Comparative Anatomy of the [CHAPTER 11:

Vertebrates: Muscles]

A. CLASSIFICATION ACCORDING TO HISTOLOGY:

OUTLINE
I. Muscles and Tissues 1. STRIATED - long, cylindrical, multinucleate
A. Classification According to Histology fibers;
- Striated a. MYOFIBRILS - longitudinal striations
- Cardiac b. SACROMERES - repeated component
- Smooth of each myofibril
B. Major Categories of Muscle c. MYOFILAMENTS - two species of
- Somatic longitudinally oriented proteins, ACTIN
- Visceral and MYOSIN
- Branchiomeric d. SYNCYTIUM - single, functional unit of
striated muscle fiber
II. Introduction to Skeletal Muscles
A. Skeletal Muscles as Organs 2. CARDIAC - uninucleated, intercalated, can
B. Origin, Insertions, Muscle Shapes contract without nervous stimulation, innervated
C. Actions by fibers of the autonomic nervous
III. Axial Muscles system(ANS).
A. Trunk and Tail Muscles of Fishes
B. Trunk and Tail Muscles of Tetrapods 3. SMOOTH - fusiform, uninucleated, cross-
1. Epaxial striation-lacking myofibrils. Often in sheets.
2. Hypaxial Innervated by ANS.
3. Muscles of the Tail
B. MAJOR CATEGORIES OF MUSCLES
4. Hypobranchial and Tongue Muscles
IV. Appendicular Muscles 1. SOMATIC
A. Fishes a. orient the body to external environment
B. Tetrapods b. striated muscles( attached to ligaments,
- Extrinsic tendons, bones of axial skeleton,
- Intrinsic appendicular skeleton, and skeletal
- Muscles of the Pelvic Girdle and components of lateral and ventral body
Hindlimb walls)
V. Somitomeric and Somitic Muscles of the Head c. innervated by spinal nerves and cranial
A. Branchiomeric Muscles nerves III, IV, VI and XII
d. voluntary, skeletal
- Mandibular Arch
e. derived from the MYOTOMES of
- Hyoid Arch MESODERMAL SOMITES
- 3rd and Successive Pharyngeal Arches
B. Extrinsic Eyeball Muscles 2. VISCERAL
VI. Integumentary Muscles a. regulate internal environment
VII. Electric Organs b. smooth muscles of hollow organs,
vessels, tubes and ducts, the intrinsic
musculature of the eyeballs, and erector
muscles of feather and hairs
c. Innervated by the postganglionic fibers
of ANS
I. MUSCLES AND TISSUES d. Involuntary, nonskeletal
e. Derived chiefly from splanchnic
=muscle: tissue, muscles: organs mesoderm
= specialized to perform a single function: to shorten
when stimulated and recover thereafter. 3. BRANCHIOMERIC
=the usual stimulus for muscle contraction is a nerve a. striated skeletal muscles
impulse, although this does not hold true for a cardiac b. Belong to the pharyngeal arches and
muscle their ontogenetic/phylogenetic
derivatives from fishes to human beings.
c. Derived from somitomeres
i. Do not fully segment
ii. Lack sclerotome and
dermatome components
d. Innervated by cranial nerves
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II, INTRODUCTION TO SKELETAL MUSCLES LEVATORS- raises

A. SKELETAL MUSCLES AS ORGANS DEPRESSORS- lowers

1. EPIMYSIUM - tough fibrous sheath surrounding a ROTATORS- causes rotation on its axis
muscle SUPINATORS- rotators that turn the palm
2. PERIMYSIUM - surrounds major bundles of muscle upward
fibers (fascicles) PRONATORS- make it prone(downward)
3. ENDOMYSIUM - continuation of perimysium TENSORS- more taut(e.g. eardrum)
supporting the muscular, neural and vascular
components of each functional unit CONSTRICTORS- compresses internal parts
4. TENDONS - continuations of the muscle beyond the SPHINCTERS- constrictors that make an
site where the fascicle ends. opening smaller
*At the site of attachment the tendon of the skeleton, DILATORS- wider
collagenous bundles of the tendon continue into and * most sphincter and dilator muscles are non-
contribute to the perichondrium or periosteum of the skeletal*
bone to which they are attached.*
* a few muscles move independently, most
move synergistically*/
B. ORIGIN, INSERTIONS AND MUSCLE SHAPES
1. ANATOMIC ORIGIN- site of attachment that remains BASIS EXAMPLE
fixed under most functional conditions, that is, the bone Direction of fibers Oblique
is not displaced when muscle contracts Rectus
Location Thoracis
e.g. when biceps contract, the forearm is flexed.
Supraspinatus
Therefore, the origin of the biceps is somewhere
Superficialis
above the elbow
Number of Quadriceps
2. INSERTION- site of attachment that is usually subdivisions Digastric
displaced by contraction of the muscle Shape Deltoid
e.g. biceps inserts on the forearm Teres
Serratus
- a muscle may cause displacement of the bone Origin/insertion Xiphihumeralis
of origin instead of the bone of insertion if the former is Stapedius
immobilized by other muscles Action Levator scapulae
e.g. geniohyoid Risorius
3. APONEUROSES- tough, thin, sheet-like expanses of Size Major
mammalian tendons and ligaments Longissimus

