Complex Analysis

PH 503 CourseTM

Charudatt Kadolkar
Indian Institute of Technology, Guwahati
ii

Copyright 2000 by Charudatt Kadolkar

 Preface
Preface Head

These notes were prepared during the lectures given to MSc students at IIT Guwahati,
July 2000 and 2001..

Acknowledgments

As of now none but myself

IIT Guwahati Charudatt Kadolkar.

 Contents

Preface iii
Preface Head iii

Acknowledgments iii

1 Complex Numbers 1
De• nitions 1

Algebraic Properties 1

Polar Coordinates and Euler Formula 2

Roots of Complex Numbers 3

Regions in Complex Plane 3

2 Functions of Complex Variables 5

Functions of a Complex Variable 5

Elementary Functions 5

Mappings 7

Mappings by Elementary Functions. 8

3 Analytic Functions 11
Limits 11

Continuity 12

Derivative 12

Cauchy-Riemann Equations 13
vi Contents

Analytic Functions 14

Harmonic Functions 14

4 Integrals 15
Contours 15

Contour Integral 16

Cauchy-Goursat Theorem 17

Antiderivative 17

Cauchy Integral Formula 18

5 Series 19
Convergence of Sequences and Series 19

Taylor Series 20

Laurent Series 20

6 Theory of Residues And Its Applications 23

Singularities 23

Types of singularities 23

Residues 24

Residues of Poles 24

Quotients of Analytic Functions 25

A References 27

B Index 29
 1 Complex Numbers

De• nitions

De• nition 1.1 Complex numbers are de• ned as ordered pairs     

Points on a complex plane. Real axis, imaginary axis, purely imaginary numbers. Real
and imaginary parts of complex number. Equality of two complex numbers.

De• nition 1.2 The sum and product of two complex numbers are de• ned as follows:
 
                      

          ! " # $   %  & ' ( ' ) * + ( ' ) , + ) ' ( -

In the rest of the chapter use . / . 0 / . 1 / 2 2 2 for complex numbers and 3 4 5 for real numbers.
introduce and
6 notation.
7 8 9 : 6 ;

Algebraic Properties

1. Commutativity
7 < : 7 = 8 7 = : 7 < > 7 < 7 = 8 7 = 7 <

2. Associativity
?

7 < : 7 = @ : 7 A B C D E F C G E C A H I F C D C G H C A B C D F C G C A H

3. Distributive Law
C F C D E C G H B C C D E C C G

4. Additive and Multiplicative Indentity

C E J K L M L N O P Q

5. Additive and Multiplicative Inverse

R R T U R V W

Q P S

[ \

g h

Q X Y Z

] ^ _ ` ^ a ] ^ b _ ` ^ c d e f
2 Chapter 1 Complex Numbers

6. Subtraction and Division i j

i j k i l m i j n o k i l p q m i j i r

i l

7. Modulus or Absolute Value s t s u v w x y z x

8. Conjugates and properties { | w } ~ z |  w € } z 

{ ‚ ƒ „ … † „ ‡ ƒ „ …

„ ‡ „ … † „ ‡ „ …

„ „
‡ ‡

„ … ‰ „ …

9.
…

Š Š
„ † „ „

  

‹ Œ  Ž
” – ”

 ‘ ’ “ ” • — ˜

10. Triangle Inequality ™ ™  ž Ÿ   ž ¡ ž Ÿ ¢ ž

” š › ” œ

Polar Coordinates and Euler Formula

Ÿ £

1. Polar Form: for ¤ ¥

, Ÿ

¤ ¦ § ¨ © ª « ¬ ­ ® ¯ ° ± ²

where ³ and
´ µ. is called the argument of . Since
¶ µ · ¸ ¹ º » ¼ ½ ¾ ¿ À ¿ Á Â Ã Ä is also
an argument of the principle value of argument of is take such that
Å Æ Å Ç Ä È É Ê

For
Ì

the
Í is unde• ned.
Î Ï Ð Ñ Ò Ó

2. Euler formula: Symbollically,

Ô Õ Ö × Ø Ù Ú Û Ü Ý Þ Û ß à Ü á

3. â ã â ä ã ä æ ç è é ê ë ì í î

× å å

ï ð ð

ï ñ ò ó ñ ô õ ö ÷ ø ù ÷ ú

ï û ü ý û þ û ÿ

4. de Moivre’s Formula
        
 
     


ü
 Roots of Complex Numbers 3

Roots of Complex Numbers

Let      then    

           

   " ! # #

There are only distinct roots which can be given by " " )

If * is a
principle value of then is called the principle root.
$ % & ' & ( ( ( & ' (

"

+ , - . * /

Example 1.1 The three possible roots of 0 1

4

2
5

3
6 7 8 9 : ; < = > ? @ A B C D

are E F G

C B H I
E F G

C B H J
F

H
G

C D I
E F G

C B H J
F K G

C D
.

