"

Cave mining-the state of the art

~
by D.H. Laubscher*

Synopsis Introduction As more attention is directed to the mining

oflarge, competent orebodies by low-cost
Caving is the lowest- Cave mining refers to all mining operations in
cost underground underground methods, it is necessary to derIDe
which the orebody caves naturally after the role of cave mining. In the past, caving has
mining method provided
undercutting and the caved material is recovered been considered for rockmasses that cave and
that the drawpoint
spacing, drawpoint size, through drawpoints. This includes block caving, fragment readily. The ability to better assess the
and ore-handling panel caving, inclined-drawpoint caving, and cavability and fragmentation of orebodies, and
facilities are designed to front caving. Caving is the lowest-cost the availability of robust LHDs, an
suit the caved material, underground mining method provided that the understanding of the draw-control process,
and that the drawpoint drawpoint size and handling facilities are
horizon can be suitable equipment for secondary drilling and
tailored to suit the caved material and that the blasting, and reliable cost data have shown that
malntalnedfor the life
qfthe draw. In the near extraction horizon can be maintained for the life competent orebodies with coarse fragmentation
future, several open-pit of the draw. can be cave-mined at a much lower cost than
mines that produce more The daily production from cave-mining with drill-and-blast methods. However, once a
than 50 kt per dqy will operations throughout the world is approximately cave layout has been developed, there is little
have to examine the 370 kt per day, with the following breakdown
feasibility qf converting scope for change.
from different layouts: Aspects that have to be addressed are
to low-cost, large-scale
underground operations. kt cavability, fragmentation, draw patterns for
Several other large- Grizzly 90 different types of ore, drawpoint or drawzone
scale, low-grade spacing, layout design, undercutting sequence,
Slusher 35
underground operations ,md support design.
will experience mqjor LHD* 245
Table I shows that there are significant
changes in their mining
environments as large
Total 370 anomalies in the quoted performance of different
dropdowns are .
Load-haul-dumpunits
cave operations.
implemented By comparison, South African gold mines
These changes
produce 350 kt per day.
demand a more realistic
approach to mine In the near future, several mines that
planning than in the currently produce in excess of 50 kt per day from
past, where existing open-pit mines will have to examine the
operations have been feasibility of implementing low-cost, large-scale
prqjected to increased underground mining methods. Several cave mines
depths with little
that produce high tonnages from underground are
consideration qf the
planning to implement dropdowns of 200 m or
change in mining
environment that will more. This will result in a considerable change in
occur. As economics their mining environments. These changes will
force the consideration necessitate detailed mine planning, rather than
qf underground mining the simple projection of current mining methods
qf large, competent
to greater depths.

. p.a. Box 95,

Boesmansriviermond
Explanation
6190. Cape Province. Under-evaluation of the orebody and dilution zone
<9 The South 4frican A case of highly irregular draw and under-evaluation of the
Institute if Mining and dilution
Metallurgy, 1994. SA Drawpoints being drawn in isolation
ISBN 0038-223X/3.00 +
0.00. Paper received, A large range in fragmentation. and irregular, high values in
the dilution zone
Sept 1993; revised paper
receivedAzg. 1994.