e.g. galea aponeurotica- major component of Basis for homology:

mammalian scalp
4. RAPHES- long-seamlike tendons
e.g. linea alba
5. TENDONOUS INSCRIPTIONS- fine nonmetameric
myosepta-like traverses, strap-like muscles
-similarity of location, origin and insertion
e.g genioglossus(mammals-insertion in tongue) to
sublingual seed pouch(avians)
-embryogenesis and innervation
e.g. corascapular process of reptiles= supraspinatus
and infraspinatus of mammals

C. ACTIONS OF SKELETAL MUSCLES III. AXIAL MUSCLES

= muscles of the trunk and tail
EXTENSORS- straightens two segments of a
limb or vertebral column at a joint = extend forward beneath the pharynx as hypobranchial
muscles and as tongue muscles.
FLEXORS- draw one segment toward another
= do not include branchiomeric or appendicular muscles
ADDUCTORS- draw a part toward the midline
=arise from segmental MESODERMAL SOMITES
ABDUCTORS- away from the midline
PROTRACTORS- thrust forward or outward
RETRACTORS- pull back
 Comparative Anatomy of the [CHAPTER 11:
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METAMERISM - enables fishes and aquatic tetrapods to
propel themselves in water by lateral undulation
- superceded by locomotion of limbs in terrestrial
MYOSEPTA (MYOCOMMATA) - separate the muscles
of one body segment to the next
- anurans and amnions: abdominal musculature
consists of broad sheets strengthened by
tendonous inscriptions, and not myosepta.
A. TRUNK AND TAIL MUSCLES OF FISHES
= myomeres separated by myosepta to which
longitudinally directed muscle fibers attach
= for locomotion
= except in agnathans, divided into EPAXIAL(dorsal)
and HYPAXIAL(ventral) muscles, and divided by the
HORIZONTAL SKELETOGENOUS SEPTUM
-anchored to dorsal rib
-ventral ribs in the lateral body wall of most
fishes develop within the myosepta
= myosepta is seen zigzag, elaborately folded deeper
=cones become longer toward the tail, and the apices of
caudally directed cones near the end of the trunk are
often continued as tendonous extensions that insert on
caudal vertebrae.
=forces exerted by contractions are distributed over
more than one body segment and become most
powerful in the tail
=successive myomeres exert a pull on the vertebral
column, evolving rhythmic lateral undulation, which
propel the fish forward
=metamerism of hypaxial muscles of fishes is interrupted
where the pectoral and pelvic girdles are built into the
body wall
=dorsally, epaxial muscles continue to the skull as
EPIBRANCHIAL muscles,
= beneath the gills, hypaxials extend the lower jaw as
HYPOBRANCHIAL muscles.
DORSAL RAMI - supply epaxial myomeres
VENTRAL RAMI - supply hypaxial myomeres; larger
since they innervate a greater muscle mass
OBLIQUE FIBERS-lies superficial to the main hypaxial
mass ventrolaterally in many fishes
BLUEFIN TUNA - warm-blooded due to the heat
generated by contractions of the voluminous axial
musculature, thus warming the body to temperatures far
exceeding that of surrounding water.
B. TRUNKS AND TAIL MUSCLES OF TETRAPODS
= tailed amphibians have retained the primitive
metamerism of epaxial and hypaxial muscles
=enables aquatic urodeles to swim by fish-like lateral
undulation of the trunk and tail.
= disappearance of epaxial muscles in amniotes gave
rise to long, straplike or pinnate bundles
= increased reptilian flexibility, mammalian arching, and
greater lateral undulation
= birds: rigid column requires few epaxial muscles
caudal to the next make avian flights possible
= hypaxial myomeres were gradually replaced by strata
of broad muscular sheets.
= Necturus: hypaxial myomere is split into three layers
= Sphenodon: retained only epaxial myomeres
1. EPAXIAL MUSCLES OF THE TRUNK
= extend from base of the skull into the tail for varying
distances
= functions: straightening the vertebral column, lateral
flexion of the body
= most anterior ones attach to the occiput
= amphibians (except anurans): the epaxials retain their
primitive metamerism.- DORSALIS TRUNCI