Regions in Complex Plane

1. L M N O P of Q R is de• ned as a set of all points which satisfy S

T T V W

R
S U S

2. X Y Z [ \ ] ^ _ ` a of b c is a nbd of b c excluding point b c .

3. Interior Point, Exterior Point, Boundary Point, Open set and closed set.

4. Domain, Region, Bounded sets, Limit Points.

 2 Functions of Complex Vari-
ables

Functions of a Complex Variable

A de• ned on a set is a rule that uniquely associates to each point of a

d e f g h i j k l m n m

a complex number Set is called the of and is called the value of at o p q r s t u v w x y x z

and is denoted by x { z | } y ~

x { z | } x {  €  ‚ | } ƒ „ … † ‡ ˆ ‰ Š ‹ Œ  Ž  

‘ ‘

Œ ’  “ Œ ” • – —  “ ˜ Œ ” Ž ™  š › ‹ Œ ” Ž ™  “ œ  ž Ÿ   ¡ ¢ £ ¤ ¥ ¦ § ¨ ©

Example 2.1 Write ª « ¬ ­ ® ¯ ° ¬ ± in ² ³ ´ µ form.

¿

² « ¶ · ¸ ­ ®
¾ ¿

¹ º » ¼ ½ and Â Ã Ä Å Æ Ç È
¾ ¿

É ¼

¼ ¼

½ ½

½ À ½ Á ½ À ½ Á

Ã Ë Å Ì Ç È Ë Í

É Î Ï Ð Ñ
Ì and Â Ã Ë Å Ì Ç È Ò Ë Í

É Ð Ó Ô Ñ
Ì

Domain of Õ is Ö × Ø Ù Ú .

A Û Ü Ý Þ ß à á â ã ä å æ ç è é ê ç ë ì í î ï ë is a rule that assigns more than one value to each point of

domain.

Example 2.2 This function assigns two distinct values to each ð ñ ò ó ô õ ö ÷ ö ø

ú

ù
û ü

.
One can choose the function to be single-valued by specifying
 

ú ý

õ õ þ ÿ

where is the principal value. 

Elementary Functions
6 Chapter 2 Functions of Complex Variables

1. Polynomials
 

   
 
 
      
 

whrere the coef• cients are real. Rational Functions.

2. Exponential Function 

 

      

      ! ! !

Converges for all For real " # " the de• nition coincides with usual exponential func-
tion. Easy to see that $ % & ' ( ) * . Then +

,
* - . +

$ / ' $ 0 1 ( ) * 2 * - . 2 3

a. $ .
/ 4
$

/ 5
' $

/ 4 6 / 5

b. $

/ 6 7 8
% ' $

/
#

c. A line segment from 1 9 : ; 3 to 1 9 : < = 3 maps to a circle of radius $

0
centered at
origin.
d. No Zeros.

3. Trigonometric Functions
De• ne
$ % $ > %

/ /

( ) * " '

<

$ % $ > %

/ ? /

* - . " '

<

* - . "

@ A

. " '

( ) * "

a.* - .
7
" ( ) *

7
" ' B

b. < * - . " C ( ) * " ' * - . 1 " C " 3 * - . 1 " C

?
" 3

7 7 7

c. < ( ) * "
C
( ) * " ' ( ) * 1 "
C
" 3 ( ) * 1 "
C

?
" 3

7 7 7

d. < * - . " C * - . " '

?
( ) * 1 " C " 3 ( ) * 1 " C

?
" 3

7 7 7

e.* - .and 1 " < = 3 ' * - . " ( ) * 1 " < = 3 ' ( ) * " #

f.* - iff . " ' ; " ' D = 1 D ' ; : E B : # # # 3

g.( iff
) * " ' ; " '
8
D = 1 D ' ; : E B : # # # 3

h. These functions are not bounded.

7

i. A line segment from to 1 ; : 2 3 1 < = : 2 3 maps to an ellipse with semimajor axis

equal to under function. ( ) * F G H I J

4. Hyperbolic Functions
De• ne P Q P

K L

H F M N O O R

P T P

H I J F M N
O O R

S
 Mappings 7

a. U V W X Y Z [ \ ] Z U V W [ ^ _ ` a b c d e f g _ ` a e

b. _ ` a b h e i a j k b h e g l

c. a j k b c e m n o d f g a j k b c e f ^ _ ` a b c e m n o d f g _ ` a b c e f

d. a j k b e g p iff e g q o d c q g p r s l r t t t f

e. _ ` a b e g p iff e g u v m q o w d c q g p r
s
l r t t t f

5. Logarithmic Function
De• ne x y z { | x y z } ~  €  ~ ‚ ƒ „ …

then † ‡ ˆ ‰ Š ‹ Œ 

a. Is multiple-valued. Hence cannot be considered as inverse of exponetial func-

tion.
b. Priniciple value of log function is given by
Ž   Ž   ‘ ’ “ ”