The Journal of The South African Institute of Mining and Metallurgy OCTOBER 1994 279 ....
Cave mining-the state of the art
orebodies by low-cost It is common to find that old established Cavability
methods, the role qf mines, which have developed standards during
cave mining will have Monitoring of a large number of caving
the course of successfully mining the easy
to be dUined In the operations has shown that two types of caving
tonnage in the upper levels of the orebody, have a
past, caving was can occur. These have been defined as stress and
generallY consideredfor resistance to change and do not adjust to the
subsidence caving.
rockmasses that cave ground-control problems that occur as mining
Stress caving occurs in virgin cave blocks
andfragment readilY. proceeds to greater depths, or as the rock types
when the stresses in the cave back exceed the
The ability to define change. Mines that have experienced continuous
cavability andfragmen-
strength of the rockmass. Caving can stop when
problems are more amenable to adopting new
tation, the availability a stable arch develops in the cave back. The
techniques to cope with a changing mining
qf large, robust undercut must be increased in size, or boundary
situation. Detailed knowledge of local and
load-haul-dump units, weakening must be undertaken to induce further
a better understanding regional structural geology, the use of an accepted
caving.
qf draw-control rockmass classification to characterize the
Subsidence caving occurs when adjacent
requirements, improved rockmass, and knowledge of the regional and
mining has removed the lateral restraint on the
drilling equipment for induced stress environment are prerequisites for
secondary blasting, and block being caved. This can result in rapid
good mine planning. It is encouraging to note that
reliable cost data have propagation of the cave, with limited bulking.
these aspects are receiving more and more
shown that competent Figure 1 illustrates the effect of removing the
orebodies with coarse attention. lateral restraint from block 16 at Shabani. Block
fragmentation can be The Laubscher rockmass classification
16 had a hydraulic radius of 28 with an MRMR
exploited by cave system that provides both rockmass ratings and
of 64 and a stable, arched back. The adjacent
mining at a much lower rockmass strength is necessary for design
block, no. 7, was caved and resulted in a
cost than by drill-and- purposes. The rockmass ratings (RMR) define
blast methods. reduction in the MRMR in block 16 to 56, at
the geological environment, and the adjusted or
which stage caving occurred. For a range of
mining rockmass ratings (MRMR) consider the
MRMR, Figure 1 illustrates worldwide caving
effect of the mining operation on the rockmass.
and stable situations.
The ratings, details of the mining environment,
The stresses in the cave back can be
and the way in which this affects the rockmass
modified to an extent by the shape of the cave
and geological interpretation are used to define
front. Numerical modelling can be a useful tool,
the cavability, subsidence angles, failure zones, helping the engineer to determine the stress
fragmentation, undercut-face shape, cave-front
pattern associated with several possible mining
orientation, undercutting sequence, overall
sequences. An undercut face, concave towar~s
mining sequence, and support design.
the caved area, provides better control of major
structures. In orebodies with a range of MRMR,
Factors Affecting Caving Operations the onset of continuous caving will be based on
the lower rating zones if these are continuous in
Twenty five parameters that should be
plan and section. This is illustrated in Figure 2B,
considered before the implementation of any
where the class 5 and 4B zones are shown to be
cave mining operation are set out in Table H. The
continuous. In Figure 2A, the pods of class 2
parameters in capital letters are a function of the
rock are sufficiently large to influence caving,
parameters that follow in the same box. Many of
and the cavability should be based on the rating
the parameters are uniquely defined by the
of these pods.
orebody and the mining system, and are not
All rockmasses will cave. The manner of
discussed further. The parameters considered
their caving and the resultant fragmentation size
later are common to all cave-mining systems and
distribution need to be predicted if cave mining
need to be addressed if any form of cave mining
is to be implemented successfully. The rate of
is contemplated.
caving can be slowed down by control of the
draw since the cave can propagate only if there
is space into which the rock can move. The rate
of caving can be increased by a more rapid
advance of the undercut, but problems can arise
if this allows an air gap to form over a large
area. In this situation, the intersection of major
structures, heavy blasting, and the influx of
water can result in damaging airblasts. Rapid,
uncontrolled caving can result in an early influx
of waste dilution.
The rate of undercutting (RV) should be
controlled so that rate of caving (RC) is faster
than the rate of damage (RD);
RC>RU>RD.

