng ca lc ht cp (attractive pairing force) to ra

mt khe nng lng (energy gap) khong 1 2 MeV gia trng thi c bn v
mc n ht kch thch u tin trong ht nhn chn-chn.

Hiu ng tng tc cp ny tng t nh hiu ng cp hai electron thnh mt

cp Cooper (Cooper pair) trong cc qu trnh siu dn v v th l thuyt siu

dn (theory of superconductivity) do John Bardeen, Leon Neil Cooper v John

Robert Schrieffer a ra nm 1957 (c gi ngn l l thuyt BCS m

em li gii thng Nobel vt l nm 1972 cho ba tc gi ny) c dng rng

ri nghin cu hiu ng cp trong ht nhn. Trc ht ta vit Hamiltonian

v hm sng ht nhn ca IPM trong biu din lng t ha th cp

H H0 = 0j a+
jm ajm v 0 = jm |0,
a+ (3.39)
jm jm

vi tng v tch ly theo tt c cc trng thi n ht |nljm |jm c

lp y bi mt nucleon. Do tng tc cp Cooper thng c xt cho mt

cp hai nucleon cng loi (neutron-neutron hoc proton-proton pairing), ta k

hiu theo quy c BCS ch s trng thi n ht nljm k v nlj m k .

Vi s tn ti ca hiu ng cp, Hamiltonian trong mu BCS phi c thm mt

s hng tng tc cp Cooper nh sau

H = H0 +Hpair = 0k a+
k ak + k k|vpair |k k a+ +
k ak ak ak . (3.40)
k k,k >0

117
Trong mu ny hm sng ca mt ht nhn chn-chn c dng

|BCS = (uk + vk a+ +
k ak )|0, (3.41)
k>0

vi uk v vk l cc thng s bin phn (variational parameter). T (3.41) ta c

|vk |2 l xc sut trng thi cp |k k c lp y v |uk |2 l xc sut trng

thi cp ny l rng. S dng h thc phn giao hon ca cc ton t sinh v

hy nucleon (4.67) - (4.72), ta xc nh c chun ca hm sng (3.41)

BCS|BCS = (u2k + vk2 ) = 1 nu u2k + vk2 = 1. (3.42)
k>0

S nucleon trung bnh N c xc nh t ton t s ht nh sau

BCS|N |BCS = BCS| (a+ +
k ak + ak ak )|BCS = 2 vk2 . (3.43)
k>0 k>0

Yu t ma trn ca vpair c gi l cng lc cp (strength of the pairing

force) v gn bng nhau i vi cc trng thi vi k khc nhau

k k|vpair |k k = G, vi Gp 17/A, Gn 23/A. (3.44)

T (3.43) ta thy s nucleon N l mt i lng khng c bo ton bi hm

sng |BCS v xc sut trng thi cp c lp y c th khc 1 i vi cc

nucleon lp v m (|vk | |BCS ch l mt dng

2
< 1). iu ny khng nh

hm sng th v v th cc tham s uk v vk phi c xc nh bng phng

php bin phn ca c hc lng t

BCS|H N |BCS = 0. (3.45)

c th nguyn nng lng v c bit n nh tha s Lagrange (Lagrange

multiplier). Do u2k = 1 vk2 , php bin phn (3.45) ch cn tin hnh vi vk2 l

v ta c th thu c sau mt vi php bin i gii tch phng trnh sau

2k vk uk + (vk2 u2k ) = 0, (3.46)

118

vi k = 0k Gvk2 v thng s khe (gap parameter) = G uk vk . Sau khi
k>0
2
bnh phng 2 v phng trnh (3.46) ta c th thu c vk di dng nghim

ca mt phng trnh trng phng

( ) ( )
1 2 1 k
vk2 = 1 1 2 = 1 2 . (3.47)
2 k + 2 2 k + 2
T iu kin bin vk 0 khi k , ta ch gi li mt nghim v thu c

1 1

1/2

0 0

Hnh 3.8: S ph thuc ca xc sut hai nucleon lp y trng thi cp vk2 vo nng lng n
ht k = 0k trong hai trng hp nghim = 0 v = 0 ca phng trnh khe (3.49).

biu thc sau cho uk v vk

( ) ( )
1 k 1 k
vk2 = 1 , u2k = 1+ 2 . (3.48)
2 2k + 2 2 k + 2
Vi cc gi tr xc nh ca v , ta c u2k = vk2 = 1/2 khi k = 0 hay l

0k Gvk2 = . i vi cc mc n ht thp nht trong ht nhn (k )

ta c u2k 0 v vk2 1. Ngc li, i vi cc mc nm cao hn nhiu so vi

mc Fermi (mc nng lng n ht cha cc nucleon ha tr) ta c u2k 1 v

vk2 0. Nu ta khng tnh n s hng Gvk2 trong biu thc ca k (c ngha

l mi mc nng lng n ht c xc nh tng i t gi tr Gvk2 ) th ta

119
c 0k khi u2k = vk2 = 1/2 (ti mc n ht cha cc nucleon ha tr) v v
th c gi l nng lng Fermi. Tng ng vi cc gi tr Gn v Gp trong
(3.44) ta cng c hai gi tr n v p khc nhau. S ph thuc ca xc sut lp

y trng thi cp vk2 vo nng lng n ht k = 0k c trnh by trn

hnh 3.8 v khi = 0 ta c vk2 gim dn t 1 n 0 trong khong nng lng

xung quanh c rng xp x bng . Nhng nucleon ha tr nm trong lp

Hnh 3.9: Ph phn r v cc trng thi kch thch ca 196 Pt o c sau phn ng bt neutron

78 Pt 78 Pt+ . nh ph ti nng lng 7923 keV tng ng vi dch chuyn

n+195 196
cng hng
v trng thi c bn, nh ti 6100 keV tng ng vi dch chuyn v trng thi kch thch
ca 196 Pt ti nng lng Ex = 1823 keV. Minh ha t ti liu [24]

v m thng c ng gp quan trng nht vo cu trc cc trng thi kch

thch u tin ca ht nhn (vi nng lng kch thch thp nht trong ph ht

nhn) m cn hay c gi l cc kch thch nm thp (low-lying excitation).

Sau khi lp (3.48) vo biu thc ca ta thu c phng trnh khe (gap

equation) sau
G
= . (3.49)
2 2k + 2k>0

120
Phng trnh (3.49) c th gii bng phng php lp (iteration method) s

dng cc gi tr bit ca G v 0k v ng thi i hi s nucleon ca h

(N hoc Z) c xc nh bi cc gi tr vk2 theo h thc (3.43). Tng t

nh trong thuyt siu dn, phng trnh (3.49) bao gi cng c mt nghim

n gin = 0 ng vi cc trng thi khng cp (unpaired states) v nghim

= 0 ng vi cc trng thi cp (paired states). Hai nghim ny ca phng

trnh khe khng th bin thin lin tc sang nhau trong gii hn 0 v trong
l thuyt siu dn ngi ta thng gn hiu ng ny vi mt qu trnh chuyn

pha (phase transition) t trng thi bnh thng sang trng thi cp Cooper. i

vi ht nhn th nghim = 0 ng nhin tng ng vi cc ht nhn magic

kp cn nghim = 0 th ng vi cc ht nhn c t 2 nucleon ha tr tr ln
nm trong trng thi n ht ca mt lp v m. Nh bn trn, cc trng

thi kch thch u tin ca ht nhn thng c cu trc t nhng nucleon

ha tr ny. C th, qu trnh kch thch ht nhn c th hiu trong mt kch

bn vi m l mt vi nucleon ha tr c nhc t cc mc n ht ca trng

thi c bn ln cc mc n ht nm nng lng cao hn nh mt phn ng

ht nhn no . Nguyn l Pauli i hi l cc mc nng lng cao hn phi

l rng (khng c cha nucleon) th qu trnh kch thch ht nhn ny mi xy

ra c, ngha l vk2 0 i vi cc trng thi n ht |k ny. T hnh 3.8 ta

thy rng mt mc nng lng n ht cao nh vy phi nm cch mc ban

u t nht mt khong cch gn bng . Hiu ng ny c minh ha kh r

trn ph phn r ca ht nhn hp phn (compound nucleus) n+195
78 Pt v cc
196
trng thi kch thch khc nhau ca ht nhn platin (platinum) 78 Pt (xem hnh
195 196
3.9) o c trong phn ng bt neutron cng hng Pt(n, ) Pt. Ta thy

ch c tha tht vi nh trong khong t trng thi c bn n trng thi

kch thch ti nng lng Ex 1.8 MeV v mt nh tng t bin ngay

sau trng thi ny. Mt trng thi kch thch thng c cu trc t nhng cp

nucleon ha tr khc nhau v v th nng lng kch thch phi ln "nhc"

121
dc cp nucleon t lp v ha tr ln mt lp v rng nm cao hn, ngha l

Ex & 2. T ph trn hnh 3.9 ta c 0.9 MeV i vi ht nhn

196
Pt.

Trong thc t, ngi ta xc nh c gi tr thc nghim ca 0.7 1

195 196
MeV t nhng ph tng t nh ph ca phn ng Pt(n, ) Pt trn hnh

3.9.

Tm li, hiu ng cp l mt trong nhng c trng cu trc rt quan trng

ca cc ht nhn khi lng trung bnh v nng. Ch sau khi p dng phng

php BCS th ta mi c th xy dng c cc hm sng v nng lng n

ht chun dng tip tc trong cc nghin cu cu trc ht nhn cc trng

thi kch thch khc nhau.

3.1.5 Cu trc ht nhn kch thch v mu v

Trong cc phn trn ta ch yu xt cu trc ca mt ht nhn nm trong trng

thi c bn ca n. Trn thc t, phn phc tp nht ca cu trc ht nhn

chnh l cu trc cc trng thi kch thch khc nhau ca ht nhn nh th

196
d ca Pt trnh by trn hnh 3.9. Cu trc vi m ca ht nhn trong cc

trng thi kch thch l v cng phc tp, i hi nhng tnh ton quy m rt

ln trong khun kh ca mu v ht nhn (nuclear shell model, vit tt l

SM). Mt trong nhng dng kch thch hay gp nht l cc trng thi dao ng

(vibrational states) ca ht nhn m thng quan st c trong cc phn ng

tn x phi n hi ca electron, proton v ion nng... trn ht nhn. Trong

cc phn ng ny ht nhn c chuyn dch t trng thi ban u (vi spin

v chn l Jii ) ln trng thi kch thch (vi spin v chn l Jf f ). mnh

ca mt chuyn dch nh vy c xc nh qua cng xc sut chuyn

(transition probability) m c th o c t thc nghim. i vi cc trng

122
thi kch thch in E th cng xc sut chuyn c xc nh theo

B(E; Jii Jf f ) = |Jf f |O(E)|Jii |2 , trong n v e2 fm2 . (3.50)

|Jii l hm sng ht nhn trong trng thi u (initial state) v |Jf f l hm

sng ht nhn trong trng thi cui (final state). O(E) l ton t chuyn dch
in E vi l moment gc chuyn (angular momentum transfer). Gi tr
phi tha mn lut bo ton moment gc v chn l trong chuyn dch ht

nhn |Jii |Jf f , ngha l |Ji Jf | 6 6 Ji + Jf v f = (1) i .
Chi tit v ton t chuyn dch in t O(E(M )) cng cc biu thc tng

Hnh 3.10: Cc trng thi dao ng b mt ca ht nhn c kch thch bi mt chuyn dch
in E vi = 1 (dipole), 2 (quadrupole), 3 (octupole) v 4 (hexadecapole). Minh ha theo
ti liu [23]

minh ca xc sut chuyn dch B(E(M )) c trnh by c th trong phn

tham kho 4.4. Khi cng ca chuyn dch mnh, ht nhn trong cc

trng thi dao ng E c c trng bi cc bin dng ng hc (dynamic

123
deformation) b mt khc nhau nh minh ha trn hnh 3.10. i vi mt ht

nhn chn-chn ta c Jii = 0+ (khi |Jii l trng thi c bn) v cc trng thi

kch thch trn hnh 3.10 tng ng c spin v chn l Jf f = 1 , 2+ , 3
v 4+ .

Sau y chng ta s lm quen vi nhng nt c bn ca mu v ht nhn

thng c dng nghin cu v m t cu trc cc trng thi kch thch

ca ht nhn. C s vt l chnh ca mu v l mi ht nhn c xt n nh

mt h kt cu t mt ht nhn li tr hnh cu (spherical inert core) v cc

nucleon ha tr (valence nucleon). Bn thn li c cu trc t cc nucleon

chim gi cc trng thi n ht khc nhau, bt u t 1s1/2 cho n lp v

kn gn mt s magic (xem hnh 3.4). Ht nhn li c xt ring bit cho cc

neutron v proton bi v trng trung bnh ca chng c dng khc nhau nh

minh ha trn hnh 3.5. Tt c cc lp v n ht trong li u c lp y bi

cc nucleon v v th li c i xng cu cng spin v chn l Jcore = 0+ .
Nh vy, spin v chn l ca mt trng thi kch thch bt k phi c

hnh thnh theo mt s cng moment gc hay l cp spin (spin coupling)

gia spin ca cc nucleon ha tr. Mc d ht nhn trong trng thi c bn c

th c m t trong IPM hoc HF qua chuyn ng c lp ca cc nucleon

trong trng trung bnh ht nhn khng c tng tc vi nhau, s tn ti ca

ph phc tp cc trng thi kch thch ht nhn ch ra rng ngoi tc dng ca

trng trung bnh cc nucleon trong ht nhn (c bit l cc nucleon ha tr)

s tng tc vi nhau khi c kch thch bi mt dng phn ng ht nhn

cu trc thnh cc trng thi kch thch tng ng. Tng tc ngoi khun

kh trng trung bnh nh vy thng c gi l tng tc thng d (residual

interaction) v k hiu bng vres . Nh vy, hiu ng tng tc cp xt trn

trong l thuyt BCS cng l mt dng c bit ca tng tc thng d m cn

c gi l cp n cc (monopole pairing) hin din ngay trong trng thi c

bn ca ht nhn.

124
Hnh 3.11: a mc cc trng thi cp nucleon vi spin J to thnh bi tng tc thng d.
Phn hnh trn tng ng vi hai nucleon ca cng mt mc n ht ban u, phn di cho
hai nucleon ban u thuc hai mc n ht khc nhau. Minh ha t ti liu [24]

Hm sng ht nhn trong mu v c xc nh bi tp hp cc trng thi

khc nhau ca cc nucleon ha tr. Ngay c khi ta ch hn ch mt vi trng

thi n ht nm trn mc Fermi, s cc trng thi kh d ca cc nucleon

ha tr c th rt ln. Th d, 6 neutron nm ngoi li neutron tr cu trc t

28
8 neutron trong ht nhn silicon 14 Si c th nm trn cc mc 1d5/2 , 2s1/2 v

1d3/2 (xem hnh 3.4), vi 12 trng thi n ht kh d tng ng vi cc gi tr

hnh chiu m khc nhau ca j . Nh vy, s cc trng thi cho php ng vi 6

6
neutron ny s bng t hp C12 = 924. Do s cc trng thi kh d cho 6 proton
28
ha tr ca Si cng bng 924, tng s cc trng thi cho php ca tp hp

Si s bng C12 C12

28 6 6
6 neutron v 6 proton ha tr trong ht nhn = 853776.

125
 28
Mi mt trng thi cho php ca 6 neutron ha tr trong Si c m t bng

mt nh thc Slater (3.29) tc l tch phn i xng ca 6 hm sng n

neutron. Tng t ta cng c mt nh thc Slater ca 6 hm sng n proton

28
v thnh phn tng ng trong hm sng ton phn ca ht nhn Si trong

mu v c xc nh bi tch ca hai nh thc Slater ny. Nh vy, trong

28
mu v ht nhn hm sng ton phn ca Si phi c tm i dng chng

cht (superposition) ca 853776 tch cc cp nh thc Slater ca cc neutron

v proton ha tr.

i vi mi trng thi cho php ca cc neutron hoc proton ha tr, tng

tc thng d m thng c xt n di dng tng tc hai ht (two-body

interaction) lin kt tng cp hai nucleon vo a mc cc trng thi vi spin

khc nhau nh minh ha trn hnh 3.11. Th d hai neutron ha tr nm trn

28
mc 1d5/2 ca ht nhn Si c th cp vi nhau, qua tng tc vres , thnh cc
trng thi cp hai neutron vi spin J = 0+ , 2+ v 4+ . Nhng trng thi thnh
phn ny s c ng gp nht nh vo cu trc cc trng thi kch thch ht

nhn vi spin Jf f = 0+ , 2+ v 4+ . Nh vy, hiu c cu trc vi m

ca cc trng thi kch thch ht nhn |Jf f nh chng cht cc trng thi hai

nucleon khc nhau vi spin J = Jf f , ta cn bit nhng "qui tc" lng t cho
qu trnh cp hai nucleon qua tng tc thng d (xem hnh 3.11). Th d khi

hai nucleon nm trn hai mc n1 l1 j1 j1 v n2 l2 j2 j2 ca lp v ha tr cp

vi nhau thnh trng thi cp hai nucleon vi spin tng J th cc nh lut bo

ton moment gc v chn l i hi

|j1 j2 | 6 J 6 (j1 + j2 ) v = (1)l1 +l2 . (3.51)

Cc gi tr kh d ca J c xc nh khc nhau trong trng hp hai nucleon

l ng loi (identical nucleons, nh p p, n n) v khc loi (non-identical

nucleons, nh p n). Hai nucleon ng loi lun c spin ng v tng T =1
vi T l hm i xng v v th nguyn l Pauli yu cu hm sng ca cp

126
nucleon ny trong khng gian ta phi l hm phn i xng (xem mc

tham kho 4.2.3). Trong k hiu ca mu v hm sng phn i xng ca cp

hai nucleon ng loi thuc v cng mt mc n ht j c xc nh theo

|jj; JM = C jmjm |JM (|jm1 |jm 2 |jm 1 |jm2 )
m,m

= C (jmjm |JM jm jm|JM )|jm1 |jm 2
m,m

= C[1 (1)2jJ ] jmjm |JM |jm1 |jm 2 . (3.52)
m,m

Do 2j l mt s l, ta c hm sng trn ch khc khng khi J l mt s chn.

Ngha l J = 0, 2, 4, 6... i vi hm sng ca mt cp hai nucleon cng loi

thuc v cng mt mc n ht nlj . Phn trn ca hnh 3.11 minh ha mt

s th d in hnh ca cc trng thi cp nh vy. Nu hai nucleon cng loi

nm trong hai lp v n ht n1 l1 j1 v n2 l2 j2 khc nhau th spin J cng vi

chn l ca hm sng cp ch cn tha mn tha mn iu kin (3.51) l

(xem minh ha ti phn di hnh 3.11). i vi hai nucleon khc loi (p n)

vi Tz = 0 ta phi xt ring hai trng hp spin ng v T =0 v T = 1. C

th, khi T = 1 ( T l hm i xng) th hm sng ca cp p n trong khng

gian ta c xc nh hon ton nh trng hp hai nucleon cng loi

trn. Khi T = 0 ( T l hm phn i xng) th hm sng ca cp p n trong

khng gian ta phi l hm i xng

|j1 j2 ; JM = C j1 m1 j2 m2 |JM (|j1 m1 1 |j2 m2 2 + |j2 m2 1 |j1 m1 2 )
m1 ,m2
(3.53)

v J c th nhn gi tr l ngay c khi j1 = j2 . Tha s j1 m1 j2 m2 |JM l h

s Clebsch-Gordan ca php cng hai moment gc j1 v j2 (xem nh ngha

trong mc tham kho 4.2.1), hng s C trong (3.52) v (3.53) c xc nh

t iu kin trc chun ca hm sng cp trong tng trng hp.

Tuy mi mt hm sng kh d ca cc nucleon ha tr u phi c mt gi

127

tr hnh chiu moment gc M= mi xc nh, trong cc tnh ton thc t ca
mu v ngi ta thng ch xt n cc hm sng thnh phn vi M = 0 nh
tnh bt bin quay ca hm sng ht nhn (2J +1 thnh phn ca hm sng

ht nhn |JM vi hnh chiu M khc nhau u tng ng vi cng mt nng

lng kch thch EJ ca ht nhn). Tng s cc hm sng |JM vi M =0

cho tp hp cc gi tr c xt ca spin ht nhn J c gi l kch thc

28
ca mu v (shell model dimension). Trong th d Si, s cc trng thi thnh

Hnh 3.12: Ph cc trng thi kch thch khc nhau trong 28 Si tnh t mc n ht 1d5/2 ca
trng thi c bn. Cc kt qu tnh ton s dng c s mu v vi kch thc D khc nhau
c so snh vi ph thc nghim. Minh ha t ti liu [36]

phn cho php vi M =0 l 93710 (xem hnh 3.12) gn 10 ln nh hn tng

s tt c cc trng thi vi cc gi tr M khc nhau. Cc trng thi vi M =0

c dng lm h hm sng c s ca mu v (shell model basis) cho cc tnh

ton cu trc ht nhn. Nh vy, kch thc mu v D c xc nh theo

D = CnN CnN F, (3.54)

128
vi F l t l cc trng thi thnh phn vi M = 0. Kch thc c s mu v

D tng vi tc bng n cng vi tng ca s nucleon trong ht nhn.

56
Th d, i vi ht nhn nicken 28 Ni ta c D = 1087455228 cho 8 neutron v

8 proton ha tr nm trong cc lp 2p-1f. Cc tnh ton vi c s mu v ln

nh vy l thch thc k thut rt ln v nhiu phng php tnh ton s

c pht trin thc hin cc tnh ton cu trc ht nhn trong mu v.