Œ ‹

where is the principal value of argument of . •

c. – — ˜ ™ • š • › œ  – — ˜ • š ž – — ˜ • ›

Mappings

 . Graphical representation of images of sets under

  ™ • œ   is called ¡ ¢ £ £ ¤ ¥ ¦ § Typi-
cally shown in following manner:

1. Draw regular sets (lines, circles, geometric regions etc) in a complex plane, which
we call plane. Use ¨ ¨ © ª « ¬ ­ © ® ¯ ° ± ²

2. Show its images on another complex plane, which we call ³ plane. Use ³ © ´ µ ¨ ¶ ©

« . ¬ ¸ © ¹ º » ¼

Example 2.3 ½ ¾ ¿ À .
8 Chapter 2 Functions of Complex Variables

1.5

0.5

-0.6-0.4-0.2 0 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1

Mapping of Á Â
Mapping Á Â

1. A straight line Ã Ä Å maps to a parabola Æ Ç È É Ê Ë Ì Í Î Ï Ë Ì Ð

2. A straight line Ñ Ò Ë maps to a parabola Ó Ì Ò Ê Ë Ì Í Î Ï Ë Ì Ð

3. A half circle given by where maps to a full circle given by Ô Ò Õ Ö × Ø Ù Ú Û Ü Û Ý

Ò Õ

Ö
This also means that the upper half plane maps on to the entire complex
Ì
×
Ø Ì Ù ß

plane.

4. A hyperbola à Ì
Ï
Ñ Ì Ò á maps to a straight line â ã á ä

Mappings by Elementary Functions.

1. Translation by å æ is given by ç ã å è å æ ä

2. Rotation through an angle é æ is given by ç ã ê ë ì å ä

3. Rel• ection through x axis is given by ç ã

î

í
ï

4. Exponential Function
 Mappings by Elementary Functions. 9

Exponential Function
A vertical line maps to a circle.
A horizontal line maps to a radial line.
A horizontal strip enclosed between ð ñ ò and ð ñ ó ô maps to the entire complex
plane.

5. Sine Function õ ö ÷ ø ñ õ ö ÷ ù ú û õ ü ð ý þ ú û õ ù õ ö ÷ ü ð

A vertical line maps to a branch of a hyperbola.

A horizontal line maps to an ellipse and has a period of ó ô .

 3 Analytic Functions

Limits

A function ÿ is de• ned in a deleted nbd of


De• nition 3.1 The limit of the function ÿ  as    is a number   if, for any
given
there exists a
 such that  

      

             

Example 3.1     ! " # Show that $ % & ' ( ) * + , - . / 0 - 1 2

Example 3.2 + , - . / - 3 2 Show that 4 5 6 7 8 7 * + , - . / -

1
3 2

Example 3.3 + , - . / - 9 - : 2 Show that the limit of + does not exist as - ; < .

Theorem 3.1 Let + , - . / = , > ? @ . A B C , > ? @ . and D 1 / = 1 A B C 1 2

7
4

8
5 6

7 *
+ , - . / D 1 if
and only if E F G H I
4 5 6

E F G H I
= / = 1 and E F G H I
4 5 6

E F G H I
C / C 1 2

8 * * 8 * *

Example 3.4 + , - . / J 5 K - . Show that the 4 5 6

7
8
7 *
+ , - . / J 5 K -
1

Example 3.5 + , - . / L > A B @

3
. Show that the 4 5 6
7
8 + , - . / N B .
3 M

Theorem 3.2 If 7
4

8
5 6

7 *
+ , - . / D
1
and 7
4

8
5 6

7 * O
, - . / P Q R

S T U

V W V X Y Z [ \ ] ^ _ [ \ ] ` a b c d e c f

g h i

j k j l m n o p q n o p a b c e c f

g h i

b c

j k j l m n o p r q n o p a e c a s t u

e c

This theorem immediately makes available the entire machinery and tools used for real
analysis to be applied to complex analysis. The rules for • nding limits then can be listed
as follows:
12 Chapter 3 Analytic Functions

1. y
v

z
w x

y { | } | ~

2. y
v

z
w x

y
{  € } 


€ ~

3. y
v

z
w x

y
{ ‚ ƒ
 „ }
‚ ƒ



„
if ‚
is a polynomial in . 

