Geography of Vedic India from the time of Alexander

Bipin Shah

Introduction:
Greek experienced two deadly Persian invasions, first under Darius-1 and then another led by
his successor Xerexes-1. Most of the Persian names cited here are corrupted names found in
Greek texts. In reality, their real Persian names were close to old Sanskrit names. For
example, Darius would be Daryavahusor Daryavas. Xerexes is also pronounced in Old
Persian as x--y-a-r--a and phonetically sounds in Sanskrit as Khashayarsha and Sanskrit
Kshathra meaning king. Artraxes will be Ariaramanes or Artarama. Similar translation
when apply to Cambyses will be Kambujiya, probably implying son of Kamboj queen.
There are other Persian names-Ushtra will be Sanskrit Shastra, Artabanus will be
Atharvan Cyraxes will be Uvaxshatra or Havakshshatra. The first invasion of Greece
led by Darius -1 was a near military failure at the battle of Marathon, when Spartans and
Athenians armies repulsed the Persian invaders. Persians, although, captured slaves and war
booty but could not hold the territories.

Battle at Marathon Spartan Phalanx

The second Persian invasion was a repeated by his successor Xerexes-1, to finish an
unaccomplished mission of his predecessor to be the master of Asia then was the known
world. During this second invasion, the Persian land advances were blocked at the pass of
Thermopylae by a small force under King Leonidas I of Sparta. However, the naval battles
continued between the navies, the Persian fleet was trapped by allied Athenian fleet at the
straits of Artemisia and at the site of Thermopylae. A smaller Greek navy managed to hold

1
back the large Persian naval armada for weeks without any conclusions. The Spartan land
defenders were outflanked and overwhelmed by numerically superior Persian armies as both
armies were fighting in a mountain passes of unknown geography. The Greek rearguards
were trapped and were annihilated by the Persians. (See movie 300). The Greek naval fleet
assembled under Athenian Naval commander Themistocles withstood two days of Persian
attacks at the Battle of Artemisia, but when news reached them of the naval disaster at
Thermopylae, they withdrew to Salamis. After Thermopylae, all of Boeotia and Attica fell to
the Persian army, which captured and burnt Athens. However, a larger Greek Naval armada
fortified the narrow Isthmus of Corinth, protecting the province of Peloponnesus from
Persian conquest. Both sides thus sought a naval victory that might prove decisive but ended
up as a near draw at Corinth. Greek Themistocles succeeded in luring the Persian navy into
the narrow Straits of Salamis, where the large numbers of Persian ships became victims and
were soundly beaten by the Greek fleet. The Greek victory at Salamis prevented a quick
conclusion to the Xerexs campaign for the annexation of Greece in his empire and fearing
that this can become an unmitigated disaster for the Persians, Xerxes smartly retreated back
to Asia, leaving his general Mardonius to finish the conquest with the elite of his army. At the
ensuing Battle of Plataea, the Greek armies again established its military superiority, inflicting
a severe blow to the Persian army and killing General Mardonius in the process. On the same
day in Aegean Sea, Greeks rebound delivered the final blow and destroyed remnants of
Persian navy thus ending Xeroxes dream of conquest. The loss of life, plunder, killing and
slave capturing left an undeniable mark on Greeks psyche for generations to come and it
sowed the seeds of the revenge among Greek youths to teach Persian a lifetime lessons and
Ionian Greek who cooperated with Persians.

Second Persian invasion of Greece and battle at Thermopylae and salamis by Xerexes

2
Persepolis image of Darius-1 and Xerexes 2000 years old fresco showing Darius III & Alexander

Alexander Macedonian Prince

There was one young Greek name Alexander, who arose among the Greeks tribe of
Macedonia as a prince son of King Phillips. He was considered unique young man of his time,
gifted by God with some of the best character traits of a man. He was tutored by Great
philosopher Aristotle. Alexander was a shrewd, savvy, loyal and generous. His human
empathy and forgiveness far exceeded of a conquerors of the old world. He was courageous,
explorer, persistent leader and a dreamer with life size ambitions that no ordinary human can
comprehend. He was also a strategic thinker well ahead of his time and dreamed himself as a
unifier of the ancient world. He wanted to march as victorious king until he reached the end
of the earth.
3
 He was led to believe based on the tales of Greek historians, travelers and his tutor Aristotle
that the end of earth was reached near mountain ranges covering eastern end of Persia. Due
to limited knowledge of geography of those ancient travelers and explorers, they were half
blind on geography. The world was far bigger than they knew. The map drawn by Aristotle
ended at very close to present Zagros and Paropamisadae Mountain chains that are wide and
endless and stretches to wide landmass. Alexander demanded and rewarded the loyalty but
never tolerated insurrection or insubordination and did not hesitate to punish the
disobedience. In spite of his virtues, ambition and military successes, he extended himself far
beyond his original mission and mandate given to and received from his troop that he led.
The net results were disappointments and deaths. Some key commanders and his troops
rebelled and he was forced to discipline them. He was mortally wounded in his Indian
campaign that ultimately cost his life. His Indian campaign had almost started soon after he
left Ecbatana (Hamadan, Iran) to capture Bactrian Satrap Bessus, also known as Artaxerxes V
and cousin of Darius III. Bessus may have stolen his purpose and act of revenge by killing his
main objective Persian emperor who invaded Greece but he was also infuriated by display of
his disloyalty. Along his pursuit of Bessus, he encountered various Indo-Iranian tribes with
whom he fought and conquered them into submission. After crossing Indus (An Indian arrow
that mortally wounded him from Malla tribe of Indus valley was further pursued by a possible
conspiracy of poison in gestation either mixed with wine or laced with food that finally
ended his life reaching Babylon on his return journey. He never made it home. He died at very
young age, before he ever got the opportunity to rule his vast empire, he had conquered. He
ended the supremacy of Persians in Asia for good, but his own Greek empire broke up in very
short period of time after his death. He did not conquer the whole world but went far beyond
anyone thought possible. He still remains a great warrior hero of Greco-Roman world.
Interestingly enough, an unknown Maurya clan of India became beneficiary of the invasion of
Alexander. Over the centuries, they built great Indian empire resembling the old Vedic
empire of influence. Asoka the Great propagated Indias Buddhism throughout the known
world that stretched from Anatolia to China along the Silk Road. The chronology,
circumstances and the defeat of Alexanders general Seleucid and ultimate usurpation of
Greek rule in Bactria is still shrouded in mystery and debated among experts and students.

Persian conquest of Vedic India:

The Persians through centuries were extending their empires east and west in central Asia.
They had conquered all tribes on eastern side of Hindukush (Greek- Paropamisadae or
Caucasus Indica). However, they exercised nominal control with eastern satrapies as

4
compared to western Asia. This anomaly is hard to explain. David Fleming in his article raised
the same question Where Was Achaemenid India?

Mr. Fleming points out in his article published in (CAIS), circle of Iranian studies: The
Achaemenid Persians escape the historians. Though they ruled the largest empire of the time
for more than two centuries, much of what we know about them comes not from themselves
but from other (same story about Indians) unsympathetic observers. The Persians were
perfectly capable of writing but beyond bookkeeping and the anomalous Behistan inscription
of Darius I, they appear to have been largely indifferent to the preservation of their version of
the world history. Achaemenid rulers, satraps, and individuals emerge at irregular and widely
separated intervals across three continents, but we know virtually nothing about them. We
knew more about their predecessors from ancient Mesopotamia, Egypt and Greece in far
greater details. Achaemenid Persians did rule huge tracts of western Asia and neighboring
regions and their administrative arrangements in Central Asia lasted in one form or another
at least until the coming of Islam. Nowhere were the Achaemenid more unobtrusive than in
case of ancient India and Indian controlled territory of modern Afghanistan , Bactria and
central Asia that was essentially included Persian satrapies of Aria, Archosia, and Bactria,
Afghanistan and Northern most territories that had major cities like Herat, Kandahar, Balkh,
Taxilla, Peshawar and Kabul respectively. These large provinces were not only important but
rich and provided much of revenues to their empire.

Sources of Alexanders Histories and details on his Campaign:

Alexanders success made him a hero in Greco-Roman history and made west aware of the
east. There is an abundance of ancient Greco-Roman historians, geographers and
philosophers who wrote about his success, experience and places his army visited in Asia. It is
often said that history belongs to the victors. It may be true for the west but east have
been historically careless about dating and memorializing their histories. From these ancient
historians, a modern trade of writing have emerged and every modern and famous historian
have analyzed Alexanders campaign , in spite of the possibility of errors in identifying correct
physical location due to heavy use of Greek words describing ancient geography. However,
most of them have focused on the campaign and life story of Alexander; only few have
addresses the issue of Geography as it relates to ancient India. The increase knowledge
gained through numismatics and archeology has helped pinpoint the ancient geography and
identifying places mentioned in Greek and Latin texts. Setting aside the some of the
bombastic tale of Gold digging ants of India, we can definitely learn that ancient India as
referred in the ancient Vedic text was more centered towards Afghanistan and its North and
present North India. This article presents the hints and clues given by the ancient writers that
5
hitherto never been analyzed in depth and somehow omitted by Buddhist and Jaina texts of
5th century AD because the geography then already moved southwards. This gives us the
impression that India had moved more south when those texts were written and produced.
Consistent with Vedic Aryans numerology and naming convention, the names were
duplicated at new places of relocation. Many rivers acquired the name of Sarashwati to
impart the holiness claimed in Veda. Many new settlements on the bank of a river became
the Patan (short for Patliputra) of modern India and so on. The narrative presented here
still may be incomplete due to assumption given of through Greek names but it adds to our
knowledge. This brief explanation can be developed, amended, extended further with
additional research and knowledge from ancient writings.

There are at least six to eight surviving sources from ancient Greek and Roman world on the
life of the Alexander the Great. All these were derived from the various original sources that
may have accompanied Alexander or lived in ancient India for extended period but most of
the original accounts are now lost to the history. There have been number of interpretations
of all those early writers from Greek and Roman sources that were compiled several centuries
later and those work are now were translated in English languages by the modern historians.

There are very few oriental versions written by Muslim historians in later centuries and one
Indian drama called Mudra Raksha by Vishakhadatta based on some of the actual
characters that may have interacted or witnesses the Alexanders campaign. However, none
of these accounts are direct evidence or precise in presentation as a corroborative Indian
viewpoint and the chronology is still being contested. This presents a difficulty and provides
vagueness that some may call Columbus Phobia as to who discovered America first? Not to
be left behind, even Chinese have pressed claim for first discovering America before
Columbus.