Hm sng ca ht nhn i trong mt trng thi kch thch i bt k (vi spin

v chn l J ) c xc nh trong mu v t nghim ca phng trnh

Schroedinger

Hi = [H0 + Vres ]i = Ei i , (3.55)

vi H0 l Hamiltonian ca ht nhn trong trng trung bnh v Vres l thnh

phn m t tng tc thng d gia cc nucleon ha tr. Hm sng i c tm

trong dng khai trin theo ton b cc hm k ca c s mu v m c cng

spin v chn l vi i , ngha l Jkk = J ,

i = aki k . (3.56)
k

iu kin trc chun ca cc h s aki c xc nh t cc h thc trc giao

ca i v k

i i = ii , k k = kk aki ak i = ii . (3.57)
kk

Nhn v tri phng trnh (3.55) vi i v ly tch phn theo ton b khng

gian ta , ta thu c

ak i Hk k aki = Ei i i , vi Hk k = k |H|k . (3.58)
k k

129
 Ex(2+)
B(E2)

Hnh 3.13: Nng lng kch thch Ex (trong n v MeV) ca cc trng thi 2+
1 trong cc
ht nhn nh cng xc sut chuyn dch B(E2) = B(E2; g.s. 2+
1 )/(5Z
4/3
) (trong n v
e2 fm4 ). S liu thc nghim c biu din bng im trn en cn cc kt qu tnh ton ca
mu v ht nhn l cc hnh vung v du x. Minh ha t ti liu [37]

Trong thc t (3.58) l mt php nhn ma trn A1 HA = E

a11 a21 H11 H12
a11 a12 E1 0

a12 a22 H21 H22 a21 a22 = 0 E2 .

.. .. .. .. .. .. .. ..
. . . . . . . .
(3.59)

Ma trn A ca cc h s khai trin aki c kch thc Dk Di v cc ma trn

H v E c kch thc Di Di , vi Dk l s cc hm c s k c spin v chn

l Jkk = J v Di l s cc trng thi i c spin v chn l Jii = J v

130
nng lng kch thch Ei . Nh vy, vic gii phng trnh Schroedinger (3.55)
hon ton tng ng vi bi ton cho ha ma trn Hk k tm hm ring

i qua trin khai (3.55) cng cc tr ring Ei tng ng. Bi ton cho ha

ma trn H c kch thc ln lun l mt thch thc rt ln ca cc tnh ton

cu trc trong mu v ht nhn. Th d cc kt qu tnh ton mu v cho ht

28
nhn Si trnh by trn hnh 3.12 cho ta thy ph thc nghim cc trng thi

kch thch vi spin khc nhau (J = 0, 2, 3, 4) ch c th c m t tt khi kch

thc mu v c chn ln nht c th (D = 93710 trong trng hp ny).

Tuy nhin, i vi cc ht nhn c s khi A ln kch thc mu v D c th

56
ln ti hn 1 t (nh i vi ht nhn Ni bn trn) v bi ton cho ha ma

trn (3.59) thng phi c thc hin bng mt phng php tnh ton pht

trin chuyn cho mc ch ny (phng php Lanczos) trong cc tnh ton song

song (parallel computing) trn siu my tnh (supercomputer). i vi cc ht

nhn nng vi kch thc mu v qu ln, bi ton cho ha ma trn (3.59)

khng th gii c chnh xc ngay c trn nhng siu my tnh ln v khi

ngi ta bt buc phi s dng cc phng php gn ng nh phng php

Monte Carlo chn la v xy dng mt h c s gn ng cho mu v ht

nhn vi kch thc hp l [36].

i vi a s cc trng thi kch thch dao ng trong ht nhn, cc tnh

ton mu v khng ch m t tt c nng lng ca mt trng thi kch thch

qua tr ring Ei tng ng m cn m t c cng chuyn dch in t

thc nghim (c xc nh t ph r ca nhng trng thi ny). tin cy

ca cc tnh ton mu v cho cu trc cc trng thi dao ng 2+ u tin

(i = 1, Jii = 2+ ) trong ht nhn c minh ha trn hnh 3.13. Hm sng ht

nhn tnh ton trong mu v c th c s dng trong cc tnh ton phn ng

ht nhn m t tit din phn ng kch thch nhng trng thi tng ng

c o t thc nghim [38, 39].

131
3.1.6 Phng php gi ht Bogolyubov

Ngoi mu v ht nhn, mt phng php ph bin khc dng nghin cu

cu trc vi m ca ht nhn l phng php gi ht Bogolyubov (Bogolyubov

quasi-particle) da trn c s thng k lng t m cng c s dng trong

vt l cht rn nghin cu cu trc cc trng thi a electron (khi s ht

fermion ca h ln hn rt nhiu so vi s nucleon trong mt ht nhn nng).

Nu nh trong mu v ht nhn ta phi xt n tt c cc trng thi kh d

ca cc nucleon ha tr xy dng hm sng ht nhn kch thch, th trong

phng php Bogolyubov cc trng thi kch thch ca ht nhn c th c

m t trn c s bc t do ca cc gi ht. hiu c nhng nt chnh ca

biu din gi ht ta cn nm c khi nim trng thi l (hole state) trong

cu trc v ht nhn. Th d ca trng thi l c th c minh ha trn ph

16
cc trng thi kch thch ca nhng ht nhn nh ng cnh O trong bn tun
15 15
hon cc nguyn t (xem hnh 3.14). C th, trng thi c bn ca O v N

c th c m t nh trng thi l vi j = 1/2 v mc Fermi nlj =1p1/2 ca

15 15
neutron ha tr trong O hoc proton ha tr trong N c mt v tr trng. Do

, k hiu ph ca trng thi c bn trong trng hp hai ht nhn ny l

1 15 15
p
1/2 . Trong khi hai trng thi kch thch thp nht ca O v N tng ng vi
hai trng thi n ht (nucleon trn mc n ht 1d5/2 v 2s1/2 ), hai trng thi
1
kch thch ti 6.33 v 6.16 MeV tng ng vi 1p
trng thi n l
3/2 thng
quan st c trong cc phn ng ly mt nucleon (one-nucleon pickup) t

ht nhn
16
O. Ngc li, trng thi 3/2+ ti 5.1 MeV trong ph ca
17
O hoc
17
F tng ng vi trng thi n ht 1d3/2 quan st c trong cc phn ng
16
bt mt nucleon (one-nucleon capture) bi O. T cc th d trnh by trn

hnh 3.11 ta thy mt nucleon ha tr trn mc n ht j1 cao hn mc Fermi

c th cp vi mt nucleon ha tr trong mt mc n ht j2 vi nng lng

thp hn (thuc mt lp v m) to thnh mt trng thi cp vi spin tng

132
Hnh 3.14: Ph cc trng thi kch thch ca cc ht nhn nh bn cnh ht nhn magic
kp 16 O tnh t nng lng ca trng thi c bn ca mi ht nhn: Eg.s. (16 O) 128
MeV, Eg.s. (15 O) 112.3 MeV, Eg.s. (15 N) 115.9 MeV, Eg.s. (17 O) 132.1 MeV v
Eg.s. (17 F) 128.6 MeV. Minh ha t ti liu [17]

|j1 j2 | 6 J 6 j1 + j2 . Mt trng thi cp hai nucleon ny c th c m t

nh mt trng thi cp gia ht nucleon mc j1 vi mt l trng trong mc

j2 hay l mt kch thch ht-l (particle-hole excitation). y l bc tranh vt

l thng gp trong cc h a fermion (electron trong hp cht bn dn hoc

nucleon trong ht nhn nguyn t) v c s dng xy dng cc phng

php nghin cu vi m cu trc hp cht bn dn hoc cu trc ht nhn trn

c s biu din gi ht Bogolyubov.

Php biu din gi ht Bogolyubov c rt ra t cc bin i chnh tc

(canonical transformation) ca thng k lng t v do Nikolay Nikolaevich

133
Bogolyubov (gio s, vin s Vin hn lm khoa hc Lin X c) a ra trong

nhng nm 50 ca th k trc. Hon ton c lp vi Bardeen, Cooper v

Schrieffer, phng php thng k lng t ny c Bogolyubov dng

m t chun xc hiu ng siu dn ca electron trong kim loi v thnh tu

quan trng ny ca ng c nh gi bng gii thng Lenin nm 1957

(gii thng cao qu nht ca Lin X c). Sau y, chng ta s lm quen ngn

gn vi phng php Bogolyubov trong biu din lng t ha th cp ca c

hc lng t (xem phn tham kho 4.3). C th, trong k hiu ca cc ton t

sinh v hy ht dng trong cc h thc (3.40)-(3.41), cc ton t sinh v hy

gi ht Bogolyubov c xc nh nh sau

k vk ak , k = uk ak vk ak ,
k+ = uk a+ +

+
k = uk a+ +
k + vk ak , k = uk ak + vk ak . (3.60)

Nh vy, k+ sinh ng thi mt ht trong trng thi |k vi bin uk (trng

thi ang rng vi xc sut u2k ) v mt l trong trng thi | k vi bin vk

(trng thi ang c ht vi xc sut vk2 ). Cc quy tc giao hon ca cc ton t
sinh v hy fermion c tha mn bi k+ v k nu u2k + vk2 = 1

{k+ , k+ } = {k , k } = 0 v {k , k+ } = kk . (3.61)

Cc ton t a+
k v ak c biu din ngc li qua k+ v k nh sau

a+ + +
k = uk k + vk k , ak = uk k + vk k ,

k = uk k vk k , ak = uk k vk k .
a+ + +
(3.62)

Tip y ta xt Hamiltonian ht nhn trong dng tng ca Hamiltonian n ht

v thnh phn tng tc hai ht

1
H = H0 + V = 0k a+
k ak + k1 k2 |v|k1 k2 a+ +
k1 ak2 ak2 ak1 .
(3.63)
2
k k1 ,k2 ,k1 ,k2

Sau khi lp (3.62) vo Hamiltonian (3.63) v thc hin php tnh bin phn

0|H N |0 = 0 theo uk hoc vk , vi hm sng trng thi c bn |0 c

134
xt nh chn khng gi ht (quasi-particle vacuum, k |0 0), ta thu c

cc phng trnh tng t nh (3.48) cho cc h s uk v vk

( ) ( )
1 k 1 k
vk2 = 1 2 , u2k = 1+ 2 . (3.64)
2 k + 2k 2 k + 2k
Nng lng n ht trong (3.64) c xc nh theo

k = 0k + kk , (3.65)

vi kk l yu t ng cho ca th Hartree-Fock-Bogolyubov (HFB) sau

kk = kk |v|k k vk2 . (3.66)
k

Th HFB trn c th thu c chnh xc t cc php bin i chnh tc Bo-

golyubov ca Hamiltonian ht nhn trong trng trung bnh Hartree-Fock.

Ngoi ra phng trnh khe xc nh k cng c dng tng t vi (3.46)

1 k k|v|k k
k = k . (3.67)
2 2k + 2k
k >0

Nh vy, phng php Bogolyubov ng nhin dn ti phng trnh dng BCS

m t hiu ng cp qua thnh phn k k|v|k k ca tng tc hai ht trong

Hamiltonian ht nhn (3.63). Phng trnh khe (3.67) s trng vi phng trnh

khe (3.49) ca mu BCS nu ta cho k k|v|k k Gkk v k .

R rng mu BCS ch l mt dng gn ng ca phng php Bogolyubov khi

ta dng cng mt tng tc cp cho tt c cc cp nucleon trong cc trng thi

|k k khc nhau v cng mt gi tr cho cc trng thi n ht |k khc

nhau. T dng tng minh (3.60) ca k ta d dng suy ra k |BCS = 0 v

nh vy |BCS cng c th c xt gn ng nh chn khng gi ht m l

trng thi c bn ca mt ht nhn chn-chn trong hnh thc lun Bogolyubov.

Trong php gn ng ny Hamiltonian (3.63) ca mt ht nhn chn-chn c

th c biu din di dng

H H0 + Ek (k+ k + k
+
k ) + Vres , (3.68)
k>0

135
vi Vres l phn tng tc thng d cn li sau khi tch thnh phn tng tc

cp k k|v|k k dng xy dng c s cc trng thi gi ht. Ngoi ra,

H0 |BCS = E0 |BCS vi E0 l nng lng ht nhn trong trng thi c bn

v Ek = 2k + 2k l nng lng gi ht (quasi-particle energy). Hm sng
mt ht nhn (chn-chn) kch thch phi c cu trc t cc trng thi

= k+ k+ |BCS, vi nng lng E = Ek + Ek > k + k . (3.69)

Nh vy mc nng lng trng thi kch thch nm cch trng thi c bn

mt khong k + k m thng c gi l khe nng lng (energy

gap). i vi ht nhn l, hm sng trng thi c bn c xc nh theo

g.s. k+ |BCS = |k v trng thi kch thch xut hin khi n ht c

nhc t mc |k ln mt mc |k cao hn. Khi , nng lng kch thch ca

ht nhn l l E = Ek Ek , tng ng vi khong cch trung bnh gia

cc mc n ht v nh vy trong ph nng lng ht nhn l khng tn ti

mt khe nng lng in hnh nh trong trng hp ht nhn chn-chn.

3.1.7 Phng php gn ng pha ngu nhin

Khc vi mu v khi trng thi kch thch ca ht nhn c xy dng trn

c s ca mt tp hp rt ln cc hm sng n ht ca cc nucleon ha tr,

trong biu din gi ht Bogolyubov hm sng mt trng thi kch thch ca ht

nhn chn-chn c th c xy dng di dng chng cht ca cc trng thi

hai gi ht (3.69). Vi bin ca mi trng thi gi ht |k c xc nh t

nghim ca phng trnh HFB hoc BCS, h cc hm sng c s (3.69) thng

nh hn ng k so vi c s cc hm sng nucleon phi xt n trong mu

v ht nhn. y l nt chnh ca phng php nghin cu vi m cu trc ht

nhn da trn gn ng pha ngu nhin (random phase approximation, vit

tt l RPA) m c dng kh ph bin nghin cu cu trc cc trng

136
thi a electron trong vt l cht rn. Trong VLHN, phng php RPA c

dng rt hiu qu nghin cu cu trc vi m ca cc trng thi dao ng b

mt ht nhn (xem hnh 3.10). Phng php RPA trn c s cc bc t do gi

ht Bogolyubov c Vadim Georgievich Soloviev cng cng s ti Vin

lin hp nghin cu Ht nhn Dubna (Lin X c) xy dng v pht trin rt

thnh cng cho cc tnh ton cu trc ht nhn [20].

X Y
j1

Fermi

j2

Hnh 3.15: S minh ha trng thi hai gi ht (3.69) trong lp v nucleon ha tr sinh bi
cc thnh phn X (trng thi ht-l) v Y (trng thi l-ht ) ca ton t sinh phonon (3.71).

Trong k hiu tng minh ca spin gi ht j vi hnh chiu m, mt trng

thi cp gi ht (3.69) c xy dng trong mu Soloviev nh sau

|j1 j2 ; JM = A+ (j1 j2 ; JM )|BCS j1 m1 j2 m2 |JM j+1 m1 j+2 m2 |BCS,
m1 m2
(3.70)

vi j1 m1 j2 m2 |JM l h s Clebsch-Gordan ca php cng hai moment gc

j1 v j2 . Nu ta xt mt trng thi dao ng ht nhn bt k vi spin J nh

mt phonon (tng t vi khi nim phonon dao ng mng tinh th trong vt

137
l cht rn), th trong biu din lng t ha th cp ton t sinh phonon ny

c xc nh nh sau

[ ]
Q+
(JM ) = XjJ
1 j2
A +
(j1 j2 ; JM ) () JM J
Y j1 j2 A(j1 j2 ; J M ) .
j1 j2
(3.71)

Tnh cht ca (JM ) c th c trnh by n gin nh sau: nu j1 n1 l1 j1

Q+
l mt mc n ht nm trn mc Fermi v j2 n2 l2 j2 l mc nm di mc

Fermi (uj1 1, vj1 0 v uj2 0, vj2 1 trong trng thi c bn) th s

hng u trong tng (3.71) s tng ng vi qu trnh sinh mt ht trn mc

j1 v mt l trn mc j2 v ngc li, s hng th hai s tng ng vi qu

trnh sinh mt l trn mc j1 v mt ht trn mc j2 nh minh ha trn hnh

3.15. Tuy nhin, i vi mt mc nucleon ha tr nh j1 th bin thnh phn

XjJ
1 j2
s ln hn nhiu thnh phn YjJ
1 j2
do mc j2 thng l mc c lp kn

trong trng thi c bn (trc khi ht nhn chuyn sang trng thi kch thch)

v nguyn l Pauli khng cho php mc ny cha thm mt nucleon na. Cc

trng thi dao ng b mt ca ht nhn hay l cc phonon cu trc t cc cp

ht-l thng hay quan st c trong cc phn ng tn x phi n hi ca

nucleon, ht hay ion nng... trn ht nhn. Th d trnh by trn hnh 3.16 l
ph nng lng c o vi detector silicon ti gc tn x = 65 ca proton
120
tn x phi n hi trn Sn v kch thch cc trng thi dao ng phonon trong

ht nhn ny. Tr cc nh ph tng ng vi tn x n hi ca proton trn

12 16
C, O v cc nguyn t thnh phn khc (impurities) trn ln trong mu th
120
nghim ca ht nhn bia (target nucleus) ca phn ng Sn(p, p ), cc nh

tng ng vi nng lng kch thch ca cc trng thi dao ng phonon ca

120
Sn c xc nh kh r rng cng vi spin v chn l J .

Trong phng php RPA trng thi c bn ca mt ht nhn chn-chn |0

c nh ngha nh chn khng ca phonon, ngha l Q |0 = 0 v trng thi
kch thch mt phonon c xc nh bi |0 = |.
Q+ Trong php gn ng

138
Hnh 3.16: Ph proton o vi detector silicon ti gc tn x = 65 tng ng vi cc trng
thi kch thch dao ng (phonon) ca ht nhn 120 Sn gy bi phn ng tn x proton phi n
hi p+120 Sn ti nng lng Ep = 17.8 MeV. Minh ha t ti liu [19].

ny ta c th coi phonon nh mt ht boson hiu dng vi cc ton t sinh v

hy phonon (xem chi tit trong phn tham kho 4.3.3) tha mn h thc giao

hon sau

[Q (JM ), Q+
(J M )] = JJ M M . (3.72)

T h thc (3.72) ta rt ra iu kin chun ha cho cc bin X v Y

[(XjJ
1 j2
)2 (YjJ
1 j2
)2 ] = 1. (3.73)
j1 j2

Nu ta k hiu nng lng trng thi c bn v trng thi kch thch mt phonon

tng ng l E0 v EJ th

H|0 = E0 |0 v H|J = EJ |J. (3.74)

139
T (3.74) ta c th suy ra biu thc "trung bnh" sau

0|QJ [H, Q+
J ]|0 = 0|[QJ , [H, QJ ]]|0 = (EJ E0 )0|[QJ , QJ ]|0.
+ +

(3.75)

Phng trnh RPA xc nh tr ring EJ v cc bin X v Y ca hm

sng trng thi mt phonon c suy t php tnh bin phn sau

0|[QJ , [H, Q+
J ]]|0 = (EJ E0 )0|[QJ , QJ ]|0,
+
(3.76)

J Q (JM = 0).
Q+ +
vi Php bin phn c thc hin ln lt vi bin

X v Y (nhng khng ng thi cng mt lc) v ta suy ra tng ng hai

phng trnh RPA sau

( )
j1 j2 ; J|B|j1 j2 ; JXjJ

1 j2
+ j1 j2 ; J|C|j1 j2 ; JYjJ

1 j2
x
= EJ XjJ
1 j2
j1 j2
( )
j1 j2 ; J|C|j1 j2 ; J XjJ

1 j2
+ j1 j2 ; J|B|j1 j2 ; J YjJ

1 j2
= EJ
x
YjJ
1 j2
.
j1 j2
(3.77)

Nng lng kch thch

x
EJ ca trng thi |J c tnh t mc nng lng

ca trng thi c bn, ngha l

x
EJ = EJ E0 . Ch l phng php RPA

trn (s dng c s cc trng thi gi ht) thng ch c dng tnh ton

cu trc cc trng thi kch thch v khng th s dng tnh ton chnh xc

c hm sng v nng lng ht nhn trong trng thi c bn nh mu v. Cc

yu t ma trn B v C gia cc trng thi cp gi ht j1 j2 c spin tng bng J

c xc nh theo

j1 j2 ; J|B|j1 j2 ; J = (Ej1 + Ej2 )j1 j1 j2 j2 + j1 j2 |vres |j1 j2 (3.78)

j1 j2 ; J|C|j1 j2 ; J = j1 j1 |vres |j2 j2 (3.79)

Phng trnh RPA (3.77) c th biu din qua php nhn ma trn sau
( )( ) ( )
B C X J x X J
= EJ (3.80)
C B Y J Y J

140
Dng phng trnh RPA (3.80) c xy dng u tin trong vt l cht rn

nghin cu cc h a electron nhng sau c dng rt hiu qu trong

nghin cu cu trc ht nhn. Phng php RPA trnh by y cn c

gi l phng php RPA gi ht (quasi-particle RPA, hay vit tt l QRPA)

phn bit vi cc phin bn RPA c xy dng trc tip trn c s cc trng

thi n ht v n l [23].

Hnh 3.17: Biu din th ca nghim phng trnh (3.84) vi hai gi tr tham s khc nhau
( > 0 v < 0). Cc gi tr 1,2,... tng ng vi nng lng j1 j2 khc nhau ca cp ht-l.
Minh ha t ti liu [21].

Trong nhiu trng hp, cc trng thi kch thch thng c cu trc c

trng ht-l nh bn trn v bin Y c th b qua. Khi phng trnh

RPA (3.77) c th c rt gn v dng phng trnh Tamm-Dancoff sau

[ ]
(Ej1 + Ej2 )j1 j1 j2 j2 + j1 j2 |vres |j1 j2 XjJ x J
= EJ Xj j .
1 j2 1 2
(3.81)
j1 j2

141
 hiu phng trnh (3.81) m t cc trng thi ht nhn kch thch nh th

no ta xt dng gn ng sau cho yu t ma trn ca tng tc thng d

j1 j2 |vres |j1 j2 Dj1 j2 Dj1 j2 , (3.82)

vi l thng s xc nh cng ca tng tc. Khi , phng trnh (3.81)

s c dng

x
(EJ j1 j2 )XjJ
1 j2
= Dj1 j2 Dj1 j2 XjJ
,
1 j2
vi j1 j2 = Ej1 + Ej2 . (3.83)
j1 j2

Phng trnh (3.83) d dng c rt gn v dng phng trnh cho nng lng

kch thch Ex nh sau

Dj21 j2 1
= . (3.84)
j1 j2
(Ex j1 j2 )
V tri ca (3.84) l hm ca nng lng Ex vi cc im phn k ti cc gi
x
tr nng lng cp ht-l j1 j2 = Ej1 + Ej2 . Cc nghim EJ ca phng trnh

(3.84) c xc nh t cc giao im ca ng thng 1/ vi ng cong ca

hm nng lng bn v tri nh minh ha trn hnh 3.17. Cng nh nucleon,

hai gi ht cng c th cp vi nhau thnh 2 trng thi vi spin ng v tng

T =0 hoc 1. Do trng thi hai nucleon vi spin J v T =1 c nng lng

kch thch nm cao hn so vi nng lng ca trng thi vi spin J v T = 0,

ta c > 0 i vi cc trng thi c T = 1 m cn c gi l cc trng thi
ng v vector (isovector) v < 0 i vi cc trng thi ng v v hng

(isoscalar) vi T = 0. Th d i vi ht nhn 16 O, trng thi kch thch ht-l

in hnh l trng thi cp gia ht trn mc 1d5/2 v l trng trn mc 1p3/2 .