4. y
v

z
w x

y
{ … † ‡

ƒ
 „ }
… † ‡

ƒ



„ ~

5. y
v

z
w x

y { ˆ
w ‰

ƒ
 „ }
ˆ
w ‰




Continuity

De• nition 3.2 A function , de• ned in some nbd of Š




is continuous at 


if


v w x Š Š

z
y y {  „ }  „ ~
ƒ ƒ

This de• nition clearly assumes that the function is de• ned at and the limit on the LHS 


exists. The function is continuous in a region if it is continuous at all points in that Š

region.

If funtions and Š ‹ are continuous at Œ  then Ž  ‹ , Ž ‹ and Ž  ‹ ‘ ‹ ‘ Œ  ’

”

“
•

’ are also
continuous at . Œ 

If a function Ž ‘ Œ ’
” –

‘ — ˜ ™ ’  š › ‘ — ˜ ™ ’ is continuous at Œ

then the component functions
–

and are also continuous at › ‘ —  ˜ ™  ’ .

Derivative

De• nition 3.3 A function , de• ned in some nbd of Ž Œ  is differentiable at Œ  if

œ  ž
Ž ‘ Œ ’ ¢ Ž ‘ Œ  ’

Ÿ   Ÿ ¡

Œ Œ 
¢

exists. The limit is called the derivative of Ž at Œ  and is denoted by Ž £ ¤ ¥ ¦ § or ª

¨ ©
« ¬ ­ ® ¯

Example 3.6 °
¬ ­ ¯ ± ­ ² ³

Show that ° ´
¬ ­ ¯ ± µ ­ ³

Example 3.7 . Show that this function is differentiable only at . In

¸

¬ ­ ¯ ± ¶ ­ ¶ ­ ± ·

real analysis ¹ º ¹ is not differentiable but is. ¹ º ¹ »

If a function is differentiable at , then it is continuous at . ¼ ¼

 Cauchy-Riemann Equations 13

The converse in not true. See Example 3.7.

Even if component functions of a complex function have all the partial derivatives, does
not imply that the complex function will be differentiable. See Example 3.7.

Some rules for obtaining the derivatives of functions are listed here. Let ½ and ¾ be
differentiable at ¿ À

à à à Ã

1. Á ½ Ä ¾ Å ¿ Å Æ ½ Ç ¿ Å Ä ¾ ¿ Å À

Á Â

à à à à à Ã

2. Á
½ ¾ Å ¿ Å Æ ½ Ç ¿ Å ¾ ¿ Å È ½ ¿ Å ¾ Ç ¿ Å À

Á Â

à à à à à à à à Ã

3. Á ½ É ¾ Å ¿ Å Æ ½
Ç
¿ Å ¾ ¿ Å Ê ½ ¿ Å ¾
Ç
¿ Å Å É Ë ¾ ¿ Å Ì Í if ¾ ¿ Å Æ Î Ï À

Á Â

4. Á ½ Ð Ñ Ò Ó Ô Ò Õ Ö × Ó Ñ Ó Ô Ò Ò Ñ × Ó Ô Ò Ø

Á Â

5. Ù Õ Ü Ø

Ù Ú Û

6. Ù
Ô Ý Õ Þ Ô Ý ß à Ø

Ù Ú

Cauchy-Riemann Equations

Theorem 3.3 If Ö
×
Ó Ô á Ò exists, then all the • rst order partial derivatives of component
function and â Ó ã ä å Ò æ Ó ã exist and satisfy Cauchy-Riemann Conditions:
ä å Ò

â ç Õ æ è

â Õ é æ Ø
è ç

Example 3.8 Ö Ó Ô Ò Õ Ô ê Õ ã ê
é
å ê ë ì í ã å Ø Show that Cauchy-Riemann Condtions
are satis• ed.

Example 3.9 Ö Ó Ô Ò Õ î Ô î
ê

Õ ã
ê
ë å
ê
Ø Show that the Cauchy-Riemann Condtions are
satis• ed only at Ô Õ Ü .

Theorem 3.4 Let be de• ned in some nbd of the point If Ö Ó Ô Ò Õ â Ó ã ä å Ò ë ì æ Ó ã ä å Ò Ô á Ø

the • rst partial derivatives of and exist and are continuous at and satisfy Cauchy- â æ Ô
á

Riemann equations at , then is differentiable at and Ô á Ö Ô á

é
Ö Ó Ô Ò Õ â ë ì æ Õ æ ì â Ø
ç ç è è

Example 3.10 Ö Ó Ô Ò Õ ï ð ñ Ó Ô Ò Ø Show that Ö × Ó Ô Ò Õ ï ð ñ Ó Ô Ò Ø

Example 3.11 Ö Ó Ô Ò Õ ò ó ô Ó Ô Ò Ø Show that Ö × Ó Ô Ò Õ õ ö ò Ó Ô Ò Ø

ø ù

Example 3.12 Show that the CR conditions are satis• ed at Ö Ó Ô Ò Õ ÷

ø ú
û ü ý but the
function is not differentiable at þ ý

ú
14 Chapter 3 Analytic Functions

If we write ÿ

  

then we can write Cauchy-Riemann Conditions in polar coordi-

nates: 

 






Analytic Functions

De• nition 3.4 A function is analytic in an open set if it has a derivative at each point
in that set.