~ 280 OCTOBER 1994 The Joumal of The South African Institute of Mining and Metaliurgy
Cave mining-the state of the art

Table 11
Parameters to be considered before the implementation of cave mining
PRIMARY FRAGMENTATION

Rockmass strength (MRMR)

Geological structures
Joint/fracture spacing
Joint condition ratings
Stress or subsidence caving
Induced stress

LAYOUT

Fragmentation
Drawpoint spacing and size
Method of draw

UNDERCUTTING SEQUENCE
(pre/advance/post)

Regional stresses
Rockmass strength
Rockburst potential
Rate of advance
Ore requirements

DEVELOPMENT

Layout
Sequence
Production
Drilling and blasting

PRACTICAL EXCAVATION SIZE

Rockmass strength
In situ stress
Induced stress
Caving stresses
Secondary blasting

DRAWPOINT INTERACTION

Drawpoint spacing
Fragmentation
Time frame of working drawpoints

SECONDARY BLASTING/BREAKING

Secondary fragmentation
Draw method
Drawpoint size
Size of equipment and grizzly spacing

SUPPORT REPAIR

Tonnage drawn
Point and column loading
Brow wear
Secondary blasting

The Joumal of The South African Institute of Mining and Metallurgy OCTOBER 1994 281 ....
Cavemining-the state of the art
100
STABLE: Only local support required.

90
TRANSITIONAL: Supportable in upper band, with arching
in middle band and intermittent caving/arching in lower
band depending on outside influences such as blasting,
80 water.

CA VING: Progressive caving of cave back or walls into

70 previously caved areas.

~60 Cavability, function of:

::E
~::E Rockmass strength
50 Geological structure
In situ stress MRMR
Water
40 ]
Induced stress

30 0 Stable
~ Transitional
. Caving
20

10

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80metres
I I I I
0 50 100 150 200 250 feet

HYDRAULIC RADIUS =Area/perimeter

Figure 1-A stability diagram for various mines worldwide

CROSS SECTION BLOCK 7/2 CROSS SECTION BLOCK WEST/2

.'., ..'
; .

A I I
0 10 20 50 lOOm
ClASS lA,B ClASS 2A,B ClASS 3A,B ClASS 4A,B ClASS 5A,B

~~1««1 I:;;~"~',":;;':"I ~
Figure 2-Geomechanics classification data

~ 282 OCTOBER 1994 The Journal of The South African Institute of Mining and Metallurgy
Cave mining-the state of the art
Good geotechnicaIinformation,as wellas
monitoring of the rate of caving and rockmass
damage, is needed to fine-tune this relationship.
Fragmentation
In caving operations, fragmentation has a
bearing on the following:
>- Drawpoint spacing
>- Dilution entry into the draw column
>- Draw control
>- Drawpoint productivity
>- Secondary blasting/breaking costs
>- Secondary blasting damage.
The input data needed for the calculation of
the primary fragmentation and the factors that
determine the secondary fragmentation as a
function of the caving operation are shown in
Figure 3.
Caving results in primary fragmentation,
which can be defined as the size distribution of
the particles that separate from the cave back
and enter the draw column. The primary
fragmentation from stress caving is generally
finer than that from subsidence caving owing to
the rapid propagation of caving in the latter case,
with disintegration of the rockmass, primarily
along favourably oriented joint sets, and little
shearing of intact rock. The orientation of the
cave front or back with respect to the joint sets
and direction of principal stress can have a
significant effect on the primary fragmentation.
Secondary fragmentation is the reduction
in size of the original particle that enters the
draw column as it moves through the draw
column. The processes to which particles are
subjected determine the fragmentation size
distribution in the particles that report to the
drawpoints. A strong, well-jointed material can
result in a stable particle shape at a low draw
height. Figure 4 shows the decrease in fragmen-
tation for different draw heights and less-jointed
(coarse) to well-jointed (fine) rockmasses. A
range in rockmass ratings will result in a wide
range in fragmentation size distribution as
compared with that produced by rock with a
single rating, since the fine material produced by
the former tends to cushion the larger blocks and
prevents further attrition of these blocks. This is
illustrated in Figure 2B, in which class 5 and
class 4 material is shown to cushion the larger
primary fragments from class 3. A slow rate of
draw allows a higher probability of time-
dependent failure as the caving stresses work on
particles in the draw column.
Fragmentation is the major factor
determining drawpoint productivity. Experience
has shown that 2 m3 is the largest size of block
that can be moved by a 6 yd LHD and still allow
an acceptable rate of production to be
maintained. In Figure 5 the productivity of a
layout using 3,5 yd, 6 yd, and 8 yd LHDs and a
grizzly are related to the percentage of fragments
larger than 2 m3. The usage of secondary
explosives is based on the amount of oversize
that cannot be handled by a 6 yd LHD.