Mt thi kch thch nh vy c th c spin J = 1 , 2 , 3 , 4 v c biu

1
din di dng [d5/2 p
3/2 ]1 ,2 ,3 ,4 . Trong thc t, hai trng thi kch thch

ca
16
O vi J = 3 ti 6.13 MeV v vi J = 1 ti 7.12 MeV (xem hnh

3.14) c th c m t nh cc trng thi kch thch ng v v hng ht-l

1
[d5/2 p
3/2 ]. Trng thi ng v vector vi J = 1 , T = 1 nm nng lng

cao hn nhiu ( 22.6 MeV).

142
 15000
S0 (fm ) RPA
10000
4

5000

15000 240 MeV data

dS0/dEx (fm /MeV)

386 MeV data

averaged RPA
4

10000

5000

0
5 10 15 20 25
Ex (MeV)

Hnh 3.18: Kt qu tnh ton ca phng php RPA (3.80) cho cng v nng lng ca
cc trng thi kch thch dao ng n cc vi J = 0+ trong vng nng lng cng hng
khng l n cc ca ht nhn 208 Pb v cc s liu thc nghim tng ng rt ra t phn ng
tn x phi n hi ti nng lng E = 240 v 386 MeV. Minh ha t ti liu [40].

Ngoi cu trc cc trng thi kch thch ti nng lng thp, phng php

RPA cng c th c dng nghin cu cu trc cc trng thi dao ng

cng hng khng l (giant resonance) ca ht nhn ti nng lng kch thch

cao (xem chi tit mc 3.4 di y) nh tp hp ca mt s ln cc trng

thi dao ng ht-l c cng spin J v spin ng v T. Th d trn hnh 3.18

cho thy rng phng php RPA c th dng m t kh chun xc cu

trc vi m ca cng hng khng l n cc (giant monopole resonance) vi

J = 0+ , T = 0 ti nng lng Ex 14 MeV ca ht nhn ch

208
Pb, mt

trong nhng trng thi kch thch cng hng khng l c trng ca ht nhn

ny [40].

143
3.2 Mu kch thch dao ng tp th

Mc d cu trc cc trng thi dao ng kch thch ca ht nhn c th c

m t vi m bi mu v hoc phng php RPA... Mu kch thch tp th

(collective excitation) cho cc trng thi dao ng ht nhn (xem minh ha trn

hnh 3.10) vn c s dng rng ri m t v m cc trng thi kch thch

ny nh nhng dao ng tp th ca b mt ht nhn v qua nghin cu

hnh dng ca ht nhn kch thch m thng rt khc bit so vi hnh dng

ht nhn trong trng thi c bn.

3.2.1 S bin dng ca b mt ht nhn

hiu c cc mu kch thch tp th ht nhn, ta cn nm c cc nt

chnh v bin dng ca b mt ht nhn (nuclear surface deformation) trn

c s mu git lng ht nhn. i vi ht nhn nm trong mt trng thi kch

thch vi nng lng Ex thp, hnh dng ca ht nhn c th c xt n nh

mt git lng khng nn vi dy b mt rt mng (sharp surface). Khi ,

hnh dng b mt ht nhn c th c m t qua bn knh ht nhn xc nh

theo



R(, ) = R0 1 +
Y (, ) , (3.85)
=0 =

vi R(, ) l bn knh ca ht nhn trong hng gc thn = (, ) v R0 l

bn knh ht nhn trong trng thi c bn (c dng hnh cu i vi a s cc

ht nhn c s proton Z v s neutron N gn vi nhng s magic ht nhn).

Tng trong (3.85) c ly theo = 0, 1, 2, ... vi = , + 1, ..., . Ta

thy b mt ca ht nhn dao ng c xc nh bi cc thng s v v

th chng cn c xt n nh l cc ta tp th (collective coordinate)

ca ht nhn. Tp hp cc thng s l mt tensor cu bc (xem nh

144
ngha v cc tnh cht ca tensor cu trong phn tham kho 4.2.2). Di y

l hai tnh cht c bn ca ta

- Tnh cht lin hp phc: v bn knh ht nhn l mt i lng thc nn

R(, ) = R (, )

= (1) . (3.86)

- Bin i trong php quay: do b mt ht nhn vn c dng (3.85) sau khi ht

nhn c quay mt gc trong khng gian R R nn

Y (, ) = Y (, ). (3.87)

Nh vy, tp hp cc gi tr vi = , + 1, ..., phi bin i trong

mt php quay hon ton ging nh hm cu Y (, ). y l mt tnh cht

chung ca v Y (, ) v c hai i lng ny u l tensor cu bc

(xem phn tham kho 4.2.2) v ta c

()
= D () . (3.88)

()
D () l hm Wigner ca php quay mt gc Euler = (1 , 2 , 3 ) trong

khng gian ba chiu. T h thc (3.88) ta d thy rng c chn l

= (1) .

Cc dng b mt ca ht nhn bin dng ng vi bn knh R(, ) xc nh

bi = 1, 2, 3, 4 c minh ha trn hnh 3.10. Trong cc bin dng a cc

(multipole) ny, bin dng t cc (quadrupole) vi =2 l quan trng nht

trong VLHN. C th, b mt ca nhng ht nhn c bin dng tnh (static

deformation) trong trng thi c bn thng tng ng vi bin dng t cc v

v th nhng ht nhn ny lun c mt moment in t cc Q2 c th o c

t thc nghim (nh bn trn trong chng 1.4). Ngoi ra, trong vng

nng lng kch thch 02 MeV ca cc ht nhn chn-chn, trng thi u

tin l trng thi kch thch dao ng in t cc vi J = 2+ (xem hnh 3.19)

145
v y l l mt trong nhng trng thi c trng quan trng nht ca cu trc

ht nhn. Trong mu kch thch dao ng tp th, mt trng thi dao ng t

cc 2+ ca mt ht nhn chn-chn thng c xt n nh trng thi kch

thch ca mt dao ng t iu ha (harmonic oscillator).

3.2.2 Ht nhn nh mt dao ng t iu ha

Nh vy, mt ht nhn chn-chn nm trong trng thi kch thch vi J

= 2+
1 c th c xt n nh mt dao ng t iu ha m cn c gi

ngn trong VLHN l vibrator. Hamiltonian ca mt vibrator 2 cc nh vy

c th c biu din di dng

1 C

H = | | +
2
| |2 , (3.89)
2B 2
= =

vi l moment xung lng tng ng vi ta tp th v c xc

nh theo quy tc thng thng sau ca c hc lng t

= i~ v [ , ] = i~ . (3.90)

D thy t (3.89) rng B l tham s khi lng (mass parameter) v C l h

s lc phc hi (restoring force) ca dao ng t.

Hon ton tng t nh trong vt l cht rn, mi mt trng thi lng t

sinh bi Hamiltonian (3.89) c th c xt n nh mt gi ht boson (c

gi l phonon). Trong biu din lng t ha th cp (xem phn tham kho

4.3.3), cc ton t sinh b+

v hy b phonon c xy dng nh sau [23]

B 1
b+ = i (1)

2~ 2B ~

B 1
b = (1) + i , (3.91)
2~ 2B ~

146

vi tn s phonon = C /B . Ton t b+
sinh mt phonon vi spin

nguyn v chn l = (1) ( chn l ca phonon c xc nh bi

chn l ca ta tp th tng ng). T h thc (3.91) ta c h thc

biu din cc ta tp th trong Hamiltonian (3.89) qua cc ton t sinh v

hy phonon

~ [ +
]
= b + (1) b
2B

~B [ ]
= i (1) b b .
+
(3.92)
2
Trong mu dao ng t iu ha, cc ton t sinh v hy phonon tha mn cc

h thc giao hon (4.79) ca cc ton t boson

[b , b ] = [b+ +
, b ] = 0 v [b , b+
] = . (3.93)

S dng (3.92) - (3.93), ta c th biu din Hamiltonian (3.89) di dng

5
H = ~ b+
b + . (3.94)
2
=

Vi ton t s ht phonon N c nh ngha tng t nh trong (4.81), nng

lng EN , tr ring ca Hamiltonian (3.94), c xc nh theo

( )
5
N = b EN = ~ N +
b+ . (3.95)
2
=

Nh vy, nng lng kch thch ca ht nhn c hon ton xc nh bi s

dao ng t (number of oscillation quanta) N. Cng vi N, cc s lng t

khc ca mt trng thi dao ng ht nhn l spin J v hnh chiu M ca n

v ta k hiu trng thi ny bng |N, JM . Ba trng thi quan trng ca mt

ht nhn chn-chn trong mu dao ng t iu ha l

- Trng thi c bn c coi nh chn khng ca phonon (phonon vacuum),

vi nng lng E0 c gi l nng lng im khng (zero-point energy)

5
H|N = 0, J = 0 M = 0 H|0 = E0 |0 = ~ |0. (3.96)
2
147
 98 102 106 108 110 112 114
Ru Ru Pd Pd Cd Cd Cd

Hnh 3.19: Ph nng lng kch thch ca cc trng thi dao ng vi J = 0+ , 2+ , 4+ trong
98,102 106,108 110114
cc ng v ht nhn chn-chn 44 Ru, 46 Pd v 48 Cd. Minh ha t ti liu [2].

- Trng thi kch thch u tin l trng thi mt phonon vi spin J =

|N = 1, = b+
|0, vi = , ..., v E1 = ~ + E0 . (3.97)

Nh vy, nng lng kch thch ca trng thi (3.97) bng chnh nng lng

ca mt dao ng t hay l nng lng photon trong bc x ca chuyn dch

ht nhn t mc E1 v trng thi c bn, Ex = E1 E0 = ~ .

- Trng thi kch thch hai phonon vi nng lng kch thch Ex = 2~ . y
l mt trng thi lng t ca hai boson v v th hm sng ca trng thi hai

phonon phi l mt hm i xng

|N = 2, JM = C 1 2 |JM (|1 1 |2 2 + |2 1 |1 2 ). (3.98)
1 ,2

148
Sau khi thay th 1  2 trong s hng th 2 ca (3.98) v p dng tnh cht

i xng ca h s Clebsch-Gordan ta thu c

|N = 2, JM = C[1 + (1) ] J
1 2 |JM |1 1 |2 2 . (3.99)
1 ,2

Ta d suy ra t (3.99) rng cc trng thi hai phonon vi J l khng tn ti.

Ngoi ra, chn l ca trng thi hai phonon bng = (1)2 = +1 v ta c

J = 0+ , 2+ , 4+ , ... Trn thc t, phonon vi = 2 l trng hp ph bin nht
v a s cc trng thi 2+
1 ca cc ht nhn chn-chn u c th c m t

trong mu dao ng t iu ha nh mt phonon t cc (quadrupole phonon).

Khi , cc trng thi kch thch cu trc t hai phonon t cc |N = 2, JM s

c spin J = 0+ , 2+ v 4+ . Ba trng thi ny c xt n nh mt tam mc hai
1 21 ]0+ ,2+ ,4+ . T
[2+ +
phonon (two-phonon triplet) v thng c k hiu bng

ph thc nghim ca cc trng thi kch thch dao ng trong cc ng v ht

98,102 106,108 110114
nhn chn-chn Ru, Pd v Cd trn hnh 3.19 ta c th thy cc

trng thi thuc cc tam mc hai phonon vi J = 0+ , 2+ , 4+ nm nng lng

kch thch cao khong hai ln so vi mc 2+
1, ngha l Ex 2E2+1 = 2~2 .
c bit, c ba thnh vin 0+ , 2+ v 4+ ca tam mc hai phonon ny u c
114
quan st thy trong ph thc nghim ca ht nhn cadmi (cadmium) 48 Cd
(xem minh ha chi tit trn hnh 3.20). c trng cu trc c bn nht ca

mi mt trng thi dao ng l nng lng kch thch Ex v xc sut chuyn

dch ht nhn B(E). i vi trng thi mt phonon t cc |2+

1 v ba trng

thi |2+
1 , 21 ; J ca tam mc hai phonon vi J = 0 , 2 , 4
+ + + +
xc sut B(E2)
c xc nh bi ton t moment t cc in Q2

Q2 = c (r)r2 Y2 (r)d3 r, (3.100)

vi c (r) l mt in tch ht nhn (tham kho chi tit trong mc 4.4). Trong
mu dao ng t tp th ngi ta thng xt mt mt in tch ng nht

149
Hnh 3.20: Ph thc nghim (experiment) cc trng thi dao ng J = 0+ , 2+ , 4+ ca ht
nhn cadmi 114 Cd v s mc cc trng thi mt phonon 2+
1 , hai phonon [21 21 ]0+ ,2+ ,4+
+ +

v ba phonon [2+
1 21 21 ]0+ ,2+ ,3+ ,4+ ,6+ theo mu dao ng t (spherical vibrator). Cc mi
+ +

tn k hiu chuyn dch in E gia cc trng thi ny. Minh ha t ti liu [23].

(uniform charge density) trong th tch ht nhn

Ze Ze
c (r) 0 = = , vi R0 = 1.2 A1/3 fm. (3.101)
V (4R03 /3)
Khi , sau khi lp cc h thc (3.85) v (3.101) vo tch phn (3.100) v ch

tnh n cc s hng 22 , ta thu c

[ ]
10
Q2 = 0 R05 2 21 22 |221 22 . (3.102)
70 1 2

Tng theo 1 2 tng ng vi php cp moment gc ca hai ta tp th 21

v 22 v thng c k hiu ngn bng [2 2 ]2 . Sau khi biu din 2
trong (3.102) qua cc ton t phonon (3.92), xc sut chuyn dch in (4.100)

150
ca cc qu trnh phn r trn hnh 3.20 c xc nh nh sau
( )2
|0+
1 ||Q2 ||21 |
+ 2
3Ze 2 ~
B(E2; 2+
1 =0+
1) = R0 ,
5 4 2 C2 B2
|2+
1 ||Q2 ||J |
2
B(E2; J 21 ) =
+
= 2B(E2; 2+ 1 01 ),
+
(3.103)
2J + 1
( )2
|0+
||Q2 ||2 |
+ 2
3Ze 10 ~2
B(E2; 2+ 0 +
) = 1 2
= R 2
,
2 1
5 4 0 70 4C2 B2
vi hm sng trng thi hai phonon 1 , 21 ; J , J = 02 , 22 , 41 . By
|J |2+ + + + +

114
gi ta xt c th cu trc cc trng thi dao ng ny trn th d ht nhn 48 Cd

trnh by trn hnh 3.20. Trn c s cc gi tr thc nghim ca nng lng

kch thch Ex v xc sut chuyn dch in B(E2) ta xc nh c cc thng

s dao ng t C2 v B2 t hai phng trnh sau

Ex (2+
1 ) = ~ C2 /B2 0.558 MeV C2 41.3 MeV,
(3.104)
1 01 ) 1018 e fm . B2 132 ~2 /MeV.
4
B(E2; 2+ + 2

Lp cc gi tr C2 v B2 vo (3.103) ta c

2 , 22 , 41 21 ) 2036 e fm , B(E2; 22 01 ) 3.1 e fm .

4 4
B(E2; 0+ + + + 2 + + 2

So snh nhng kt qu ny vi cc s liu thc nghim tng ng (bn phi

2 , 22 , 41 21 )
B(E2; 0+ + + +
hnh 3.20) ta thy ln hn cc gi tr thc nghim

2 10 ln trong khi 2 01 )
B(E2; 2+ +
li nh hn rt nhiu so vi gi tr

thc nghim 1904 e2 fm4 . Kt qu ny cho thy cu trc ca cc trng thi

|J vi J = 0+ + +
2 , 22 , 41 c cu trc phc tp hn cu hnh thun ty t hai

phonon |2+
1 . Nhng tnh ton theo mu dao ng t phi iu ha (anharmonic
oscillator) cho thy cc gi tr B(E2) thc nghim c th m t c khi |J
l mt trng thi chng cht ca cc thnh phn 1 phonon, 2 phonon v cao

hn, |J = a|N = 1, J + b|N = 2, J + ...

Trong cu trc phc tp ca ht nhn kch thch, c nhiu trng hp ngi

ta quan st c cc trng thi hai phonon cu trc t hai phonon vi moment

151
gc khc nhau. Khi , ngi ta phi xt Hamiltonian ht nhn nh tp hp

cc vibrator vi khc nhau

(
)
| |2 C | |2
H = H = + (3.105)
2B 2
=

v trng thi cu trc t hai phonon vi moment gc khc nhau s c nng

Ex = ~(1 + 2 ) v hm sng di dng i xng sau

lng kch thch

|N = 2, JM = C 1 1 2 2 |JM (|1 1 1 |2 2 2 + |2 2 1 |1 1 2 ).
1 ,2
(3.106)

Mt trong nhng th d in hnh ca trng thi (3.101) l trng thi kch thch

lng cc in (electric dipole) vi J = 1 v T = 0 quan st c trong

138 140 144
ph r lng cc ca mt s ht nhn chn-chn nh 56 Ba, 58 Ce, 60 Nd
144
v 62 Sm. Nng lng kch thch ca cc trng thi ny gn bng tng nng
+
lng kch thch ca cc trng thi phonon 21 v 31 v cu trc ca chng

c khng nh qua cc tnh ton vi m trong mt phng php QRPA m

rng [41] l dng trng thi hai phonon 1 31 ]1 . Do cc gi tr kh d ca
[2+
spin ht nhn trong trng hp ny l 1 6 J 6 5, ta c th xt mt trng thi

1 trn nh mt thnh vin ca ng mc hai phonon (two-phonon quintet) vi

J = 1 , 2 , 3 , 4 v 5 .

3.3 Ht nhn bin dng v cc trng thi quay

Trong cc phn trn chng ta xt n cu trc ca mt ht nhn c dng

cu l ch yu. c bit, mu v ht nhn vi tt c phc tp ca cc tnh

ton cho ha ma trn kch thc khng l cng ch dng nghin cu cu

trc cc ht nhn cu l chnh. l nhng ht nhn c lp v ha tr ng

kn ti cc s nucleon magic hay l c mt vi nucleon ha tr nm ngoi lp

v ng kn. Tuy nhin, khi s nucleon ha tr tng ln ng k th hnh dng

152
cu ca ht nhn dn c thay th bi mt hnh bin dng (deformed shape)

m thng ging hnh ellipsoid ca mt qu bng bu dc. Mt ht nhn bin

dng (deformed nucleus) nh vy c th c kch thch ln cc trng thi

chuyn ng quay tp th ng thi vi nhng trng thi dao ng xt

trn. Cn nhn mnh rng i xng hay l bt bin quay (xem phn tham kho

4.1.2) i hi hm sng ht nhn l mt i lng ng hng trong khng

gian ta v v th mt trng thi ht nhn kch thch vi spin J s suy bin

theo 2J + 1 hnh chiu M khc nhau ca J. Do , mt ht nhn cu khng

th thc hin chuyn ng quay tp th vi mt nng lng kch thch xc nh

v s hin din ca cc trng thi quay ht nhn l mt c trng cu trc

ring ca ht nhn bin dng.

3.3.1 Bin dng tnh v trng trung bnh ht nhn

Ta c th thy t minh ha trn hnh 1.3 v t h thc (1.27) trong chng 1.4.3

l moment t cc in ca mt ht nhn cu trong trng thi c bn lun bng

khng. Nh vy, c trng chnh ca bin dng tnh (static deformation)

ca ht nhn l moment t cc in Q2 (nhiu khi cn c k hiu n gin l

Q) ca ht nhn trong trng thi c bn m c th o c kh chnh xc bng
cc phng php thc nghim khc nhau. Tp hp cc gi tr thc nghim ca

moment t cc in ca cc ht nhn chn-l rt gn theo h thc Q/(ZR2 )

c trnh by trn hnh 3.21 v ta thy cc ht nhn c mt proton ha tr

l nm ngoi lp v ng kn gn s magic nh cc ht nhn ng (copper)

62,65 209
29 Cu hoc bismut 83 Bi c gi tr Q kh gn vi moment t cc in ca mt
proton ha tr, trong khi gi tr Q ca cc ht nhn c s nucleon ha tr nm xa
176 167
cc s magic nh luteti (lutetium) 71 Lu hay erbi (erbium) 68 Er ln hn nhiu

so vi gi tr n ht ca Q. Nhng ng v ht nhn vi gi tr Q ln c
khng nh c mt bin dng tnh lm cho hnh dng ht nhn trong trng

153
 S nucleon l

Hnh 3.21: Gi tr rt gn ca moment t cc in Q ca cc ht nhn chn-l (c N chn

v Z l hoc ngc li), nh hm ph thuc vo s nucleon l. i lng khng th nguyn
Q/(ZR2 ) cho php ta so snh mnh ca Q khng ph thuc vo kch thc ca ht nhn.
Minh ha t ti liu [2].