6
The five or six main surviving accounts by Arrian, Ptolemy, Plutarch, Diodorus Sicula, Curtius
Rufus and Justin were sourced from Alexanders Generals, historians and soldiers. Supporting
them are accounts given by historians Herodotus and Strabo. The Metz Epitome is a late
antiquity summary of earlier historical fragments and covers the conquests of Alexander
between Hyrcania and India. The only surviving manuscript was found in Metz, from which
the name originates. The manuscript was destroyed during the Second World War, but there
are two transcriptions of the original. Then there was Megastheness Indica that gives detail
accounts of geography and duration of his life spent in India during his tenure as diplomat in
Indian royal court. The original Indica was also destroyed with exception of few surviving
fragments. To learn the ancient geography of India, we must rely on those earlier sources as
translated by Alex McCrindle and many other Alexanders historians. The historians Bosworth
and others have spent considerable time researching, analyzing some of the stories from
various sources along with related numismatic and archaeological evidences. The biggest
hurdles are the Greek pronunciations of names and how some of these names have changed
over the centuries. The Greek pronunciations from the original sources of the names of
people, places and rivers make it very hard to find related equivalents from oriental sources.
With Islamic invasion of Central Asia, all the clues have been destroyed. Some of these
accounts differ in key details. In addition to that, Greeks were unfamiliar with eastern part of
world outside of the lands of Persia and Media. They had no Idea that whole world lied ahead
of them is big and large and remain unexplored for centuries. When they climbed the Persian
mountain hoping to see the end of the world , they were taken back by seeing a vast stretch
of land, mountains and passes that lie ahead in front of them the end of the world they were
anticipating was no longer in their sight. As Strabo admits in his book about ancient India;
But it is necessary for us to hear accounts of this country with indulgence, for not only is it
farthest away from us, but not many of our people have seen it; and even those who have
seen it, have seen only parts of it, and the greater part of what they say is from hearsay; and
even what they saw they learned on a hasty passage with an army through the country.
Wherefore they do not give out the same accounts of the same things, even though they have
written these accounts as though their statements had been carefully confirmed. And some
of them were both on the same expedition together and made their sojourns together, like
those who helped Alexander to subdue Asia; yet they all frequently contradict one another.
But if the differ thus about what was seen, what must we think of what they report from
hearsay?

7
It is a fair assumption that Metz derived its information from Cleitarchus who was a trusted
aide to Alexanders general Ptolemy who ruled his Egyptian satrapy after Alexanders death.
Cleopatra was descendants of Ptolemy, a Greek beauty who was aligned with Roman Julius
Cesar and Mark Anthony.

Cleitarchus entire 12 volume covered Alexanders entire reign, if not a complete bio.
However, he did not accompany the Alexander on his campaign, he was able to consult
participants of the war and his Asian campaign but his chief source was Callisthenes. Metz
relied heavily on this source. Callisthenes of Olynthus (360 328 BC) was a well-connected
Greek historian of Macedonia who accompanied Alexander the Great as a historian during his
military campaign. The philosopher Aristotle was Callisthenes' great uncle who drew the map
where he mistakenly showed the end of the world where Median empire ended. East of the
median empire lied the tribes and kingdoms of small and large size that were under Pan Vedic
influence but practiced either Zoroasterism, Buddhism or Hinduism and other religious
practices that were essentially idol worshipping polytheism embodied by natural forces and
totem paganism of Saka tribes. In order to estimate the size of ancient India, Vedic culture
and religious information, the information left behind on India, Persia and Alexanders
campaign is helpful and clears up our biased view of the ancient world looking through
modern lenses of geography. Hopefully, this article will contribute to that objective.

Metz Epitome-Part 1 statement when Alexander heard that Bessus had assumed the royal
vestments. He ordered the Agrianes and the Hypaspists to arm and, proud of the armys

8
confidence in him, he set out to lead them by the mountain routes he thought the shortest
against {Bessus}. He came to Arius, where Ariobarzanes (Sanskrit-Ariaramanes or Ariarathis)
was, who, with Bessus, murdered Darius. Alexanders arrival terrified him and he fled into
India. According to Metz Epitome, once the river of Media was crossed, the country of India
had begun.

Strabo, following Eratosthenes regarded the Indus as the western boundary of India. He
summarizes through a general statement on ancient Indias geography: India, Within the
river Ganges is bounded on the west by the Paropamisadae and Archosia and Gedrocia along
their eastern sides already indicated; on the north by Mount Imaos along the Sogdania and
the Sakai lying above it; on the east by the river Ganges; and on the south and again on the
west by a portion of the Indian Ocean. On the west, and this is the view which has been
generally prevalent among Alexanders historians. Ptolemy based on his collection of
information from various sources deposited in the library of Alexandria went further and
perhaps using Megasthenes and Eratosthenes accounts included other parts of India. These
were the regions which lay immediately lay to the North West of that river, accounting
considerable portions of the countries now known as Baluchistan and Afghanistan. Strabo
was fully justified in his determination, since many places beyond the Indus, as the sequel
will show, bore names of Sanskrit origin and not of Persian origin, and such parts were ruled
from the earliest times down to the Muslim conquests by the princes of Indian descent. The
western boundary as given by Ptolemy would be roughly represented by a line drawn from
the mouth of the Indus and passing through the parts adjacent to Gandhara, Ghazni, Kabul,
Balkh, and even places beyond. The Paropamisadae inhabited the regions lying south of the
mountain range Called Parapamisus, now known as the Central Hindu-Kush. One of these
towns was 0rtospana (Uttrasthana), which has been identified with the city of Kabul. He gives
as the eastern boundary of the Paropamisadae a line drawn south from the sources of the
river Oxus (Amu Darya) through the Caucasian Mountains (the eastern portion of the Hindu-
Kush) to a Northern most point. Arakia (east of Armenia) lay to the south of the
Paropamisadae-its chief city was Arakhotos. There is a river of the same name which has
been identified with the Helmand (Harawati or Sharawati) but also and more probably with
the Urghand-ab or Arkand-ab, which passes by Kandahar. Gedrocia, the Modern Baluchistan,
had for its eastern boundary the River Indus. Sogdania (Sugatha) lay to the north of Bactria
and abutted on Scythia, both towards the north and towards the west. Ptolemy describes
them as nomadic, as without towns and as living in woods and caves. He specifies as their
tribes the Karatai (probably connected with the Kirata of MBH). The Sakai (Saka), it would
appear were the Mountain tribes of Kafiristan (Nuristan province of Afghanistan),
Badakashan, Shignan, Roshan, Baltistan, or Little Tibet, (Shignan and Roshan, two small hill
states E. of the Badakashan province of Afghanistan).

9
 Alexanders route in Afghanistan and tribes he encountered marked red as called out by Strabo

Persian Empire prior to expansion from Median Empire:

Media emerged as the power house in central Asia after the decline of an Assyrian empire
and prior to the emergence of larger Persian Empire under Darius-1. Cyrus (Cyaxares II) was
predecessor of Darius-I. Cyaxares-II was Grandson of Astyages of media and was half Persian
and half Medes. Persian Empire arose from the Median Empire. Cyaxares-II had a satrapy at
Susa that was administered by Cyaxares Persian father. The Median tribes arrived in the
region (one of several Indo-Iranian tribes) which they later called Media (Sanskrit-Medhu)
and followed the religion of Zoroasterism as codified in Avesta, which caused the first schism
and separation from Rig-Vedic religion of the people who called themselves Aryans or
Aria that meant noble than racial designation. They essentially called up on same Gods but
10
differed as to which are good Gods and which are bad Gods. There displayed same cultures of
Pastoralist nomads and warrior tribes of central Asia. These tribes expanded their control
over larger areas and subsequently and over a period of several hundred years the
boundaries of Media moved. An early description of the territory of Media by the Assyrians
dates from the end of 9th century until the beginning of the 7th century BC. The southern
border of Media, in that period, is named as the Elamite region of Simaski that is now called
Loristan. From the west and northwest it was bounded by the Zagros Mountains and from the
east by Dast-e Kavir. The region of Media was known to the Assyrians and described by them
as: "extended along the Great Khorassan Road from just east of Harhar to Alwand, and
probably beyond. It was limited on the north by Mannea, on the south by Ellipi." The location
of Harhar is suggested to be "the central or eastern" Mahidasht in Kermanshah province. The
inscription of Darius I (2.76, 77-78) names the capital of Media as "Hamgmatna" in Old
Persian (and in Elamite "Agmadana") the classical authors named it as Ecbatana which is at
the present Iranian site of Hamadan. The Median archaeological sources are scarce and
located at Tepe Nush-i Jan, Godin Tepe and Baba Jan with similar cultural characteristics.
Some of the ruins discovered show the structures of the temples where their religious beliefs
were practiced. Since Islamic conquest of Iran, valuable archeological evidence on the ground
was destroyed by Islamic hordes. During the period of the Assyrian Empire (911 BC), the
Medes, Persians and related Aryan tribes spoke the Old Persian language of Iran. They were
under the rule of Assyrians. Cyaxares of Media, also known as Cyaxares (Old Persian:
Uvaxshatra or Hovakshatra) with date in disputes involved the Scythian hordes in
overthrowing Assyrian empire at Nivneh. The historians often get confused with Cyaxares of
Media with Persian emperor. The later name sake attacked Neo-Assyrian Empire at Babylon.
The Median Empire is shown during Assyrian period around 900 BC. The freed Jews from
Babylonian captivity recorded the events as follows:

11
12
13
 Ancient Bactria was part of Vedic India

Ancient geography of India or discovery of the Gates of India

Prior to Alexanders historians, colonel Holdich was first to observe and point out in his book,
Gates of India that there was an unreferenced ancient geography of India. He stated: if we
include Kashmir, India runs to a northern apex about the point where, from the western
extension of the giant Muztagh, the Hindu Kush system takes off in continuation of the great
Asiatic divide. Here the Pamir border Kashmir, and here there are also mountain ways which
have aforetime let in the irrepressible Chinaman, probably as far as Hunza, but still a very
long way from the Indian peninsula. Then the Hindu Kush slopes off to the south-westward
and becomes the divide between Afghanistan and Kashmir for a space, till, from north of
Chitral, it continues with a sweep right into Central Afghanistan and merges into the
mountain chain which reaches to Herat. From this point, north of Chitral, commences the
true north-west barrier of India, a barrier which includes nearly the whole width of
Afghanistan beyond the formidable wall of the trans-Indus Mountains. It is here that the
gates of India are to be found, and it is with this outermost region of India, and what lies
beyond it.

