ShortNotesonMachineDesign

StaticLoad

Astaticloadisamechanicalforceappliedslowlytoanassemblyorobject.Loaddoesnot
changeinmagnitudeanddirectionandnormallyincreasesgraduallytoasteadyvalue
Thisforceisoftenappliedtoengineeringstructuresonwhichpeoples'safetydependson
becauseengineersneedtoknowthemaximumforceastructurecansupportbeforeitwill
collapse.

Dynamicload

Adynamicload,resultswhenloadingconditionschangewithtime.Loadmaychange
inmagnitudeforexample,trafficofvaryingweightpassingabridge.
Loadmaychangeindirection,forexample,loadonpistonrodofadoubleactingcylinder.
Vibrationandshockaretypesofdynamicloading.

Factorofsafety (F.O.S):

Theratioofultimatetoallowableloadorstressisknownasfactorofsafetyi.e.Thefactorof
safetycanbedefinedastheratioofthematerialstrengthorfailurestresstotheallowable
orworkingstress.
Thefactorofsafetymustbealwaysgreaterthanunity.Itiseasiertorefertotheratioof
stressessincethisappliestomaterialproperties.

F.O.S=failurestress/workingorallowablestress

StaticFailureTheories

MaximumPrincipalStressTheory(RankineTheory):

Theprincipalstresses1(maximumprincipalstress),2(minimumprincipalstress)or3
exceedstheyieldstress,yieldingwouldoccur.
Fortwodimensionalloadingsituationforaductilematerialwheretensileandcompressive
yieldstressarenearlyofsamemagnitude:
 Yieldingoccurswhenthestateofstressisattheboundaryoftherectangle.

MaximumPrincipalStrainTheory(St.Venantstheory):

If1and2aremaximumandminimumprincipalstrainscorrespondingto1and2,inthe
limitingcase:

BoundaryofayieldsurfaceinMaximumStrainEnergyTheoryisgivenbelow
MaximumShearStressTheory(TrescaTheory):

Atthetensileyieldpoint2=3=0andthusmaximumshearstressisy/2.

Yieldsurfacecorrespondingtomaximumshearstresstheoryinbiaxialstresssituationis
givenbelow :

Maximumstrainenergytheory(Beltramistheory):

Failurewouldoccurwhenthetotalstrainenergyabsorbedatapointperunitvolume
exceedsthestrainenergyabsorbedperunitvolumeatthetensileyieldpoint.
 AboveequationresultsinEllipticalyieldsurfacewhichcanbeviewedas:

Distortionenergytheory(VonMisesyieldcriterion):

Yieldingwouldoccurwhentotaldistortionenergyabsorbedperunitvolumeduetoapplied
loadsexceedsthedistortionenergyabsorbedperunitvolumeatthetensileyieldpoint.
TotalstrainenergyETandstrainenergyforvolumechangeEVcanbegivenas:

Atthetensileyieldpoint,1=y,2=3=0whichgives,

ThefailurecriterionisthusobtainedbyequatingEdandEdy,whichgives

Ina2Dsituationif3=0,sotheequationreducesto,
 Thisisanequationofellipseandyieldequationisanellipse.
Thistheoryiswidelyacceptedforductilematerials

CotterandKnuckleJoints

Acotterjointisatemporaryfasteningandisusedtoconnectrigidlytwocoaxialroadorbarswhich
aresubjectedtoaxialtensileorcompressiveforces.

SocketandSpigotCotterJoints

Inasocketandspigotcotterjoint,oneendoftherodsisprovidedwithasockettypeofendas
showninfigureandtheotherendoftherodisinsertedintoasocket.Theendoftherodwhichgoes
intoasocketisalsocalledspigot.

FailuresinSocketandSpigotCotterJoints
FailuresinSleeveandCotterJoints
KnuckleJoint

Itisusedtoconnecttworodswhoseaxiseithercoincideorintersectandlieinoneplane.
Thisjointgenerallyfoundinthelinkofacyclechaintierodjointforrooftruss,valverod
jointwitheccentricrodtensionlinkinbridgestructure,leverandrodconnectionofvarious
types.
Itissometimesalsocalledforkedpinjoint.

FailuresinKnuckleJoint

Toconnectthetransmissionshafttorotatingmachineelementslikepulley,gear,sprocketor
flywheel.
Cotterandknucklejointsarenotusedforconnect

Fatigue

Fatigueloadingisprimarilythetypeofloadingwhichcausescyclicvariationsintheapplied
stressorstrainonacomponent.
Variableloadingdueto:ChangeinthemagnitudeofappliedloadExample:punchingor
shearingoperationsChangeindirectionofloadapplicationExample:aconnectingrod
ChangeinpointofloadapplicationExample:arotatingshaft.