154
thi c bn hon ton khc hnh cu.

bin dng ph bin nht ca ht nhn c gn lin vi moment t cc

in Q = 0 v c gi l bin dng t cc (quadrupole deformation). Trong

nhng trng hp ny bn knh ht nhn R c xc nh ch yu bi s hng
vi = 2 trong cng thc (3.85) v ta 20 c gi l thng s bin dng

(deformation parameter) t cc ca ht nhn v k hiu bng 2 . Trong thc

t, cc bin dng bc cao hn nh bin dng bt cc (octupole deformation,

= 3) hoc bin dng thp lc cc (hexadecapole deformation, = 4) cng

c xc nh cho mt s ht nhn nng. Nh minh ha trn hnh 1.3,

ty theo du ca thng s bin dng t cc, ht nhn s c hnh dng "bp

dt" (oblate) theo hng trc i xng khi 2 < 0 hoc hnh dng "ko di"

(prolate) khi 2 > 0. i vi cc hnh dng nh vy ca ht nhn bin dng,

moment t cc in c th c biu din qua 2 nh sau

3
Q ZR2 2 (1 + 0.16 2 ). (3.107)
5
2
Nh vy, i lng Q/(ZR ) trn hnh 3.21 cho ta bin dng ch t l thun

vi thng s bin dng v khng ph thuc vo kch thc ht nhn. V th,

ta c th dng i lng ny so snh bin dng gia cc ht nhn vi s

khi rt khc nhau.

hiu c s tn ti ca bin dng tnh ht nhn ta cn nh li rng

trng thi c bn (ground state, vit tt l g.s.) ca ht nhn tng ng vi mc

nng lng thp nht E0 trong ph ht nhn v v th E0 phi l minimum ca

nng lng ht nhn: H min = g.s.|H = K + V |g.s.. i vi cc ht nhn

c cng mt s khi A, ng nng trung bnh K gn bng nhau v minimum

ca H c xc nh ch yu bi minimum ca th nng trung bnh V . T

ph thuc ca th nng ht nhn vo thng s bin dng 2 ca cc ht nhn

chn-chn minh ha trn hnh 3.22 ta thy minimum ca V c hnh thnh

kh r rng ti cc gi tr |2 | ln (theo dc hai chiu tng ng vi bin dng

155
Hnh 3.22: S ph thuc ca th nng ht nhn vo thng s bin dng 2 trong trng hp
cc ht nhn chn-chn nm gn st cc lp v ng kn (region I), khng gn cc lp v ng
kn (region II) v hon ton xa khi cc lp v ng kn (region III). Minh ha t ti liu [2].

oblate vi 2 < 0 v prolate vi 2 > 0). R rng l i vi nhng ht nhn c

V min ti bin dng tnh ln, mu n ht c lp IPM s dng th trng

trung bnh ht nhn c i xng cu nh trnh by chng 3.1.2 khng

cn thch hp xy dng cc hm sng n ht ca nucleon trong ht nhn.

Trong nhng nm 50 ca th k trc Sven Goesta Nilsson, mt nh ton

hc v vt l hc Thy in, tm ra li gii cho thch thc quan trng ny

ca VLHN. ng khng nh c rng cc trng thi n nucleon trong ht

nhn bin dng v nguyn tc vn c m t bi mt th trng trung bnh

ht nhn nh i vi cc ht nhn cu nhng bn knh R ca th ny khng

ng hng trong khng gian m ph thuc vo thng s bin dng tng t

156
Hnh 3.23: Gin Nilsson ca cc mc n ht trong ht nhn bin dng ti cc gi tr khc
nhau ca thng s bin dng , vi gi tr nng lng c tnh trong n v ~ 0 . S lng t
jz c ghi cnh tng mc n ht. Ti im = 0, cc mc quay v v tr ca mnh trong
ph n ht ca ht nhn cu vi cc lp v c k hiu bi cp s lng t lj cng cc s
magic tng ng. Minh ha t ti liu [23].

157
nh bn knh ht nhn (3.85). Trong phng php ny m nay thng c

gi l mu Nilsson, bin dng ca th trng trung bnh ht nhn c xy

dng bi mt th dao ng t iu ha c tham s khc nhau trong ba hng

ca khng gian ta . C th, thay cho (3.20) ta xt th h.o. di dng

m 2 2
Uh.o. (r) = (x x + y2 y 2 + z2 z 2 ). (3.108)
2
Nu ta chn trc i xng ca ht nhn l trc z th bin dng ht nhn khi
i xng cu c th c biu din qua cc tn s h.o. nh sau

2 4
x2 = y2 = 02 (1 + ), z2 = 02 (1 ), (3.109)
3 3
vi l thng s bin dng. Trong trng hp bin dng t cc, ta c th biu

din Hamiltonian n ht vi th trng trung bnh ht nhn (3.108) di dng

~ 2 2 m 2 2 2
H = + 0 r 2 m02 r2 Y20 (, ) ~ 0 (2l.s + l ), (3.110)
2m 2
vi 0 = 0 (1 + 2 2 /9)1 v cc thng s v c chnh chun theo

ph n ht thc nghim. Ch l trong trng hp ht nhn bin dng, s

2
hng spin-qu o ca Hamiltonian n ht c cha thnh phn t l vi l .

Hamiltonian (3.110) thng c cho ha trn h hm c s trong cc ta

tr (cylindrical coordinates) v cc tr ring (cc mc nng lng n ht)

c gn vi tp hp cc s lng t jz [N nz m]. Do i xng cu b ph v,

mi mt trng thi n ht khng cn suy bin theo 2j + 1 hnh chiu ca j

v mi mc n ht c xc nh vi mt hnh chiu jz ca j ln trc i

xng ht nhn. N, nz l hai s lng t h.o. chnh v m = |lz | vi lz l hnh

chiu ca l ln trc i xng. S cc mc n ht trong ht nhn bin dng

tnh vi Hamiltonian (3.110) cho cc trng thi c spin j . 9/2 c minh ha
trn hnh 3.23. Mt s nh vy nay c gi l gin Nilsson (Nilsson

diagram). T hnh 3.23 ta thy mi mc n ht j trong gii hn ht nhn cu

u b tch ra thnh a mc tng ng vi cc gi tr jz khc nhau bi bin

dng tnh ca ht nhn

158
 Trong cc tnh ton cu trc ht nhn hin i, th trng trung bnh ca ht

nhn bin dng thng c xy dng di dng hm Woods-Saxon bin dng

(vi bn knh ph thuc vo ) tnh ton h hm sng n ht c s dng

trong mu v cho cc ht nhn bin dng. Tuy nhin s mc n ht v cn

bn vn ging nh c biu din trong cc gin Nilsson. Ngoi mu v,

cc mu cu trc ht nhn vi m khc nh QRPA cng c xy dng [20]

trn c s phng php Nilsson m t cu trc cc trng thi kch thch dao

ng trong cc ht nhn bin dng.

3.3.2 Cc trng thi quay tp th ca ht nhn

Ph cc trng thi kch thch ca mt ht nhn bin dng thng phc tp hn

ph ca cc ht nhn cu v n cn bao gm ph nng lng cc trng thi

quay ca ht nhn (xung quanh trc vung gc vi trc i xng ca ht nhn).

Ngoi ra, ht nhn bin dng cng c nhng trng thi dao ng b mt tng

t nh ht nhn cu v ph cc trng thi dao ng ny thng nm xen k

cng ph cc trng thi quay lm cho vic phn tch ph ht nhn kh phc

tp. Mc d ph cc trng thi quay ca ht nhn rt phc tp, cc c trng

c bn ca ph quay c th c m t bng mu tp th ca quay t (rotor)

khi cc trng thi quay ca ht nhn c m t nh cc trng thi lng t

khc nhau ca quay t. T c hc c in ta bit rng nh hng trong khng

gian ba chiu ca mt quay t c hon ton xc nh bi 3 gc Euler. Nu ta

xt ht nhn vi bin dng prolate nh mt quay t c hnh dng ellipsoid vi

trc ln hng dc theo trc i xng ca ht nhn (xem hnh 3.24) th chuyn

ng quay thc s ca ht nhn ch c th l php quay xung quanh mt trc

vung gc vi trc i xng ca ht nhn (trc z trn hnh hnh 3.24), bi v

mt php quay ht nhn xung quanh z khng th gy ra bt k mt thay i

no cho hm sng ht nhn ging nh quay ht nhn cu xung quanh mt trc

159
 J

Hnh 3.24: Moment gc J ca ht nhn bin dng kch thch trong trng thi quay. M l
hnh chiu ca J ln trc z ca h ta phng th nghim v K l hnh chiu ca J ln trc
z ca h ta gn vi ht nhn (z l trc i xng ht nhn).

bt k trong khng gian ba chiu. Trong trng hp ny, moment quay ca ht

nhn vi moment gc ton phn J c xc nh hon ton bi moment gc

thnh phn ca J m vung gc vi z . C th, trong h ta (x , y , z ) gn

vi ht nhn (body-fixed system), Hamiltonian ca ht nhn quay t ny c

xc nh nh sau

1 2 2 1 2 2 R2
Hrot = (Jx + Jy ) (J Jz ) = (3.111)
2I 2I 2I
vi Jx2 , Jy2 v Jz2 l ton t moment gc thnh phn trn trc x , y v z ca J
trong h ta gn vi ht nhn v I l moment qun tnh (moment of inertia)

ca quay t. R c gi l moment quay ca ht nhn. V nng lng ht nhn

quay phi l mt i lng khng ph thuc vo nh hng ca ht nhn trong

160
khng gian, nn tr ring ca J v Jz c hon ton xc nh bi ~2 J(J + 1)
v ~M trong h ta phng th nghim v tr ring ca Jz cng l mt s

lng t tt ca quay t v c xc nh bi ~K .

V nguyn tc, hm sng ca ht nhn quay t phi c tm t nghim ca

phng trnh Schroedinger sau

Hrot JM K () = Erot JM K (), (3.112)

vi = (1 , 2 , 3 ) l 3 gc Euler xc nh hng ca ht nhn trong khng

gian. Tuy nhin, dng tng minh ca JM K () c th c suy ra trc tip

t tnh cht bt bin quay (rotational invariance) ca hm sng ht nhn. C

th, nu ta quay ht nhn theo mt gc Euler bt k x th hm sng ht nhn

quay c xc nh qua ma trn quay Wigner nh sau

JM K () =
(J)
DM M ( x )JM K (). (3.113)
M

Mt khc, ta c JM K () = JM K ( ), vi l l gc Euler nh hng mi

ca ht nhn sau khi h ta c quay theo chnh gc Euler x . Do

JM K ( ) =
(J)
DM M ( x )JM K (). (3.114)
M

Ta xt tip = 0 (vi 1 = 2 = 3 = 0) v d suy ra h thc sau t tnh cht

unita ca ma trn quay Wigner

(J)
JM K () = DM M ()JM K (0). (3.115)
M

Do cc gi tr khc nhau ca M trong (3.115) tng ng vi cc php quay theo

gc 3 xung quanh trc z ca h ta gn vi ht nhn nn ta c M K
khi z l trc i xng ca ht nhn. Nh vy, hm sng chun ha ca ht

nhn quay chnh l ma trn quay Wigner

(J) (J)
JM K () = DM K ()JKK (0) JM K () DM K () (3.116)

161
v tr ring ca phng trnh Schroedinger (3.112) c xc nh theo

~2
Erot = [J(J + 1) K 2 ]. (3.117)
2I
T h thc trc giao ca ma trn quay

(J) (J ) 8 2
DM K ()DM K ()d3 = JJ M M KK (3.118)
2J + 1
ta c hm ring ca phng trnh (3.112) c xc nh theo

2J + 1 (J)
JM K () = DM K (). (3.119)
8 2

Tp hp cc trng thi quay ht nhn (3.117) vi K = 0 c gi l di

quay c bn (ground-state rotational band). Ta d thy rng trng thi ca mt

ht nhn bin dng c trc i xng z trn hnh 3.24 s khng thay i nu

trc z c ly hng ngc li (z

z ). Php bin i i xng ny ng
nht vi php quay R1 lm thay i 3 gc Euler nh sau

R1 (1 , 2 , 3 ) = (1 + , 2 , 3 ). (3.120)

i vi cc trng thi thuc di quay c bn vi K = 0 ta c

R1 JM K=0 () = (1)J JM K=0 () (3.121)

v v th J phi l mt s chn (J = 0, 2, 4, ...; M = J, ..., J ). Mt th d

238
in hnh ca di quay c bn l ph ca ht nhn urani kch thch U

minh ha trn hnh 3.25. Ta thy rng spin cao nht quan st c cho mt

trng thi quay trong trng hp ny l J = 14+ , vi tt c cc chuyn dch

gia cc thnh vin ca di quay c bn c xc nh kh r rng. Cc mc

quay vi spin thp c nng lng kch thch hon ton c xc nh theo cng

thc (3.117). i vi cc trng thi c spin cao, nng lng kch thch c cha

b chnh bc cao hn ca mu quay tp th t l vi J 2 (J + 1)2 . Ta d thy t

h thc (3.117) rng t l nng lng ca hai trng thi quay vi spin thp nht

162
Hnh 3.25: Ph ca cc trng thi kch thch quay trong di quay c bn ca ht nhn 238 U to
bi qu trnh kch thch Coulomb trong phn ng tn x phi n hi ca h ion nng 40 Ar+238 U
ti nng lng Elab = 182 MeV. Minh ha t ti liu [19].

trong di c bn (J

= 2+ v 4+ ) bng E4+ /E2+ = 20/6 3.33. T ph nng
lng kch thch ca a s cc ht nhn vi A 150 190 v A > 220, ta c
t l nng lng E4+1 /E2+1 ca cc trng thi kch thch u tin vi J = 2+
v 4+ thc s gn bng 3.33 (trong th d
238
U trnh by trn hnh 3.25 ta c

E4+1 /E2+1 148.2/44.7 3.32). y l mt trong nhng d kin thc nghim

quan trng nht khng nh cu trc cc trng thi kch thch quay v s tn ti

ca bin dng ht nhn tnh. Trong php gn ng bn c in (semi-classical

approximation) ht nhn trong mt trng thi quay vi spin J thuc di quay

163
c bn s c vn tc gc = ~J/I . T h thc (3.117) ta d dng xc nh
238
c chu k quay (rotation period) T ca ht nhn U trong trng thi quay

vi J = 2+ v E2+ 45 keV bng

2E2+
= T = 2/ 1.4 1020 s. (3.122)
~(2 + 1)
i vi cc trng thi quay c spin J v nng lng EJ cao hn, chu k quay

c th ngn ti khong T 1021 giy. Nu so vi chu k quay ca tt c cc

i tng vt l, bt u t cc khm thin h (galaxy clusters) trong v tr

cho n chuyn ng quay ca cc phn t trong cc hp cht v c hoc hu

c th ht nhn l loi quay t nhanh nht (vi T nh nht) [27].

Trong qu trnh x l ph nng lng ht nhn, ph cc trng thi kch thch

quay ca mt ht nhn bin dng chn-chn thng c phn thnh cc di

tng ng vi cc gi tr K khc nhau. Vi mt gi tr K = 0 th cc gi tr

kh d ca spin ht nhn J = K, K + 1, K + 2... bao gm c cc gi tr J chn

v l. Tp hp cc trng thi vi spin J thp nht trong cc di ph quay vi K

khc nhau c gi l cc trng thi yrast v ng ni cc mc nng lng

kch thch ca cc trng thi yrast trong ph ht nhn c gi l ng yrast

(yrast line), vi im u l trng thi c bn vi Jg.s. = 0+ (xem hnh 3.26).

Trong khi cc trng thi vi spin thp (vng gch m trn hnh 3.26) c th

c nghin cu qua cc phng php thc nghim khc nhau thc hin trn

mt ht nhn, cc trng thi yrast vi spin cao (J 40 60) ch c th quan

st c trong cc phn ng nhit hch (fusion reaction) khi hai ht nhn A1

v A2 va chm vi nhau ti nhng iu kin vt l thch hp tng hp ra

mt ht nhn hp phn nng vi A A1 + A2 trong cc trng thi kch thch

vi spin cao. Trong qu trnh ny ton b moment gc ca chuyn ng tng

i ca h hai ht nhn ban u A1 v A2 c chuyn thnh spin J ca ht

nhn hp phn nh nh lut bo ton moment gc.

164
 J

Hnh 3.26: S minh ha ph nng lng kch thch ca mt ht nhn bin dng chn-chn
vi s khi A 160. Nhng vng gch cho k hiu cc trng thi ht nhn c thng tin ph
xc nh c t thc nghim. ng Yrast ni cc mc nng lng kch thch vi spin J thp
nht trong cc di ph quay vi K khc nhau. S k hiu nng lng tch mt nucleon (nh
Sn v Sp ) m cn c gi l ngng n ht (particle threshold). Minh ha t ti liu [42].

3.3.3 Cu trc ht nhn trong trng thi dao ng - quay

Mt ht nhn bin dng khng ch c cc trng thi kch thch quay nh

xt trn m cn c th c kch thch ln cc trng thi dao ng b mt

nh trong trng hp cc ht nhn cu. Nh vy, cu trc ca mt ht nhn

bin dng kch thch thng l mt ph trn ln ca cc trng thi quay v dao

ng b mt. Cng ging nh trong trng hp ht nhn cu, dng kch thch

dao ng b mt ph bin nht l dao ng t cc in E2. Khi , b mt ht

165
nhn dao ng c m t bi bn knh ht nhn
[ ]

2

R(, ) = R0 1 + 2 Y2 (, ) . (3.123)
=2

Theo quy c truyn thng trong cc nghin cu cu trc ht nhn, ta k hiu

20 = cos v 22 = 22 = sin v hnh dng ca ht nhn c th c

m t qua cc thng s v . C th, cho ta cng ca bin dng t

cc v xc nh mc i xng trc
1
. a s cc ht nhn bin dng c i

xng trc (axially symmetric) v th nng ht nhn c minimum ti = 0 .

Trong mu dao ng - quay tp th ca mt ht nhn bin dng, Hamiltonian

ht nhn c biu din qua ba gc Euler v cc ta , . Mu tp th

cho ht nhn bin dng c cng b nm 1952 bi Aage Niels Bohr (l con

trai ca Niels Bohr v l nh VLHN c gii thng Nobel vt l nm 1975

cng vi Ben Roy Mottelson v Leo James Rainwater v nhng pht minh gii

thch vi m s gn kt gia cc dng chuyn ng tp th v n ht trong cu

trc ht nhn). Trong mu tp th ny (m by gi thng c gi l mu

Bohr-Mottelson), Hamiltonian ht nhn c dng tng minh sau

[ ]
~2 1 4 1 1 R2
H = + + V (, ) + , (3.124)
2B 4 2 sin 3 2I
vi s hng cui m t chuyn ng quay ca ht nhn - quay t nh xt

trn v B l tham s khi lng nh ngha tng t nh trong mu dao ng

tp th. Sau php bin i bin [23] ca Hamiltonian (3.124) , , tch

cc s hng ph thuc vo v thnh hai thnh phn c dng tng t nh

Hamiltonian ca dao ng t iu ha, hm sng ton phn ht nhn c th

biu din di dng

2J + 1
|JM Kn n JM Kn n (, , ) =
16 2 (1 + K0 )
[ ]
(J) J (J)
DM K () + (1) DM K () gKn ()fn () (3.125)

1
Ch l cc thng s v y khng c lin quan g n cc bc x v ca ht nhn.

166
Hnh 3.27: S c trng ca ph nng lng cc trng thi kch thch ca mt ht nhn bin
dng chn-chn trong mu dao ng - quay tp th. Minh ha t ti liu [23].

tng ng vi nng lng ton phn ca ht nhn

( ) ( )
~2 1 K
EJKn ,n = [J(J + 1) K 2 ] + ~ n + + ~ 2n + +1 ,
2I 2 2
(3.126)

vi nng lng ca trng thi c bn Eg.s. = ~ /2 + ~ . T tnh bt bin ca

ht nhn i vi vic la chn hng trc i xng, ta c K phi l s chn v

tp hp cc s lng t cho php s l

K = 0, 2, 4, ...; n = 0, 1, 2, ...; n = 0, 1, 2, ...;

{ }
K, K + 1, K + 2, ... khi K = 0
J =
0, 2, 4, ... khi K = 0
M = J, J + 1, ..., J 1, J. (3.127)

Cu trc ph nng lng cc trng thi kch thch ca mt ht nhn bin dng

chn-chn c trnh by trn hnh 3.27 v cc di ph c phn loi nh sau

167
 1. Di ph quay c s (ground-state band) c cu trc t cc trng thi

quay ht nhn |JM 000.

2. Di ph u tin ( -band) bao gm cc trng thi quay trong hng

bin dng vi K = 2 v nng lng ca u di (band head) bng

E = ~2 /I + ~ . Hm sng ht nhn trong di ny l |JM 200.

3. Di ph u tin ( -band) bao gm cc trng thi quay trong hng

bin dng vi K = 0 v nng lng ca u di bng E = ~ . Hm

sng ht nhn trong di ny l |JM 010.

4. Di ph th hai bao gm cc trng thi quay |JM 401 trong hng bin
dng vi K = 4.

5. Di ph th hai bao gm cc trng thi quay |JM 020 trong hng bin
dng vi K = 0.

Tip l cc di ph bc cao hn trong hai hng bin dng v m thng

khng d xc nh t ph thc nghim do cu trc nhng trng thi ny c

pha trn (mixing) mnh t nhiu trng thi kch thch khc ca ht nhn m

khng nm trong phn loi ca mu dao ng - quay.

C th ni rng cu trc ht nhn bin dng vi khi lng trung bnh v

nng l v cng phc tp. Cc dng kch thch tp th nh dao ng b mt

hay kch thch quay khng ch cp vi nhau nh tho lun trn m cn tng

tc vi cc bc t do nucleon trong ht nhn (tng t nh tng tc gia cc

electron trong hp cht bn dn vi dao ng ca mng tinh th trong vt l

cht rn). Mt hnh thc lun tng qut m t vi m cu trc ht nhn tnh n

cc hiu ng tng tc trn c A. Bohr, B. Mottelson v cng s xy dng

v pht trin ti Vin Niels Bohr (an Mch) trong nhng nm 50-70 ca th

k 20 v em li cho cc tc gi gii thng Nobel vt l nm 1975.