Herodotus (484-435 BC) prior to Alexanders campaign was the first one who gave rough
sketch of India from his work on the world history. Most of his information came from Ionian
Greeks and other captured Greek slaves when Darius-1 conquered Anatolia. Many of them

14
had not traveled to India themselves but had heard lots of tales from the people who had
traveled that found its way into Herodotus writings. It is impossible to know the exact
geography those days unless you have continuous exchanges of travelers among all areas of
India. The references of south India and interior east India is missing as Alexander never
crossed east of Indus River. Herodotus, the great compiler of facts, fiction and stories
described India at the end of the earth that meant east of Persia and Media that Aristotle had
sketched for Alexander. Greek travelers like Ktesia of Cnidus, Xenophon of Athens who were
captured slaves of the Persians and were hired to serve as the royal physicians in lieu of
slavery were able to provide greater details that they learned from Persians, Medians, Saka
and travelers from India. However, some of their stories and tales of ancient India and
Central Asia were so farfetched to make them creditable. However, there were some
historical facts woven in their tales that were important enough to be extracted. The account
of scylax of Caryanda, who made an exploratory voyage from Persian Guelph through Sindhu
(Indus) river, had gained the geographical knowledge but it was also limited to his voyage of
discovery sailing along the Indus River. None of these people could have or did have full
knowledge of the entire country of modern India. Even the tales of mighty Magadha king
Nanada told to Alexander proved not so mighty because Chandra Gupta with his coalition
forces was able to overthrow him without many difficulties. It is very difficult to say, if some
of the tales of Magadha were planted to deter Alexander for making further inroads into the
heartland of India. However, it did influence Alexanders decision after witnessing the
ferocity of Indian tribes that he encountered during his expedition in central Asia and Indus
delta beyond Persian Empire. Alexander was finally convinced that he was extending himself
too far and that his army may either leave him behind or deplete his ranks by defecting. In
addition to these difficulties, his loss of his best friend Hephaestion and the childhood horse
friend Bucephalus affected him emotionally. The wound suffered by Indian arrow did not
make his physical life easier. Under these intense pressure, he was forced extinguish his
desire for world conquest and return home. It will be also a fair assumption that even
Northern habitants of India would have very limited or imprecise geographical knowledge of
south India, particularly south of Vindhya Mountain. That was the land where no Aryans or
only few Aryans set foot. Indian text referred that as Anaryavart (Non-Aryan habitat). The
people, who may have obtained improved geographic knowledge over Alexanders soldiers
and generals, came from Megasthenes embassy to India sent by Seleucid satrap of
Alexander. He was the Alexanders appointee to rule eastern Achemenian satrapies.

15
The two archeological maps of IV civilizations give us the clues of early human habitation and
evacuation due to unknown climatic disruptions. The Sanskrit speakers may have very well
occupied these abandoned areas vacated by IV people several centuries later and expanded
their migration thrust eastward towards the Ganges valley prior to 6th century BC. This is an
approximate clue of ancient Indian Geography. The Makran area which was part of IV
civilization turned into desert just like Rajasthan and was probably settled on scattered basis
with nomadic tribes of Rabari who were involved in transporting goods like Bedouins of
Arabia. The ancient India had western coast based IV civilization while in the interior and at
valleys of Himalaya and major rivers like Ganges and Yamuna that meets the Bay of Bengal,
ancient India was populated by various aboriginal tribes that made the 4th group (Caste) of
prehistoric India. The surviving tribes of Gonds, Naga, Munda, Bhil and many similar tribes
are still scattered throughout India near the river basins or near water sources from the
mountain. The discoveries of the number of Neolithic and Paleolithic sites have confirmed
these findings. IV (Indus-Sarashwati Valley) people were agriculturalists and had
domesticated animals for farming and built great cities and build products for consumers of
ancient Mesopotamia. To what extent these tribal groups participated in those enterprises or
interacted with the economy of IV civilization is not unknown or understood except some
clues left behind in some of the cave paintings and tales buried in tribal folklores.

When Indo-Iranians people split somewhere from BMAC complex where legendary Mount
Meru is located in Turkmenistan, the Sanskrit speakers descended from BMAC complex of
Margiana (Bactria-see Viktor Sarianidis archeological findings) and settled in various places in
the Indian subcontinent starting from Herat, Kabul, Khotan, Samarkand, Punjab, western
Sindh, Swat valley, Kashmir and then gradually moved towards Ganges valley to the east. This
could be only possible when Sanskrit speakers may have detected the reversal in climatic
condition and first occupied the vacated areas of IV civilization after several centuries of
abandonment.

To think in terms of the homogeneous entity of the ancient geography during Vedic period is
highly unrealistic. The makeup of ancient Vedic India was highly clannish and tribal in nature.
In its mature phase, it represented Janpadas and Mahajanapada. The vrijji confederacy was
unique and composed of various independent city-state republics, in a way how ancient
Greece was. Much of that geographical character remained in central Asia when Alexander
campaigned against central Asian tribes after defeating Persian monarch.

16
 IV civilization of coverage Bronze Age

Alexanders historian ultimately extracted the knowledge from Megastheness Indica on

Persian controlled eastern satrapies once held by Indians. Megasthenes embassy was the
17
only link that Greco Roman historians had for improved knowledge of India due to his
residency at Patliputra (Palimbothra of Greek). Some unnamed Greek soldier who stayed
behind and went back to bring stories and tales also provided feed stock for Greco Roman
historians. Megasthenes wrote his Indian experience in Indica. The greater portion of that
original document is lost but those early historians who had access to it repeated his accounts
in their works. For example, Arrian borrowed much from Indica. Herodotus also borrowed
from all those ancient sources. The way Achemenian organized their satrapies was based on
the tribal distribution and the tongues they spoke. This is the traditional ways the
subcontinent was organized for millennia.

Geographical clues in satrapies organization:

Herodotus informs us how Darius-1 organized his Persian satrapies for tax purpose. These
satrapies within itself were largely homogeneous except Bactria that was the ancient melting
pot where various tribes coexisted. The Indian satrapies that included northern territories of
ancient India were Punjab, western Sindh, Baluchistan, Afghanistan, Bactria and surrounding
regions once were dominated by Sanskrit speakers well described in Mahabharata period.
The reliefs of Persepolis show how the Vassals states mentioned below bring their tributes to
Achemenian Royal house at Persepolis. Some Scythians and sarmatians tribes were out of the
reach of the Persian army, so they remain independents. They employed the stealth
techniques of riding horse backward at high speed while shooting arrow at target with high
accuracy. It proved to be unbeatable ancient military warfare technique. These techniques
were later employed by Huns, Mongols and other central Asian invaders. Scythic Queen
Tomarys killed Persian king for invading Northern most territories of her kingdom. She was
no friend of Persians nor allowed him to become a king paramount. Later historian described
them as a tribe of the Wusun Saka. This translation of Herodotus' Histories 3.89-97 was made
by Aubrey de Selincourt.

Herodotus, in his book 3, Para 94, he described in details the tributes paid to Achemenian by
the conquered territories. The India proper made up the twentieth province. These are more
in number than any nation of which we know, and they paid a greater tribute than any other
province, namely three hundred and sixty talents of gold dust. In Para 98, he says All this
abundance of gold, from which the Indians send the aforementioned gold-dust to the king,
they obtain it in the following way. To the east of the Indian country is sand (Maka or
Makran). Of all the people of Asia whom we know - even those about whom something is
said with precision - the Indians dwell nearest to the dawn and the rising sun; for on the
eastern side of India all is desolate because of the sand. There are many Indian nations, none
18
speaking the same language; some of them are nomads, some not; some dwell in the river
marshes and live on raw fish, which they catch from reed boats. Each boat is made of one
joint of reed. These Indians wear clothes of bulrushes; they mow and cut these from the
river, then weave them crosswise like a mat, and wear them like a breastplate. In Para 102,
Other Indians dwell near the town of Caspatyrus (a city on Indus river called Kashyapapur.
There are differing opinions among experts as to what Caspatyrus mean and their opinion
varies. Most experts equate that with Kashmir, Peshawar or Gilgit-Balistan where Indus
flowed at that time. The wide variation in geography makes any interpretation meaningless
and the Pactyic country (North of India-where Pasto tribe dwelled while some call it North of
Baluchistan), north of the rest of India; they live like the Bactrians but they are of all Indians
the most warlike, and it is they who are sent for the gold; for in these parts all is desolate
because of the sand. In this sandy desert are ants, not as big as dogs but bigger than foxes;
the Persian king has some of these, which have been caught there. In Para 106, he says The
most outlying nations of the world have somehow drawn the finest things as their lot, exactly
as Greece has drawn the possession of far the best seasons. As I have lately said, India lies at
the world's most distant eastern limit; and in India all living creatures four-footed and flying
are much bigger than those of other lands, except the horses, which are smaller than the
Median horses called Nesaean; moreover, the gold there, whether dug from the earth or
brought down by rivers or got as I have described is abundant. Only thing we can derive is
that Punjab and Part of Sindh paid lots of taxes to Persians. Jaina and Buddhist historians
imply that due to Persian expansion within India. Magadha Janpadas moved the capital from
GiriRaj or Rajgriha located in the swat valley to somewhere in Gangetic plain where the
River Ganges, Yamuna and another river met and the city was founded as Patliputra
(Palimbothra to Greek) with the blessings from Buddha himself. The exact location is
unknown but some text implies that it was located at the bank of Ganga-Yamuna and another
local river now called Son (Arrian called it Erranoboas in Greek equated to Hiranyabaha or
rolling gold that equates to son river of today) like Triveni Sangam(Where three river
meets). One location in map below is near present Patna while other possibility in MP. No
archeology is discovered at Patna yet. Patliputra was a wooden fort and can be easily
decayed leaving no trace for archeology but pottery or other artifacts can remain intact. Pliny
(lib. VI, o. xi.x) calls it the Jomanes for Yamuna, and states that it flows into the Ganges
through the Palimbothra, between the towns of Methora (Mathura) and Chrysobara
(Krishnapura). Son river junction as suggested by Arrian where existing Patna is situated (22
degree 41), where no archeological remains or Patliputra is found so far but Ptolemy refers
Palimbothra (Patliputra) at 28 degree coordinate.

19
In describing the satrapies, we can segregate eastern and western satrapies as neatly as
possible due to imprecise knowledge of geography. The mountains do not move but river can
change its flow and Indus is known to have changed its course several times in the history.
Some of the satrapies in modern geographical context can be overlapping and carrying
different designations. Once northern most Janpadas of Massagete, Gete, Kamboja, Bahlika,
Pahlavas, Uttrakuru, param Kambojas and others were once controlled by Indians and were
treated as tributary Janpadas. Indians physically never ruled them but their language and
culture prevailed and they paid tributes to paramount Magadha or Pandvas-Kuru kings after
Mahabharata period. We dont have clear ideas when India lost its grips on those territories.
However, Chanakya and Chandra Gupta must have known the geographical extent and
brought it back as part of Mauryan Empire in a deal with Seleucid satrap of Alexander. See
below the extent of Mauryan Empire.