=amniotes (except rhyncocephalans): most epaxials are
long bundles
=snakes: dorsoventral flexion and lateral undulation. All
epaxial muscles are voluminous and complex
=epaxial muscles became increasingly hidden by the
expansion dorsad of the appendicular muscles and
associated LUMBODORSAL APONEUROSIS as a
derived condition in amniotes.
a.) SPINALES- assist in maintaining
stability(temporary rigidity) of the column in
whatever degree of extension or flexion is
imposed by other vertebral muscles.
b.) INTERVERTEBRALS- deepest epaxial
muscles, only ones to retain primitive
metamerism, participates with longer epiaxials
in maintaining a vertebral posture appropriate
to the needs of the moment,
c.) LONGISSIMUS-longest epaxial mass,
dominant extensor in mammals. Plays virtually
no role in generalized mammalian locomotion.
d.) ILIOCOSTALES- lateral to longissimus,
dominant epaxials in reptiles, and provide
leverage for lateral undulation.
* in turtles and birds, epaxials are only
prominent in the neck because the vertebral
column, and in turtles, the ribs are immobilized
by fusion with the synsacrum or carapace.*
 Comparative Anatomy of the [CHAPTER 11:
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MULTIFIDUS SPINAE- spinales grouped with lumbar
intervertebrals
COMPLEXUS - cervical epaxials of birds that inserts on
the interparietal bone
- and provides power for cracking the eggshell
with the beak during hatching.
2. HYPAXIAL MUSCLES OF THE TRUNK
a.) SUBVERTEBRALS- longitudinal bundles
beneath the transverse processes in the roof
of the coelom
- Action of subvertebrals is in general
opposite that of the epaxials.
LONGUS COLLI in the neck of birds
and mammals
QUADRATUS LUMBORUM in the
thorax
PSOAS MINOR(tenderloin-connects
the lumbar vertebrae with the pelvic
girdle) in mammals
b.) OBLIQUE AND TRANSVERSE MUSCLES
- external respiration (amniotes except
turtles)
- accessory role (mammals)
- thought to be derivatives of the oblique
sheets of primitive parietal mucles
- support the abdominal viscera
- compress the viscera for delivery of birth
and egg laying and emptying of digestive
tract
PARIETAL MUSCLES
External oblique
Internal Oblique
Transverse muscles of the
abdomen
CREMASTER MUSCLE loops around
the spermatic cord, commences at the
inguinal ring, inserts fibrous sheath in
the wall of the scrotum
AMNIOTES
INTERCOSTALS- assisted by
subdivisions of supracostal mscles that
differentiate into:
- Scalenus
- Serratus dorsalis
- Levatores costarum
- Transversus costarum
External intercostals
Internal intercostals
Transverse muscle of the thorax
AQUATIC URODELES: external oblique
muscle is split into superficial and deep parts.
CROCODILIANS AND LIZARDS: all three
layers consist of two sheets each
ANURANS: internal oblique is sometimes
missing
BIRDS: all sheets are thin
TURTLES: vestigial
c.) RECTUS MUSCLES OF THE ABDOMEN
=extends longitudinally on either side of linea alba
between pubic symphysis and the sternum
=assists in flexing the trunk and in supporting the
abdominal viscera in a muscular sling
= urodeles: strictly segmental
= anurans and amniotes: irregular transverse
tendonous inscriptions
PYRAMIDALIS MUSCLE - seen in ventral wall of
marsupial pouch, a slip of the rectus
abdominis
d.) MAMMALIAN DIAPHRAGM
= hypaxial muscles that have migrated
accompanied by third, fourth and fifth cervical
spinal nerves.
= innervated by ventral rami
= major component of the suction pump utilized in
mammalian breathing
3. MUSCLES OF THE TAIL
=continuations of the epaxial and hypaxial vertebral
musculature of the trunk
4. HYPOBRANCHIAL AND TONGUE MUSCLES
= origin: postbranchial somites, supplied by cervical
spinal nerves (hypoglossal)
FISHES
- CORACOARCUALES - coracoid region of the pectoral
girdle
- CORACOMANDIBULARIS - Meckels cartilage
 Comparative Anatomy of the [CHAPTER 11:
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- CORACOHYOIDEUS Basihyals B.TETRAPODS