168
3.4 Cc trng thi cng hng khng l ht nhn

Ngoi cc trng thi dao ng ht nhn nng lng kch thch thp c

xt trn trong mu vi m QRPA hay mu dao ng tp th, cc ht nhn c

th c kch thch ln cc trng thi dao ng tp th ti nng lng cao hn

(10 MeV . Ex . 25 MeV) vi cng rt mnh bao gm ng gp ca a

s cc nucleon trong ht nhn. Nhng trng thi dao ng tp th ny c gi

l cc cng hng khng l (giant resonance) ht nhn. Trong cc kch thch

cng hng khng l (CHKL) ny, cng hng khng l lng cc ng v

vector (isovector giant dipole resonance, vit tt l IVGDR hoc GDR) l trng

thi CHKL ph bin nht, c cc nh VLHN Hoa K pht hin ra t nm

1947 trong ph hp th ca ht nhn (xem minh ha trn hnh 3.28). Nng

lng kch thch ca IVGDR (trng tm phn b IVGDR theo nng lng) dao

ng trong khong t 22 MeV i vi cc ht nhn nh n khong 15 MeV

i vi ht nhn trung bnh v nng (vi s khi A > 100). Do cc trng thi

CHKL l nhng dao ng tp th tn s cao [43] vi cng rt mnh nn

cc nt cu trc c bn ca chng c th c m t kh tt bng cc phng

php ca mu cu trc ht nhn tp th.

3.4.1 IVGDR v quy tc tng

Cng hng khng l lng cc IVGDR l dng kch thch CHKL ht nhn

ph bin nht v quan st c gn nh trong tt c cc ng v ht nhn bn,

4 238
t He cho n U, ch yu trong cc th nghim hp th photon. Tit din
65 120
hp th photon thc nghim o vi cc ht nhn ng 29 Cu, thic 50 Sn v ch
208
82 Pb c trnh by trn hnh 3.29 v ta d thy rng phn ui ca IVGDR
thng bt u t nng lng kch thch Ex & Sn , vi Sn l ngng neutron v
c k hiu trong phn ng ny nh (, n). Nng lng nh ER ca IVGDR

169

Cng hng khng l

ph lin tc

ph gin on

5 10 15 20
Ex (MeV)

Hnh 3.28: Tit din hp th bi mt ht nhn nng vi s khi A > 100. Cc trng thi kch
thch nng lng thp l cc mc ca ph gin on cn ph cc trng thi ti nng lng
ln hn ngng n ht (Ex & 8 MeV) l ph lin tc vi nh cao v rng nht tng ng
vi cng hng khng l ht nhn.

gim i khi s khi ht nhn A tng ln. Cng nh mt trng thi cng hng
vt l bt k, mi trng thi CHKL c c trng bi 3 thng s: nh nng

lng (resonance peak) ER , rng (width) R v cng (strength) SR . C

th, cc tit din tit din hp th photon trn hnh 3.29 thng c biu din

kh chun bi hm phn b Lorentz ph thuc vo cc tham s trn nh sau

R 2R ER2
= , (3.128)
(E 2 ER2 )2 + 2R ER2
vi R l gi tr tit din hp th photon ti nh cng hng. Trong trng thi

kch thch IVGDR cc proton v neutron trong ht nhn dao ng ngc pha

(out of phase) vi nhau nh minh ha trn hnh 3.30. Cng v th m CHKL

lng cc ny l mt kch thch dao ng ht nhn ng v vector. Mt trong

nhng nt cu trc c trng cho cc kch thch CHKL l cng chuyn dch

(transition strength) ca ht nhn ln nhng trng thi ny c th c xc nh

170
 (mb)

Hnh 3.29: Tit din hp th photon o vi cc ng v ht nhn ng 65 Cu (a), thic 120 Sn

(b) v ch 208 Pb (c) trong vng nng lng kch thch ca CHKL lng cc IVGDR. Minh ha
t ti liu [43].

171
kh chnh xc t cc i lng c bn ca ht nhn. l quy tc tng (sum

rule) cho cc dng kch thch ht nhn khc nhau v th d in hnh nht l

trng hp IVGDR.

Do chuyn dch ht nhn trong trng hp IVGDR l chuyn dch lng

cc in, ta xt cng chuyn dch E1 gia hai trng thi n ht ht nhn

i v f , biu din qua tit din hp th bc x n ht nh sau
 2
4 2 (Ef Ei ) 

3  2 2 ~
s.p. (Ef )dEf =  f (r)qzi (r)d r = mc Tf i .
~c
(3.129)

Tch phn theo dEf c ly theo ton b cc gi tr khc nhau ca nng lng

n ht kch thch trong ph continuum v qz l thnh phn moment lng cc

in E1 gy dch chuyn ht nhn, vi q l in tch ca mt nucleon. Tf i c
nh ngha y l cng chuyn dch n ht v c th c biu din

qua cc hm ring ca Hamiltonian n ht nh sau

2mq 2 2mq 2
Tf i = (Ef Ei )|f |z|i| = 2
i|z|f (Ef Ei )f |z|i
~2 ~2
mq 2
= (i|z|f f |[H, z]|i i|[H, z]|f f |z|i). (3.130)
~2
Nh h thc trc chun ca c s cc hm sng n ht ta c

mq 2 [ ]
|f f | = 1 Tf i = 2 i| z, [H, z] |i. (3.131)
~
f f

Do th trng trung bnh ht nhn tha mn h thc giao hon [V , z] = 0, ta

ch cn xc nh giao hon t sau ca ton t ng nng v ta z

[ ] [ [ 2 ]] [ ]
~2 ~2 ~
z, [H, z] = z, , z = z, 2 = . (3.132)
2m z 2 2m z m
Tit din hp th bc x n ht ton phn xc nh bng tng theo tt c

cc trng thi cui f

2 2 ~ 2 2 ~ 2
s.p. (Ef )dEf = Tf i = q . (3.133)
mc mc
f

172
i vi cc chuyn dch in lng cc E1 ca ht nhn, in tch hiu dng
ca proton v neutron c xc nh theo qp = eN/A v qn = eZ/A. Do ,

tit din hp th bc x ton phn ca ht nhn bng

[ ( ) ( )2 ]
2 ~e
2 2
N
2
Z
s.p. (Ef )dEf = Z +N
mc A A
nucleons f
2 2 ~e2 N Z 60N Z
= MeV mb. (3.134)
mc A A
H thc (3.134) c bit n nh Thomas-Reiche-Kuhn sum rule cho chuyn

dch in lng cc ht nhn. Tit din hp th bc x trong vng nng lng

kch thch ca IVGDR o vi a s cc ht nhn bn (nh trn hnh 3.29) c

khng nh c ng gp 80 90% vo quy tc tng (3.134). Nh vy, IVGDR

l dng kch thch in lng cc c bn nht trong ht nhn. Nhng quy tc

tng tng t (3.134) i vi cc dng kch thch CHKL khc cng c

xc nh v c dng rng ri trong cc nghin cu cu trc ht nhn.

3.4.2 Cc dng kch thch dao ng ht nhn

Ngoi CHKL lng cc IVGDR, trong ht nhn cn tn ti mt s dng kch

thch CHKL khc m c phn bit bi moment qu o L, spin S v spin

ng v T ca ht nhn kch thch. S dao ng ca ht nhn trong cc trng

thi cng hng quan trng nht c trnh by trn hnh 3.30.

Cc trng thi kch thch dao ng ht nhn m khng thay i spin v

spin ng v (S = T = 0) l cc trng thi dao ng in ng v v

hng (electric isoscalar vibration), vi proton v neutron dao ng ng

pha (in phase) vi nhau trong dng ht nhn xc nh bi L.

Cc trng thi kch thch dao ng ht nhn km vi thay i spin ng

v (S = 0, T = 1) l cc trng thi dao ng in ng v vector

173
Hnh 3.30: S m t chiu dao ng ca proton v neutron trong cc trng thi kch thch
dao ng in (electric mode) v dao ng t (magnetic mode) ca ht nhn, bao gm cc
trng thi kch thch phonon nng lng thp v cc trng thi CHKL.

(electric isovector vibration), vi proton v neutron dao ng ngc pha

(out of phase) vi nhau trong dng ht nhn xc nh bi L.

Cc trng thi kch thch dao ng ht nhn km vi thay i spin (S =

1, T = 0) l cc trng thi dao ng t ng v v hng (magnetic

isoscalar vibration), vi nucleon c spin dao ng ngc pha vi nucleon

c spin trong dng ht nhn xc nh bi L.

Cc trng thi kch thch dao ng ht nhn km vi thay i spin v spin

174
 ng v (S = T = 1) l cc trng thi dao ng t ng v vector

(magnetic isovector vibration), vi proton c spin dao ng ngc pha

vi neutron c spin v ngc li, trong dng ht nhn xc nh bi L.

Cn nhn mnh rng phn loi trn ca cc trng thi CHKL cng c dng

phn bit cc trng thi kch thch dao ng nng lng thp tng ng vi

cc mc gin on trong ph ht nhn (nh xt trn trong chng 3.2).

3.4.3 Mt chuyn dch ht nhn

Nh bn trn, CHKL ht nhn l nhng cc trng thi dao ng tp th

ca mt s ln nucleon trong ht nhn nn cu trc cc trng thi ny c th

c m t tt bng mu dao ng ht nhn tp th. b sung cho ni dung

ca mu dao ng tp th trnh by trong mc 3.2, ta cn lm quen vi biu

din hm sng ca ht nhn kch thch qua mt chuyn dch ht nhn

(nuclear transition density). C th, ta xt cc kch thch dao ng ng v v

hng trn hnh 3.30 vi L > 2, S = T = 0. Yu t ma trn chuyn

dich in EL gia hai trng thi ht nhn |i v |f c xc nh t tng cc

chuyn dch EL tng ng gia cc trng thi n ht ca tt c cc nucleon

tham gia kch thch dao ng

f |OLM |i = f (r)rL YLM (r)i (r)d3 r, L > 2. (3.135)
nucleons

OLM = rL YLM (r) l ton t chuyn dch n ht tng ng vi kch thch EL

(xem chi tit trong phn tham kho 4.4). Ta bin i (3.135) tip nh sau

f |OLM |i = f i (r)rL YLM (r)d3 r

vi f i (r) = f (r )(r r )i (r )d3 r . (3.136)
nucleons

175
f i (r) nh ngha trn c gi l mt chuyn dch ht nhn t trng

thi ban u |i ln trng thi kch thch dao ng ng v v hng |f vi

L > 2, S = T = 0. Cc kch thch dao ng thng a n bin dng

ng (dynamic deformation) ca b mt ht nhn nh minh ha trn hnh 3.30.

Trong trng hp tng qut, mt chuyn dch ht nhn c th c khai

trin theo cc thnh phn a cc (multipole components) tng ng vi nhng

kch thch dao ng khc nhau ca ht nhn

f i (r) = (r)Y (r). (3.137)

Lp (3.137) vo (3.136) v s dng tnh trc giao ca hm cu ta thu c

f |OLM |i = L (r)rL+2 dr ML . (3.138)
0

Nh vy thng tin cu trc ht nhn cn thit m t chuyn dch in EL

ca ht nhn ln trng thi kch thch dao ng 2L cc c cha trong mt
chuyn dch L (r). Yu t ma trn chuyn ML cn thng c gi l moment
chuyn dch ht nhn (nuclear transition moment) v l i lng cho ta xc

sut rt gn ca chuyn dch ng v v hng (isoscalar, vit tt l IS) ca ht

nhn B(IS, L) = |ML |2 . Nu ta xt ring cc thnh phn proton v neutron ca

mt chuyn ht nhn, th ta c xc sut chuyn dch in ca trng thi kch
(proton) 2
thch dao ng 2L c xc nh theo B(EL, i f ) = e2 |ML | . Do tit

din hp th hoc tit din tn x phi n hi... kch thch cc trng thi

dao ng ht nhn thng l nhng i lng t l thun vi |ML |2 , mt

chuyn ht nhn L (r) c dng rng ri trong cc tnh ton vi m phn ng

ht nhn [40] nghin cu cu trc kch thch dao ng ht nhn. Trong khi

cc mu cu trc ht nhn vi m (nh mu QRPA trnh by chng 3.1.7) c

th dng tnh ton mt chuyn ht nhn L (r), cc phng php da trn

mu cu trc tp th cng c dng xy dng L (r) cho cc tnh ton s

l s liu tn x ht nhn. C th, i vi cc trng thi kch thch in ng

176
 3
10
208 208
Pb(,') Pb*@240 MeV, Ex=10.3 MeV
2
10

1
10

0
10
d /d/dE (mb/sr/MeV)

-1
10

-2
10

2
10
2

1
10

0
10 L=0
L=1
-1 L=2
10 L=3
Total
-2
10
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
c.m.(deg)
208
Hnh 3.31: Tit din phn ng tn x phi n hi ca ht trn ht nhn ch Pb ti nng
lng 240 MeV, vi kch thch CHKL ti Ex 10.3 MeV. Cc ng cong l kt qu tnh
ton tit din s dng mt chuyn ht nhn (3.139). Minh ha t ti liu [40].

v v hng EL, mu tp th Bohr-Mottelson [19] hay c dng xy dng

mt chuyn ht nhn nh sau

d0 (r)
L (r) = L , (3.139)
dr
vi 0 (r) l mt ht nhn trong trng thi c bn v tham s L = L R l

di bin dng (deformation length) ca trng thi ht nhn kch thch. T

xc sut chuyn dch ht nhn B(IS, L) c xc nh t tit din tn x thc

nghim, ta c th dng (3.139) xc nh L . Do a s bn knh ht nhn R
c th d dng tnh c t hm sng ht nhn trong trng thi c bn, thng

177
s bin dng L ca cc trng thi kch thch dao ng khc nhau thng c
xc nh trc tip t nhng nghin cu phn ng tn x ht nhn. i vi cc

trng thi kch thch dao ng ng v v hng vi L > 2, S = T = 0,

quy tc tng tng t nh (3.134) l

~2 A 0 (r)rL+1 dr
Bf (IS, L)Ef = L(2L + 1)2 r2L2 , vi rL1 = .
8m 0 (r)r2 dr
f
(3.140)

Khi mt trng thi |f ti nng lng kch thch Ef ng gp 100% vo quy

tc tng (3.140) th di bin dng ca trng thi ny c xc nh theo

~2 4 L(2L + 1)2 r2L2

L2 (Ef ) = . (3.141)
2m AEf (L + 2)2 rL1 2
Mt chuyn ht nhn xy dng trong mu tp th Bohr-Mottelson (3.139)

v ang c s dng rng ri trong phng php folding kp (double-folding

method) [44] tnh th ht nhn - ht nhn trong cc phn ng tn x phi n

hi kch thch cc trng thi dao ng nm thp v CHKL ht nhn [40]. C

th, phng php folding c bit hu ch trong cc tnh ton phn tnh ng

gp ca cc thnh phn a xc khc nhau trong ph kch thch cc trng thi

CHKL ca phn ng tn x - ht nhn nh minh ha trn hnh 3.31. Nhng

chi tit c th ca nghin cu phn ng tn x ht nhn s c trnh by

phn II ca cun sch ny.

3.5 Cc tnh cht c bn ca vt cht ht nhn

Mt trong nhng hng nghin cu cu trc ht nhn truyn thng l nghin

cu cc tnh cht c bn ca vt cht ht nhn (nuclear matter, vit tt tip y

l VCHN), dng vt cht "v hn" mt siu cao v c cu trc t cc ht

nucleon, lepton v meson v khng c bt k gii hn b mt no trong khng

gian. Ta c th hnh dung lng vt cht trong tm ca cc ht nhn nng nh

178
Hnh 3.32: S minh ha cu trc ca mt sao neutron vi phn li ngoi (outer core) c th
c xt n nh vt cht ht nhn ng nht vi 70 80% l neutron v 20 30% l proton
v cc meson nng khc.

ch, Uranium... nh mt mnh nh ca VCHN. Mc d l mt mu vt cht l

tng ha, nhng nghin cu VCHN v hn li l rt thit yu hiu c

cu trc phc tp ca hng nghn ht nhn hu hn, c bit l tng tc vi m

gia cc nucleon nm lin kt trong ht nhn. Ngoi ra, cc nghin cu cu trc

VCHN c mt vai tr v cng quan trng trong cc nghin cu vt l ht nhn

thin vn v tnh cht ca sao neutron (neutron star), phn li vt cht cn li

sau mt v n Supernova (v n gn vi s kt thc qu trnh tn ti ca mt

ngi sao khng l c khi lng bng hng trm ln khi lng mt tri). Vi

179
mt kch thc v cng nh (ng knh khong 10 km) v khi lng khong

1 2 khi lng mt tri, sao neutron l i tng vt cht c mt rt cao

vi phn li c mt bng 2 n 3 ln mt cht ht nhn trong tm cc

ht nhn nng (xem hnh 3.32). Nh vy, sao neutron thc t l VCHN v hn
14
khi c xt trong kch thc di c trng ca VLHN (10 1015 m).

Ngay trong gii thin h (galaxy) cha h mt tri ca chng ta c chng c

khong 20 30 nghn sao neutron ang tri ni theo cc qu o khc nhau

v vic nghin cu cc tnh cht c bn ca sao neutron thc s rt l cp thit

trong vt l ht nhn thin vn.

3.5.1 Mu kh Fermi cho VCHN

Dng mu cu trc n gin nht ca VCHN l mu kh Fermi (trnh by

mc 3.1.1) ca cc nucleon chuyn ng c lp khng tng tc vi nhau

nhng khng nh v trong bt k mt th lin kt hu hn no. Khi , hm

sng ca nucleon vn l sng phng xc nh t nghim ca phng trnh (3.7)

~2 k 2
k (r) = exp(ik.r), k = . (3.142)
2m
Do khng b g b bi iu kin bin, vector xung lng ca nucleon p = ~k
l mt i lng lin tc (0 < k < kF ) trong mu kh Fermi n gin ca

VCHN v xung lng Fermi c biu din qua mt nucleon trong VCHN

tng t (3.14) nh sau

( )1/3
3 2
kF = . (3.143)
2
Mt bo ha (saturation density) ca VCHN i xng (xem phn di y)
3
l 0 0.17 fm , tng ng vi xung lng v nng lng Fermi xc dnh
1
theo kF 1.36 fm v F = ~2 kF2 /(2m) 38.7 MeV. Nh vy, trong mt

VCHN mt 0 , gi tr cc i ca xung lng nucleon s bng pF = ~kF .

180
3.5.2 Mu Hartree-Fock v phng trnh trng thi VCHN

Mu kh Fermi thc ra ch l im xut pht ca nghin cu VCHN v n khng

xt n tng tc mnh lin kt cc nucleon trong VCHN ti cc mt khc

nhau. Trong trng hp tng qut, VCHN l mt bi ton nhiu ht (many-

body problem) tng tc mnh vi nhau v ngi ta phi dng cc phng

php gn ng khc nhau gii bi ton . Cng nh trong nghin cu cu

trc ht nhn hu hn, mu Hartree-Fock (HF) c s dng kh ph bin

nh phng php trng trung bnh m t cc tnh cht c bn ca VCHN.

Trong mu HF ngi ta thng xt n VCHN ng nht (homogeneous) c

mt neutron n v proton p tng ng vi bt i xng neutron-proton

= (n p )/(n + p ). Cc nucleon c lin kt vi nhau qua tng tc NN

hiu dng ph thuc vo mt , hon ton tng t nh tng tc hiu dng

dng trong cc tnh ton cu trc ht nhn hu hn. Nng lng lin kt ton

phn ca VCHN c xc nh trong cc phng php HF nh sau

1
E = Ekin + [k, k |vD |k, k
2
k k
+ k, k
|vEX |k , k ], |k = exp(ik.r) . (3.144)

vD v vEX l cc thnh phn trc tip v trao i ca tng tc NN, |k

l sng phng m t trng thi ca n nucleon trong VCHN. Phng trnh

trng thi (equation of state, vit tt l EOS) ca VCHN thng c m t

qua ba i lng chnh l cc hm ph thuc mt ca nng lng lin kt

ring ca VCHN (trn mt nucleon)

E E
(, ) = (, = 0) + S() 2 + O( 4 ) + ... (3.145)
A A
p sut (pressure) P v nn K ca VCHN
(incompressibility)
[ ] 2
[ ]
E E
P (, ) = 2 (, ) ; K(, ) = 92 2 (, ) . (3.146)
A A

181
 120
Symmetric Nuclear Matter
100
CDM3Y6
CDM3Y4
80 CDM3Y3
M3Y-P3
60 M3Y-P4
M3Y-P5
D1N
40 D1S
SLy4
20 APR

0
E/A (MeV)

-20
200
180
Pure Neutron Matter
160
140
120
100
80
60
40
20

0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8

-3
(fm )

Hnh 3.33: ph thuc vo mt VCHN ca nng lng lin kt ring ca VCHN i xng
v cht neutron, c tnh trong mu HF vi cc phin bn khc nhau ca tng tc NN hiu
dng [45].

Cc tnh ton vi m khng nh l cc s hng bc cao O( 4 )... trong h thc

(3.145) l rt nh v nng lng lin kt VCHN c th c xt n nh mt

hm parabol ca thng s bt i xng neutron-proton . Nng lng i xng

(symmetry energy) S() l mt i lng c bit quan trng trong nghin cu
EOS ca VCHN phi i xng (khi = 0). Ta d thy S() l nng lng trung
bnh trn mt nucleon cn thit chuyn VCHN i xng (symmetric nuclear

matter) vi = 0 sang vt cht neutron (neutron matter) vi = 1.

182
 Pure neutron matter
2
10

1
10
Exp. flow data
P (MeV fm )
-3

0
10

Symmetric nuclear matter

2
10

CDM3Y6
CDM3Y4
1
CDM3Y3
10 M3Y-P3
M3Y-P4
M3Y-P5
D1N
D1S
SLy4
0
10
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8
-3
(fm )

Hnh 3.34: ph thuc vo mt VCHN ca p sut VCHN i xng v cht neutron, c

tnh trong mu HF vi cc phin bn khc nhau ca tng tc NN hiu dng [45]. Vng mu
m l gii gi tr P bn thc nghim c xc nh t cc phn ng va chm ion nng [46].

S ph thuc vo mt nucleon ca nng lng lin kt v p sut ca

VCHN i xng v cht neutron, tnh trong mu HF vi cc phin bn khc

nhau ca tng tc NN hiu dng [45], c trnh by trn cc hnh 3.33 v

3.34. Ta thy rng nng lng lin kt VCHN i xng c im cc tiu ti

0 0.17 fm3 v im ny cn c gi l mt bo ha ca VCHN i

xng. Trong thc t, 0 tng ng vi mt nucleon trong tm cc ht nhn

208
nng nh Pb. Ti im bo ha, nn ca VCHN i xng c xc nh

bng nhiu phng php khc nhau l K( = 0 , = 0) 24020 MeV [47].