20
Comments of Satrapies of Persian Empire:
Western satrapies of Median-Persian Empire

1. The Ionians (Yavanas of MHB or Asiatic Greek), the Magnesians in Asia

(Magnesia was city of Lydia), the Aeolians (Greek tribe), Carians (Anatolians
from southwest of Turkey). Lycians (southwest Turkey), Milyans (Anatolian
people), and Pamphylians (region between Lucia and Cecilia in Anatolia
Turkey) contributed together a total sum of 400 talents of silver.
2. The Mysians (Northern Anatolia), Lydians, Lasonians, Cabalians, and
Hytennians, (All central Asian tribes living in and around Northern Turkey) 500
talents.
3. The people on the southern shore of the Hellesport, the Phrygians, the
Thracians of Asia, the Paphlagonians (ancient area on the Black Sea coast of
north central Anatolia), Mariandynians (an ancient tribe of Goth or Celts in the
north-east of Bithynia, Turkey) and Syrians, 360 talents.(Again part of Asia
minor, Thrace is now Bulgaria, Phrygians were in Northern Turkey. (Hellesport
was to Mediterranean the Dardanelles West Entrance to Cape Nagara, The
ancient Levant)
4. The Cilicians (south coastal region of Asia Minor) paid 500 talents of silver,
together with 360 white horses (one for each day in the year); of the money,
140 talents were used to maintain the cavalry force which guarded Cilicia, and
the remaining 360 went to Darius.
5. From the town of Posidium(was in Syria), which was founded by Amphilochus,
son of Amphiaraus, on the border between Cilicia and Syria, as far as Egypt -
omitting Arabian territory, which was free of tax, came 350 talents. This
province contains the whole of Phoenicia and that part of Syria which is called
Palestine, and Cyprus.
6. Egypt, together with the Libyans on the border and the towns of Cyrene and
Barca (both included in the province of Egypt) paid 700 talents, in addition to
the money from the fish in Lake Moeris, and the 120,000 bushels of grain
allowed to the Persian troops and their auxiliaries who were stationed in the
White Castle at Memphis.
7. Babylon and Assyria - 1000 talents of silver and 500 eunuch boys.
8. Ecbatana and the rest of Media - 450 talents.
9. Susa, with the rest of Cissia (Near Susa) - 300 talents.
10. Caspian (tribe of Caspian Sea), Pausicae, Pantimathi, and Daritae (Dacia) - a
joint sum of 200 talents. These are most likely tribes of Sacae and were under
mixed influence of Iranians.
11. The Matienians (near halys river), Saspires (near Media), and Alarodians
(Dagestan) - 200 talents.
12. The Moschi (Assyrian group), Tibareni (Black sea area), Macrones (another

21
 Georgian tribe east of Pontus), Mosynoeci (Georgian), and Mares (probably
Thracian) - 300 talents.

Most of the above mentioned western satrapies were conquered territories that belonged to
Neo-Assyrian Empire and independent tributary kingdoms of Western Asia. Those western
satrapies acquired Persian influence and religion over centuries. Mithraism spread to western
Asia along with the Persian culture.

The eastern Satrapies were largely tribal kingdoms and Janpadas of Vedic India. The Indian
influence held sway over entire east with exception of Zariaspa or Balkh that had become the
melting pot where Ionian Greek had settled before Persian conquered it. Achemenian ruled
Parthian, Turanian, Zoroastrian and Vedic tribes that observed multiple faiths in form of
Zoroasterism, Buddhism, Rig Vedic religions or simple paganisms of Tartar origin. Their
political affiliation switched from Vedic India to Media and finally to Persians. Under Greek
rules, the various tribes revolted and pledged allegiance to Great Asoka, the emperor of
India. During Dash raja conflict they belonged to Vassal confederacy. Here, we make a slight
distinction between Vedic people (Sanskrit speakers) and Hindu people of India. As Persepolis
relief shows that Vedic people look like Persians with triangular hat and men wearing the
beard. We have seen that imagery in modern India when dramas are staged depicting
Mahabharata episodes.

It is not very clear when Sanskrit speakers influence receded from Central Asia with the rise
of Zoroastrianism and Buddhism. Perhaps Zoroasterism and Buddhism both were responsible
for the decline of Brahmanism. Although allegiance of faith changed, the influence of Vedic
language, culture continued outwards through trade and other contacts. The spread of
Buddhism further extended the separation to the point where political grip that was tenuous
at best from the days of Mahabharata, weakened further due to wider geographical stretch
and continuous inflow of new tribes from eastern china and Mongolia. These gradual
weakening of hold and movement of Vedic tribes towards interior of subcontinents made
Persians and Medians to reestablish firm grips and influence in Caspian Sea and Central Asian
region. However, the Soma, Sun (Mitras, Mithras) and Agni (Fire) worshipping remain the
common elements during the rituals ceremony of Vedic and Persian Avestan people. Their
Gods reversed the position (Good vs. Bad).

Strabo in his book (XV chap 1.5) make the following observation:
According to Nearchus, Alexander was ambitious of conducting his army through Gedrocia,
when he heard that Semiramis and Cyrus had undertaken expeditions against India (through
this country), although both had abandoned the enterprise, the former escaping with twenty,
and Cyrus with seven men only. For he considered that it would be a glorious achievement
for him to lead a conquering army safe through the same nations and countries where
Semiramis and Cyrus had suffered such disasters. Alexander, therefore, believed these
stories. This tale had definite fact that Cyrus was killed by Massagete queen Tomarys and
22
Semiramis army of camels was defeated by Indian elephants. In chapter 1.28, Strabo
mentions the northern boundary of India: India is bordered to the north; from
Arianna(Heart) to the Eastern Sea, by the extremities of Taurus, to which the aboriginal
inhabitants give the different names of Parapamisus, Emodon, Imaos, and others, while the
Macedonians call them Indian Caucasus. Taurus mountain starts in southern Turkey, what
gave Greek the idea that it is continuous chain to India?

The eastern satrapies under Achemenian are described below. The exact boundaries are
difficult to draw as natural landmark such as rivers, mountains, and forest formed the
boundaries. The names have changed due to various invasions. However this gives us some
clues. We have attempted to translate the Greek meanings of various tribes and satrapies.
Some historians have vaguely collated satrapies and capitals as follows that were under the
control of Indians before Darius-I conquered them. In summary they can be described as: Aria
(Herat); Archosia (Lashkar Gah, and Quetta); Bactriana (Balkh); Sattagydia (Ghazni); and
Gandhara (Kabul, Jalalabad, Peshawar and Kandahar). Darius-I recorded his eastern satrapies
in his inscription in the following ways:

1. The Paricanians and Asiatic Ethiopians with the Paricanians (Asiatic Ethiopians
or Baloch from Gedrocia) and Orthocorybantes (Massagate-Indian Saka).
Baloch and Massagate were under Indian influence but were ruled by Median
satrapy due to proximity. - 400 talents.
2. The Sattaydians (People living between mountains of Iran and ancient India-
now Pakistan, may refer to Kalash and other mountain tribes.) Gandarians
(Gandhara, Swat and Kabul valley), Dadicae (Daradas), and Aparytae (Indian
living in lower Swat and Sindh area perhaps Afridi) paid a joint tax of 170
talents.
3. The Bactrian and their neighbors as far as the Aegli (Aegli can mean sogdi tribe
near Balkh) - 360 talents. Bactria was north of Afghanistan and had switched
their influence from Zoroasterism to Buddhism under Greek and Kamboj king
Kanishka. Later Turki Hindu Shahi ruled that region.
4. Saka Tigrakhauda of south Asia Minor. Relief from the eastern stairs of the
Apadana at Persepolis. Pactyica, together with the Armenians and their
neighbors as far as the Black Sea - 400 talents. (These are northern part of
Bactria and can be under joint Indo-Iranian influence.
5. The Sagartians (tribe of India-Iran mountain), Sarangians (Siestan, Sakasthan,
Herat) Thamanaeans, Utians, Myci (Yavanas), together with the inhabitants of
the islands in the Persian Gulf (tribes of south of Makran desert) where the
king sends prisoners and others displaced from their homes during war - 600
talents.

23
 6. The Sacae and Caspian (eastern Part mostly Saka)- 250 talents.(Zoroasterism
and Buddhism)
7. The Parthians, Chorasamians (Near Bactria), Sogdians, and Arins (Arya tribe like
Kalash)-300 talents. Parsee thought to have descended from that and they
were allies of Maurya.
8. The Indians, the most populous nation in the known world, paid the largest
sum: 360 talents of gold-dust. (These are all the tribes of Punjab, Kabul and
western Sindh down to Indus River).

We should note that as we moved further north towards Uzbekistan and Turkemenistan, we
see evidences of the mixture of religious traditions and influences, both originating with India
and Persia commingled with local traditions. The detailed list of peoples embedded in the
satrapies configuration of the Persian Empire, represented more tribal and ethnicities
consideration in their formation as tax districts, than contiguous geography. It become an
indirect proof in itself of the likely hood of which tribes belonged where and possible
dynamic movement between Persia and the borderland of Modern India, Pakistan and
Afghanistan. The population density was very thin over vast land mass. There were open
borders that permitted commercial traffic. This enumeration has been compared with a
catalogue of tribal contingents which swelled the great army of Xerxes, when he marched to
west Asia. The Behistan inscription further records the boast of Darius-1 who had conquered
all these satrapies east and west that is an independent verification of Herodotus account.

In this article, we are not concerned with western satrapies of West Asia and Egypt, but are
certainly interested in his Indian possessions. Thomas Holdich has analyzed various
conflicting statements and gave us a rough idea of ancient India on the basis of tribes
populating north of India and collating that with references given in Mahabharata. His views
are documented in his book called The Gates of India the same way Alexanders historians
had defined Gates of Persia. These designations were not to define the Empire but
provided demarcation of entry into Persia proper from west and departure from Persia
proper moving east. The Persia proper was where most of the Persian-median tribes were
domiciled. This was a reference point for what was the original Persia without their empire
extending to east and west that were conquered territories. Again the emphasis here is on
tribes and ethnicities and not nationalities the modern historians forget.