Orientation-Cave
INPUT DATA = Front/Joints

CAVING
OPERATION =

Secondary Blasting
PRODUCTION = Damage and Costs

Operational Costs and Overall Productivity

Figure ~nput data for the calculation of fragmentation

The Joumal of The South African Institute of Mining and Metallurgy OCTOBER 1994 283 ....
Cave mining-the state of the art

350mm 500mm Sand-model tests have shown that there is a

14" Gr 3yd IJID 6yd lJID
20' Gr relationship between the spacing of drawpoints
100
90
and the interaction of drawzones. Widely spaced
.S
""
(f) 80 drawpoints develop isolated drawzones, with
(f)

70 diameters defined by the fragmentation. When

'"'" 80 drawpoints are spaced at 1,5 times the diameter
" 50
~ of the isolated drawzone (IDZ) , interaction
~... 3040 occurs. The interaction improves as the
" drawpoint spacing is decreased, as shown in
" 20
'" Figure 7. The flow lines and the stresses that
10
develop around a drawzone are shown in Figure
0,1 0.01 0.1 1.0 2.0 10.0 100.0 8. The sand-model results have been confirmed

. 15% Drilled and Blasted

= 8% of Operating Cosls
SIZE m3
105m

-* - - -
DrawHeight
Primary Fragmentation
Secondary Fragmentation
by observation of the fine material extracted
during cave mining and by the behaviour of
material in bins. The question is whether the
Figure 4-Size distribution of cave fragmentation interactive theory based on isolated drawzones
can be wholly applied to coarse material, where
arch spans of 20 m have been observed. The
1400 350
>. collapse of large arches will affect the large area
1300 ""'" <0
""
325 overlying the drawpoint, as shown in Figure 9.
1200 300 The formation and failure of arches lead to wide
1100 "
275 '"
.:=.
'" drawzones in coarse material, so that the
1000 250 ~ drawzone spacing can be increased to the
900 225 S spacings shown in Figure 9. The frictional
:a
--'
<Z>
BOO 200 '"
c3
I
properties of the caved material must also be
[; 700 175 ~ recognized. Low-friction material could flow
0.. i(J
600 150 i:C greater distances when under high overburden
§'" 500
""....
125 § load, and this could mean a wider drawzone
0
E-
400 spacing.
100 'e
300 75
<=> There is still a need to continue with three-
i:'
dimensional model tests to establish some poorly
200 50 i
0
defined principles, such as interaction across
100 25 ~ major apexes when the spacing of groups of
0
0,1 1 5 10 2030 5070 interactive drawzones is increased. Numerical
Percentage + 2m3 - Secondary Fragmentation modelling could possibly provide the solutions
for the draw behaviour of coarse-fragmented
Figure 5-LHD productivity on a round trip of 100 m with 60 per cent utilization cave material.
Draw Control
A computer simulation program has been
The draw-control requirements are shown in
developed for the calculation of primary and
Figure 10 and Table Ill. The grade and fragmen-
secondary fragmentation.
tation distribution for the dilution zone must be
Drawzone Spacing known if sound draw control is to be practised.
Figure 11 shows the value distribution for
Drawpoint spacings for grizzly and slusher
columns A and B. Both columns have the same
layouts reflect the spacing of the drawzones
average grade of 1,4 per cent, but the value
because of the close spacing of the drawpoints.
distribution is different. The high grade at the
However, in the case ofLHD layouts with a
top of column B means that a larger tonnage of
nominal drawpoint spacing of 15 m, the
dilution can be tolerated before the shutoff grade
drawzone spacing can vary across the major
is reached.
apex (pillar) from 18 to 24 m, depending on the
In LHD layouts, a major factor in poor draw
length of the drawbell (Figure 6). This situation
control is the drawing of fine material at the
occurs when the length of the drawpoint crosscut
expense of coarse material. A strict draw-control
is increased to ensure that the LHD is straight
discipline is required in that the coarse ore must
before it loads. In this case, the major consid-
be drilled and blasted at the end of the shift in
eration, optimum ore recovery, is prejudiced by
which it reported in the drawpoint.
incorrect usage of equipment or a desire to
achieve idealized loading conditions.