- CORACOBRANCHIALIS- ventral segments of gill Extrinsic Intrinsic

cartilages
=arising on the axial skeleton =arising on a girdle or
- assist the branchiomeric muscles in respiration and or fascia of trunk limb
feeding movements by: =inserting on a girdle or limb =inserting more distally
=begin development within on the limb
a. expanding pharynx and gill arches
the embryonic body wall =organize from
b. moving parts of hyois skeleton =secondary appendicular blastemas within
c. depressing lower jaw muscles(not intrinsic in limb) developing limbs
=most primitive, being =primary appendicular
*Rectus cervicis - perform related functions in extensions oflocomotoe muscles
urodele* musculature of ancestral =mesenchyme
craniates originate in somites,
appendages are
AMNIOTES e.g. therefore myotomal
= straplike and longer myotomal origin embryonic origin
= stabilizes the hyoid apparatus and larynx and draw levator scapulae =innervated by ventral
these cephalad or caudad serrauts ventralis rami
rhomboideus
e.g.
TONGUE - is essentially a mucosal sac anchored to banchiomeric myotomal origin latissimus
the hyoid skeleton and stuffed with hypobranchial trapezius dorsi
muscles. strenomastoideus iliopsoas
cleidomastoideus
a.) Extrinsic
HYOGLOSSUS
STYLOGLOSSUS 1. EXTRINSIC MUSCLES