De• nition 3.5 A function is analytic at a point ÿ  if it is analytic in some nbd of ÿ  .

De• nition 3.6 A function is an entire function if it is analytic at all points of 

Example 3.13 is analytic at all nonzero points.

 

 ÿ  ÿ

Example 3.14  ÿ   ÿ   is not analytic anywhere.

A function is not analytic at a point but is analytic at some point in each nbd of ÿ  

then is called the singular point of the function .

ÿ  ÿ 

Harmonic Functions

De• nition 3.7 A real valued function is said to be in a domain of             !

xy plane if it has continuous partial derivatives of the • rst and second order and satis• es
" # $ % & ' ( ( ) * + , - . /

: 0 1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 0 8 2 3 4 5 6 9 : ;

2 = 6 9 > 2 3 4 5 6 7 ? @ 2 3 4 5 6

Theorem 3.5 If a function < is analytic in a domain A then

the functions and are harmonic in B C A .

De• nition 3.8 If two given functions and are harmonic in domain D B D E F G H C D E F G H

and their • rst order partial derivatives satisfy Cauchy-Riemann Conditions

B I J C K

K I M
B J L C

then is said to be C N O P Q R S T U U R S V W X Y Z [ of \ ]

Example 3.15 Let \ ^ _ ` a b c _ d e a d and f ^ _ ` a b c g _ a ] Show that is hc of f \ and

not vice versa.

Example 3.16 \ ^ _ ` a b c a h
e i
_ a . Find harmonic conjugate of \ ]
 4 Integrals

Contours

Example 4.1 Represent a line segment joining points j k l m n and o p q r r n by parametric

equations.

Example 4.2 Show that a half circle in upper half plane with radius s and centered
at origin can be parametrized in various ways as given below:

1. t u v w x s y z { v | } u v w x s { ~  v | where v €  ‚ ƒ „

2. … † ‡ ˆ ‰ ‡ Š ‹ † ‡ ˆ ‰ Œ  Ž  ‡ Ž Š where ‡ €   ‚  „

3. … † ‡ ˆ ‰  †  ‡
 ‘
ˆ Š ‹ † ‡ ˆ ‰  
Œ
‡

‡ Ž Š where ‡ € 
‚ ‘
„

De• nition 4.1 A set of points ’ ‰ † … Š ‹ ˆ in complex plane is called an “ ” • if

… ‰ … † ‡ ˆ Š ‹ ‰ ‹ † ‡ ˆ Š † – — ‡ — ˜ ˆ

where … † ‡ ˆ and ‹ † ‡ ˆ are continuous functions of the real parameter ‡ „

Example 4.3 … † ‡ ˆ ‰ ™ š › ‡ Š ‹ † ‡ ˆ ‰ › œ  †  ‡ ˆ , where ‡ €  ‚  ƒ ž . Show that the

curve cuts itself and is closed.

An arc is called simple if ‡ Ÿ ‰   ‡

Ž ¡
’ † ‡ Ÿ ˆ ‰   ’ † ‡

Ž
ˆ „

An arc is closed if ’ † – ˆ ‰ ’ † ˜ ˆ .

An arc is differentiable if ’ ¢ † ‡ ˆ ‰ … ¢ † ‡ ˆ £ ¤ ‹ ¢ exists and

† and ‡ ˆ … ¢ † ‡ ˆ ‹ ¢ † ‡ ˆ are continu-
ous. A smooth arc is differentiable and ’ ¢ † ‡ ˆ is nonzero for all . ‡

De• nition 4.2 Length of a smooth arc is de• ned as

¥ ¦ § ¨ © ª «

¯ ° ± ² ³ ´ µ ² ¶

¬ ­ ®

The length is invariant under parametrization change.

16 Chapter 4 Integrals

De• nition 4.3 A is a constructed by joining • nite smooth curves end to end · ¸ ¹ º ¸ » ¼

such that is continuous and is piecewise continuous. ½ ¾ ¿ À ½ Á ¾ ¿ À

A closed simple contour has only • rst and last point same and does not cross itself.