183
 1
10
16 16
O+ O, Elab=350 MeV
0
10
BDM3Y3 (K=566 MeV)
BDM3Y2 (K=418 MeV)
-1 CDM3Y6 (K=252 MeV)
10
DDM3Y1 (K=176 MeV)
d/dMott

-2
10

-3
10

-4
10

-5
10

-6
10
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90

c.m.(deg)

Hnh 3.35: M t tn x n hi 16 O+16 O ti nng lng Elab = 350 MeV vi th tn x c

tnh vi m trong mu folding vi cc phin bn khc nhau ca tng tc NN hiu dng [47].
Tng tc CDM3Y6 tng ng vi nn K 252 MeV [48] ca VCHN i xng l phin
bn chun nht cho tnh ton th tn x.

Th d trnh by trn hnh 3.35 minh ha chun xc ca phin bn tng tc

NN hiu dng CDM3Y6 [48] trong cc tnh ton vi m tit din tn x n hi

16 16
ca h ion nng O+ O khi c so snh vi tit din tn x thc nghim. T

nhng nghin cu nh vy cc gi tr thc t ca K c th c xc nh kh

chnh xc. nn ca VCHN l mt trong nhng thng s quan trng nht

phn loi cc phng trnh trng thi ca VCHN (xem thm chi tit trong

cng trnh tng quan [47]). Cng vi K, s hiu bit v nng lng i xng

S() ca VCHN vi = 0 cng rt cn thit trong cc nghin cu qu trnh

184
hnh thnh sao neutron v cc nghin cu tnh cht ca S() ti mt VCHN
cao ( > 0 ) l mt trong nhng ti nng hi ca VLHN hin i. Trn c

s ca cc tnh cht cu trc ht nhn c tnh theo cc mu cu trc khc

nhau cng nhng s liu thc nghim o c trong cc phn ng vi cc ht

nhn c bt i xng neutron-proton ln, ngi ta ang tm cch xc nh

chun cc thng s dng tnh ton S() v t c kt lun v dng ca

S() ti cc mt khc nhau. Tuy nhin, y l mt lnh vc kh phc tp

v i hi nhng th nghim vi chnh xc cao (v a s cc ht nhn c

ln l nhng ht nhn khng bn vi thi gian sng rt ngn). Cho n nay,

cc nghin cu trong hng ny vn cn c nhng kt lun i khi mu thun

nhau v tnh cht ca S() ti mt VCHN cao. Th d nh cc phin bn

tng tc NN hiu dng tng ng vi cc gi tr p sut P ca VCHN lch ra

khi vng cc gi tr bn thc nghim c xc nh t cc phn ng ion nng

nh M3Y-Pn hoc D1N, D1S (xem hnh 3.34) li l nhng tng tc m t kh

tt cu trc cc ht nhn giu neutron v ngc li cc phin bn CDM3Yn

khng th dng m t cu trc ht nhn tt nhng li cho cc gi tr P nm

trong gii gi tr xc nh t thc nghim (xem tho lun chi tit trong cng

trnh [45]).

3.6 Cu trc quark ca nucleon

Mc d mt thi gian di proton v neutron c coi nh cc ht c bn

(elementary particle) cu trc ln ht nhn nguyn t, s khc bit r rng gia

cc gi tr moment t ca proton v neutron cng nh nhng kt qu o cc

phn ng tn x nucleon-nucleon nng lng cao trong nhng nm 60 ca th

k trc m cn c bit n nh cc phn ng tn x phi n hi su (deep

inelastic scattering) cho thy proton v neutron khng phi l ht im m

185
chng c cu trc v kch thc hu hn. C th, phn b in tch hu hn

trong khng gian ta c (r) ca proton c xc nh kh chnh xc t

nhng phn ng tn x trn v nh vy cu trc phc tp ca nucleon c

khng nh. Nhng kt qu ny thc s l nhng thch thc rt ln i vi

VLHN thi gian v hai tn tui ln ca vt l hin i l Murray Gell-Mann

(gii thng Nobel vt l 1969) v George Zweig c lp vi nhau cng

a ra nhng kt qu tnh ton l thuyt ca mnh trong nhng nm 1963 v

1964 khng nh s tn ti ca ht quark nh ht fermion c bn cu trc

ln nucleon. Bc tin v cng quan trng ny ca vt l hin i khng

d dng c cng nhn vi mt l do n gin l ht quark vn cha bao

gi quan st c trn thc nghim di dng ht t do nh cc ht electron,

positron ... (nhng fermion c bn c trng cho tng tc in t v yu m

cn c gi chung l cc lepton). Trong chng ny chng ta lm quen ngn

gn vi cu trc quark ca nucleon qua biu din cp moment gc quen thuc

c dng trn trong m t cu trc ht nhn.

Ht quark (q ) c spin s = 1/2 nh tt c cc fermion khc v c s barion

(barion number) B = 1/3. Ta cn bit rng s barion B l s lng t c trng
phn bit cc ht barion (nhng hadron c spin bn nguyn v B = 0) vi

cc ht meson (nhng hadron c spin nguyn v B = 0) v B l mt i lng

c bo ton trong cc qu trnh tng tc vt l. Tt c cc barion quan st

c vi B =1 c khng nh l c cu trc t ba ht quark (qqq) trong

khi cc meson vi B =0 c cu trc t cc cp quark - phn quark (qq).

Mc d quark khng bao gi quan st c di dng ht t do, s tn ti ca

n c khng nh bi nhng sn phm phn r (decay product) ca quark

quan st c trong cc th nghim khc nhau. Trong thin nhin tn ti 6

ht quark c bn vi cng spin s = 1/2 v s barion B = 1/3 nhng c cc

tnh cht vt l khc nhau phn bit bi cc s lng t u, d, s, c, b, t (vit tt

tng ng ca up, down, strange, charm, bottom, top). Ta xt tip u-quark

186
v d-quark v y l hai ht fermion c bn cu trc ln proton, neutron v

cc trng thi cng hng (delta resonance) nh minh ha trn hnh 3.36.

C th, c hai ht quark ny u c spin ng v t = 1/2 nhng u-quark c

in tch Qu = 2e/3 v d-quark c in tch Qd = e/3. Proton c cu trc

t hai u-quark v mt d-quark vi in tch Qp = 2 Qu + Qd = e v spin

Sp = |S|p = |su (1) + su (2) + sd | = 1/2, trong khi neutron c cu trc t hai
d-quark v mt u-quark v l trung ha in v Qn = 2 Qd + Qu = 0 v spin
Sn = 1/2. Tng t nh spin S, isospin ca nucleon cng bng tng ca ba

isospin ca ba ht quark thnh phn, T = 1/2. Trong biu din n gin ca

S=1/2+, T=1/2 S=1/2+, T=1/2 S=3/2+, T=3/2

u u u d u u u
d d

Proton Neutron Delta

Hnh 3.36: S minh ha cu trc ca proton, neutron nh trng thi ca ba quark trong
trng thi n quark 1s1/2 cp vi nhau thnh trng thi (1s1/2 )3 vi spin tng S = 1/2+ v
spin ng v tng T = 1/2. Trng thi kch thch ca nucleon ++ cng c th m t nh
trng thi ca ba u-quark (1s1/2 )3 vi spin tng S = 3/2+ v spin ng v tng T = 3/2.

mu v quark (quark shell model) ta c hm sng ca nucleon v bn trng

thi cng hng , 0 , + , ++ (nucleon trong cc trng thi kch thch vi

khi lng M 1238 MeV, spin S = 3/2+ v in tch tng ng bng

e, 0, e, 2e) u c th c xy dng t ba hm sng n quark 1s1/2 ca

u-quark v d-quark nh minh ha trn hnh 3.36. Tuy nhin ta d thy ngay

trn hnh 3.36 mt mu thun c bn vi nguyn l loi tr Pauli: u-quark l

3
mt fermion v trng thi (1s1/2 ) ca ht ++ cu trc t ba u-quark vi cng
cc s lng t spin, isospin (u,u,u) l i xng i vi php hon v trng

187
thi ca hai u-quark bt k. y l mt thch thc tng nh khng vt qua

ni trong nhng nm 60 v cui cng li c mt gii php kh n gin m

nhanh chng gp phn xy dng ln sc ng hc lng t (QCD), mu vi m

chun xc ca tng tc NN nng lng cao. C th, trong QCD mi ht

quark cn c gn vi mt bc t do ni (internal degree of freedom) m c

th nhn ba gi tr c lp khc nhau R, G, B (vit tt cho Red, Green, Blue),

c cc nh vt l gi l in tch mu (color charge). Mi in tch mu u

c phn mu (anticolor) ca mnh (anti-Red, anti-Green v anti-Blue, k hiu

tng ng l R, G v B) v cc phn quark (antiquark) phi c gn vi bc

t do phn mu. Mt trng thi n quark trong cng hng ++ l (u)c , vi

c = R, G, B v nguyn l Pauli vn c duy tr nu ta yu cu thnh phn mu

(u,u,u)c trong hm sng ca ++ phi l phn i xng i vi php hon

v trng thi ca hai u-quark bt k. Tuy nhin, bc t do mu v phn mu

cng nh chnh bn thn cc ht quark v phn quark lun b "giam cm" bn

trong cc hadron v v th khng th quan st c trn thc nghim. Hiu ng

giam cm (confinement) ny l mt ni dung c bn ca sc ng hc lng

t QCD. Trong QCD, tng tc mnh gia hai nucleon c m t vi m nh

mt qu trnh tng hp cc qu trnh trao i gluon (gluon exchange) gia cc

ht quark nh minh ha trn hnh 2.3 (gluon c spin bng 1 v l lng t ca

tng tc mnh mang trong mnh ng thi mu v phn mu). Nh vy, qu

trnh tng tc NN c th c m t nh qu trnh truyn ti in tch mu

bi gluon gia cc u-quark v d-quark thnh phn trong hai nucleon tng tc.

188
Chng 4

Tham kho c hc lng t chn lc

4.1 Tm tt mt s i xng c bn

Nhng kin thc v cc i xng c bn trong vt l lng t l rt cn thit

hiu c bn cht tng tc ht nhn cng nh cu trc phc tp ca ht

nhn trong biu din ca cc mu cu trc vi m v tp th. Trong nh ngha

chung, nu U l mt php bin i i xng ca ht nhn v l hm sng

ton phn ca ht nhn tha mn phng trnh Schroedinger H = E th

U cng phi l nghim ca phng trnh Schroedinger ny. C th,

H U = E U H U = U E = U H [H, U ] = 0. (4.1)

Ngoi ra, U phi l mt ton t unita m bo tnh chun trc giao ca hm

sng nn ta c
U + = U U + U = U U + = 1. (4.2)

Theo nh l Noether (do Emil Noether, mt nh n ton hc c a ra t

u th k 20) th ng sau mi mt bin i i xng ta u c mt i lng

vt l c bo ton. Ni cch khc, nu U giao hon vi Hamiltonian H th

U l mt php bin i i xng v n phi tng ng vi mt i lng vt

l c bo ton.

189
4.1.1 i xng tnh tin

y l i xng n gin nht hin din trong vt l v m v vi m, m bo

tnh bt bin ca cc tnh cht vt l i vi php chuyn tnh tin (translation)

trong khng gian ta . i vi mt ht c ta khng gian r, moment

xung lng p v spin s, php tnh tin c nh ngha nh sau

r r = r + a, p p = p, s s = s, (4.3)

vi a l vector hng s c trng cho php tnh tin. Ta k hiu tip php bin
i tnh tin bng ton t U (a) v biu din tng minh h thc bt bin sau

(r ) U (a)(U (a)r) = (r + a) = (r) (r) = (r a). (4.4)

Thc hin tip khai trin theo chui Taylor

(a.)n
(r a) = (r) = exp(a.)(r). (4.5)
n=0
n!
Sau khi lp ton t moment xung lng p = i~ vo h thc (4.5) ta c
( )
ia.p
(r) = U (a)(r) = exp (r), (4.6)
~
vi U + (a) = U 1 (a) = U (a) v [H, U (a)] = 0 [H, p] = 0. (4.7)

Nh vy, ng sau bt bin tnh tin l lut bo ton ca moment xung lng.

Hay ni cch khc nh lut bo ton xung lng l h qu ca tnh ng

nht (homogeneity) ca khng gian. Hon ton tng t ta c nh lut bo

ton nng lng l h qu ca tnh ng nht ca thi gian v ton t tnh tin

trong thi gian c xc nh theo

()
iEt
(r) = U (t)(r) = exp (r), (4.8)
~
vi E l tr ring ca phng trnh Schroedinger H(r) = E(r) v hm

sng ton phn (r, t) tha mn phng trnh

(r, t)
i~ = H(r, t). (4.9)
t

190
4.1.2 i xng quay v ma trn quay

Nu nh i xng tnh tin l h qu ca tnh ng nht ca khng gian th

bt bin quay (rotational invariance) th hin tnh ng hng (isotropy) ca

khng gian. C th, nu ht nhn c i xng quay th tt c cc tnh cht vt

l ca n khng i i vi bt k mt php quay no trong khng gian ta

. Do moment gc (angular momentum) ca ht nhn l i lng gn lin

vi i xng quay, vic xt tng minh ton t tng ng vi php quay ht

trong khng gian l kin thc thit yu hiu c cu trc ht nhn.

r=(r,+)

r=(r,)

Hnh 4.1: Php quay xung quanh trc z mt gc chuyn vector bn knh r sang r .

Trc tin ta xt n gin php quay trn mt phng (x, y) xung quanh trc
z mt gc chuyn vector bn knh r r. Trong biu din ta cc,

(x, y, z) (r, , z), dng tng minh ca ton t php quay R() c th c

191
xc nh t h thc sau

(r ) R()(R()r) = (r) (r, , z) = (r, , z). (4.10)

Sau khi thc hin khai trin (4.10) theo chui Taylor

()n n
(r, , z) = n
(r, , z) = exp( )(r, , z) (4.11)
n=0
n!

v biu din tip (4.11) qua thnh phn z ca vector moment qu o, ta c

( ) ( )
iLz
Lz = i~ x y = i~ R() = exp . (4.12)
y x ~

Nh vy, php quay khng gian xung quanh mt trc ta hon ton c

xc nh bi hnh chiu ca ton t vector moment qu o L ln trc .

Trong c hc lng t, mt php quay khng gian bt k chuyn h ta

(x, y, z) (x , y , z ) thng c biu din qua cc php quay xung quanh

cc trc ta theo cc gc Euler = (, , ) theo th t nh sau (xem minh

ha trn hnh 4.2)

1. quay xung quanh trc z mt gc , chuyn (x, y, z) (x , y , z ),

2. quay xung quanh trc y mt gc , chuyn (x , y , z ) (x , y , z ),

3. quay xung quanh trc z mt gc , chuyn (x , y , z ) (x , y , z ).

T h thc (4.12) ca ton t quay xung quanh trc ta ta c

( ) ( ) ( )
i L iLy iLz
Rxyz () = exp z
exp exp . (4.13)
~ ~ ~

i vi mt trng thi ca ht nhn c i xng quay, ta c h thc tng quan

(R()r) = (r ) R()(r) v thay cho php quay h ta ta c th

thc hin mt php quay hm sng trong h ta ban u theo cng cc

192
gc Euler c xt. Da trn dng tng minh (4.12) ca ton t quay, ta d

dng suy c ton t ca php quay hm sng trong h ta ban u c th

t quay o ngc so vi php quay h ta (4.13)

( ) ( ) ( )
iLz iLy i Lz
R () = exp exp exp . (4.14)
~ ~ ~

Trong cc tnh ton thc t ngi ta thng s dng nh ngha (4.14) cho php

quay trong khng gian v k hiu R() R ().

Hnh 4.2: Php quay khng gian chuyn h ta (x, y, z) (x , y , z ) c biu din qua
cc php quay thnh phn xung quanh cc trc ta theo cc gc Euler = (, , ). Minh
ha t ti liu [17].

Nh vy, php quay trong khng gian R() hon ton c xc nh bi

ton t vector moment qu o L. Do y l mt php bin i i xng nn

theo (4.1) ta c [H, R()] = 0 [H, L] = 0 v moment qu o ton phn L

l mt i lng c bo ton. T c hc lng t nhp mn ta bit rng cc

193
hm ring ca ton t moment qu o l tp hp 2L + 1 cc hm sng c s
|LM tha mn
2
L |LM = ~2 L(L + 1)|LM v Lz |LM = ~M |LM , (4.15)

vi M = L, L + 1, ..., L tng ng vi cc thnh phn hnh chiu Lz khc

nhau ca L ln trc z . Theo ngn ng ca l thuyt nhm (chuyn ngnh ton

hc nghin cu i xng) th tp hp 2L + 1 cc trng thi |LM l c s biu
din ti gin (irreducible representation) ca php quay R(). C th, R()
c biu din ti gin qua ma trn quay (rotation matrix) m cn c gi

l hm D sau

|LM DM M ().
(L) (L)
DM M () = LM |R()|LM |LM = (4.16)
M

T dng tng minh (4.14) v h thc (4.15) ta thu c

( )
iLy
DM M () = exp[i(M + M )]LM | exp
(L)
|LM
~
= exp[i(M + M )]dM M (),
(L)
(4.17)

(L)
vi dM M () c gi l ma trn quay rt gn (reduced rotation matrix). Dng
(L)
tng minh ca dM M () c th c tham kho trong cc sch chuyn kho

v moment gc th d nh cun sch ni ting ca Brink v Satchler [49]. Do

ton t quay R() l mt ton t unita nn

R+ () = R1 () DM M (, , ) = DM M (, , ).
(L) (L)
(4.18)

Ngoi ra, bn thn ma trn quay (4.16) cng l mt ma trn unita v ta c

(L) (L)
DM M ()DM N () = M N
M
(L) (L)
DM M ()DN M () = M N . (4.19)
M

194
Cc hm D hp thnh mt h hm c s y v trc chun (hm sng ca

cc trng thi quay ht nhn)

2 2
(L) (L ) 8 2
sin d d dDM N ()DM N () = LL M M N N .
0 0 0 2L + 1
(4.20)

Khi mt trong hai ch s M hoc M bng 0 th hm D c rt gn v hm

cu (hm ring ca ton t moment qu o)

(L) 4
DM 0 (, , ) = YLM (, ). (4.21)
2L + 1

4.1.3 i xng gng v chn l

y l tnh cht i xng lin quan ti php bin i phn x gng hay cn

gi l phn x khng gian (space reflection) v n c vai tr c bit quan trng

trong VLHN v vt l ht c bn. Ton t ca php bin i phn x gng P

l mt ton t unita v tc dng ln cc ta ta khng gian r, moment

xung lng p v spin s ca mt ht nh sau

r r = r, p p = p, s s = s. (4.22)

Nh vy, php bin i phn x gng P chuyn h ta khng gian t hng

tay phi (right-handed) sang hng tay tri (left-handed). Nu P l mt php

bin i i xng ca ht nhn th [H, P ] = 0 v hm sng ht nhn phi ng

thi l hm ring ca H v P .

P (r) = (r) = (r) = 1, (4.23)

vi chn l ca (r) l mt i lng c bo ton.

chn l ht nhn c th c minh ha r rng nht i vi cc trng

thi n ht (3.24) trong mu v. V spin khng thay i (P s = s) nn php

195
bin i phn x gng ch thay i thnh phn qu o ca (3.24)

Rnlj (r)
P nljm (r) = lml sms |jmYlml (r)s (ms ). (4.24)
r mm l s

T cc tnh cht i xng ca hm cu ta c

Ylml (r) Ylml ( , + ) = (1)l Ylml (, ). (4.25)

Nh vy chn l ca nucleon trong trng thi n ht (3.24) c xc nh

bi tnh chn l ca moment qu o tng ng, = (1)l . Hm sng ton

phn ca ht nhn (nh mt h a nucleon) l tch phn i xng cc hm sng

n ht ca tt c cc nucleon (3.29) v v th chn l ca ht nhn c

xc nh bng tch ca chn l ca cc nucleon

A
A
A = i = (1)li . (4.26)
i=1 i=1

Mi mt lp v |nlj c lp y c cha mt s chn (2j + 1) nucleon nn

chn l ca ht nhn (trong trng thi c bn) c hon ton xc nh bi

chn l ca lp v ha tr ngoi cng k mc Fermi. Trong th d minh ha

17
trn hnh 3.14 ht nhn O c mt neutron ha tr nm mc 1d5/2 v chn

l l dng (l = 2), cn ng v 15 O c mt trng thi l trng neutron mc

1p1/2 v chn l l m (l = 1).

Mt qu trnh chuyn dch ht nhn t trng thi i f gy bi tng

tc in t hoc tng tc mnh lun bo ton chn l. Ton t O tng ng

mt chuyn dch nh vy cng lun c mt chn l xc nh P O = O OP ,
vi O = 1 ph thuc vo tc dng ca php bin i phn x gng ln

O. Quy tc chn lc bo ton chn l d dng c suy t yu t ma trn

chuyn dch ht nhn sau

f |O|i = f |P 1 P OP 1 P |i = i f O f |O|i i f O = 1.
(4.27)

196
Th d cc ton t chuyn dch in O(E) c chn l E = (1) v

cc ton t chuyn dch t O(M ) c chn l M = (1)+1 (xem chi tit

trong phn tham kho 4.4. di y)

Hnh 4.3: S l tng cho th nghim o phn ng r ca 60 Co ca C.S. Wu v cng s.

i xng gng i hi s electron (ht ) ghi o c vi detector B trong khng gian phn
x gng (mirror world) phi bng s electron ghi o c vi detector A trong khng gian
thc (real world). Th nghim li cho thy phn ln electron u ghi o c vi detector A
trong trong khng gian phn x gng cng nh trong khng gian thc. Nh vy, i xng
gng b ph v trong cc qu trnh tng tc yu. Minh ha t ti liu [7].