According to Holdich, The additional analysis of Herodotus description shed some light in the
placement of various ethnicities. In Central Afghanistan, South of the Kabul River, this lies
west of the Suleiman Hills and north of the Khwaja Amran or Khojak. Every name mentioned
by Herodotus certainly has its counterpart in one or other of the tribes to be found there to
this day, excepting the Lydoi (whose history as Ludi that is fairly well known) and the Lasonoi,
who have emigrated into India and the latter to Baluchistan. Sattagydia satrapy and the other
satrapies as enumerated as Gandarioi, the Dadikai, and the Aparytai ("joined together"), an
association of names are too remarkable to be ignored or mistaken. The Sattag for Khattak,
the Gandhari, the Dadi, and the Afridi are all trans-Indus people, and without insisting too
24
strongly on the exact habitat of each, originally there can be little doubt that this satrapy
included a great part of the Indus valley. The satrapy of Indus River is also probably a district
of the Indian trans-frontier, although Mr. Bunbury associates the name Kaspioi with the
Caspian Sea. It is far more likely that the Kaspioi of Herodotus are to be recognized as the
people of the ancient Kaspira or land of Kashmir. The Daritae or Daraddesa (Dardas) belonged
to the contiguous mountain chain of Hindukush, Pamir or Greek- Paropamisadae. All
Kashmir, even to the borders of Tibet (carrying the story of the gold-digging ants), was well
enough known to the Persians and through them to Herodotus. The Bactrian satrapy
comprised Balkh and Badakashan-What is now known as Afghan Turkistan. It was here that,
generations before Alexander's campaign, those Greek settlements were founded either by
mythological Dionysus or historical Darius-1 and Cyrus of Persia. The Asiatic Greek from
Miletus which has left to this day living traces of their existence in the places originally
allotted to them. Al-Khanun archeological sites provide a trace. In Afghan -Turkistan was also
founded the centre of Asiatic Greek from Baltic nations. The Greeks took the country from
the Balkhdi; but there are no people of this name left now. However, they may be
recognized again in the Bakhtyari as per Bellew. They were Indians of Southern Persia. The
Greek Aria was Afghanistans Herat and Drangia was Indias Siestan or Sakasthan, perhaps
the original home of Indias Sakyamuni Gautama Buddha. Another satrapy was north of the
Oxus, and included Sogdians and Aria (Herat). South of Aria was the also represented part of
Sakasthan and Western Makran, with "the islands of the sea in which the King settles
transported convicts"; and east of this again was the Indian ruled satrapy covering Southern
Baluchistan and Eastern Makran. The gradual extension of the red line of the Indian border,
with the necessity for preserving peace and security, has gradually enveloped Makran and
Persian Baluchistan, the Gedrocia and Karmania of the Greeks, and has brought to light many
strange secrets which have been dormant to modern historians. The Mahabharata states the
presence of Greeks suspected to be Yavanas long before the rise of Persians and they may
have descended from Baltic countries that were first habituated by Greek expatriates.

Holdich further elaborates: Herodotus also mentions the Sagartoi, Zarangai, Thamanai, Uxoi,
and Mykoi, these were Indian saka tribes. The Sagartoi were nomads of Siestan, mentioned
both amongst tribes paying tribute and those who were exempt. The Zarangai were the
inhabitants of Drangia (Siestan), where their ancient capital fills one of the most remarkable
of all historic sites. The Zarangai are said to be recognizable in the Afghan Durani. No Afghani
Durani would know this or admit this. He would claim an impossible Islamic Arabic origin and
in the absence of authoritative knowledge of their history. It is never wise to set aside the
traditions of a people about themselves, especially such group like Duranis. It is more likely
that the ancient geographical appellation of Zarangai covers the historic Kaiani of Siestan,
who were supposed to be the same as the Kekayas of Sanskrit, mentioned in Indian epics.
The Uxoi may be the modern Hots of Makran-a people who are traditionally reckoned
amongst the most ancient of the mixed population which has drifted into the Makrans
ethnographic cul-de-sac, and who were certainly there in Alexander's time. In eastern
Makran, Herodotus mentions only the Parikanoi and the Asiatic Ethiopian. Parikan is the
Persian plural form of the Sanskrit- Parvaka, which means "mountaineer." This bears
25
exactly the same meaning as the word Kohistani, or Barohi, and is not a tribal appellation at
all, although the latter may possibly have developed into the Brahui, the well-known name of
a very important Dravidian people of Southern Baluchistan (highlanders all of them) who are
akin to the Dravidian races of Southern India. The Asiatic Ethiopian presents a more difficult
problem. During the winter of 1905 AD, the careful inquiries were made in Makran for any
evidence to support the suggestion that a tribe of Kushite origin still existed in that country. It
is of interest in connection with the question whether the earliest immigrants into
Mesopotamia (these people who, according to Acadian tradition, brought with them a
Semitic race of Kushite. It is impossible to ignore the existence of Kushite races in the east as
well as the south. We have not only the authority of the earliest Greek writings, but Biblical
records also are in support of the fact, and modern interest only centers in the question what
has become of them. Mr. Bellew suggests that it was after the various Kush or Kach, or Kaj
tribes that is certainly districts in Baluchistan and is called Kach Gandava or Kach (Kaj)
Makran, and that the chief of these tribes were the Gadara, after whom the country was
called Gedrocia. This seems mere conjecture. At any rate the term Kach, sometimes Kachchi,
sometimes Katz, is invariably applied to a flat open space, even if it is only the flat terrace
above a river intervening between the river and a hill, and is purely geographical in its
significance. But it was a matter of interest to discover whether the Gadurs of Las Bela could
be the Gadrosii, or whether they exhibited any Ethiopian traits. The Gadurs, however, proved
to be a section of the Rajput clan of Lumris, a proud race holding themselves aloof from other
clans and never intermarrying with them. There could be no mistake about the Rajput origin
of the red-skinned Gadur. He was a Kshatriya of the lunar race, but he might very possibly
represent the ancient Gadrosii, even though he is no descendant of Kush. The other Rajput
tribes with whom the Gadurs coalesce have apparently held their own in Las from a period
quite remote, and must have been there when Alexander passed their way.

When Chandra Gupta demanded and Seleucid complied the ceding of Indian territories back
to him. It may not have been the case of an arbitrary division but recovering that was lost to
Achemenian through military coercion and supported by historical claims of tribal affiliations
and distribution within Vedic Indias domain. There are two maps presented here that
roughly equates to Indian claims of affinity that appeared to be recovered during early
Mauryan period.

Indica-Megasthenes, Arrian, Ptolemy, Metz Epitome, Pliny and

Eratosthenes
Eratosthenes of Cyrene was a Greek mathematician and geographer. He also had other skills
such as composing poetry, astronomy and music. He was a man of learning and became chief
librarian at the Library of Alexandria. He invented the discipline of geography. Eratosthenes
of Cyrene published his topographical studies in the third century BC that geographer Strabo
borrowed his material for his work on geography. Some people believed that he was
connected with the house of Ptolemy but there is no certainty or supporting evidence. He
26
was in charge of running the library of Alexandria thought to collect the books on world
history, astrology, science and philosophy. Megasthenes on the other hand was also a Greek
from Magna Graecia of Asia Minor who lived around the same time as Eratosthenes
depending on various chronological schemes. He was an Indian ethnographer and explorer
during early Common Era and author of the work on early Indian geography called Indica.
He acted as an Greek Ambassador to India under Seleucus Nicator-1 of the Seleucid satrapy
ruling Bactria and was assigned to Patliputra (Palimbothra) to Indian Emperor, possibly
Chandragupta Maurya, however the exact date of his embassy remain uncertain. It is also
uncertain that when he left his ambassadorship. It is quite possible that he may have tracked
back to Asia Minor and eventually settled in Alexandria under Ptolemy. Otherwise, how
Eratosthenes can obtain such a detail on India? These two gentlemen remain a mystery as to
if they are one and the same person or two different individuals of Greek nationality? Cyrene
was located in North Africa and west of Alexandria, Egypt, a Greek city. The Magna Graecia
was the ancient name of Sicily, Italy. Perhaps, Eratosthenes from Magna may earn him the
second name of Megasthenes. They seem to be contemporary to each other with similar
background. The power struggle among Alexanders general may have induced him to live at
Cyrene and work at Alexandria, Egypt. Indica was the source of ancient geography of India
that Megasthenes wrote and Strabo, Arrian and Curtius Rufus had borrowed many details
from that. Much of the Indica is lost but other ancient writers who had access to it used some
of his work and data. McCrindle in his book of ancient India uses Arrian and Megastheness
Indicas work.

Two Similar Maps as to how Maurya Empire extended itself and Bactrian revolt against Greeks may have added
Bactria to the Indian domain that is not shown here.

Lucius Flavius Arrianus otherwise referred in this article as Arrian was a Greek historian and
public servant. He also served as a military commander of the Roman army and like many he
27
was involved in Greek philosophy. The Anabasis of Alexander by Arrian is considered one of
the best sources on the campaigns of the Alexander the Great. As far as India is concerned,
his description of India was sourced from admiral Nearchus and Megasthenes Indica. He
probably consulted other sources as well but relied on Megasthenes Indica for Indian
geography.

Arrian wrote: The district west of the river Indus as far as the river Cophen (Kabul) is
inhabited by the Astacenians (Astacenians were the Tak-sak, a confederacy of eight tribes
in the Peshawar region) and the Assacenians, (Assacenians were the Ashvakas or Kambojas of
MBH.). These two Indian tribes were not very tall in stature or as courageous as those who
dwell east of the Indus; nor are they as swarthy as the majority of the Indians. These were in
ancient times were subjected to the Assyrians rule, afterwards to the Medes and finally they
submitted to the Persians, and paid tribute to Cyrus the son of Cambyses as ruler of their
land. The Nesaean (Turkmenistan) are not an Indian race, but descended from the men who
came into India with Dionysus--perhaps from those Greeks (Yavana-Ionian Greeks) who were
rendered unfit for service in the wars that Dionysus waged with the Indians. Dionysus named
the city itself Nyssa, and the land of Nysaea, in honor of his nurse Nysa. The mountain near
the city, at whose base Nysa was built, is called Meros (Indian Meru). This is the story framed
by the poets in regard to Dionysus, Among the Assacenians is Massaca, a large city, where
also is the stronghold of the land of Assacia (thought to be near Hyderabad-Sindh); and there
is also another large city, Peucelaitis (Pushkalavati is an ancient site situated near Peshawar
valley in the Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province of Pakistan). It is located on the banks of Swat
River, near its junction with Kabul River. Pushkalavati meaning Lotus City was the capital of
ancient kingdom, not far from the Indus. These tribes have been settled west of the Indus as
far as the Cophen (Kabul-Afghanistan). This statement from Arrian confirms that
Kambojas/Tak-shaks (Indian Saka) were Indians and settled in large area of Northwest as
reaffirmed in Periplus or Erythrean Sea. They were followers of Buddhism and Hinduism.
Further he tries to define the northern end of India but fumbles in geography as there are so
many mountains. First he names after Greek mountain range of Taurus but then qualifies it
further by shifting geography and assuming that these mountain ranges are continuous.
Mount Taurus, but in this land it is no longer called Taurus. This range commences from the
sea near Pamphylia, Lycia, and Cilicia (Anatolia) and extends as far as the Eastern Sea,
dividing the whole of Asia. It is called by various names in different districts; in one part it is
called Parapamisus, in another Emodus, in a third Imaus, and probably it has several other
names. The Macedonians who accompanied Alexander's expedition called it Indian Caucasus.
But this is quite a different Caucasus from that in Scythia near Black sea. Here, he seems to
be referring to mountain ranges beyond the rock of Aornos where they encountered Indian

28
tribe, north of Afghanistan. The Indian Geography as taken from Megasthenes was huge
parallelogram as per Arrian. Arrian further states: Megasthenes states that there are one
hundred and eighteen Indian tribes. That there are many, I agree with Megasthenes; but I
cannot conjecture how he learnt and recorded the exact number, when he never visited any
great part of India, and since these different races have not much intercourse one with
another.

