VERTICAL ALIGNMENT

While aligning a highway it is general practice to follow the general topography or profile of
the land. But the natural ground may be level only at some places and otherwise the ground
may have slopes of varying magnitudes. Hence the vertical profile of a road would have level
stretches as well as slopes or grades. In order to have smooth vehicular movements on the
roads, the changes in the grade should be smoothened out by the vertical curves.

Gradient

Gradient is the rate of rise or fall along the length of the road with respect to the horizontal. It
is expressed as a ratio of 1 in x. sometimes the gradient is also expressed as a percentage, n%
I e, n in 100.

Types of gradients

Gradients are divided into following categories

1. Ruling gradient
2. Limiting gradient
3. Exceptional gradient
4. Minimum gradient

Ruling gradient is the maximum gradient within which the designer attempts to design the
vertical profile of the road. Gradient up to the ruling gradient are adopted as a normal course
in the design of vertical alignments and accordingly the quantities of cut and fill are balanced.
Hence ruling gradient is also known as design gradient.

Where topography of a place compels adopting steeper gradients than ruling gradients,
limiting gradients are used in view of enormous increase in cost of constructing roads with
gentler gradients. However the length of continuous grade lines steeper than ruling value
should be limited.

In some extra ordinary situations it may be unavoidable to provide still steeper gradients
atleast for short stretches and in such cases the steeper gradients up to exceptional gradients
may be provided.

It is desirable to have a certain minimum gradient on roads from drainage point of view
provided topography favours this. The minimum gradient depend on rainfall, runoff, type of
soil, topography and other considerations.

Terrain Ruling gradient Limiting gradient Exceptional

gradient
Plain or ruling terrain 1 in 30 1 in 20 1 in 15
Mountainous terrain 1 in 20 1 in 16.7 1 in 14.3
Steep terrain 1 in 16.7 1 in 14.3 1 in 12.5

Minimum gradient for drainage

Sl Site condition Minimum gradient(%)
no
1 Longitudinal drainage along curbed edge of pavement 0.5
2 Longitudinal drainage along road side ditches 1.0
Grade compensation on curves

At horizontal curves due to the turning angle of vehicle, the curve resistance will be
developed. When there is a horizontal curve in addition to the gradient, there will be
increased resistance to friction due to both gradient and curve. It is necessary that in such
cases the total resistance due to grade and curve should not normally exceed the resistance
due to the maximum value of the gradient specified. For design purpose, the maximum value
may be taken as ruling gradient and in some special cases as limiting gradient. When sharp
horizontal curve is to be introduced on a road which already has the maximum permissible
gradient should be decreased to compensate for the loss of tractive effort due to the curve.

This reduction in gradient at the horizontal curve is called grade compensation, which is
intended to off-set the extra tractive effort involved at the curve. This, is calculated from the
relation:

Grade compensation, percent=30+R,

R
Subject to a maximum value of 75/R, where R is the radius of the circular curve in metre,
According to the IRC the grade compensation is not necessary for gradients flatter than 4.0
percent and therefore when applying grade compensation correction, the gradient need not be
eased beyond 4%.

Example
While aligning a hill road with a ruling gradient of 6%, a horizontal curve of radius 60m is
encountered. Find the compensated gradient at the curve.
Solution:
Given data
Ruling gradient= 6%
Which is greater than 4% hence grade compensation is required.
Hence grade compensation required=30+R =30+60 =1.5%
R 60
Amount of grade compensation required = 1.5%
Maximum limit of grade compensation = 75/R= 75/60 =1.25%
Maximum amount of grade compensation that can be provided = 1.25%
Therefore, compensated gradient = 6-1.25= 4.75%