~ 284 OCTOBER 1994 The Joumal of The South African Institute of Mining and Metallurgy
Cave mining-the state of the art

Drawbell

Dranone
Drawpoinl

18m 22m 24m

11 1411.1 11111"11.111111"'11.111
jl12mljjl Illllljl8mlljlljl~mll
I I I 11 I I I j I I I I I I I I I I I j I I I
1 1?~II I?~jjlljlllll~~lj~~1
j / '11 / '1IIIlllljllfl\III(l\1
[12m
I} \ riJ24mll I I I Iloml...J2omll I} \ W18l.J
II \ I I L..-~ I j I \ I j L ~ I I L ~ I I L ~ j

~~..l
:(
n ~1 en
..
)WdW .. "
Wd~tj: Produclion
Level
30m
Figure &-Maximum and minimum drawzone spacing (isolated drawzone = 10 m area of influence = 225 m')

Vedle.1 Stress
Inere.sed by
Lor .dj.eent working
Pressure drorpoint
Zone
11 - - Vedle.t
R.dl.1

iPlX DII.IJBlU. APD: DRAIBlU.

A. DIPs @ 2.2 X IDZ DIAM. B. DIPs @ 1.5 X IDZ DIAM.

DIL. ENTRY 15% DIL. ENTRY 60% IT- -TI~

---

c. DIPs @ 1.1 X IDZ DIAM. D. DPs

@
1.1 X IDZ WORKED IT- -TI~
DIL. ENTRY 85% IN ISOLATION DIL. ENTRY 25%
Figure 8-Flow lines and inferred stresses between
Figure 7- The results of three-dimensional sand-model experiments adjacent working operations

The Joumal of The South African Institute of Mining and Metallurgy OCTOBER 1994 285 ....
Cave mining-the state of the art

Rockmass Class 5 4 3 2
FF/m 50-7 20-1.5 5-0.4 1.5-0.2
Rock Size Range 0.01-0.3m 0.1-2m 0.4-5m 1.5-9m
Loading Width Isolated Drawzone Diameter
5m = 13m
4m = 9m 12.5m
3m = 6.5m a.5m 12m
2m = 6m am

Loading Width I!aximum/llinimum Spacing of DraYZones

5m = 24/14m
4m = 15/Bm 20/llm 22/13m
3m = 10/5m 13/7m IB/IOm 21/12m
2m = 9/4m 12/6m 16/9m
Areaof
ionuence
m' - -~ 95 -- ~160 - -~290 --~360
Figure 9-Maximum/minimum spacing of drawzones based on isolated drawzone diameter

INPUT DATA =

EFFECT OF
LAYOUT =

PRODUCTION
INFLUENCE =

Ore Recovered + Dilution =Production Tonnage and Grade

Figure 1o-Draw-control requirements

It has been established that the draw will Dilution Entry

angle towards less dense areas. This principle
The percentage of dilution entry is the
can be used to move the material overlying the
percentage of the ore column that has been
major apex by the differential draw of lines of
drawn before dilution appears in the drawpoint,
drawbells so that zones of varying density are
and is a function of the amount of mixing that
created.
occurs in the draw columns. The mixing is a
function of the following:

~ 286 OCTOBER 1994 The Joumal of The South Afdcan InstItute of Mining and Metallurgy
 Cave mining-the state of the art
The range in fragmentation size distribution
and the minimum drawzone spacing across the
major apex will give the height of the interaction
Application zone (HIZ). This is illustrated in Figure 12.
There is a volume increase as the cave
Calculation of tonnage
Recording of tonnages produced propagates, so that a certain amount of material
Controlling the draw is drawn before the cave reaches the dilution
zone. The volume increase or swell factors are
based on the fragmentation and are applied to
A B column height. The following are typical swell
0 0 factors: fine fragmentation 1,16, medium 1,12,
02 0.2 coarse 1,08.
0.4 0.4 A draw-control factor is based on the
Unpay
0.6 0.6 variation in tonnages from working drawpoints.
This is illustrated in Figure 13. If production
0.8 1.6
data are not available, the draw-control engineer
1.2 2.0
must predict a likely draw pattern. A formula
1.6 1.2 based on the above factors has been developed
2.0 0.8 to determine the dilution entry percentage:-
20%
[
40%
1
70% 100%
% Ora. [
1
128% 150% 200
Drawpoints
Dilution entry = (A -B)/A x Cx 100,
1
[ Ore Recovery
1 I 1 1 where
Value of A 1.9% 1.4% 1.0% 0.7% 0.5% 85%
%Dra. B 0.9% 1.4% 1.4% 1.1% 0.7% 96% A = Draw-column height x swell factor
B = Height of interaction
Average Ore Grade
= 1.4%
C = Draw-control factor.
Shut off Grade = 0.7%
The graph for dilution entry was originally
Figure 11-Grade analysis
drawn as a straight line, but underground
observations show that, where there is early
~ Ore draw height dilution, the rate of influx follows a curved line
~ Range in fragmentation of both ore and with a long ore 'tail', as shown in Figure 14.
waste Figure 15 shows that dilution entry is also
~ Drawzone spacing affected by the attitude of the drawzone, which
~ Range in tonnages drawn from drawpoints. can angle towards higher overburden loads.

,
RMR OF ALL MATERIAL IN THE POTENTIAL DRAW COLUMN TO BE USED IN CALCULATION AS FINES FLOW MUCH FURTHER THAN COARSE

MINJ},{ill! SPACING OF DRA1fZONES

ACROSS THE MAlOR APEX

12m
15m -- IBm--
9m

,,
C :-A-
,,
'41 B
80 60 40 20 20 40 60 80 90 120 140
RMR HEIGHT OF INTERACTION ZONE IllZ

RMR Range Curves Examples Ratings Range D.Z.Spacing H.I.Z

0 - 14 NO.l A 50 - 60 10 21m 45m
15 - 29 NO.2
30 - 49 No.3
+50 No.4 B 5 - 60 55 21m 90m
VERTICAL LINE "(!' LOCATED AT HIGHEST RATING OF MATERIAL IN DRAW COLUMN

Figure 12-Height of the interaction zone (HIZ)