Contour Integral

If is a contour in complex plane de• ned by

 ½ ¾ ¿ À Ã Ä ¾ ¿ À Å and a function
Æ Ç ¾ ¿ À

È È

¾ ½ is de• ned on it. The integral of

À Ã É ¾ Ä Ê Ç À Å Æ Ë ¾ Ä Ê Ç À ¾ ½ À along the contour is Â

denoted and de• ned as follows:

Ì Í Î Ï Ð Ñ Ò Ð Ó Ô Õ Î Ï Ð Ñ Ð × Ï Ø Ñ Ò Ø

Ó Ô Ï Ù Ú Ñ Ò Ø Þ ß Ô Ï Ù Þ Ú Ñ Ò Ø
Õ × Û Ü Ý × Õ Ý × Ü ×

Ö Ö

Ó Ô Ï Ù Ò Ú Û Ò Ñ Þ ß Ô Ï Ù Ò Þ Ò Ú Ñ
Ü Ý Ý Ü

The component integrals are usual real integrals and are well de• ned. In the last form
appropriate limits must placed in the integrals.

Some very straightforward rules of integration are given below:

1. à á â ã ä å æ ç å è â à á ã ä å æ ç å where â is a complex constant.

2. à
á
ä ã ä å æ é ê ä å æ æ ç å è à
á
ã ä å æ ç å é à
á
ê ä å æ ç å ë

3. à á ì í á î
ã ä å æ ç å è
à á ì
ã ä å æ ç å é
à á î
ã ä å æ ç å ë

4. ï ï

ï ð ñ ò ó ô õ ö ô ï ÷ ð ñ ø ò ó ô ó ù õ õ ô ú ó ù õ ø ö ù û

      

5. If for all ý þ ÿ then , where is length of the

countour
ø ø ÷ ü 

ò ó ô õ

                

Example 4.4 Find integral of 

         
from to       
along a straight line
  

and also along st line path from to and from to .

                  

Example 4.5 . Find the integral from   

to along a semicircu-
lar path in upper plane given by   

                  

 

Example 4.6 Show that

   
for and ÿ   

from to
  


 Cauchy-Goursat Theorem 17

Cauchy-Goursat Theorem

Theorem 4.1 (Jordan Curve Theorem) Every simple and closed contour in complex
plane splits the entire plane into two domains one of which is bounded. The bounded
domain is called the interior of the countour and the other one is called the exterior of
the contour.

De• ne a sense direction for a contour.

Theorem 4.2 Let be a simple closed contour with positive orientation and let be  

the interior of If and are continuous and have continuous partial derivatives
   

and at all points on and , then

! " # " ! #

  $ %

& ' ( ( ) ) - ( ) & & / ( ) ( ) )

" * + , " * + , * + . " * + 0 " * + 1 , , *

! #

 

Theorem 4.3 (Cauchy-Goursat Theorem) Let be analytic in a simply connected 2

domain If is any simple closed contour in , then

% 3 $ %

'
& ( 4 4

+ , . 5

2 3

( 4 4 6 ( 4 ( 4

Example 4.7 etc are entire functions so integral about any

+ . " 7 8 9 + " : ; < +

loop is zero.
6

Theorem 4.4 Let 6

and be two simple closed positively oriented contours such $ = $

that lies entirely in the interior of

$ If is an analytic function in a domain that 6
$ = 3 2 %

contains and both and the region between them, then

$ = $

' > ' ?

& ( 4 4 & ( 4 4

+ , . + ,

2 2 3

'

( 4 4 ( 4 4

Example 4.8 . Find if is any contour containing origin.

+ . @ A + ,

2 B 2 $

Choose a circular contour inside '

$ 3

4 4 I

Example 4.9 if contains

, . F G H

B $ 3

C D C E

? K

'

C J C

Example 4.10 Find where Extend the Cauchy Goursat theorem

. F

B $ L M M 3

to multiply connected domains.

Antiderivative

Theorem 4.5 (Fundamental Theorem of Integration) Let be de• ned in a simply 4 I 4

connected domain and is analytic in . If and are points in and is any %

4 I 4

% % $

contour in joining and then the function

"

( 4 & ' ( 4 4

N + . + ,

2
18 Chapter 4 Integrals

is analytic in O and P Q R S T U V R S T W

De• nition 4.4 If is analytic in V O and S X and S Y are two points in O then the de• nite
integral is de• ned as Z [

V R S T ^ S U P R S Y T _ P R S X T

Z ]

where P is an antiderivative of . V

Y ` a

b c

Y ` a

Example 4.11
Y X X

S ^ S U S d e f g U W

d h i d

Example 4.12
a

S U S o U W
_

X j k l l m n l m n l m n p

Z [

Example 4.13 Z
] q
Z

U r S Y _ r S X W

k s k s

Cauchy Integral Formula

Theorem 4.6 (Cauchy Integral Formula) Let be analytic in domain . Let V

c

O t be a
positively oriented simple closed contour in . If is in the interior of then c
O S t