Vertical curves
Due to changes in grade in the vertical alignment of highway, it is necessary to introduce
vertical curve at the intersections of different grades to smoothen out the vertical profile and
thus ease off the changes in gradient for the fast moving vehicles. The parabola is a vertical
curve most frequently used because of the ease with which it can be laid out.
The vertical curves used in highway may be classified into two categories:
1. Summit curves or crest curves with convexity upwards
2. Valley or sag curves with concavity upwards.
Summit curves
Summit curves with convexity upwards are formed in any one of the cases shown below. The
deviation angle between the two interacting gradients is equal to the algebraic difference
between them. Of all the cases, the deviation angle will be maximum when an ascending
gradient meets with a descending gradient i.e N=n1-(-n2) =n1+n2
When a fast moving vehicle travels along a summit curve, the centrifugal force will act
upwards, against gravity and hence a part of the pressure on the tyres and springs of the
vehicle suspensions is relieved. So there is no problem of discomfort to passengers on
summit curves, particularly because the deviation angle on the roads are quite small and if the
summit curve is designed to have adequate sight distance, the length of the curve would be
long enough to ease the shock due to change in gradient.
The only problem with the design of summit curve is to provide adequate sight distances. The
stopping sight distance or the absolute minimum sight distance should invariably be provided
at all sections of the road system and so also in the summit curves.
Summit curves are vertical curves with gradient upwards. They are formed when two
gradients meet as illustrated in figure 1 in any of the following four ways:

1. When a positive gradient meets another positive gradient [figure 1a].

2. When positive gradient meets a flat gradient [figure 1b]. .

3. When an ascending gradient meets a descending gradient [figure 1c]. .

4. When a descending gradient meets another descending gradient [figure 1d]. .

Type of Summit Curve

Many curve forms can be used with satisfactory results, the common practice has been to use
parabolic curves in summit curves. This is primarily because of the ease with it can be laid
out as well as allowing a comfortable transition from one gradient to another. Although a
circular curve offers equal sight distance at every point on the curve, for very small deviation
angles a circular curve and parabolic curves are almost congruent. Furthermore, the use of
parabolic curves were found to give excellent riding comfort.

Figure 1: Types of summit curves

Length of summit curve for overtaking sight distance

Case a. Length of summit curve greater than overtaking sight distance

Figure 1: Length of summit curve (L>S)

The situation when the sight distance is less than the length of the curve is shown in figure 1.
 (1)

Case b. Length of summit curve less than overtaking sight distance

The second case is illustrated in figure 1

Figure 1: Length of summit curve (L<S)

From the basic geometry, one can write

(1)

Therefore for a given , h1and to get minimum , differentiate the above equation with
respect to h1 and equate it to zero. Therefore,

(2)

Solving for ,

(3)
Now we can substitute back to get the value of minimum value of for a given ,

, h1 and . Therefore,

(4)

Solving for ,

(5)

When stopping sight distance is considered the height of driver's eye above the road surface

(h1) is taken as 1.2 metres, and height of object above the pavement surface ( ) is taken as
0.15 metres. If overtaking sight distance is considered, then the value of driver's eye height
(h1)

and the height of the obstruction ( ) are taken equal as 1.2 metres.
Length of summit curve for SSD
Two cases are to be considered in deciding the length
1. when the length of the curve is greater than the sight distance( L>SSD)
2. when the length of the curve is less than the sight distance (L<SSD)

1. when L>SSD
The general equation for the length of the parabolic curve is given by

L= length of summit curve, m

S= stopping sight distance, SSD, m
N= Deviation angle, equal to algebraic difference in grades, radians or tangent of the
deviation angle.
h1= height of eye level of driver above roadway surface, m
h2 = height of subject above the pavement surface, m

The value of h1, the height of driver’s eye above roadway surface is taken as 1.2 m in India.
The height of object h above the pavement surface foe the purpose of safe stopping distance
is taken as 0.15 m as per IRC standards.
i.e
L=NS2
4.4
2. When L<SSD
The general equation for the length of the parabolic summit curve, when it is less than
the sight distance is given by:

Substituting the value of h1 and h2 in the equation

L=2S-4.4
N

For overtaking sight distance condition

The derivation remains the same but the values of both h1 i.e height of the
drivers eye and h2 height of the objects are taken as 1.2.

L>OSD

N S2 ❑

L= ( 2 h1+ 2 h 2)2
√ √

L=NS2/9.6

L<OSD
2
( √ 2 h1+ √ 2 h 2)
L=2S- N

L=2S-9.6/N

Valley curve
Valley curve or sag curves are vertical curves with convexity downwards. They are formed
when two gradients meet as illustrated in figure 1 in any of the following four ways:
Figure 1: Types of valley curve

1. when a descending gradient meets another descending gradient [figure 1a].