FatigueFailure:

Machineelementssubjectedtofluctuatingstressesusuallyfailatstresslevelsmuchbelow
theirultimatestrengthandinmanycasesbelowtheyieldpointofthematerialtoo.
Thesefailuresoccurduetoverylargenumberofstresscycleandareknownasfatigue
failure.
Fatiguefailuresareinfluencedby
o Natureandmagnitudeofthestresscycle
 o Endurancelimit
o Stressconcentration
o Surfacecharacteristics

Rivetedjoints:

Therearetwobasiccomponentsofrivetedjoints:
o Rivets
o Twoormoreplates.
Thepopularmaterialsfortherivetsare:Steel,Brass,Aluminium&Copperasperthe
requirementoftheapplicationforfluidtightjointsthesteelrivetsareused

WeldedJoints

Itisapermanentjoint.
Whenthetwopartsarejoinedbyheatingtoasuitabletemperaturewithorwithout
applicationofpressure.

WeldingProcesses

FusionWelding
ThermitWelding
GasWelding
ElectricArcWelding
ForgeWelding

TypesofWeldedJoints:
LapJointorFilletJoint

Inlapjoint,overlappingtheplateandweldingtheedgeoftheplatestakesplaceinwelding
process.
Thestrengthofdifferenttypesoffilletjointcanbegivenaccordingtotheirweldingprocess
as

Shearstrengthinparallelfilletweld,

where,P=Tensileforceontheplates

h=Legoftheweld

l=Lengthoftheweld

=Permissibleshearstress

Fordoubleparallelfilletweld,

P=1.414h/

StrengthofTransverseFilletWeld
o p=ThroatareaAllowabletensilestress
o =0.707slt
Fordoubletransversefilletjoint
P=1.414hlt

SpecialCasesofFilletWeldedJoint

CircularFilletWeldSubjectedtoTorsion

o Shearstress

or

where,T=Torqueactingorrod

h=sizeofweld

t=Throatthickness
CircularFilletWeldSubjectedtoBendingMoment

Bendingstress:

LongFilletWeldSubjectedtoTorsion

o Shear stress:

ButtJoint

StrengthofButtJoint
o ForsingleVbuttjoint,

P=tlt

o FordoubleVbuttjoint,

P=(t1+t2)lt

EccentricLoadedWeldedJoints

Whentheshearandbendingstressesaresimultaneouslypresentinajoint.

Maximumnormalstress

Maximumshearstress

Directorprimaryshearstress
StrengthofBoltedJoint

Maximumtensilestressinthebolt

where,dc=Corediameter

TorqueRequirementforBoltTightening

where,

Pi=Pretensioninbolt,dm=0.9d

d=Nominaldiameter

ForISOmetricscrewthread=30

ForISOmetric=25

EccentricLoadonBracketwithCircularBase

Iftherearennumberofbolts,thenloadinabolt

Inabovecasewhenn=4
Maximumloadinbolt

where,cos=1

FactorofSafety(FOS)inBoltedJoints

Itisdefinedastheratiooffailurestresstoallowablestress.

Forductilematerial,

Forbrittlematerial,

where,Syt=Yieldstrengthofcomponentmaterial

Sut=Ultimatetensilestressofcomponentsmaterial

=Allowablestress.

StressconcentrationFactor

Itisdefinedastheratioofhighestvalueofactualstressneardiscontinuitytonominalstress
obtainedbyelementaryequationsforminimumcrosssection.Itisdenotedbykt.

where,0,0=Nominalstresses
 Themagnitudeofstressconcentrationfactordependsuponthegeometryofthe
component.
Inthiscase,kt=1+2(a/b)

where,

a=Semiaxisofellipseperpendiculartothedirectionofload

b=Semiaxisofellipseparalleltothedirectionofload

Ifb=0then,holeislikeasverysharpcrackthen,kt=
Ifa=bthen,holebecomesacircularholethen,kt=1+2=3

FluctuatingLoad

Itisdefinedastheload,ofwhichmagnitudeanddirectionbothchangeswithrespectto
time.
 Massstressandstressamplitude

Forrepeatedstress, and

Forreversedstress,

Gears

Gearcanbedefinedasthemechanicalelementusedfortransmittedpowerandrotarymotionfrom
oneshafttoanotherbymeansofprogressiveengagementofprojectionscalledteeth.