\ w

V R S T ^ S

V R S T U W
u v

S S
_

Example 4.14 Find if

[ u

o o
V R S T U W V R S T ^ S t y S _ U W

` x

Example 4.15 Find if is square with vertices on

u { u

V R S T U W V R S T ^ S t R z z T W

Y ` X

Theorem 4.7 If V is analytic at a point, then all its derivatives exist and are analytic
at that point. c

\ w

V R S T ^ S

V | } ~ R S T U  €

u v

` X

R S S T
_

i
 5 Series

Convergence of Sequences and Series

Example 5.1  ‚ ƒ „ … †

Example 5.2
‚

 ƒ ‡
‚

Example 5.3
‚

 ‚ ƒ ˆ ‰ Š ‹ Œ ˆ „  … † Ž

De• nition 5.1 An in• nite sequece      ‘ ‘ ‘   ‚  ‘ ‘ ‘ of complex numbers has a ’ “ ” “ •

if for each positive , there exists positive integer

– — such that
˜ ™ š › ™ ˜ œ  ž Ÿ   ¡   ¢ £ ¤ ¥ ¦ § ¨

The sequences have only one limit. A sequence said to converge to if is its limit. A © ©

sequence diverges if it does not converge.

Example 5.4 converges to 0 if else diverges.

ª

© ª « © ¬ © ¬ ­ ®

¥ ± ² ³ ¥ ± ¥ ²

Example 5.5 ©
ª
« ® ¯ ° ® ´ ¯ converges to .
± ² ¶ ± ² ¶ ¨

Theorem 5.1 Suppose that © ª « µ ª ª and © « µ Then,

· ¸ ¹

ª º » ¼ ½ ¾ ¼

if and only if ¿ À Á

Ê Î

Ê Ë Ì Í Í

» Ã ½ ¾ Ã Ä Å Æ Ç È É

½ Â

De• nition 5.2 If Ï Ð

Ê Ñ

is a sequence, the in• nite sum Ì

Ð Ò Ó Ð Ô Ó Õ Õ Õ Ó Ð
Ê

Ó Õ Õ Õ is called
Ö

a series and is denoted by .

× Ø Ù Ú Û

De• nition 5.3 A series Ü is said to converge to a sum Þ if a sequence of partial

Ø Ù Ú Û

sums Û

Þ ß à á â ã á ä ã å å å ã á æ

converges to . ç
20 Chapter 5 Series

Theorem 5.2 Suppose that è é ê ë é ì í î é and ï ê ð ñ ò ó ô Then,

õ

÷ û ü

÷ ø ù ú

if and only if ý ý

ö ö

÷ û ÿ
 ÷ û 

÷ ø ù þ ÷ ø ù

Example 5.6 if
÷

 û   


ú ú ú

Taylor Series

Theorem 5.3 (Taylor Series) If is analytic in a circular disc of radius  



andcentered
at then at each point inside the disc there is a series representation for
 

ý
 given by
ú

û ÷

 

ú ú ú
÷ ø

where ÷ 


 

÷ û

 

Example 5.7
÷  ù

   

û    

  

ú ú

Example 5.8
÷

û   


 
ù  

ú ú

Example 5.9
 ÷

  

û  

 

÷ ÷

Example 5.10 
û









ú ú

Laurent Series

Theorem 5.4 (Laurent Series) If is analytic at all points in an annular region  

such that 
ù

then at each point in there is a series representation









ú

for given by

ú ú

ý ý

ö ö

÷
÷

û
÷

 

ú ú ú
÷ ø ÷ ø ù

where
ú ú

# $

÷ û

÷  ù

ú ú

 ! " 

$
#

ú ú

÷ û

÷  ù

 &

ú ú

 ! " 

ú ú
 Laurent Series 21

and ' is any contour in ( .

Example 5.11 If is analytic inside a disc of radius about ) then the Laurent * + , -

series for is identical to the Taylor series for . That is all

) . ) . / 0 1

Example 5.12 2 0 5

/
6

7
2

>
:

?
; < =

where @ A @ B C D

2 8 9

2 3 4

Example 5.13 E F A G H
K

>
I
K

>
D Find Laurent series for all @ A @ N C O C N @ A @ N P

and
I J L I M L

@ A @ B P D

Example 5.14 Note that Q H

J
E F A G V A D

M R S T U
 6 Theory of Residues And Its
Applications

Singularities

De• nition 6.1 If a function fails to be analytic at but is analytic at some point in W X Y

each neighbourhood of , then is a of . X Y X Y Z [ \ ] ^ _ ` a b c [ \ d e

De• nition 6.2 If a function fails to be analyitc at e f g but is analytic at each f in

for some then is said to be an of .
h i j j i l l m

f k f g e [ Z c _ ` d n o p q r s t u v w x y q r z {

Example 6.1 { | } ~  €  } has an isolated singularity at . ‚

Example 6.2 { | } ~  €  ƒ „ … | † } ~ has isolated singularities at }  ‚ ‡ ˆ € ‡ ‰ ‰ ‰ .