Khc vi cc trng hp tng tc in t v tng tc mnh, i xng

gng b ph v trong cc qu trnh tng tc yu v chn l khng c

bo ton trong cc phn ng phn r nh c C.S. Wu pht minh ra khi

197
o phn b e pht ra t phn r ca
60
Co (xem s r trn hnh 1.17

v tho lun trn hnh 4.3). y l mt pht minh rt quan trng ca vt l

hin i, c tip ni bi pht minh trong nhng nm 60 ca th k 20 v ph

v i xng CP trong cc qu trnh r ca K -meson. i xng CP l i

xng bc cao hn bao gm php bin i i xng gng P v php bin i

lin hp in tch (charge conjugation) C m c thi c cho l i xng

chnh xc (exact symmetry) ca vt l vi m. Ph v i xng CP by gi

c coi l mt trong nhng nguyn nhn a n s bt i xng trong cc

thnh phn ht v phn ht (antiparticle) ca vt cht (v C chnh l ton t

bin i mt ht thnh phn ht ca n). i xng chnh xc trong th gii vi

m hin nay c tin l i xng CP T . y l php bin i i xng tng

qut bao gm C, P v php o nghch thi gian T .

4.1.4 i xng nghch o thi gian

y l mt dng i xng c bit khc vi nhng i xng xt trn. Bt

bin nghch o thi gian (time reversal invariance) m bo cc tnh cht vt

l ca ht khng i nu hng thi gian b o ngc. Php bin i tc dng

ln cc ta ta ca ht nh sau

r r = r, p p = p, s s = s, t t = t. (4.28)

Tuy nhin, php o nghch thi gian T khng phi l mt php bin i unita

v n khng bo ton mt s h thc c bn trong c hc lng t. Th d, T

lm i du h thc giao hon

[x, px ] = i~ [x , px ] = [x, px ] = i~. (4.29)

duy tr tnh bt bin ca cc h thc giao hon c bn ngi ta phi gn

km php o nghch thi gian vi php bin i lin hp phc (complex

198
conjugation), T C T . Mt th d khc l phng trnh Schroedinger ph

thuc thi gian cho hm sng ton phn ca ht (r, t)

i~ (r, t) = H(r, t), vi (r, t) = exp(iEt/~)(r). (4.30)
t
i vi trng thi tnh (r), hm ring ca Hamiltonian H(r) = E(r),
php bin i C T lun bo ton dng ca phng trnh (4.30).

Trong trng hp tng qut, hm sng ca ht nhn A = |A khng th l

hm ring ca T theo nh ngha bnh thng ca c hc lng t v

T 2 |A |A T |A = exp(iA )|A. (4.31)

Nh vy, T mang n mt tha s pha bt nh cho hm sng ht nhn v ta

khng th gn tha s pha ny vi mt tr ring xc nh (nh chn l trong

php bin i nghch o khng gian P ). Do tha s pha ny c dng hm ca

tha s pha tng ng vi php quay R xung quanh mt trc ta (4.12),

ta c th chn pha A ng ngc li vi pha xut hin sau php quay Ry ()

xung quanh trc y mt gc , lm o ngc hng ca J theo ng theo nh

ngha ca i xng nghch o thi gian. Khi , ta c th xy dng mt h

cc hm c s |JM vi moment gc J v hnh chiu M ln trc z xc nh

nh h cc hm ring ca ton t O = Ry ()T

Ry ()T |JM = |JM . (4.32)

Trong trng hp ny ta d dng suy c t yu t ma trn quay ca Ry ()

dng tng minh ca hm sng o nghch thi gian

JM |Ry ()|JM = dM M () = (1)JM M M

(J)

T |JM |JM = (1)JM |J M . (4.33)

Trong lnh vc phn ng ht nhn, i xng nghch o thi gian cho php

ta biu din tit din mt phn ng ht nhn trc tip a+Ab+B qua tit

199
Hnh 4.4: Tit din ca cc phn ng trc tip v phn ng ngc ti cng mt nng lng
khi tm Ec.m. = Ed M14 N /(M14 N + Md ) = E M12 C /(M12 C + M ) sau khi cn bng cc
h s ng hc ca hai chiu phn ng 14 N + d  12
C + . Minh ha t ti liu [17].

din ca phn ng ngc b + B a + A. C th, nu ta k hiu hm sng

ca h hai ht a + A l |A v b + B l |B th tit din ca phn ng trc tip

c xc nh bi yu t dch chuyn sau ca S ma trn

B|S|A = B out|A in. (4.34)

Trong a s cc trng hp, Hamiltonian ca h hai ht phn ng vi nhau

khng ph thuc vo thi gian nn [H, T ] = 0. Khi , php o nghch thi

gian (4.33) chuyn trng thi | in sang trng thi | out v ngc li

T |A in = |A out v T |B out = |B in. (4.35)

Do trng thi |A c moment gc v vector xung lng p i ngc hng so

200
vi cc i lng ny ca |A, ta c th chng minh c

B|S|A = B out|A in = A out|B in = A|S|B. (4.36)

H thc (4.36) cho php ta biu din tit din ca phn ng a + A b + B qua
tit din ca phn ng ngc b + B a + A. Th d trn hnh 4.4 l tit din
ca phn ng trc tip c so snh vi tit din ca phn ng ngc ti cng

mt nng lng ca h khi tm Ec.m. sau khi cn bng cc h s ng hc

khc nhau ca hai chiu phn ng

14
N+d  12
C + . (4.37)

Ta thy rng hai tit din thc nghim trn hnh 4.4 rt gn nhau (vi chnh

lch khng qu 5%) v y l minh ha in hnh ca i xng nghch o

thi gian i vi cc qu trnh phn ng trc tip v phn ng ngc th hin

qua h thc (4.36).

4.2 Moment gc v tensor cu

Mt trong nhng h qu quan trng nht ca bt bin quay trong khng gian

ta l s bo ton moment gc ca ht. V th moment gc l s lng t

quan trng nht phn loi cc trng thi ht nhn khc nhau v nhng kin

thc c bn ca c hc lng t v moment gc l rt cn thit trong hc tp v

nghin cu cu trc cng nh phn ng ht nhn. Ba dng chnh ca moment

gc thng gp trong VLHN l moment qu o L, spin S v moment gc

ton phn J = L+S ca mt ht hoc mt h nhiu ht. K hiu thng

dng cho nhng i lng ny ca mt trng thi n ht l l, s, j cn L, S, J

dng k hiu cc moment gc tng ca mt h c hai ht tr ln.

i vi ba thnh phn hnh chiu ca mt ton t moment gc bt k ta u

201
c h thc giao hon

[Jx , Jy ] = i~Jz , [Jy , Jz ] = i~Jx , [Jz , Jx ] = i~Jy . (4.38)

T (4.38) ta suy ra h thc giao hon sau gia bnh phng moment gc vi

cc thnh phn hnh chiu ca n

2 2 2
[J , Jx ] = [J , Jy ] = [J , Jz ] = 0. (4.39)

H qu ca (4.38) l hai thnh phn hnh chiu bt k ca moment gc khng

th c tr ring c xc nh ng thi. Tuy nhin, h thc (4.39) li cho php

2
J c th c tr ring c xc nh ng thi cng vi tr ring ca mt thnh
2
phn hnh chiu. Quy c thng thng l chn J v Jz c cc tr ring tng

ng l J v M c xc nh vi cng mt hm ring |JM

2
J |JM = ~2 J(J + 1)|JM v Jz |JM = ~M |JM . (4.40)

Tp hp 2J + 1 hm ring |JM (tng ng vi M = J, J + 1, ..., J ) to

thnh h hm c s cho biu din ti gin php quay khng gian R tng ng
vi moment gc J .

Do cc ton t Jx v Jy khng giao hon vi Jz , tc ng ca chng ch c

th c th hin qua cc ton t dch (shift operator)

J+ = Jx + iJy v J = Jx iJy . (4.41)

T (4.38) v (4.41) ta d dng suy ra

[Jz , J ] = ~Jz Jz J |JM = ~(M 1)J |JM . (4.42)

Nh vy,J |JM |JM 1 l hm ring ca Jz tng ng vi tr ring

~(M 1). Cc ton t dch J ch c yu t ma trn khc khng sau

JM 1|J |JM = (J M + 1)(J M ). (4.43)

202
4.2.1 Php cng moment gc v h s Clebsch-Gordan

Khi hai ht thnh phn ca mt h hai ht c cc moment gc tng ng

l j1 v j2 th chng thng cp vi nhau hnh thnh mt trng thi hai

ht |(j1 j2 )JM vi moment gc J bng tng hai moment gc thnh phn,

J = j 1 + j 2 , nh minh ha trn hnh 4.5.

|(j1 j2 )JM = j1 m1 j2 m2 |JM |j1 m2 |j2 m2 . (4.44)
m1 ,m2

H s khai trin j1 m1 j2 m2 |JM l h s Clebsch-Gordan (CG) m i

Hnh 4.5: Minh ha php cng hai vector moment gc j 1 v j 2 thnh moment gc tng J
hng theo chiu quay xung quanh trc z . Minh ha t ti liu [49].

khi cn c gi l h s Wigner. Th d thng gp trong VLHN ca

php cng moment gc (4.44) l cc trng thi hai nucleon (3.52)-(3.53) trong

cc tnh ton vi m cu trc ht nhn ca mu v hoc QRPA... D thy

|l1 m1 j2 m2 |JM |2 cho ta xc sut hai moment gc j1 v j2 ca hai ht thnh

phn trong trng thi |JM c hnh chiu ln lt l m1 v m2 . Cc gi tr kh

203
d ca J c xc nh theo quy tc tam gic (triangle rule) sau

J = |j1 j2 |, |j1 j2 | + 1, ..., j1 + j2 |j1 j2 | 6 J 6 j1 + j2 . (4.45)

T (4.45) ta suy ra s cc trng thi cp hai ht |JM (kch thc ca h hm

c s biu din php quay khng gian tng ng vi J)
j
1 +j2

N= (2J + 1) = (2j1 + 1)(2j2 + 1). (4.46)

J=|j1 j2 |

T cc h thc jz |jm = ~m|jm ta c quy tc chn lc sau cho hnh chiu

M ca h s CG

Jz |JM = (j1z + j2z )|JM j1 m1 j2 m2 |JM = 0 khi M = m1 + m2 .

(4.47)

T cc h thc trc chun ca h hm c s |JM ta suy ra cc h thc trc

giao sau ca h s CG

j1 m1 j2 m2 |JM j1 m1 j2 m2 |J M = JJ M M ,
m1 m2

j1 m1 j2 m2 |JM j1 m1 j2 m2 |JM = m1 m1 m2 m2 . (4.48)
JM
Di y l mt s h thc i xng ca h s CG i vi php o ngc u

hnh chiu hoc th t cp moment gc

j1 m1 j2 m2 |JM = (1)j1 +j2 J j1 m1 j2 m2 |J M ,

= (1)j1 +j2 J j2 m2 j1 m1 |J M ,

2J + 1
= (1)j1 m1 j1 m1 J M |j2 m2 ,
2j2 + 1

2J + 1
= (1)j2 +m2 J M j2 m2 |j1 m1 . (4.49)
2j1 + 1
Trng hp c bit khi J = 0 (nh nhng trng thi hai nucleon c ng gp
vo cc kch thch n cc ht nhn 0+ ) ta c
1
j1 m1 j2 m2 |00 = (1)j1 m1 j j m m . (4.50)
2j1 + 1 1 2 1 2
204
 Trong thc t, nhiu khi ta c nhng trng thi ba ht c moment gc tng

J c to thnh t php cng ba moment gc j1 , j2 , j3 ca ba ht thnh phn.

Tuy nhin th t cp cc vector moment gc trong trng hp ny c th khc

nhau: j 1 + j 2 = J 12 J 12 + j 3 = J hoc j 2 + j 3 = J 23 j 1 + J 23 = J .
Hm sng tng ng ca h ba ht s c biu din qua nhau nh sau

|(j1 j2 )J12 , j3 ; J = (1)j1 +j2 +j3 +J (2J12 + 1)(2J23 + 1)
J23
{ }
j1 j2 J12
|j1 , (j2 j3 )J23 ; J. (4.51)
j3 J J23

Biu thc ngoc kp l biu tng 6j (6j symbol) hay cn c gi l h s

Racah, xut hin rt thng xuyn trong cc tnh ton cng moment gc ca

c hc lng t cc h a ht. Tng t, khi ta c nhng trng thi bn ht c

moment gc tng J c to thnh t php cng bn moment gc j1 , j2 , j3 , j4

ca bn ht thnh phn th ngoi cc h s CG v biu tng 6j , trong nhng

tnh ton cp moment gc s xut hin nhng biu tng 9j c cha 9 moment
gc khc nhau [49].

4.2.2 Tensor cu v ton t chuyn dch ht nhn

Cc qu trnh chuyn dch ht nhn |Ji |Jf c m t qua tc ng

ca ton t chuyn O c trng cho mt qu trnh phn ng kch thch ht

nhn. Moment gc (hay l spin) ca trng thi cui Jf thng l khc vi i

lng ny trng thi u v khi ta c O chuyn sang cho ht nhn mt

moment gc tha mn h thc cng vector moment gc J f = J i + v

|Ji Jf | 6 6 Ji + Jf . (4.52)

Th d hay gp nht ca mt ton t dch chuyn ht nhn nh trn l ton

t dch chuyn in O(E). Do moment gc chuyn c th c 2 + 1

205
hnh chiu khc nhau trn trc z , O thc t l mt tp hp 2 + 1 ton t

O , ( = , + 1, ..., ) v O cn c gi l mt tensor cu bc
(spherical tensor of rank ). Tc dng ca O ln hm sng ht nhn c th

c biu din nh sau

O |Ji Ji Mi |JM O |Ji Mi = |JM . (4.53)
Mi

Tnh cht tensor cu th hin qua bin i ca O i vi php quay h ta

(x, y, z) (x , y , z ) theo ba gc Euler = (, , )

()
O = O D (), (4.54)
=

vi O l ton t trong h ta (x , y , z ) v hm quay D c nh ngha

theo h thc (4.16). y l tnh cht c bn nht ca mt tensor cu v ta c

th dng cc h thc (4.53)-(4.54) nh ngha tensor cu tng qut. Th d

nh tp hp cc hm cu Y (, ) hay tp hp cc hm c s |JM ca ton

t moment gc J cng l nhng tensor cu theo nh ngha tng qut.

T (4.53) ta biu din c yu t ma trn tng ng vi dch chuyn ht

nhn |Ji |Jf nh sau

Jf Mf |O |Ji Mi = Ji Mi |JM Jf Mf |JM . (4.55)
JM

S dng tnh cht trc giao Jf Mf |JM = SJJf M Mf , vi S khng ph

thuc vo cc s lng t t lin quan (Mi , Mf , ), ta c

Ji Mi |Jf Mf
Jf Mf |O |Ji Mi = SJi Mi |Jf Mf Jf ||O ||Ji .
2Jf + 1
(4.56)

H thc (4.56) c bit n nh nh l Wigner-Eckart, vi s ph thuc

ca yu t ma trn dch chuyn ht nhn vo cc s lng t t Mi , M f v

c xc nh n gin bi h s CG ca php cng cc moment gc lin quan.

206
Ton b cc thng tin cu trc ht nhn gn lin vi chuyn dch (4.56) c

xc nh bi yu t ma trn rt gn (reduced matrix element) Jf ||O ||Ji .

C th, xc sut chuyn dch ht nhn |Ji |Jf c xc nh t yu t
ma trn rt gn nh sau

|Jf ||O ||Ji |2

B(O ; Ji Jf ) = |Jf Mf |O |Ji Mi |2 = . (4.57)
2Ji + 1
Mf

Do ton t O l hermit, ta c xc sut ca qu trnh chuyn dch ngc chiu

c xc nh theo

|Ji ||O ||Jf |2 2Ji + 1

B(O ; Jf Ji ) = = B(O ; Ji Jf ). (4.58)
2Jf + 1 2Jf + 1

i vi cc chuyn dch in O(E), xc sut chuyn dch B(E; Ji Jf )

c th o c trc tip t cng bc x thc nghim ca ph r ht

nhn. Khi , xc sut B(E) thc nghim c th c so snh trc tip vi

xc sut (4.58) tnh vi hm sng ht nhn trong cc trng thi u v cui, s

dng O(E) Q l moment a cc in xc nh theo biu thc (1.23) vi

mt in tch c (r) ca ht nhn trong trng thi kch thch |Jf .

Phn ln cc cng thc bin i rt gn thng gp c cha cc tensor cu,

h s CG, biu tng 6j v 9j trong cc tnh ton c hc lng t c th c

tham kho trong sch chuyn kho chi tit v l thuyt moment gc lng t

ca cc tc gi Lin X c [50].

4.2.3 Spin v spin ng v

Mc d cng c cc tnh cht ca moment gc, spin nucleon l moment gc

trong (intrinsic angular momentum) bn nguyn (s = 1/2) ca nucleon v n

cng c nhng tnh cht c trng ring khc vi moment qu o l . Th d

mt php quay mt gc 2 xung quanh trc z, Rz (2) = exp(i2ml ) 1,

207
khng lm thay i hm ring ca ton t moment qu o l tng ng vi tr
ring ml ca lz . Vi tr ring ca hnh chiu ton t spin ms = 1/2, mt php
quay nh vy s lm i du hm spinor v Rz (2) = exp(i2ms ) 1.
Theo c hc lng t, s khc nhau ny l do cc ton t moment qu o v

spin c cng mt cu trc i s Lie nhng li thuc v hai nhm i xng

khc nhau: SO(3) v SU(2). S hiu bit chi tit cu trc ton t spin bn

nguyn v hm spinor tng ng cho spin v spin ng v ca nucleon l rt

cn thit hiu c tng tc gia hai nucleon cng nh cc quy tc chn

lc ca nguyn l Pauli trong cu trc cng nh phn ng ht nhn.

Ton t s = ~/2 ch tc dng ln thnh phn ph thuc vo spin ca hm

(x , y , z ) vi
sng nucleon v c xc nh bi vector ma trn Pauli

( ) ( ) ( )
0 1 0 i 1 0
x = , y = , z = . (4.59)
1 0 i 0 0 1

Tng t, ton t t = /2 ch tc dng ln thnh phn ph thuc vo spin

ng v ca hm sng nucleon v cng c xc nh bi vector ma trn Pauli

(x , y , z ), vi i i . Do cc ton t s v t c hm ring trong cng mt

dng spinor (1.18), ta c th xy dng cc ton t dch tng t nh (4.42) v

(4.43) t cc thnh phn x v y ca vector ma trn Pauli nh sau

(x iy )s () = s () v (x iy )s () = s (),
(x iy )t (n) = t (p) v (x iy )t (p) = t (n). (4.60)

Do tng tc NN ph thuc vo spin v spin ng v ca cp nucleon tng

tc, ta phi xt tng minh thnh phn ph thuc vo spin (S = s1 + s2 ) ca

hm sng h hai nucleon. C th, khi hai nucleon c hnh chiu spin ln trc

z ngc chiu nhau (s1z = s2z ) th spin tng S=0 v thnh phn spin ca

208
hm sng c dng

111 1 1 111
|S = 0 = |00s1 ()s2 () + |00s1 ()s2 ()
222 2 2 222
1
= [s1 ()s2 () s1 ()s2 ()] . (4.61)
2
Ta d thy trng thi (4.61), m thng c gi l trng thi spin n mc

(spin singlet), l phn i xng i vi php hon v spin ca hai nucleon

tng tc (s1  s2 ). Bng mt cch khai trin tng t ta c th chng minh

c rng trng thi spin |S = 1 m thng c gi l trng thi spin tam

mc (spin triplet) l mt trng thi i xng i vi php hon v spin ca hai

nucleon. Hon ton tng t i vi thnh phn ph thuc vo spin ng v

(T = t1 + t2 ) ca hm sng h hai nucleon, ta cng c trng thi spin ng v

n mc (isospin singlet) |T = 0 l phn i xng v trng thi spin ng v
tam mc (isospin triplet) |T = 1 l i xng i vi php hon v spin ng

v ca hai nucleon tng tc (t1  t2 ).

Php hon v ta spin hoc spin ng v ca hai nucleon c th biu din

tng minh qua ton t trao i (exchange operator) sau

1 1
P = (1 + 1 . 2 ) v P = (1 + 1 . 2 ). (4.62)
2 2
Ta d dng chng minh c
{ } { }
+1 nu S=1 +1 nu T =1
P = v P = . (4.63)
1 nu S=0 1 nu T =0
Nh vy php hon v ta spin hoc spin ng v ca hai nucleon s cho

du tr nu hm sng spin hoc isospin l phn i xng (S = 0 hoc T = 0)

v ngc li. Nguyn l Pauli i hi hm sng ton phn ca h hai nucleon

l phn i xng i vi php hon v ng thi cc ta khng gian, spin

v spin ng v ca hai nucleon. Ton t trao i tng ng s l

P12 = Pr P P = 1 Pr = P P hoc P = Pr P , (4.64)

209
vi Pr l ton t trao i ta khng gian (r 1  r 2 ) ca hai nucleon.

phn loi cc knh NN khc nhau ca h hai nucleon tng tc, ngi ta thng

xt tng minh thnh phn spin-qu o LS v thnh phn spin ng v T ca

hm sng cp NN v cc s lng t cho php bi nguyn l Pauli trong cc

knh NN khc nhau c tm tt trong bng di y. Ta cng d thy yu

cu ca nguyn l Pauli tng ng quy tc chn lc (1)L+S+T = 1 cho

moment qu o, spin v spin ng v ca cp NN.

Thnh phn LS Spin S Moment qu o L Spin ng v T

SE (singlet even) S=0 L = 0, 2, 4, ... T =1
TE (triplet even) S=1 L = 0, 2, 4, ... T =0
SO (singlet odd) S=0 L = 1, 3, 5, ... T =0
TO (triplet odd) S=1 L = 1, 3, 5, ... T =1

Tng tc gia hai nucleon trong mt knh NN trn c th biu din di dng

1 1
vNN = (vs + va ) (vs va )P , (4.65)
2 2
vi vs(a) l cng tng tc NN di dng hm ca cc bin ta khng

gian v spin. Tng tc trong cc knh TE v SO c k hiu l vs v trong

cc knh SE v TO c k hiu l va , tng ng vi tnh i xng ca thnh

phn spin-qu o ca hm sng cp NN.