ClassificationofGears

SpurGear
HelicalGear
BevelGear
WormGear

SpurGear

Inspurgears,teetharecutparalleltoaxisofthegear.

Circularpitch

Diametricalpitch

Module

 Torquetransmittedbygear

Dynamicloadorincrementaldynamicload

Where,v=Pitchlinevelocity

c=Deformationfactor

b=Facewidthoftooth

Pt=Tangentialforceduetoratedtorque.e=Sumoferrorsbetweentwomeshingteeth

Estimationofmodulebasedonbeamstrength

Where,cs=Servicefactor,

cv=Velocityfactor

fs=Factorofsafety,

n=Speed(rpm)

Estimationofmodulebasedonwearstrength

HelicalGear

Theteethofhelicalgearcutintheformofhelixoranangleonthepitchcylinder.
Where,Pn=Normaldiametricalpitch

P=Transversediametricalpitch

=Helixangle

mn=mcos

mn=Normalmodule

m=transversemodule

Axialpitch

Pitchcirculardiameter

Toothproportions
o Addendumha=mn
o Dedendumhf=1.25mn
o Clearancec=0.25mn

Addendumcirclediameterda=d+2haor

Dedendumcirclediameter

Componentoftoothforces
 Beamstrengthofhelicalgear

Sb=mnbbY

Where,m=Module,

b=Permissiblebendingstress

y=Lawisformfactor

DynamicloadorincrementaldynamicloadPd

Where,e=Sumoferrors,

C=Deformationfactor

Wearstrengthofhelicalgear

HerringboneGear

Inordertoavoidanaxialthrustontheshaftandthebearings,thedoublehelicalgearsor
Herringbonegearsareused.

BevelGears

Usetotransmitpowerbetweentwointersectingshafts.
Highspeedhighpowertransmission.

ClassificationofBevelGear

MitreGear:Whentwobevelgearsaremountedonshaftsthatareintersectingatright
angle.
CrownGear:Inpairofbevelgear,whenoneofthegearhasapitchangleof90o.
InternalBevelGear:Whentheteethofbevelgeararecutontheinsideofthepitch.
SkewBevelGear:Mountedonnonparallelandnonintersectingshafts.Itconstantof
straightteeth.
 HypoidGear:Similartoskewbevelgear,nonparallelandnonintersectingshafts.Itconsists
ofcurvedteeth.
ZerolGear:Sprialbevelgearwithzerospiralangle.
ForceGear:Consistsofaspurorhelicalpinionmeshingwithaconjugategearordiskform.

Beamstrengthofbevelgear

Where, bevelfactor.

Wearstrengthofbevelgears

Where,K=Materialconstant,

Bearing

Abearingisamechanicalelementthatpermitsrelativemotionbetweentwocomponentsor
parts,suchastheshaftandhousing,withminimumfriction.

PlainBearings(SlidingContactBearings)

Aplainbearingisanybearingthatworksbyslidingaction,withorwithoutlubricant.This
groupencompassesessentiallyalltypesotherthanrollingelementbearings.i

JournalorSleeveBearings

Thesearecylindricalorringshapedbearingsdesignedtocarryradialloads.
Thesimplestandmostwidelyusedtypesofsleevebearingsarecastbronzeandporous
bronze(powderedmetal)cylindricalbearings.

ThrustBearings

Thistypeofbearingdiffersfromasleevebearinginthatloadsaresupportedaxiallyrather
thanradiallywhichisshowninthefollowingfigure.Thin,disklikethrustbearingsare
calledthrustwashers.

BearingMaterials

Babbitts
 BronzesandCopperAlloys
Aluminium
PorousMetals
Plastics

AntiFrictionBearings

Ball,roller,andneedlebearingsareclassifiedasantifrictionbearingssincefrictionhasbeen
reducedtoaminimum.

BearingLoads

RadialLoad

o Loadsactingperpendiculartotheaxisofthebearingarecalledradial
loads.Althoughradialbearingsaredesignedprimarilyforstraightradialservice,
theywillwithstandconsiderablethrustloadswhendeepballtracksintheraceway
areused.
ThrustLoad

o Loadsappliedparalleltotheaxisofthebearingarecalledthrustloads.Thrust
bearingsarenotdesignedtocarryradialloads.

BallBearings

Angularcontactbearingsareusedforcombinedradialandthrustloadsandwhereprecise
shaftlocationisneeded.Usesoftheothertwotypesaredescribedbytheirnames:radial
bearingsforradialloadsandthrustbearingsforthrustloads(Seethefollowingfigure).