Example 6.3 { | } ~  €  ƒ „ … | †  } ~ has isolated singularities at }  €  Š for integral

Š, also has a singularity at }  ‚ .

Example 6.4 { | } ~  ‹ Œ  } all points of negative x-axis are singular.

Types of singularities

If a function { has an isolated singularity at then a such that is analytic at all } Ž   ‘

points in ’ “ ” • . Then must have a Laurent series expansion about . The

– • — ” “  ‘ • —

part ˜ š ™ › œ 
œ ž

• is called the principal part of

– •
— Ÿ  
‘ ¡

1. If there are in• nite nonzero  ¢ in the prinipal part then • — is called an essential singu-
larity of ‘ ¡

2. If for some integer £ ¤ ¥ but for all

¦
¨

§
©

ª «
¨ ©

¬ ­ ® then ¯ ° is called a pole of

order of If ® ± ² ®
¨ ³

then it is called a simple pole.

3. If all s are zero then ª ¯ ° is called a removable singularity.

24 Chapter 6 Theory of Residues And Its Applications

Example 6.5 ´ µ ¶ · ¸ µ ¹ º » ¶ · ¼ ¶ is unde• ned at ¶ ¸ ½ ¾ ´ has a removable isolated

singularity at ¶ ¸ ½ ¾

Residues

Suppose a function has an isolated singularity at ´ ¶ ¿ À then there exists a such Á Â ½

that is analytic for all in deleted nbd

´ ¶ ½ Ã Ä ¶ Å ¶
¿
Ä Ã . Then has a Laurent series
Á ´

representation
Ç Ç

È Ë

´ µ ¶ · ¸ Æ µ ¶ Å ¶ ¿ · Æ ¾

µ ¶ ¶ ·
Å ¿

È É È É Ì Í

¿ Ê

The coef• cient

Ì

¸ Î ´ µ ¶ · Ô ¶

Ï Ð Ñ Ò Ó

where Õ is any contour in the deleted nbd, is called the residue of Í

´ at ¶ ¿ ¾

Example 6.6 . Then if contains , other-

Ï Ð Ñ Ï Ð Ñ

´ µ ¶ · ¸ Ù ´ µ ¶ · Ô ¶ ¸ ¸ Õ ¶ ¿

Ö × Ö Ø

wise . ½

Example 6.7 ´ µ ¶ · ¸

Ö Ú Ö × Ö Ø Û Ü Ý
Show Þ ß à á â ã ä â å æ ç
é

è if ê ë ì í î ï ì ð ñ ò

Example 6.8 . Show if

ó ô í õ ð í ö ÷ ø ù ú ý þ ó ô í õ ÿ í ð ê ë ì í ì ð ñ ò

û ü

Example 6.9 ó ô í õ ð ö ÷ ø
ù

û
ú


ü
. Show ý
þ ó ô í õ ÿ í ð  if ê ë ì í ì ð ñ even though it
has a singularity at í ð  ò

Theorem 6.1 If a function is analytic on and inside a positively oriented countour ó

ê, except for a • nite number of points inside , then í í   ò ò ò  í 




ú 

           

   

Res

Example 6.10 Show that     

     ! " # $ % & '

Residues of Poles

Theorem 6.2 If a function ( has a pole of order ) at then

@ A

9 : ; <

" *

: ?

6
4 4 4

= = > =

Res ( +
4 5 6

9 =

: ; <

" * , # - . /

 0  1 2 3

7 7 7

A A

3 7 8

Example 6.11 B C D E F

H I
G

H J
Simple pole Res B C D K E F L
 Quotients of Analytic Functions 25

Example 6.12 M N O P Q

S T S U
R

S V W X
. Simple pole at O Q Y Z Res M N Y P Q [ \ [ ] . Pole of
order at ^ . Res
O Q _ M N _ P Q ` [ \ . [ ]

Example 6.13 M N O P Q a b c d . Res k l m n o p q r s t . Res k l s n o p u v p s w x r y s t z

d e f d g h i j

Quotients of Analytic Functions

Theorem 6.3 If a function k l { n o

€

| }


~
‚


ƒ

, where „ and … are analytic at † ‡ ˆ then

1. ‰ is singular at † ‡ iff … Š † ‡ ‹ Œ  Ž

2. ‰ has a simple pole at † ‡ if …  Š † ‡ ‹ Œ   . Then residue of ‰ at † ‡ is „ Š † ‡ ‹ ‘ …  Š † ‡ ‹ .

A References

This appendix contains the references.

B Index

This appendix contains the index.