GENIOGLOSSUS a.) DORSAL GROUP

LATISIMMUS DORSI
o Tetrapods: primary appendicular
b.) Intrinsic muscle that inserts on the humerus
LINGUALIS develop in mammals and o Urodeles: triangular muscle arising from
some reptiles, has no skeletal superficial fascia
attachment. o Reptiles: firm attachment to the tough
fascia that is anchored to neural spines
o Mammals: from the neural spines of
IV. APPENDICULAR MUSCLES most of the thoracic vertebrae caudal to
the first few
=insertion: girdles, fins or limbs.
Deep into the latissimus dorsi in most amniotes
are THREE EXTRINSIC MUSCLES that insert
A. FISHES into the scapula:
o Two Levators of the scapula:
=muscle buds LEVATOR SCAPULAE
=chiefly extrinsic VENTRALIS
omotransversarius
=differentiate from blastemas within the embryonic origin: transverse processes
trunk and spread into the developing fanfold of atlas or basioccipital bone
= disposed as ventral(preaxial) flexors(depressors) LEVATOR SCAPULAE
and dorsal(postaxial) extensors(elevators) DORSALIS
originates on the transverse
=muscles of median dorsal fins organize from
processes of the number of
MYOTOMAL MESENCHYME that is giving rise to
posterior cervical vertebrae
epaxial myomeres; those of median ventral arise
o Rhomboideus group - arises from the
from HYPAXIAL MESENCHYME
occiput and neural spines
o Serratus Ventralis (serratus anterior)-
arises by many separate prominent
tendonous slips
 Comparative Anatomy of the [CHAPTER 11:
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*Levator scapulae dorsalis is
sometimes considered part of
the serratus ventralis*
TRAPEZIUS- survivor of the CUCULLARIS
muscle of fishes
o acquired attachments to the pectoral
girdle and underwent same expansion
as latisimmus dorsi
o SUBDIVISIONS:
CLEIDOTRAPEZIUS (cleido-
cervical)
ACROMIOTRAPEZIUS (cervical
trapezius)
SPINOTRAPEZIUS (Thoracic
trapezius)
o Receives motor innervation by
branchiomeric nerves
CLEIDOMASTOIDEUS and Cleido-Occipitalis
o acquired attachment to clavicle, but do
not function as appendicular muscles
o moves head when contracting
b.) VENTRAL GROUP
fan-shaped pectoral muscles originating
primitively on the coracoid cartilages and the
associated midventral raphe
PECTORALIS
o chief adductor in urodeles
o with the supracoracoideus in birds,
makes up powerful flight muscles that
depress(pectoralis) and
elevate(coracoideus) the wings
Procoracoid bone - elevates
the wing because its tendon
insertion passes to the dorsal
surface of the humerus
Supracoracoid is intrinsic in
mammals
2. INTRINSIC MUSCLES
a.) DORSAL GROUP
= postaxial muscles inherited from ancestral amniotes
DELTOIDEUS
o Spinodeltoideus
o Acromiodeltoideus
TERES MAJOR
TERES MINOR
SUBSCAPULARIS
LONG HEAD OF TRICEPS BRACHII
= all insert on the humerus except for the triceps
brachii, which inserts on the olecranon process of the
ulna
= distal to the triceps in mammals, two supinators of
the manus connect the humerus with the radius
=assortment of extensors of the hand and digits insert
on the skeleton of the wrist and digits
= mammalian deltoid: homologue of the DORSALIS
SCAPULAE, expansion of a muscle in the same location
in reptiles
= teres major appears to be a SLIP OF THE
LATISSIMUS DORSI
= teres minor: SCAPULOHUMERALIS ANTERIOR in
reptiles
b.) VENTRAL GROUP
Supraspinatus and infraspinatus: homologues
of the SUPRACORACOID of reptiles
Coracobrachialis: in mammals, originates on
the coracoid process of the scapula. Present in
reptiles, but very small in mammals
Biceps brachii and brachialis: major flexors of
the forearm of reptiles and mammals
Anconeus: NOT HOMOLOGOUS with the
anconeus of frogs
Epitrochleoanconeus: partially encircles the
elbow joint medially
Pronators of the manus: insert on the radius
and rotate this bone
Flexors of the manus: originates on humerus
by long tendon of carpals, metacarpals and
phalanges
Cleidobrachialis: extends from clavicle to
humerus or ulna,
o Seems to be a continuation of
Basioclavicularis(cleido-occipital) of
rabbits and cleidotrapezius of cats
o Clavicles are vestigial in rabbits and
cats
o Innervated by spinal nerves
o Muscles above the raphe is supplied by
branchiomeric nerves
= musculature of birds is essentially reptilian
3. MUSCLES OF PELVIC GIRDLE AND HIND LIMBS
= pelvic girdles, especially in amniotes, are incapable of
independent mobility
CAUDOFEMORALIS
o urodeles and reptiles: exerts pull in the
tail, extends some of the proximal
caudal vertebrae and the femur
o Non-locomotor in urodeles
o Pyriformis: part of the caudofemoralis
muscle that ha sbecome locomotory in
mammals
=locomotor muscles of the hindlimbs are chiefly intrinsic,
extend between the bones of the girdle
MODERN REPTILES:
o Puboischiofemoralis
o Puboischiotibialis
o Iliofemoralis
o Iliotibialis
o Iliofibularis
o Femorotibialis
 Comparative Anatomy of the [CHAPTER 11:
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ILIOPSOAS
o humans and other mammals appear as
separate iliacus and psoas major
o PUBOISCHIOFEMORALIS INTERNUS
of reptiles
o insert on the lesser trochanter
o protracts and rotates the femur
FUNCTIONAL GROUP OF THREE HIP MUSCLES
o gluteus-reptilian iliofemoralis,
o most powerful among the three
o abducts the thigh
o rotates the femur to turn the foot
ooutward
o pyriformis- reptilian caudofemoralis brevis
o gemelli
=origin: ilium and ischium
=insertion: greater trochanter
QUADRATIS FEMORIS
- consists of three vasti and a rectus femoris
- arises on ilium and greater and lesser
trochanters
- VASTI extend the leg
- RECTUS FEMORIS adducts the thigh
- Other extensors of the thigh
o Semi-membranosus
o Adductor femoris
o Adductor longus
o Pectineus
o Sartorius
Longest muscle in human body