Mysterious Indian Parallelogram as described by

Megasthenes:
Arrian citing sources from Megastheness Indica described Indian geography as irregular
parallelogram. The Northern side of the length was 1838 miles and southern side touching
river Ganges werre2183 miles. The depth (height) on western sea side was 1493 miles while
on eastern side was 1838 miles.

Arrian citing Megasthenes adds: the length from west to east as far as the city of
Palimbothra he says was measured in schoeni (one schoenus equaled about 5 miles) and he
made a plan of it; for it was the royal road(Trunk Road). He says that this extends to 1,176
miles. The districts beyond this have not been so accurately measured. But as many as have
recorded rumors say that with the peninsula projecting into the sea it amounts to about I,200
miles, So that the length of India upward is about 2,353 miles. Ctesias the Cnidian says that
India is equal to the rest of Asia, but he talks nonsense; and so does Onesicritus, saying that it
is the third part of all the earth. Nearchus says that it is a journey of four months through the
plain alone of India. To Megasthenes the distance from the east to the west is the breadth of
India, which others make its length. He says that where it is shortest it extends 1882 miles,
and that from north to south, which is its length according to him, it extends 2,624 miles,
where it is narrowest.

The modern India is a reverse triangular shape. It measures 1997 miles from north to south
and 1822 miles from east to west. Arrian description does not fit the modern India. We have
to assume based on archeological evidence that ancient India was based up on tribal
locations that was more northward up to Kashgar and Samarkand while southern end were
Ganga-Yamuna. This would be Vedic India of Janpadas age and south beyond River Ganges
may not include in the Megastheness geography. See diagram below. If we were to take
Megastheness description and superimpose the parallelogram on central Asia, It will go close
to Kashgar, Samarkand, and part of Bactria, entire Punjab, Sindh, Baluchistan and
29
Afghanistan. On east it will include Kashmir and Ganges valley but remote east probably will
not be included as it was mostly tribal and forested region. However, 5th century AD,
historians do describe and include south India and eastern sea up to Bangladesh.

The Indian tribal distribution of North included Massagate, Gete (modern Rajputs, Jats and
Sikhs), and Indian Saka tribes spread throughout India but concentrated in western coast of
India. Kamboj tribes were totally absorbed through Indian community of ancient India and
Afghanistan. This model does fit and reminds us the cooperation among various Indian and
Iranian tribes of Bactria during Asokas rule that evicted Greeks from kingdom of Bactria.
Sattagydia (Satya Gadh-Sanskrit) in southern Iran was a Persian satrapy of Indian residents
and perhaps acted as the Indian Gate during Alexanders expedition. After leaving
Turkmenistan, Alexander entered through this so called Indian gate at Heart, Afghanistan
where he encountered Indian tribes.

Obviously, these are tentative proposal to decipher Indian geography. The painted grey ware
potteries associated with Sanskrit speakers were first found at Bhir mound of Taxilla, dated
to mid sixth century BC. These potteries bear a surprising resemblance to contemporaneous
discoveries from Kandahar, Kabul, southern Iran, swat valleys and other places. This would
suggest a common culture and trade exchanges. The Persepolis relief shows the similarities of
dresses of the population.

Potteries at Ahichchhatra Later period in Northern India

30
16000 stades (1838 miles) 16000
Stades-1838 miles

13000 stades Irregular Parallelogram

1494 miles

19000 stades or 2183 miles

Approximate understanding of Vedic India from the eyes of Megasthenes- Indica
31
 th th
This map will also designate the area where Sanskrit or Pail speakers (Indian) resided in 9 through 4 century
BC (Map showing Achemenian controlled provinces through Darius-1 inscription).

Another map from Cambridge University showing Sattagydia, Drangia, Archosia and Gandhara (that was part
Of ancient India but was captured by Achemenian along with Afghanistan, Herat, Sakasthan (Aria) and
Bactria. Bactria satrapy was recovered by Asoka during Bactrian revolt against Greeks. Asoka
32
 Granted independence but made them vassals until Kamboja (Kanishka) took over India after disintegration of
Mauryan Empire.

Map to locate some of the tribes mentioned by Strabo describing Dariuss satrapies west of Persia

The tribes sometimes located on both sides of the rivers and mountains such as saka and Kambojas and
geographically they are shown at multiple places. The various tribes under Persian Empire followed either
Zoroasterism or Buddhism, Hinduism (Brahmanism, Shavism and Vaisnavism)

Achemenian World, Persepolis Tablets, Indian references:

We do learn lot of things about Achemenian world from Greek and Hebrew texts that was
further dissected by the Greco-Roman writers. This is not because Achemenian were
incapable of writing their own history but they devoted their writing to the extent of keeping
accounting records of grants. We find similar customs in nearby Indian cultures. The Behistan
inscription is anomalous to the above statement and so are Asokas edicts and pillars. The
Achemenian appear to have been largely indifferent to the preservation of their true history
and their version of the world. Persians and Indians for some reason defied the statement
that the history belongs to the victors. They ruled most of the Asia that had most the
ancient civilization. If Kayanian dynasty was a mythical as some speculate or predecessor of
Achemenian dynasty as some assumed, it is still being debated in history circles and the date
of Zoroaster, Buddha and Mahavira is still a matter debate. This would have been
unnecessary if Indians and Iranians would have uses clay tablets for genealogy or dynasty.
The Achaemenid and Indian rulers, satraps, Kings and religious individuals emerged at
33
irregular and widely separated intervals but we know very little about them when compared
to the rulers of Mesopotamia and Egypt and their successors from Greece and Macedonia
who archived their time and history as inscribed in the clay tablets or inscription and arts in
the pyramids. Surprisingly, Indian sources were silent about Achemenian presence in nearby
regions and it is said by foreign observers that many Indians served Achemenian rulers. Is this
because the Achemenian related and treated Media and India as brotherly nations of kindred
folks? Very likely! George Law in his book, The identification of Darius- the Medes and
Persian, states that Medes and Persian considered them Arian people (Arya). Herodotus
concurs with this observation and says that all Indo-Iranian except Scythian were Aria (Aryan)
people. Darius in Behistan inscription proudly declares his Persian ancestry and describes his
language as Airya. Both Darius the Great and his son Xerexes described themselves as an
Airya or of Airya descent (Arya) probably meaning of noble culture. If the relationship
acted as the defining the differential behavior than it can be understood in context that why
Achemenian conquered almost all of Asia while leaving the majority of Indian continent, west
of Indus. Perhaps they were afraid of Indian army with 1000 war elephants. However,
Achemenian did take away the northern tributary states of Afghanistan, Aria, Archosia,
Bactria and Afghanistan from India and made them their satrapies as listed above. They were
low hanging fruits and mighty Magadha will not bother to track 1000 elephants through
rugged passes of Afghanistan. We do not know for sure how these factors influenced the
decision makings. Jaina historian gives a suggestion that Magadhas capital Rajgriha was
relocated from Swat valley to Patliputra due to stressful pressure applied by one of the
Achemenian satrap living in Afghanistan. The exact location of Patliputra is still contentious
issue among historians. The exact tributary relationship that existed between Indian rulers of
North West and Achemenian is not very clear except the amount of tribute collection spelled
out in the inscription. The "Indian" satrapy that was annexed and apparently claimed by
Darius was fabulously rich and in fact paid equal to all the other satrapies combined together
in annual tribute. The early Achemenian imperial period Fortification texts from Persepolis
frequently mention India as a destination of parties of travelers. Indian mercenary troops
marched with Xerexs army across the Hellesport and formed some of the contingents which
tried to deflect Alexander's advance at Gaugamela. Even after two hundred years there was a
considerable residual loyalty to the Achaemenid crown from its eastern satrapies. We do not
have no mention of India's capital city, virtually no idea of what people worn, no names for
its satraps, and practically no notion of how the satrapy (if it ever was a satrapy) fitted into
the imperial system. In reality, we do not learn anything valuable from fortification tablets
except names and amount of rations granted to travelers that may include the soldiers who
were hired as mercenaries. India as we know in modern geographical context had very vague
and distinct identities during Alexanders time and as Arrians account suggests that the

34
location of all Indian tribes were more north of modern India. The Darius inscription defines
no boundaries in terms of geography except to mention that he received the biggest
tributes.Arrian quotes: Megasthenes states that there are one hundred and eighteen Indian
tribes. That there are many, I agree with Megasthenes; but I cannot conjecture how he learnt
and recorded the exact number, when he never visited any great part of India, and since
these different races have not much intercourse one with another. The Indians, he says, were
originally nomads, as are the non-agricultural Scythians, who wandering in their wagons
inhabit now one and now another part of Scythia; not dwelling in cities and not reverencing
any temples of the gods; just so the Indians also had no cities and built no temples.

Confusing to the above statement we find no presence of Achemenian Persian in Northern

Indus region of Punjab as attested by Alexanders historians and Indian sources does not
mention the existence of Achemenian in any Indian texts dated to early 4th and fifth century
AD of India. Panini was the ancient Sanskrit grammarian who was contemporaneous to early
Achemenian period and he was a revered scholar of Brahmanism/Hinduism and is considered
the father of modern Sanskrit grammar. Panini likely lived in the Swat area or Kabul valley,
while some speculate Taxilla but surely in the northwest India of Gandhara province that was
spread between modern India and Afghanistan during the early Mahajanapada era. In an
inscription of Shiladitya VII of Vallabhi, he is hailed as a man from Salaturiya, which means
"man from Salatura". This means Panini lived in Salatura of ancient Gandhara, which may be
likely near Lahore, a town at the junction of Indus and Kabul rivers. Panini used geographical
examples to illustrate his grammatical points. He seems not to have mentioned the
Achaemenid Empire or the Persians in his description of the governments. His statement may
make sense under following condition:

1. If there was brotherly affinity between Indo-Iranian Aryan population of early period.

2. Achemenian never exerted control beyond west of Indus and then Indian satrapy as
mentioned was limited to west of Indus, wherever it was flowing at that period of time. This
is corroborated from Dariuss inscription.