The Joumal of The South African Institute of Mining and Metallurgy OCTOBER 1994 287 ....
 Cave mining-the state of the art
Layouts
1.0 A factor that needs to be resolvedis the correct
0.9 shape of the major apex. It is considered that a
0.8 shaped pillar will assist in the recovery of fine
0.7
ore. Where coarse material results in major
0.6
arching, a square-topped major apex (pillar) is
0.5
0.4
preferable in terms of arch failure and brow
0.3
wear, as shown in Figure 16. The main area of
0.2 brow wear is immediately above the drawpoint.
0.1 If the vertical height of pillar above the brow is
0 small, as shown in Figure 16A, failure of the top
2 ID 11 section will reduce the strength of the lower
section and result in aggravated brow wear.
More thought must be given to the design of
LHD layouts in order to provide the maximum
Standard Deviation x 100 of Tonnage of Working Drawpoints amount of manoeuvring space for the minimum
size of drift opening so that larger machines can
be used within the optimum drawzone spacings.
DiPs Wll Ell W12 E/2 w/3 E/3 w/4 E/4 Another aspect that needs attention is the design
2000 800 1000 2500 600 1500 800 1800 of LHDs to reduce the length and increase the
Monthly
width. Whilst the use of large machines might be
Tonnage an attraction, it is recommended that caution be
Mean = 1375 Standard Deviation = 682/100 = 7 exercised and that a decision on machine size be
based on the correct assessment of the required
Draw Control Factor = 0.6 drawzone spacing in terms of fragmentation. The
loss of revenue that can result from high dilution
Figure 13- The draw-control factor
and ore loss far exceeds the lower operating
costs associated with larger machines.
Eight different horizontal LHD layouts and
A-B x C x 100 two inclined drawpoint LHD layouts are in use at
A = Dilution Entry
various operating mines. An example of an
A = Ore Draw Column Height x Swell Factor = 168m inclined LHD layout is shown in Figure 17.
B = Height of Interaction Zone = 90m
Undercutting
C = Draw-control Factor = 0.6
168 - 90 x 0.6 x 100 Undercutting is one of the most important
168
= 28%
aspects of cave mining since, not only is a
0 200 250
complete undercut necessary to induce caving,
100 but the undercut method can reduce the
C 9
damaging effect of induced stresses.
0 80 The normal undercutting sequence is to
M 70 develop the drawbell and then to break the
P undercut into the drawbell, as shown in Figure 18.
60
0
S 50
In environments of high stress, the pillars and
I 40 brows are damaged by the advancing abutment
T 30 DILUTION /W ASTE stresses. The Henderson Mine technique of
I 20 developing the drawbell with long holes from the
0
undercut level reduces the time interval and
N 10
0 extent of damage associated with post
0 20 40 60 80 100 200 250 undercutting. In order to preserve stability,
Percentage Draw Henderson Mine has also found it necessary to
delay the development of the drawbell drift until
Figure 14-Calculation of dilution entry
the bell has to be blasted (Figure 19).
The damage caused to pillars around drifts
and drawbells by abutment stresses is
significant, being the major factor in brow wear
and excavation collapse. Rockbursts are also
located in these areas. The solution is to
complete the undercut before the development of
the drawpoints and drawbells. The 'advanced
undercut' technique is shown in Figure 20.

~ 288 OCTOBER 1994 The Journal of The South African Institute of Mining and Metallurgy
Cave mining-the state of the art

A. Average Loading Above Drawpoints B. Higher Loading To Side Of Drawpoints

SIMULATED HILL
FEATURE ffiGHER
OVERBURDEN LOADING

t t t t ~t ~ ~
MODEL
CORNER
EFFECT

.n
...
f ~ ::::
FOOTWALL V un

DRA WPOINTS

Figure 15-lnclined drawpoint layout showing the effect of different overburden loading (three-dimensional sand-model experiments)

MORE STABLE
ARCHES

FAIR FINES STABLE ARCHES

DRAW HIGHER

POOR FINES BETTER

DRAW ARCH FAILURE

Figure 16-Shapes of major apex/pillars

The Joumal of The South African Institute of Mining and Metallurgy OCTOBER 1994 289 ...
Cave mining-the state of the art

Inclination - 40'

Spacing. DIP STRIKE VERTICAL

12 10 10
15 12 12.5
18 12/15 15

Figure 17-An example of the layout of an inclined drawpoint

A. Production Level Layout Detail

I~- E!
EI~

I
, I C. Isometric View of
I I Blockcaving with LHD
I I
--~--r
__~__L
r-~---
L_~---
B. Cross Section
Figure 18-LHD layout at El Teniente

~ 290 OCTOBER 1994 The Joumal of The South Afncan Insmute of Mining and Metallurgy
Cave mining-the state of the art
In the past it was considered that the height
of the undercut had a significant influence on
caving and, possibly, the flow of ore. The
asbestos mines in Zimbabwe had unoercuts of
30 m with no resultant improvement in caving or
fragmentation. The long time involved in
completing the undercut often led to ground-
control problems. Good results are obtained with
undercuts of minimum height provided that
complete undercutting is achieved. Where
gravity is needed for the flow of blasted undercut
ore, the undercut height needs to be only half
the width of the major apex. This results in an
angle of repose of 45 degrees and allows the ore
to flow freely.
Support Requirements
In areas of high stress, weak rock will deform
plastically and strong rock will exhibit brittle,
often violent, failure. If there is a large difference
between the RMR and MRMR, yielding support
systems are required. This is explained in
Figure 21.
Figure 19-1sometric view of a panel-cave operation