2. when a descending gradient meets a flat gradient [figure 1b].

3. when a descending gradient meets an ascending gradient [figure 1c].

4. when an ascending gradient meets another ascending gradient [figure 1d].

Design considerations

There is no restriction to sight distance at valley curves during day time. But visibility is
reduced during night. In the absence or inadequacy of street light, the only source for
visibility is with the help of headlights. Hence valley curves are designed taking into account
of headlight distance. In valley curves, the centrifugal force will be acting downwards along
with the weight of the vehicle, and hence impact to the vehicle will be more. This will result
in jerking of the vehicle and cause discomfort to the passengers. Thus the most important
design factors considered in valley curves are: (1) impact-free movement of vehicles at
design speed and (2) availability of stopping sight distance under headlight of vehicles for
night driving.

For gradually introducing and increasing the centrifugal force acting downwards, the best
shape that could be given for a valley curve is a transition curve. Cubic parabola is generally
preferred in vertical valley curves. During night, under headlight driving condition, sight
distance reduces and availability of stopping sight distance under head light is very important.
The head light sight distance should be at least equal to the stopping sight distance. There is
no problem of overtaking sight distance at night since the other vehicles with headlights
could be seen from a considerable distance.

Length of the valley curve

 1. Comfort criteria; that is allowable rate of change of centrifugal acceleration is limited

to a comfortable level of about .

2. Safety criteria; that is the driver should have adequate headlight sight distance at any
part of the country.

Comfort criteria
The length of the valley curve based on the rate of change of centrifugal acceleration that will
ensure comfort: Let is the rate of change of acceleration, the minimum radius of the
curve, is the design speed and is the time, then is given as:

1. the length of transition curve Lsfor comfort condition is given by equation

v3
Ls= CR

W.K.T the value of R at length Ls = Ls/N=L/2N (Ls=L/2)

Substituting the value of R in the above equation
v3
Ls= CLs *N

Nv 3
2
L =
s C

Ls= √ Nv 3
C

L=2Ls= 2 √ Nv3
C (Ls=L/2)

Where, L= total length of the valley curve

N =deviation angle
v=Speed in m/sec
C= is the allowable rate of change of centrifugal acceleration which may be taken as
0.6m/sec3
2. the length of valley curve for head light sight distance may be determined for the two
conditions
a. when the total length of valley curve L is greater than the stopping sight
distance SSD
b. when L is less than SSD, as given below

Where is the total length of valley curve, is the deviation angle in radians or tangent of
the deviation angle or the algebraic difference in grades, and

Safety criteria
Length of the valley curve for headlight distance may be determined for two conditions:
(1) length of the valley curve greater than stopping sight distance and (2) length of the
valley curve less than the stopping sight distance.

Case 1 Length of valley curve greater than stopping sight distance ( )

The total length of valley curve is greater than the stopping sight distance SSD. The
sight distance available will be minimum when the vehicle is in the lowest point in the
valley. This is because the beginning of the curve will have infinite radius and the bottom
of the curve will have minimum radius which is a property of the transition curve. The
case is shown in figure 1

Figure 1: Valley curve, case1,

From the geometry of the figure, we have:

(1)

Where is the deviation angle in radians, h1 is the height of headlight beam taken as
0.75, is the head beam inclination in degrees and is the sight distance. The
inclination is 1 degree. By substituting these in the above equation
2
NS
L ¿ 1.5+ 0.035∗(S)
Case 2 Length of valley curve less than stopping sight distance (L<S)
The length of the curve is less than SSD. In this case the minimum sight distance is from
the beginning of the curve. The important points are the beginning of the curve and the
bottom most part of the curve. If the vehicle is at the bottom of the curve, then its headlight
beam will reach far beyond the endpoint of the curve whereas, if the vehicle is at the
beginning of the curve, then the headlight beam will hit just outside the curve. Therefore, the
length of the curve is derived by assuming the vehicle at the beginning of the curve . The case
is shown in figure 1.