o Gracilis
TWO OBTURATORS
- Muscles flex, rotate and abduct the thigh
- Rise from the lips of the obturator foramen, and
ischium and pubis, inserts at proximal end of
femur
BICEPS FEMORIS AND SEMITENDINOSUS
- Primarily flexors of the leg
- Former also abducts the thigh and the latter
extends it
- Arise on ischium insertion on patella
GASTROCNEMIUS - extensor of the foot
- Mammals: long tendon inserts at the calcaneus
- Birds: tarsometatarsus
Ankylosed pelvic girdle
*refer to page 256 for more info about innervation (table
11.6)
V. SOMITOMERIC AND SOMITIC MUSCLES OF THE
HEAD
A. BRANCHIOMERIC MUSCLES
=operating the skeleton derived from the embryonic
pharyngeal arches
= fishes: food handling and respiration
= did not and does not orient the body in the external
environment
=origin: somitomere
1. MUSCLES OF THE MANDIBULAR ARCH
In Squalus:
o LEVATOR PALATOQUADRATI - raises the
upper jaw
o Arises on otic capsule
o Inserts on the quadrate end of upper jaw
o ADDUCTOR MANDIBULAE- raises the lower
jaw
o Arises on quadrate process
o Inserts on meckel cartilage
o INTERMANDIBULARIS- elevates the anterior
pharyngeal floor
o Extends between meckel and strong
midventral raphe
o SPIRACULARIS(craniomaxillaris)
In mammals:
o MASSETER- originated in zygomatic arch
o TEMPORALIS- temporal bone
o PTERYGOIDEUS- pterygoid fossa
=intermandibular of fishes is homologous to
MYLOHYOIDEUS
=one slip may have given rise to DIGASTRICUS of
tetrapods
=TENSOR TYMPANI: probably another slip of the first-
arch
=mandibular arch muscles of gnathostomes are
th
innervated by 5 cranial nerve
2. MUSCLES OF THE HYOID ARCH
In Squalus:
=principal muscles of hyoid arch elevate the arch or
constrict the pharyngeal cavity(for respiration and
feeding)
=LEVATOR HYOMANDIBULAE and a DORSAL
CONSTRICTOR
origin: neurocranium
insertion: hyomandibula and ceratohyal
cartilage
= VENTRAL CONSTRICTOR:
- subdivisions: ventral hyoid constrictor and
interhyoideus
 Comparative Anatomy of the [CHAPTER 11:
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In bony fishes:
= DORSAL CONSTRICTOR is subdivided; part of it
operates the operculum.
= contraction of hyoid arch muscles results in movement
of jaws
*made possible by the joint between the upper
and lower jaw and hyomandibula*
In tetrapods:
= hyoid arch muscles continue to serve some of the
functions seen in fishes + acquisition of new roles
In Necturus:
= BRANCHIOHYOIDEUS muscle of the hyoid arch
- origin: ceratohyal cartilage
- insertion: epibranchial cartilage of the first gill
- waves the gills back and forth in the eater for
respiration
=DEPRESSOR MANDIBULAE-opens mouth of urodeles
and many reptiles
=posterior belly of DIGASTRICUS-in mammals, help in
chewing movements
=STYLOHYOIDEUS- connects the styloid or jugular
process of the skull with the anterior horn of the
hyoid in mammals
=SPHINCTER COLLI- collarlike overlying the origin of
branchiohyoideus
- thought to be derived from a portion of
interhyoideus of fishes
= in reptiles, spreads upward around the rear of
the skull to insert to the platysma
=PLATYSMA- in mammals, becomes the
facial(mimetic muscles)
=STAPEDIUS-originates on the posterior wall of middle
ear cavity, inserts on stapes
-homologue of the hyomandibular cartilages
-contracts reflexively to impede extra loud
airborne sounds that might injure delicate hair
cells of cochlea
-so named because of its distribution to the
facial muscles
=innervation to the middle ear by V and VII
branchiomeric nerves
*all hyoid arch muscles receive their motor innervation
via the facial (7th) nerve*
3. MUSCLES OF THE THIRD AND SUCCESSIVE
PHARYNGEAL ARCHES
o muscles of the fish caudal to the hyoid:
compress or expand the pharyngeal
cavity and gill puches during respiration
CONSTRICTORS (dorsal and ventral)
o In sharks, directly under skin covered by
tough subcutaneous fascia, that
compresses the gill pouches, expelling
the water
LEVATORS
o Cucullaris
Strong muscle sheet from the
levators that raises the
pharyngeal wall assisted by the
levator mandibulae of the
second arch
Adductors
o Deep in the gill arches; connect
epibranchial and ceratobranchial
cartilages
o Causes the lateral pharyngeal walls to
bow outward when muscles contract,
expanding the pharyngeal chamber
Interarcuals(dorsal and lateral)
o Connect successive pharyngo- and epi-
branchials, drawing these together
o Assists in further expansion of pharynx
=The coracobranchials in the floor of the pharynx are
HYPOBRANCHIAL
In bony fishes:
=branchiomeric muscles caudal to the hyoid arch are
much reduced as a consequence of the role of the
operculum
Refer to table 11 .7 page 260 for Chief branchiomeric
muscles and innervation in Squalus and Tetrapods
In tetrapods:
=branchiomeric muscles have pretty much disappeared
=remaining in ARCH III:
stylopharyngeus- for swallowing
posterior belly of stylohyoideus
=remaining in ARCH IV- intrinsic muscles of the
mammalian larynx
cricithyroideus
cricoarytenoideus
thyroarytenoideus
= TRAPEZIUS muscle of amniotes are derivatives of the
cucullaris muscle of fishes
-unknown whether homologous as to their
counterpart in urodeles
=STERNOCLEIDOMASTOID COMPLEX
-aka sternomastoideus, cleidomastoideus,
and in lagomorphs and few mammals,
basioclavicularis, also known as cleido-
occipitalis
-has been thought to be of branchiomeric origin
on the basis of innervation by the spinal
accessory nerve
-however discovered to be the history of this
nerve is conjectural. OCCIPITOSPINAL
Refer to table 11.8 for chief extrinsic eyeball muscles
and innervation, page 261
 Comparative Anatomy of the [CHAPTER 11:
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=FACIALIS- most notable integumentary muscle.