3. Herodotus probably gives a true reason. He describes the death of Cyrus at the hands of
Massagate Indian queen. This is extracted from the passage from the book by David Jones
called The women warriors. After all these victories in Media and Persia, Cyrus turned his
attention towards India. While in trying to conquer India, against his generals advice, Cyrus
the Great met his nemesis, at the hands of an army that had significant Indian component.
The defeat of Cyrus the Great reverberated in the Western world. Herodotus commented in

35
his book and said this was the bloodiest battle he had heard about. Not even a Persian
messenger survived to carry the tale of the battle, and for years his people did not know what
had happened to Cyrus. In the battle against the Massagate, resulting in the defeat and death
of Cyrus, against Queen Tomarys, the Indian elephants played a critical role. After their
defeat at the hands of Tomarys, the Persians did not use elephants (considered evil by
Zoroastrians). After their defeat at Indian borders, at the hands of the Massagete, Persians
focused their expansionary ambitions towards Europe and Greece in particular, and
stopped looking into India further. Alexander the Great renamed the site of the Cyrus-
Tomarys battle as Alexandria Eschate which was earlier known as Kurushkhatta
(Kurukshetra) /Kyreschata /Kurukatha. This may be the real site of Mahabharata war?

Battle between Cyrus and Tomarys at Kurukshetra or Alexandria Eschate

Gates of India:

From Arians account the gate of India was located far North West of Taxilla. Panini did
revealed a preponderance of small, politically autonomous states in the northern Punjab and
36
the northern Indus region. His statements did not quite correspond with any references cited
by Alexanders geographers. From this we can deduct that India was a fragmented tribal
nation of various Janpadas and did not resemble the centralized Achaemenid Empire of
Persia except perhaps Magadha on Ganges valley that was mentioned by Greeks. Panini
never mentioned any satrapy system prevalent in India and Buddhist and Jaina texts concur
with Paninis observations. For whatever reason, Achaemenid were more focused on west of
Persia than east of Persia during their entire history. There were no Persian names recorded
in any of the Indian texts. If this is the problem arising from the lack of the synchronization of
chronology or just the ignorance due to lack of visibility by Greek geographers are now being
argued by several Indologist and historians. The archeologists are similarly divided. They find
lots of Indus civilization archeology in India, Pakistan and southern Iran but nothing
concerning Achemenian and Alexander. The Elamite administrative records known as the
"Persepolis Fortification Texts," are the single largest source of archeology based information
about the early phases of the Persian Empire that have been unearthed by the archeologist.
Unfortunately, most of the tablets are accounting tablets recording rations to parties of
travelers. These tablets were, in a language and script accessible to few and stored in the
capital city rarely visited by the Achaemenid rulers. Among the many types of texts identified
by Hallock were those he categorized as Q Texts, dealing with the issue of rations to the party
of travelers or sages. Hallock recorded 303 separate travel ration texts of which 32 were
issues to travelers to the eastern part of the empire that included Indian names. In addition,
another 14 texts mention men from India.

The major point made here is besides calling an Indian satrapy in Darius inscription of a
limited geography as described above, the Achemenian must have treated "India" as a
country and people not to be messed around with. The giant ancient tank-an Indian elephant
was unbeatable in ancient period. Although, the Indians and Iranians were just hair apart in
language, culture, history and kinship and in their prehistory as they were one and the same
people. However, the lessons learned from Mahabharata tell us that brotherly quarrels were
very common with clannish Aryans tribes. Cyruss death may have played role in brotherly
relation and later Persian emperors were more than happy to have Indians at their side than
against them. The elephants also play an important role when Alexander squared with Porus.
Since we do not have Indian version of the account, the change of Alexanders behavior after
a battle with Porus raises a question. Who won and who lost or was it an even draw between
Greek Phalanx and Indian elephants that we never find out. The only hint we have is that the
Seleucid Nicator was anxious to conclude a treaty with Chandragupta to get 500 war elephant
in exchange for handing over former Indian territories taken over by the Persians plus one
Greek bride, his own daughter. There is no question that Greek realized the necessity and

37
capabilities of Indian war elephants in their western expedition in Syria. The ancient names of
the places that existed in Indian history may have been duplicated through memories by the
migrating people to subcontinent. Northern India and southern Iran may be so called
Aryavart (Land of Aryans) divided with various independent states of Janpadas and
Mahajanapada. The ancient Indian geography may be in flux, within context of modern
geography of India-Iran-Afghanistan and Pakistan. As stated earlier, Indian historical records
are unusually silent about Achemenian conquest of west Asia and loss of Indian satrapies of
Northwest and this period is considered a black hole in the Indian history until the rise of
Chandragupta Maurya. We find out the strong presence of Indian influence on northern
tribes of Afghanistan and elsewhere when Bactrian tribes revolted against Greeks rule and
evicted them and thereby installing Kamboj King Kanishka ancestors on the throne. The
geographical context still remains the same as to what Alexander had discovered. Kanishka
maintained two capital cities one at Kabul and other at Peshawar. Patliputra initially remain
untouched during Alexanders campaign until Sunga dislodged a weak Mauryan successor
due to their renowned tilt against Brahmanism and in favor of the Buddhism.

38
 Various Satrapies bringing tributes and the last one is from India-Persepolis Reliefs

Wiki cites the following reason for Achemenian annexation of west of Sindhu: The important
communities in the western region of Indus River were the people of Punjab, the Kambojas
and Sindhis. Punjab consisted of Tak-shaks of Gandhara, the Madras and Kathas (Kathaioi) on
Akesines (Chenab), the Mallas on Hydraotis (Ravi) and the Tugras (branch of Puru tribe), on
Hesidros (Beas). In the first half of the sixth century, these several small principalities fought
against one another. This region did not have any powerful state to wield the warring
communities into one organized kingdom. The area was wealthy, and could be entered
through the passes of the Hindu Kush. The Achaemenid took advantage of the political
disunity and penetrated into the region.

It is hard to explain the Indian view of Achemenian rules other than hints given in Jaina text
that why Magadhas capital was moved during the rule of Udiyana (Ajatshatrus Sons rule)
Without the synchronization of chronology and the gap that may have existed, we can say
that the Achaemenid presence in east of the Indus was so ephemeral, or short-lived, that it
was never really bothered India. India continues to live in tribal society based Janpadas (Gana
Rajya) and it may explain why Panini never thought it was important to mention it. We also
have exemplary evidence of what happened to great Cyrus at the hands of Indians.

Arrian described next Alexanders objective was the fortress of Choeienes, where Alexander
encountered Paraetacians tribe who he described as barbarian. Paraetacians were
Khotanese Saka tribes and spoke Gandhari Prakrit and were followers of Buddhism but were
renowned horseman and fighters. Their war tactics were not as organized or disciplined like
Greek but their expertise lied in Guerilla warfare and hit and run tactics and were known to
use enemys skull as a bowl for drinking and eating. They were certainly Indo-European Saka
people and were employed as mercenaries in armies of the Aryan kings who were willing to
pay for their services. They may be connected with Gete and Massagate who centuries later

39
settled down and migrated to India. Sogdania on the other hand were also saka tribes under
Persian influence and Persian called them Sacae. They spoke older Persian languages.

According to Arrian, Pushkarasakti was the king of Gandhara and was defeated by
Achemenian. During the time of Alexanders campaign Alexander encountered several tribes
in Gandhara. King Ambhi of Taxilla was from Abhiras tribe probably a branch of Tak-shak.
Other tribes were Peucelaitis, Massagate (Massagate-Sikhs, Jats and Rajputs were
descendants). Peucelaitis (equated with Sanskrit- Pushkalavati or tribe of Peshawar). This was
an ancient town in the valley of the river Charsadda, not far from Peshawar, Pakistan.

Arrian mentions the start of India after the capture of sogdania from west Asian side while
ending at the edge of southern Russia near modern Uzbekistan. Using conventional dates,
during spring of 329 BC, the Macedonians had reached the valley of the river Kabul and
founded a military base named Alexandria in the Indian Caucasus. While climbing the
mountain lay vast stretch of Indian lands and beyond. Alexander gave marching order to the
perplexed Macedonians, who believed they reached the end of earth thereby completing
their mission. They were surprised after hearing the command of Alexander that he wanted
to go further. After some protest, they started to cross the Hindu Kush mountain range. They
had been marching through the snow on their way to Gandhara, and were to see more snow
again, now that they were moving north towards Bactria (Ancient Afghanistan). The primary
objective of Alexander was the capture of Bessus who treacherously killed Darius III, his
cousin, in the hope of winning the crown after Alexanders departure.

Alexander armies crossed Khawak pass at elevation of 12,625 feet that sits across the route
heading to the northwest from near the head of the Panjshir Valley through the formidable
Hindu Kush range to northern Afghanistan via Andarab and Baghlan. Khawak pass is named
after The Khattak tribe of Pashtun nationality that speaks a variant of the softer Kandahari
Pashto. The Khattak tribe is now settled along the western bank of the Indus River. They are
also spread out in Lund Khwar, Katlang, Sawaldher, Sher Garh and near Malakand, Nowshera
District, Kohat District, Mianwali District, Attock District & Karak District of Pakistan.
Alexander also captured Drapsaca (modern Kunduz in Afghanistan). As we know from the
history, prior to the advancement of Islam, most of the Afghan people were followers of
Hinduism or Buddhism and it was the same situation when Alexander invaded this region.
During 4th through 9th Century AD, a Hindu Turki Shahi dynasty ruled there followed by
Kashmiri Brahmin kings.

40
 Alexanders routes and key battles to the east

Geographical Visibility of Megasthenes as learned through his Indian sources

41
Courtesy by Jona Lendering
Samarkand (ancient Markanda) and Syr Darya between Samarkand & Tashkent
The fortress of Ohorienes was in Turanian territory closer to Tashkent or south Russia and
Alexander took it by defeating Turanian Saka tribe. After the capture of capital of Balkh that
had various historical names like Zariaspa or Balkhdi of Bactria or Bactra (Present Mazar-e
Sharif), he married Roxanna. The river Oxus described by Greek historian is Amu Darya. River
Cophen is Kabul River and Hystaspes was Jhelum river of Punjab. Technically, Ohorienes fort
can be classified as part of Uzbekistan. The Balkh, Balkhi or Balkhdi was the capital city that
had a cosmopolitan composition of the population of various faiths. Various Indians-Iranians
tribes lived here and worshipped Hinduism, Buddhism and Zoroasterism. This was part of
ancient India during early Vedic period.