From the figure,

(1)

1.5+0.035∗(S)
L=2 S−
N

Figure 1: Valley curve, case 2,

Note that the above expression is approximate and is satisfactory because in practice, the
gradients are very small and is acceptable for all practical purposes. We will not be able to
know prior to which case to be adopted. Therefore both has to be calculated and the one
which satisfies the condition is adopted.

Examples
 1. An ascending gradient of 1 in 100 meets a descending gradient of 1 in 120. A summit
curve is to be designed for a speed of 80 kmph so as to have an overtaking sight
distance of 470m.
Solution:
Assuming that the length of the curve is greater than the sight distance
L>OSD

L= NS2/9.6

Where,
N is the deviation angle
N1=1/100
N2=-1/120 (since it is the downward gradient it should be given negative sign)
Deviation angle is given by
N=N1-N2
N=1/100-(-1/120)
N=1/100+1/120
N=11/600
N=0.0183
S is the overtaking sight distance, since it is asked in the question to design the summit curve
for overtaking sight distance
S=470
Therefore,
L=NS2/9.6
L=0.0183*4702/9.6
L=421.85m
L=422.0 m
As the value of Length of the curve is less than the sight distance assumption made is wrong.
L<OSD

L=2S-9.6/N

L=2*470-9.6/0.0183
L=940-524.59
L=415.4 m
L=416 m
The length of the curve is less than the sight distance so assumption is correct
Therefore,
Length of the curve is equal to 416 m

Example
A vertical summit curve is to be designed when two grades, +1/50 and -1/80 meet on
highway. The stopping sight distance and overtaking sight distance required are 180m and
640 respectively. But due to sight conditions the length of vertical curve has to be restricted
to a maximum value of 500 m if possible. Calculate the length of summit curve needed to
fulfil the requirements of 1. SSD 2. OSD and discuss on the results.
Solution
Deviation angle N
N1=+1/50
N2=-1/80
N=N1-N2
N=1/50-(-1/80)
N=1/50+1/80
N=13/400
N=0.0325
1. Requirement of stopping sight distance
Given SSD=180m
Assuming that the length of the curve is greater than the SSD
L>SSD
L=NS2/4.4
L=0.0325*1802/4.4
L=1053/4.4
L=239.31 m
L=240 m
As per the condition given in the problem the maximum length of the curve should be
restricted to maximum of 500 m so it is ok
2. Requirement of overtaking sight distance
OSD=640 m
Assuming that the length of the curve is greater than the overtaking sight distance
L=NS2/9.6
L=0.0325*6402/9.6
L=13312/9.6
L=1386.67 m
L=1387 m
As per the condition given in the problem we can not give the length of a curve greater than
500m so we can not provide the curve with OSD
Therefore, to provide limited opportunities for overtaking, Intermediate sight distance equal
to twice the SSD of 180*2=360 m may be provided.
Assuming that the L>SD
L=NS2/9.6
L=0.0325*3602/9.6
L=438.75 m
L=439 m
So the assumption made is correct.
Since the condition of the curve length of max 500 m is satisfied a curve length of 439m can
be provided.
Example
A valley curve is formed by a descending grade of 1 in 25 meeting an ascending grade of 1 in
30. Design the length of the valley curve to fulfil both comfort condition and head light sight
distance requirements for a design speed of 80 kmph. Assume allowable rate of change of
centrifugal acceleration C=0.6 m/sec3.
Solution
Deviation angle N
N1=-1/25
N2=1/30
N=N1-N2
N=-1/25-1/30
N=-11/150
N=-0.0733
1. Comfort condition

L= 2
√Nv3
C
v=80kmph=80/3.6 m/sec=22.22 m/sec
c=0.6 m/sec3

L=2 √ 0.0733∗22.223
0.6
L=2*36.61
L=73.21 m
2. Head light sight distance
Assuming that L>HSD

N S2
¿
L 1.5+ 0.035∗(S)

SSD=vt+v2/2gf
SSD=22.22*2.5+22.222/2*9.81*0.35
SSD=127.3 m
2
0.0733∗127.3
L= 1.5+ 0.035∗(127.3)

L=1187.84/5.955
L=199.46 m
Higher among the two values obtained for comfort and head light sight distance
should be considered as the length of the curve so length of the curve is given
by 200m.