RadialBearings

Deepgroovebearingsarethemostwidelyusedballbearings.Inadditiontoradialloads,
theycancarrysubstantialthrustloadsathighspeeds,ineitherdirection.
Selfaligningbearingscomeintwotypes:internalandexternal.Ininternalbearings,the
outerringballgrooveisgroundasasphericalsurface.Externallyselfaligningbearingshavea
sphericalsurfaceontheoutsideoftheouterring,whichmatchesaconcavespherical
housing.
Doublerow,deepgroovebearingsembodythesameprincipleofdesignassinglerow
bearings.Doublerowbearingscanbeusedwherehighradialandthrustrigidityisneeded
andspaceislimited.
Angularcontactthrustbearingscansupportaheavythrustloadinonedirectioncombined
withamoderateradialload.

ThrustBearings

Flatracebearingsconsistofapairofflatwashersseparatedbytheballcomplementanda
shaftpilotedretainer,soloadcapacityislimited.Contactstressesarehigh,andtorque
resistanceislow.
Onedirectional,groovedracebearingshavegroovedracesverysimilartothosefoundin
radialbearings.
 Twodirectional,grooveracebearingsconsistoftwostationaryraces,onerotatingrace,and
twoballcomplements.

RollerBearing(RollingContactBearings)

Theprincipaltypesofrollerbearingsarecylindrical,needle,tapered,andspherical.
Theyhavehigherloadcapacitiesthanballbearingsofthesamesizeandarewidelyusedin
heavyduty,moderatespeedapplications..

CylindricalBearings

Cylindricalrollerbearingshavehighradialcapacityandprovideaccurateguidancetothe
rollers.Theirlowfrictionpermitsoperationathighspeed,andthrustloadsofsome
magnitudecanbecarriedthroughtheflangerollerendcontacts.

NeedleBearings

Needlebearingsarerollerbearingswithrollersthathavehighlengthtodiameterratios.
Comparedwithotherrollerbearings,needlebearingshavemuchsmallerrollersforagiven
boresize.
Loose-needle bearings are simply a full complement of needles in the annular space between
two hardened machine components, which form the bearing raceways. They provide an effective
and inexpensive bearing assembly with moderate speed capability, but they are sensitive to
misalignment.
Caged assemblies are simply a roller complement with a retainer, placed between two hardened
machine elements that act as raceways. Their speed capability is about 3 times higher than that
of loose-needle bearings, but the smaller complement of needles reduces load capacity for the
caged assemblies.
Thrust bearings are caged bearings with rollers assembled like the spokes of a wheel in a wafer
like retainer.

TaperedBearings

Taperedrollerbearingsarewidelyusedinrollneckapplicationsinrollingmills,
transmissions,gearreducers,gearedshafting,steeringmechanisms,andmachinetool
spindles.Wherespeedsarelow,greaselubricationsuffices,buthighspeedsdemandoil
lubrication,andveryhighspeedsdemandspeciallubricatingarrangements.

SphericalBearings

Sphericalrollerbearingsofferanunequaledcombinationofhighloadcapacity,high
tolerancetoshockloads,andselfaligningability,buttheyarespeedlimited.
Singlerowbearingsarethemostwidelyusedtaperedrollerbearings.Theyhaveahigh
radialcapacityandathrustcapacityabout60percentofradialcapacity.
Tworowbearingscanreplacetwosinglerowbearingsmountedbacktobackorfaceto
facewhentherequiredcapacityexceedsthatofasinglerowbearing.

Brake

Abrakeisadevicebymeansofwhichartificialfrictionalresistanceisappliedtoamoving
machinemember,inordertoretardorshopthemotionofamachine.
 Themostcommonlybrakesusefrictiontoconvertkineticenergyintobeat,thoughother
methodsofenergyconversionmaybeemployed.

SingleBlockorShoeBrake

Itconsistsofablockorshoewhichispassedagainsttherimofrevolvingbrakewheeldrum.
Theblockismadeofasoftermaterialthantherimofthewheel.
Iftheangleofcontactislessthan60othen,itmaybeassumedthatnormalpressureorforce
betweentheblockandthewheelisuniform.

CaseI:WhenthelineofactionoftangentialbrakingforcepassesthroughthefulcrumOofthelever.