Arrian further states that the initiation of conflict with various Indian tribes under
Achemenian rules was unnecessary and just like Greeks they wanted to throw the yokes of
Achemenian. What propelled Alexander to pursue this objective remains a mystery. Arrian
blames this on unwise curiosity and ambition of Alexander to conquer the world. The
Macedonian Generals who accompanied him to avenge the defeat by Persian were no longer
interested in a spontaneous and a risky enterprise. This cost Alexanders his life and he was
never able to enjoy his conquest. This author proposes another argument and that
Chandragupta was actively lobbying Alexander on behest of Chanakya, an Indian
Machiavellian, to induce Alexander to move eastward to bring about the fall of the Nandas

42
Magadha Empire. Arrian admits the presence of two Indians at Alexander's court by the name
of Sisicottus and Omphis (Perhaps Sassigupta and Ambhi, to use their Indian names).

Another map indicating major cities of Aryavart of India

Courtesy Livius.org- Aria, Bactria and Sogdania boundary of ancient India

43
According to Arrian, Sisicottus was at war with the tribe of the Assacenes (Ashvakas or
Kamboj); the second one Omphis was afraid of king Porus (Paurvas) and tried to enlist foreign
help against his enemy. There is much controversy about what the word Sisicottus means.
Sassi may mean Chandra in Sanskrit. Chanakya taught at Taxilla and adopted Chandra
Gupta when he was an orphan as per Jaina text. Did he work for Bessus, satrap of Bactria and
received military training? How did he obtain the trust and confidence of Alexander? These
are unanswered questions but the links are there. The hints in Sanskrit drama Mudra Raksha
suggest that the master of poison formula may be Chanakya himself and he may have
something to do with the poisoning of Alexander. Although all these can are speculative
suggestions but remains very intriguing for the writers. Arrians suggestion that Ashvakas or
Kamboj lived in Peshawar valley correlated with Kamboj King Kanishka maintaining two
capitals, one at Peshawar and another at Kabul. This places Chandra Gupta more in
Northwest region than eastern India. He may be related or came from Kamboj parentage. It
appears that Greek have named the tribes based on the place they resided in a loose forms of
the definition. The fortress called Aornos was (Indian Avarna) meaning, "hiding place",
(presently Pir Sar in Pakistan). After overthrow of Mauryan dynasty by Sunga and rise of
Kamboj king Kanishka raise the question about the possible linkage of Maurya and Kamboja.

Tribes at River Indus:

The ancestors of Malwa people resided in upper Sindh near Multan in early periods prior to
migrating to Madhya Pradesh. Greeks named them Malians. Malians were the one who
inserted arrow that almost pierced Alexanders heart. Musicanus was the Indian king as
named by Greeks (Indian name Musikavahana) and all his tribes and people were named
after him by Greek. Musicanus may be involved either in ocean trade or sea faring activities.
Oxicanus and Sambha were other kings mentioned in upper Sindh south of Alor and lower
Sindh. Sambha may be predecessor of Samma Rajputs. Kathoi were probably Kathi tribe
that migrated from Sindh to Kucha to Saurashtra. They are excellent horse breeder, trainers
and fighter and may be sub clans of Kambojas. Alexander encountered all these tribes along
the routes of Indus. See map below.

44
Archeological checks and Evidence:

Samarkand (Uzbekistan)

Varaksha(Sanskrit) is located near Bukhara, Afrasiab, the ancient site of the capital city of
Sogdania, in the outskirts of Samarkand, and Penjikent, an ancient small city, around 35 miles
east of Samarkand. Their flourishing period is bracketed between 5th century A.D. and 9th
century A.D. belonging to 8th-9th centurys bracket is also the works of great art reflecting
Indian influence in nearby sites, such as the Shahiristan. Buddhism, of course, flourished in a
big way in Kirghizstan, Tajikistan and southern Uzbekistan where several monasteries have
been excavated, dating back to 1st century B.C. Penjikent was a silk road commercial town
with trading bazaars. This place had 130 houses and shops that were excavated. The
structural remains of these two to three storied houses, some of them very large, including
wooden posts and walls, have yielded many sculptural remains and painting. It is in them
that we get the representations of Hindu gods and goddesses as well as many decorative

45
elements and narrative scenes. It may, however, be noted that the Hindu gods and goddesses
depicted here were having some local overtones in the sense that the form and iconography
as well as their names had some local origins.

Painting from Penjikent on the river Zervashan, Hindu Sarashwati type of image, Buddhism- local orientation

Sogdania (Sanskrit Sugdha or Sarthavaha)

Chinese sources provide no information that how Linyi of central Vietnam acquired the
Indianized name of Champa and earlier Sanskrit inscription dated to 5th century AD by
Bhadravarman appeared in Quang- nam and Phu ven. Sogdania lay east of Bactria.

Buddhist Monk in Sogdania Buddha in carpet art Zoroastrian priest at Fire altar

46
Bactria:

The Indo-Greeks practiced numerous religions. That included Greek deities found on their
coins as well as local religions of Hinduism, Buddhism and Zoroasterism. There are tons of
Greek (Hellenistic) rulers coins in from Bactria showing Buddhist symbols of Trianka. Al
Khanun excavation reveals well planned city and fortress. Then we have Bamiyan Buddha so
wantonly destroyed by Taliban, never to be forgiven by their Allah. The destruction of human
culture and archeology is a norm for radical Islam and therefore it must be eliminated from
the world.

Bactrian Images Greek marked with Krishna and Balarama depiction, Buddha as a Prince Gautama

Zoroastrian Priest Indian Ascetic Margiana-Bactria (BMAC culture)

47
 BMAC images-Margiana

Buddhist Mahavamsa states that the Great Stupa in Anuradhapura, Sri Lanka, was dedicated by a 30,000-strong
"Yona"(Asian Greeks) Buddhist delegation from "Alexandria of Bactria" around 130 BC.

The present Kabul, Afghanistan is surrounded by many hills. The hill that looms over the
center of Kabul was once home to many Hindus and Sikhs. There was a Sikh Gurudwara on it
as well as a Hindu temple the Asha Mayi Mandir. Many of the Hindus and Sikhs of this area
had lived in Afghanistan for generations. Many Indian tribes of India came from or through
Afghanistan to subcontinent. Under Hindu Turki Shahi Lord Shiva was worshipped here and
Buddhism flourished over here. Islamic vandals destroyed many temples and stupas and
eradicating the archeology. The Kabul museum still contains many relics as reminder of
Indian tribes presence. It is important for proud Afghan to abandon extremist ideologies of
Pakistan and Saudi Arabia because it is a dead end and they will see their own countries and
culture in ruins.

48
 Hindu Temples and Bamiyan Buddha in Afghanistan

Relics of Hindu temples in Afghanistan near Kabul and Buddhist stupa

In addition to these we have various sites in Afghanistan, Swat Valley, Gandhara and south
Iran that proves the reach of Indias religion, culture and influences. There are more relics to
be discovered.

49
Archeological sites of Southern Iran and Oxus region of central Asia

Major sites of Afghanistan

Major sites of Pakistan

50
REFERENCES:
1. Herodotus on India
http://www.columbia.edu/itc/mealac/pritchett/00generallinks/herodotus/book_03.html#89
_107
2. Where Was Achaemenid India? -The Circle of Ancient Iranian Studies - publication 92
Chicago, 1969.
http://www.cais-soas.com/CAIS/Geography/achaemenid_india.htm
3 Old Persian Grammar, Texts, Lexicon, by R. G. Kent, 2nd edition. (New Haven, 1953, text DB.
4. The Golden Age of Persia (London, 1975, R. N. Frye, pp.35-37.
5. "Excavations at 'The City and Famous Fortress of pre-Islamic Kandahar, the Foremost Place
in All of Asia,"' Afghan Studies (1982), pp. 1-24, By S.W. Helms
6. De Bactres-Balkh, MDAFA 15 (Paris, 1957) by J.Cl. Gardin, Ceramiques.
7 "Achaemenid Sattagydia and the Geography of Vivana's Campaign (DB III, 54-75),"
JRAS (1982.2), pp. 102-12, by D. Fleming.
8. "On Swat Valley and Gandhara, by G. Tucci
http://www.kparchaeology.com/uploads/books/book-1445449626584.pdf
9. Persepolis Fortifications Texts by Hallock,
https://oi.uchicago.edu/research/publications/oip/persepolis-fortification-tablets
10. A Historical Atlas of South Asia, chap. 3, "From the Vedic through the Classical Age,"
section IIIB, "The Pre-Mauryan and Mauryan Periods" (Chicago, 1978), pp. 165-72. By J. E.
Schwartzberg,
11. "Excavations at Tulamba, West Pakistan," Pakistan Archaeology 4 (1967), pp. 41-66.
12. "The Achaemenid and India," by Chattopadhyaya, Indian Historical Quarterly 26.2 (1950),
pp. 100-17; P. H. L.
13. "Alexander's Campaigns in Sind and Baluchistan and the Siege of the Brahmin Town of
Harmatelia," Orientalia Lovaniensia Analecta 3 (1975)
14. R. C. Majumdar, "Achemenian Rule in India," Indian Historical Quarterly 25 (1949), pp.
153-65;
15. Anabasis of Alexander by Arrian, E book, Gutenberg archive
https://archive.org/stream/cu31924026460752/cu31924026460752_djvu.txt
16. Ancient India as described Ptolemy by McCrindle assisted by chakravarty and
Cunningham. Free EBook by Google
17. http://www.academia.edu/3551146/Buddhism_in_ancient_Uddiyana-Swat_Valley
18. Strabo: Geography: Book XV: On India,
https://sourcebooks.fordham.edu/ancient/strabo-geog-book15-india.asp
19. Alexander Sources:
https://sites.google.com/site/alexandersources/arrian/arrian-indica-a
51
16. M. Sharif, Excavations at Bhir Mound, Taxilla," Pakistan Archaeology (1969).
17. "Explorations at Hastinapura and Other Explorations in the Upper Ganga and
Sutlej Basins 1950-52 by B. B. Lal.
18. http://www.livius.org/
19. https://sites.google.com/site/alexandersources/strabo/strabo---india
20. All about Alexander: http://www.pothos.org/content/

52