4.3 Biu din lng t ha th cp

Cc phng php c hc lng t trong hnh thc lun biu din lng t ha

th cp (second quantization) l rt thit yu trong hc tp v nghin cu cc

h lng t nhiu ht nh tp hp cc electron trong kim loi hay ht nhn

nguyn t nh mt h a nucleon. Phn tham kho ny gip chng ta lm quen

trc tip vi cch biu din hm sng n nucleon cng nh hm sng ton

210
phn ca ht nhn trong phng php lng t ha th cp. Do tc ng ca

nguyn l loi tr Pauli, hm sng ca ht nhn trong mt mu cu trc ht

nhn vi m lun phi l mt hm phn i xng i vi mt php hon v hai

nucleon bt k. Th d, trong mu n ht c lp IPM hm sng ht nhn

tha mn yu cu ca nguyn l Pauli l mt tch phn i xng ca cc hm

sng n nucleon m c dng mt nh thc Slater (3.29) trong khng gian ta

. Vi s nucleon trong ht nhn c th ln ti 100 200 cc tnh ton cu

trc s i hi thc hin nhng php bin i phc tp vi cc nh thc Slater

bc kh ln m khng d trnh by tng minh trong cc cng thc gn nh

quen thuc ca c hc lng t. Tuy nhin, vn tr nn n gin v r rng

hn nhiu nu ta biu din cc hm sng n nucleon hoc hm sng ht nhn

theo phng php lng t ha th cp.

4.3.1 Cc ton t sinh v hy fermion

Mt trng thi n fermion |j c sinh bi tc ng ca ton t sinh (creation

operator) fermion j ln chn khng |0 (tip theo ta xt |j nh cc trng thi

a+
n nucleon mc d cc h thc a ra u ng cho cc trng thi fermion

bt k)

j |0 = |j |j1 , j2 , ..., jA = aj1 aj2 ...ajA |0,

a+ + + +
(4.66)

vi |j1 , j2 , ..., jA = A l hm sng ton phn ca ht nhn. Do A l mt

hm phn i xng, ta c h thc phn giao hon sau i vi mt cp hai ton

t sinh nucleon bt k

j1 aj2 = aj2 aj1 {aj1 , aj2 } = 0.

a+ + + + + +
(4.67)

211
Trong trng hp tng qut khi a+
j tc ng ln mt hm sng ht nhn A ta

thu c hm sng phn i xng ca h A + 1 nucleon sau

{ }
|j1 , j2 , ..., jA , j nu j = j1 , j2 , ..., jA
j |j1 , j2 , ..., jA =
a+ . (4.68)
0 nu j = ji , 1 6 i 6 A

Ton t lin hp hermit vi a+

j l aj v tc ng ln trng thi lin hp hermit

ca (4.66) nh sau

0|aj = j| j1 , j2 , ..., jA | = 0|aj1 aj2 ...ajA . (4.69)

Do aj hy mt trng thi n nucleon khi tc ng sang bn phi, n c gi

l ton t hy (annihilation operator) nucleon v ta c

aj |j = |0, aj |0 = 0, {aj1 , aj2 } = 0. (4.70)

Tng t nh (4.68) nh ngha tng qut ca ton t hy nucleon l

{ }
|j1 , ..., ji 1, ji + 1, ..., jA nu j = ji , 1 6 i 6 A
aj |j1 , j2 , ..., jA = .
0 nu j = j1 , j2 , ..., jA
(4.71)

T (4.68)-(4.71) ta d dng chng minh c h thc phn giao hon gia hai

ton t sinh v hy nucleon

j1 aj2 + aj2 aj1 = {aj1 , aj2 } = {aj2 , aj1 } = j1 j2 .

a+ + + +
(4.72)

D thy, tc ng ca ton t nj = a+
j aj ln A cho ta xc sut ca trng thi

n ht |j c lp y (theo ngha thng thng ca c hc lng t) v v

th nj c gi l ton t s ht fermion (fermion number operator), vi cc

tr ring bng 0 hoc 1

{ }
|j1 , j2 , ..., jA nu j = ji , 1 6 i 6 A
nj |j1 , j2 , ..., jA = . (4.73)
0 nu j = j1 , j2 , ..., jA

212
4.3.2 Cc trng thi n ht v n l trong mu v

Nh d trnh by chng 3.1.5, cc trng thi kch thch ht nhn c th c

m t trong mu v nh tp hp cc trng thi cp hai nucleon ha tr ngoi

mt ht nhn li tr. Mi mt trng thi n nucleon ha tr c k hiu bi

cc s lng t nljm jm v trong biu din lng t ha th cp ta c trng

thi n ht v n l c xc nh tng ng nh sau

1
|jm = a+
jm |0 v |j m = bjm |0,
+
(4.74)

vi |0 l hm sng ca ht nhn li. Hnh thc lun lng t ha th cp c

bit thch hp cho biu din cc trng thi n ht v n l trong mu v ht

nhn. Theo quy tc c p dng rng ri trong cc tnh ton cu trc ht nhn,

ta chn pha trng thi sao cho mt trng thi n l c sinh bi tc ng ca

php nghch o thi gian ln trng thi n ht

|j 1 m = ajm |0, vi |jm = T |jm = (1)jm |j m. (4.75)

Yu t ma trn ca mt ton t n ht F bt k gia cc trng thi l bng

j21 m2 |F |j11 m1 = j1 m1 |F |j2 m2 =

j1 m1 |T 1 F T |j2 m2 = j2 m2 |(T 1 F T )+ |j1 m1 . (4.76)

Nh vy, nu F l mt ton t bt bin i vi php o nghch thi gian

(F = T 1 F T [T , F ] = 0) th yu t ma trn ca n gia cc trng thi l

c xc nh qua yu t ma trn ca ton t lin hp hermit gia cc trng

thi ht tng ng

j21 m2 |F |j11 m1 = j2 m2 |F + |j1 m1 . (4.77)

213
4.3.3 Cc ton t sinh v hy boson

Tng t nh trng hp fermion, ta c th nh ngha cc ton t sinh v hy

mt trng thi n boson nh sau

|J = BJ+ |0, BJ |J
= |0, BJ |0 = 0. (4.78)

Khc vi cc ton t fermion, cc ton t boson tha mn cc h thc giao

hon sau

[BJ+1 , BJ+2 ] = [BJ1 , BJ2 ] = 0, [BJ1 , BJ+2 ] = J1 J2 . (4.79)

Ngoi ra, hm sng mt h a boson l mt hm i xng i vi mt php

hon v bt k ta trng thi ca hai boson v v th n c dng

(BJ+ )NJi
|NJ1 , NJ2 , ..., NJi , ... = i |0, 0, ..., 0, ..., (4.80)
i
N J i
!

vi NJi l s ht boson trong trng thi |Ji hay l tr ring ca ton t s ht

boson NJi = BJ+i BJi . Khc vi trng hp cc trng thi fermion, mt trng

thi lng t ca boson |Ji c th cha khng hn ch s boson ng loi v

hm sng ny l hm i xng i vi mt php hon v hai boson bt k. y

l nguyn l c bn ca thng k lng t dn n cc trng thi ngng t

boson (boson condensate state) m c th quan st c trong nhiu dng vt

liu nhit thp. Trong trng hp BJi v BJ+i tc ng ln hm sng ton

phn ca mt h a boson ta c

BJi |NJ1 , NJ2 , ..., NJi , ... = NJi |NJ1 , NJ2 , ..., NJi 1, ...,

BJ+i |NJ1 , NJ2 , ..., NJi , ... = NJi + 1|NJ1 , NJ2 , ..., NJi + 1, ...,
NJi |NJ1 , NJ2 , ..., NJi , ... = NJi |NJ1 , NJ2 , ..., NJi , .... (4.81)

Trong VLHN, ng dng ca cc phng php lng t ha th cp i vi

boson thng c p dng trong cc tnh ton hm sng photon trng in

t ca cc bc x hoc hm sng phonon trong cc mu giao ng tp th.

214
4.3.4 Biu din ca cc ton t n ht v hai ht

Trong c hc lng t, f l mt ton t n ht (single-particle operator) nu

n ch tc ng ring bit ln tng ht i ca mt h a ht. C th, i vi ht
nhn c A nucleon, mt ton t n ht c dng

A
f = f(i ), i l tp hp cc ta ca nucleon i. (4.82)
i=1

Th d in hnh nht ca (4.82) l ton t chuyn dch in t (xem dng

tng minh di y). Do tc ng ca ton t (4.82) ch c th thay i trng

thi n ht ch khng thay i s ht nn trong biu din lng t ha th cp

f phi c biu din qua tch hai ton t a+

j1 aj2 . S dng h thc trc chun

ca cc hm sng n ht, ta thc hin php bin i hnh thc sau

f = |jj|f|j j | = j|f|j a+
j aj , (4.83)
jj jj

vi tng trong (4.83) c ly theo tt c cc trng thi n ht c th c

lp y bi A nucleon. Vi yu t ma trn ca f c xc nh theo

fjj j|f|j = j ()f()j ()d,

(4.84)

ta c th chng minh rng (4.83) ng l biu din ca ton t n ht (4.82)

trong hnh thc lun lng t ha th cp [23]. C th,

A |f|A = fjj 0|ajA ...aj2 aj1 a+
j aj aj1 aj2 ...ajA |0
+ + +
(4.85)
jj

s bng yu t ma trn ny tnh tng minh trong khng gian ta vi hm

sng ht nhn A l nh thc Slater (3.29) tng ng.

Mt ton t hai ht (two-particle operator) tc ng ring bit ln tng cp

ht i v i ca mt h a ht. Th d hay gp nht ca ton t hai ht trong

215
VLHN l th nng ca tng tc mnh gia cc nucleon

1
A
V = v(i , i ). (4.86)
2
i=i

Bng phng php chng minh tng t [23] ta c th biu din ton t (4.86)

trong hnh thc lun lng t ha th cp di dng

1
V = vijkl a+ +
i aj al ak , (4.87)
2
ijkl

vi yu t ma trn hai ht c nh ngha nh sau

vijkl = i ()j ( )v(, )k ()l ( )dd . (4.88)

Tuy nhin, nguyn l Pauli khng ch i hi hm sng ht nhn A l mt

hm phn i xng (3.29) m cn yu cu hm sng ca mi mt trng thi

cp NN tng tc |ij cng phi l phn i xng

1
|ij = [i ()j ( ) i ( )j ()] |ij = a+
i aj |0.
+
(4.89)
2
Nh vy, ta cn xc nh yu t ma trn hai ht trong dng phn i xng sau

1
ij|v|kl = vi j k l 0|aj ai a+
i aj al ak ak al |0.
+ + +
(4.90)
2
ijkl

S dng cc h thc phn giao hon gia cc ton t sinh v hy nucleon

(4.70)-(4.72) ta c th chng minh c

1
ij|v|kl = (vijkl vjikl vijlk + vjilk ) = vijkl vijkl v ijkl . (4.91)
2
Nh vy, yu t ma trn hai ht phn i xng v ijkl xut hin nh mt h qu

tt yu ca nguyn l Pauli. Trn c s (4.83), (4.87) v (4.91) ta biu din

Hamiltonian ht nhn (3.2) nh sau

~ 2 2 + 1
HA = j| |j aj aj + v ijkl a+ +
i aj al ak . (4.92)
2m 2
jj ijkl

Hamiltonian (4.92) chnh l biu thc khi u xy dng tng minh phng

php HF hoc HF-BCS cho cc tnh ton vi m cu trc ht nhn.

216
4.4 Moment a cc in t v xc sut chuyn dch ht nhn

Phn ln cc thng tin cu trc ht nhn c xc nh t ph phn r ca

cc trng thi ht nhn kch thch. y l qu trnh pht ra photon (photon

emission) vi nng lng E = Ef Ei bng chnh lch nng lng gia

hai trng thi ht nhn |Jf f v |Jii v chuyn dch ht nhn gia hai trng

thi nh vy c gi l chuyn dch in t (electromagnetic transition). Trong

c hc lng t, qu trnh pht ra photon ca phn r hon ton tng ng

vi qu trnh hp th photon (photon absorption) xy ra khi ht nhn c

a vo vng tc ng ca mt trng in t ngoi (external electromagnetic

field) m thng l khi im ca mt phn ng quang ht nhn. V th, hiu

c c ch pht hoc hp th tia ta cn xt tng minh tng tc gia ht

nhn chuyn ng trong mt trng in t m t bi 4-vector A = (, A).

Hamiltonian ton phn bao gm ba s hng sau

H = HA + Held + Hint , (4.93)

vi HA l Hamiltonian ht nhn v Hamiltonian trng in t Held c dng

1
Held = [E 2 (r, t) + B 2 (r, t)]d3 r. (4.94)
8
Vector mt trng in t c tnh theo cc cng thc Maxwell

1
E(r, t) = A, B(r, t) = A. (4.95)
c t
Tng tc in t gia ht nhn v trng in t c dng

1 1
Hint = j A d r = [c (r, t)(r, t) j(r, t).A(r, t)]d3 r. (4.96)
3
c c
Trong , c (r, t) l mt in tch ht nhn v j(r, t) l mt dng (current

density) sinh bi mt vector moment t ht nhn (r, t).

Khi trng in t l mt trng tnh (static field) ta c

Hint = [c (r)(r) (r).B(r)]d3 r. (4.97)

217
Xc sut dch chuyn (transition probability) in t ca ht nhn c tnh

theo quy tc vng Fermi (Fermi golden rule) sau

2
W (i f ) = |f |Hint |i|2 f , (4.98)
~
vi f l mt cc trng thi cui ca ht nhn. Sau khi khai trin cng

trng in t theo a cc, xc sut dch chuyn (4.98) c th rt gn [21]

c v dng

( )2+1
8( + 1) E
W (E(M ), Ji Jf ) = B(E(M ), Ji Jf ),
~[(2 + 1)!!]2 ~c
(4.99)

vi E l nng lng ca photon. B(E(M ), Ji Jf ) l xc sut chuyn dch

rt gn (reduced transition probability) v c xc nh vi cc yu t ma trn

rt gn ca moment a cc in Q hoc moment a cc t M nh sau

|f ||Q ||i|2 |f ||M ||i|2

B(E, Ji Jf ) = , B(M , Ji Jf ) = . (4.100)
2Ji + 1 2Ji + 1
Cc yu t ma trn rt gn ca moment a cc in t c xc nh theo nh

l Wigner-Eckart (4.56) vi

Q = c (r)r Y (r)d3 r, M = (r).[r Y (r)]d3 r. (4.101)

T (4.99)-(4.101) ta thy rng ht nhn c th c kch thch bi cc dng

phn ng ht nhn khc nhau nhng photon ca bc x pht ra cng vi

chuyn dch in t (4.98) c sinh bi trng in t tnh ca ht nhn trong

trng thi kch thch vi cc moment a cc in t (4.101). Xc sut chuyn

dch in t (4.99) cho ta tn s r trong mt n v thi gian v c th c

coi nh hng s phn r thnh phn tng ng vi knh chuyn dch ht

nhn |Jii |Jf f .

Trong mt mu cu trc ht nhn vi m nh mu v hoc QRPA, cc ton

t moment a cc in t (4.101) cn c xt trn cc bc t do nucleon v

218
ta phi lp vo (4.101) cc biu thc tng minh sau ca mt in tch v

mt vector moment t ht nhn

( )

Z
A (i)
2gl li
c (r) = e (r r i ), (r) = N (r r i ) gs(i) si + ,
i=1 i=1
+1
(4.102)

vi tng trong c (r) ch ly theo cc proton v tng trong (r) c ly theo

tt c cc nucleon trong ht nhn. T (4.101)-(4.102) ta c
( )

Z
A (i)
2gl li
Q = e ri Y (r i ), M = N gs(i) si + .i [ri Y (r i )].
i=1 i=1
+1
(4.103)

vi gl v gs l cc h s t hi chuyn qu o v spin ca nucleon c xc

nh theo cng thc (1.29)-(1.30). Ta c th thc hin php bin i phn x

gng (4.22) ln cc ton t moment a cc in t (4.103)

P Q = (1) Q , P M = (1)+1 M . (4.104)

Nh vy, chn l ca Q v M tng ng bng E = (1) v M =

(1)+1 . Do tng tc in t bo ton chn l, ta rt ra quy tc chn lc

chn l f E(M ) i = 1 cho chuyn dch in t ht nhn (4.99). T nh

l Wigner-Eckart (4.56) ta cng d dng suy ra quy tc chn lc "tam gic"

(triangle rule) sau cho cc moment gc trong chuyn dch (4.99)

|Ji Jf | 6 6 Ji + Jf . (4.105)

Yu t ma trn n ht ca cc moment a cc in t

Tt c cc tnh ton xc sut chuyn dch in t trong cc mu cu trc ht

nhn vi m u s dng yu t ma trn ca cc moment a cc in t xc

nh vi h c s trc chun cc hm sng n ht |jk |nk lk jk . C th, khi

cc hm n ht c i xng cu (3.24) ta c th thu c cc yu t ma trn

219
rt gn ca moment a cc in t [21] di dng tng minh sau

[1 + (1)li +lf + ] ji 1 1
ejf ||r Y (r)||ji = e

lf |r |li ji 0|jf , (4.106)
2 4 2 2
( )
2gl l [1 (1)li +lf + ]
N jf || gs s + .[r Y (r)]||ji = N

lf |r1 |li
+1 2
[ ( )]
ji 1 1 gs k
ji 0|jf ( k) gl 1 + , (4.107)
4( 2 ) 2 2
( )
+1
1 1 1 1
vi j = 2j + 1, k = ji + (1)li +ji + 2 + jf + (1)lf +jf + 2 .
2 2
Yu t ma trn theo cc thnh phn bn knh ca hm sng c dng tch phn

lf |r |li =

Rnf lf (r)r Rni li (r)r2 dr. (4.108)
0

Victor Weisskopf (mt tn tui ln ca VLHN, ng tc gi sng ch bom

ht nhn u tin ca M nhng sau tr thnh mt nh khoa hc phn i v

kh ht nhn rt kin quyt) a ra biu thc gn ng sau cho (4.108) khi

ji = 1/2 v jf = + 1/2
3
|r |0 w R0 , R0 = 1.2A1/3 fm. (4.109)
+3
Trong trng hp ny, ta c xc sut ca chuyn dch in t (4.100) ca n

nucleon c xc nh [13] nh sau

( )2 ( )2
e2 3 102N 3
B(E) w R0 , B(M ) w
2
R022 . (4.110)
4 +3 +3
B(E) v B(M ) c th nguyn tng ng l e2 fm
2
v 2N fm
22
. Xc

sut chuyn dch in t (4.110) ca n nucleon c s dng rng ri trong

VLHN nh n v Weisskopf (Weisskopf unit, vit tt l W.u.) hay l n

v n ht (single-particle unit) biu din cng bc x ca chuyn

dch in t ht nhn. Th d xc sut chuyn dch rt gn B(E(M )) (trong

n v W.u.) o t bc x r ca cc ht nhn nh vi 5 6 A 6 44 c th

220
c tham kho trong ti liu [51]. Xc sut chuyn dch in t (4.99) hay

l tn s r (trong 1 giy) thng c biu din [13] qua xc sut rt gn

B(E(M )) nh trong bng di y.

Xc sut chuyn dch in t n v Weisskopf

[B(E)] = e2 fm
2
, [B(M )] = 2N fm
22
W.u.
2 2/3
W (E1) = 1.587 1015 E3 B(E1) 6.44610 A
2 4/3
W (E2) = 1.223 109 E5 B(E2) 5.94010 A
2 2
W (E3) = 5.698 102 E7 B(E3) 5.94010 A

W (E4) = 1.694 104 E9 B(E4) 2 8/3

6.28510 A

W (M 1) = 1.779 1013 E3 B(M 1) 1.790

W (M 2) = 1.371 107 E5 B(M 2) 1.650 A2/3

W (M 3) = 6.387 100 E7 B(M 3) 1.650 A4/3
W (M 4) = 1.899 106 E9 B(M 4) 1.746 A2

Ta d thy rng bc x in E vi moment gc chuyn > 3 c tn sut

r nh hn nhiu so vi bc x in lng cc (E1) v t cc (E2). Ngoi ra,

cng bc x t M cng yu hn nhiu so vi cng bc x in E

vi cng mt moment gc chuyn. Do , trong thc t ta thng quan st

c bc x t lng cc M1 c cng mc so snh c vi cng

bc x in t cc E2.

221
4.5 Li kt

Nhng hiu bit v cu trc ht nhn hon ton khng b gn trong cc kin

thc c trnh by trn m ngc li nhng kin thc ny ch l nhng c

s u tin gip chng ta hiu v nm s b c nhng nt chnh ca cu trc

ht nhn, mt trong nhng ni dung thit yu nht ca VLHN hin i. Tc gi

hi vng cun sch ny s l bn ng hnh ca nhng nh VLHN tr ca t

nc trong hc tp cng nh trong cng vic nghin cu khoa hc ca mnh.

222
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227
Ph lc cc minh ha mu

Ex ~ 10 eV

Ex ~ 10 MeV

Ex ~ 1 GeV

Hnh 4.6: Phin bn mu ca hnh 1.

228
Hnh 4.7: Phin bn mu ca hnh 2.

229
Hnh 4.8: Phin bn mu ca hnh 1.4.

230
 Proton drip-line

Super
Heavies
N=Z

Sn isotopes

Ni isotopes

Neutron drip-line
N=28
Isotones

Hnh 4.9: Phin bn mu ca hnh 1.9.

231
Hnh 4.10: Phin bn mu ca hnh 1.11.

232
Hnh 4.11: Phin bn mu ca hnh 1.24.

233
 Hnh 4.12: Phin bn mu ca hnh 2.3.

S=1/2+, T=1/2 S=1/2+, T=1/2 S=3/2+, T=3/2

u u u d u u u
d d

Proton Neutron Delta

Hnh 4.13: Phin bn mu ca hnh 3.36.

234
Hnh 4.14: Phin bn mu ca hnh 3.32.

235
 Pure neutron matter
2
10

1
10
Exp. flow data
P (MeV fm )
-3

0
10

Symmetric nuclear matter

2
10

CDM3Y6
CDM3Y4
1
CDM3Y3
10 M3Y-P3
M3Y-P4
M3Y-P5
D1N
D1S
SLy4
0
10
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8
-3
(fm )

Hnh 4.15: Phin bn mu ca hnh 3.34.

236