Ifwheelisrotatinginclockwisedirectionthen,FreeBodyDiagram(FBD)ofwheelandblock
is

Ifwheelisrotatinginanticlockwisedirectionthen,FBDofwheelandblockis
 Brakingforce

Brakingtorque

Whenwheelisrotatinginanticlockwisedirectionthen,thebrakingtorqueissameasabove

CaseII:Whenthelineofactingofthetangentialbrakingforce(Ft)passesthroughadistanceabelow
thefulcrumO.Then,therearetwocases:

ForClockwise:

Brakingforce

Brakingtorque

ForAntiClockwise:

Brakingforce
 Brakingtorque

(asTB=Ftr)

CaseIII:Whenthelineofactionoftangentialbrakingforce(Ft)passesthroughadistance'a'above
thefulcrumO.

Forclockwise,

Brakingforce

Brakingtorque

(TB=Ftr)

ForAntiClockwise

Brakingforce


Brakingtorque

Whenthefrictionalforcehelpstoapplythebrakesthen,suchtypeofbrakesaresaidtoself
energizingbrakes.
WhenPisnegativeorequaltozerothen,theseareknownasselflockingbrakes.

SimpleBandBrake

Abandbrakeconsistsofaflexiblebandofleather,oneormoreropes,orsteellinedwith
frictionmaterial,whichembracesapartofthecircumferenceofthedrumiscalledsimple
bandbrake.

Weknow,

Brakingforceonthedrum=(T1T2)
Brakingtorqueonthedrum(TB)=(T1T2)r
WhenwheelrotatesintheclockwisedirectionandtakingmomentaboutfulcrumO
 ForanticlockwiserotationofthedrumPl=T2b

where,b=PerpendiculardistancefromOtothelineofactionT1orT2

l=Lengthoftheleverfromthefulcrum

T1=twt

w=Widthoftheband

t=Thicknessoftheband

t=Permissiblestressintheband.

Clutch

Aclutchisamechanicaldevicethatprovidesforthetransmissionofpower(andtherefore
usuallymotion)fromonecomponent(thedrivingmember)toanother(thedrivenmember)
whenengaged,butcanbedisengaged.

FrictionClutch

Thefrictionclutchisusedtotransmitpowerofshaftsandmachineswhichmustbestarted
andstoppedfrequently.
Frictionsurfacesofaclutchremainincontacttoeachotherbyapplyinganaxialthrustor
loadw.

ConsideringUniformPressure

Theuniformpressurepcanbeevaluatedas.

Totalfrictionaltorquegiveninthiscase,

where,Rm=Meanradiusoffrictionsurfaces

ConsideringUniformWear

Totalfrictionaltorqueactingonclutch

whereRm=Meanradiusoffrictionsurfaces

Inuniformweartheory,Maximumpressureactsattheinnerradiusandminimumpressure
actsattheouterradius.

Averagepressureonthefrictionsurfaces

MultipleDiscClutch

Numberofpairsofcontactsurfaces

n=n1+n21

where,n1=Numberofdiscsonthedrivingshaft

n2=Numberofdiscsonthedrivenshaft

Totalfrictionaltorqueactingonthefrictionalsurface

T=wRm

where,

[incaseofuniformpressure]

[incaseofuniformwear]

where,r1andr2areouterandinnerradiiofthefrictionplates.
ConeClutch

Inconeclutch,driveriskeyedtothedrivingshaftbyasunkkeyandhasaninsideconical
surfaceorfacewhichexactlyfitsintotheoutsideconicalsurfaceofthedriven.

Totaltorqueontheclutch,

(foruniformpressure)

(foruniformwear)

=Semiangleofconeorfaceangleofthecone

where,w=Axialloadorthrust

Axialforcerequiredforengagingtheclutch,

=wn(sin+cos)

Axialforcerequiredtodisengagedtheclutch

wd=wn(cossin)

IffacewidthbandmeanradiusofconeclutchisRm.

Then,

 Powertransmittedbyclutch

CentrifugalClutch

Centrifugalforceactingoneachshoeatrunningspeed

pc=m2r

Where,

Frictionforceactingoneachshoe=(PcPs)

Thedirectionofforceisperpendiculartotheradiusoftherimpulley.

Frictionaltorqueoneachshoe=(PcPs)R
Totaltorquetransmitted=Numberofshoes(PcPs)R

=n(PcPs)R

Arc=Angle(inradian)Radiual=R

Where,areaofcontact=lb

Forceexertedoneachshoe=plb

Pc Ps = lbp

Where,l=Contactlengthoftheshoe

b=Widthoftheshoe

p=Pressureintensityonshoe

q=Anglemadebyshoeatthecentreofspiderinradian

R=Contactradiusofshoe=insideradiusoftherimofthepulley