B. EXTRINSIC EYEBALL MUSCLES Innervated by cranial nerve VII - BRANCHIOMERIC
=striated, skeletal, voluntary NERVE
=origin: orbital wall CANINUS- elevates part of upper lip that hides
=insertion: fibrous sclerotic coat of eyeball spearlike canine tooth
AURICULAR muscles(non-humans) direct
In elasmobranches: pinnas of ears towards faint sounds
=from the preotic somitomeres in the embryonic head
B. Intrinsic integumentary muscles:
=THIRD CRANIAL NERVE innervates four eyeball =develop entirely within the skin, in the dermis
muscles: ARRECTORES PLUMARUM
Superior rectus ARRECTORES PILORUM
Medial rectus Both insert on feather or hair follicles, elevate fur
Inferior rectus or ruffle feathers.
Inferior oblique Both are smooth muscles in almost all species,
innervated by sympathetic nervous system
=FOURTH CRANIAL NERVE innervates the superior
oblique eyeball muscle VII. ELECTRIC MUSCLES
=certain muscle masses are modified to produce, store,
=SIXTH CRANIAL NERVE innervates the lateral rectus and discharge electricity.
eyeball muscle =Torpedo(electric ray), Raja, Electrophorus(S. American
eel), Malapterururs(water catfish)
= Eyeball muscles of other craniates are innervated by =ELECTROPLAX - each disc, a modified multinucleate
same nerves muscle fiber embedded in a vascular jellylike
=Other than elasmobranches, eyeball muscles are extracellular matrix surrounded by connective
myotomal in origin tissue
=Muscle inserts on: -nerve endings terminating on each disc induce
Pyramidalis of reptiles the charge
Quadratus of birds =No systematic distribution among fishes and probably
Levator palpebrae superioris of evolved independently many times.
reptiles and mammals =electric organ appears to be composed of modified skin
=Protractors and retractors of eyeballs of reptiles and glands rather than muscle tissue.
depressors of the lower lids are not of similar origin to
the eye muscles since they are innervated by 5th cranial
nerve

VI. INTEGUMENTARY MUSCLES

Myotomal muscles innervated by spinal nerves:

COSTOCUTANEOUS MUSCLES of snakes-
hypaxial integumentary muscles used in
locomotion
PANNICULUS CARNOSUS(cutaneous
maximus) wraps around in mammals, enabling
armadillos to roll, forms sphincter around
abdomian puch of marsupials, and vigorously
shake flies off horses.
o Poorly developed in monkeys and
absent in humans
CUTANEOUS PECTORIS- maintains original
attachment to the chest wall in anurans
PATAGIAL MUSCLES- insert on the skin of
wing membranes

A. Extrinsic integumentary muscles:

=developmental and anatomical origins are away from
the dermis
=insertion: under the dermis