- -- - - Narrow
Blasted Hor. Holes ~ =- m--- ~=- ~ Undercut
A. Very High Stress .~~

Production Drift
Only Production
~ly Supporte~ Level

Narrow
'--=
m ~--- Undercut
B. High Stress
Production Drift
and Drawpoint
~ Fully
Production
Supported
Level

----- Narrow
Undercut
C. Medium/Low
~Stress Weak Ground .!;
.:!
Production Drift c;
f;'j
Drawpoint and
Drawbell Drift ~Fully~ Temporary --- Full y ---
Supported Supported Supported
Figure ~ifferent sequences of advanced undercutting

The Joumal of The South African Institute of Mining and Metallurgy OCTOBER 1994 291 ....
Cave mining-the state of the art

R M R Pre-stressed cables have little application in

underground situations unless it is to stabilize
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
0 fractured rock in a low-stress environment. The
need for effective lateral constraint of the rock
and of lining surfaces such as concrete cannot be

SYSTEMS
t too highly emphasized. Support techniques are
illustrated in Table IV.
20

Conclusions
M 30
~ Cavability can be assessed provided
R High accurate geotechnical data are available
40 Failure
M and the geological variations are
stress recognized. The mining rockmass rating
R 50 (MRMR) system provides the necessary
data for the empirical definition of the
undercut dimension in terms of the
60
hydraulic radius.
~ Numerical modelling can assist the
70
engineer in understanding and defining
the stress environment.
80 ~ Fragmentation is a major factor in an
assessment of the feasibility of cave
mining in large competent orebodies.
90 . RIGID SUPPORT SYSTEMS
. .. . . Programs are being developed for the
i'
determination of fragmentation. and even
100 the less sophisticated programs provide
good design data. The economic viability
Figure 21-Support requirements for caving operations
of caving in competent orebodies is
determined by LHD productivity and the
Acknowledgements cost of breaking large fragments.

This paper presents an update

of the technology of cave
mining. It is not possible to
quote references since the
Table IV
bulk of the data supporting
the contents of this paper Support techniques
have not been published and
the basic concepts are known Low stress
to mining engineers.
(0,33 W x F)
However, it is appropriate to = 1m +
acknowledge the contributions =1 m
Rigid rebar
from discussions with the =
following people in canada,
0,5 mm x 100 mm aperture
Chile, South Africa, and
Zimbabwe: R. Alvarez, P.).
Cables = 1 m + 1,5 W
Bartlett, N.).W. Bell, T. Carew,
A.R. Guest, C. Page,
D. Stacey, and A. Susaeta. Mesh-reinforced shotcrete
Thanks are due to
P.). Bartlett for assisting in the Rigid steel arches
final preparation of the paper. Massive concrete
The simulation program for
the calculation of primary and Large washers (triangles)
secondary fragmentation Tendon straps
referred to in the text was
writtenby 25 mm rope-cable slings
G.5. Esterhuizen at Pretoria
Birdcage cables from undercut level
University.
Inclined pipes

Grouting
Extra bolts and cables
Plates, straps, and arches

W is the span of the tunnel and F is based on

MRMR = 0-20: F = 1,4 MRMR 21-30: F 1,30
= = MRMR = 31-40: F = 1,2
MRMR=41-50: F= 1,1 MRMR=51-60: F= 1,05 MRMR > 61 : F = 1,0

~ 292 OCTOBER 1994 The Joumal of The South African Institute of Mining and Metallurgy
Cave mining-the state of the art

~ DrawpoinUdrawzone spacings for coarser
material need to be examined in terms of
recovery and improved mining
environments. Spacings must not be
increased to lower operating costs at the
expense of ore recovery.
~ The interactive theory of draw and the
diameter of the isolated drawzone can be
used in the design of drawzone spacing.
~ Complications occur when the drawzone
spacing is designed on the primary
fragmentation and the secondary fragmen-
tation is significantly different. .

The Journal of The South African Institute of Mining and Metallurgy OCTOBER 1994 293 ....