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Mean Stress Effects in Stress-Life and Strain-Life Fatigue
Mean Stress Effects in Stress-Life and Strain-Life Fatigue
σm σa 10000
σmin
2024-T4 Al, Prestrained
100
1.E-01 1.E+01 1.E+03 1.E+05 1.E+07
Figure 1 – Definitions for cyclic stressing Nf, Cycles
In the treatment that follows, we will first briefly dis- However, where the data flatten at short lives, σ ′f may
cuss stress-life curves. Following this, we will present vari- considerably exceed ~
σ , as for 2024-T4 aluminum in Fig.
fB
ous methods for estimating mean stress effects, and then we
will look at the ability of these methods to correlate stress- 2. Depending on how the data are fit and the range of data
life data for various mean stresses. Next, we will consider available, the difference may be quite large. As an extreme
strain-life equations that include mean stress. Finally, con- example, consider the values in Tables 1 and 2 for 7075-T6
cluding remarks are given that are intended to interpret and aluminum, where we have ~ σf B = 730 MPa. A stress-life fit
summarize the earlier portions of the paper. over a wide range of lives for data on similar material gives
STRESS-LIFE CURVES σ ′f = 1466 MPa. And a fit to the intermediate-to-long life
Stress-life curves are assumed to follow a power data to be analyzed gives σ ′f = 4402 MPa. Note that the
relationship.
two σ ′f values differ by a factor of three, and the larger
σ ar = σ ′f (2N f )b (3) one is six times larger than ~
σ . fB
σa/σar
calculate a value of completely reversed stress σar that is
0.6
expected to cause the same life as the actual combination of
0.4
amplitude and mean, σa and σm . One can then normalize
0.2 ~
the amplitudes to σar , plotting the ratio σa / σ ar ,versus the σu σf B σ'f
0.0
mean stress. For two of the data sets of current interest, such -400 0 400 800 1200 1600 2000
normalized amplitude-mean plots are given as Figs. 3 and 4.
σm, MPa
well. But for 2024-T3 aluminum in Fig. 4, Eq. 6(b) com- WALKER EQUATION FITTING - To fit a set of ampli-
pletely misses most of the data due to σ ′f being far larger tude-mean-life data to the Walker equation, first write Eq. 3
than ~σ . This of course arises from a stress-life curve that
fB
in the following convenient form:
does not fit Eq. 3 very well in the manner of the similar σ ar = AN bf , where A = σ ′f 2b (9)
aluminum alloy in Fig. 2.
SMITH-WATSON-TOPPER (SWT) AND WALKER Combine this with the Walker form of Eq. 8(b) and then
EQUATIONS - Numerous additional relationships have solve for Nf .
been proposed, including the widely used one of Smith,
Watson, and Topper [4]. γ
⎛ 1− R ⎞
σ ar = AN bf = σ max ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 2 ⎠
σ ar = σ max σa (a)
1/b (10)
⎡ γ ⎤
1− R ⎛1− R ⎞ 1
σ ar = σmax (b) (7) Nf = ⎢σ max ⎜ ⎟ ⎥
2 ⎢ ⎝ 2 ⎠ A⎥
⎣ ⎦
2
σ ar = σa (c)
1− R
1.6
where forms (b) and (c) are equivalent to (a) and are ob- AISI 4340 Steel
1.4
tained from (a) by making substitutions from Eq. 2(a). σu = 1172 MPa
1.2
where equivalent forms (b) and (c) are obtained from (a) by Figure 5 – SWT and Walker amplitude-mean curves for
making substitutions from Eq. 2(a). The quantity γ is a AISI 4340 steel.
fitting constant that may be considered to be a materials
property. Obviously, all of the above forms of the Walker
equation reduce to the corresponding SWT forms for the
special case γ = 0.5.
0.8
0.6
γ = 0.500 CORRELATION OF STRESS-LIFE DATA
0.4
1 m2
b= , γ = bm 2 = Mean Stress, MPa
m1 m1
σar , MPa
(14) 621
− db − d / m1 A 414
A = 10 = 10 , σ′f = 207 Goodman
2b -207
0 AISI 4340 Steel
Table 2 gives the resulting three values, σ ′fw , b w , and γ , 0 Fit σu = 1172 MPa
100
for five of the data sets, where subscripts w, for Walker, are
1.E+02 1.E+03 1.E+04 1.E+05 1.E+06
added to avoid confusion with values fitted to only zero
Nf , Cycles
mean stress data.
Figure 7(a) – Goodman life correlation for AISI 4340 steel.
It is significant that all of the stress-life data at all mean
stresses are now involved in the fit. Treating the data as a
single, larger set enhances the possibility of statistical
1000 1000
σar, MPa
621 Mean Stress, MPa
414 621
207 Morrow, Fracture 414
-207 207 Walker
AISI 4340 Steel -207 AISI 4340 Steel
0
σu = 1172 MPa 0 σu= 1172 MPa
0 Fit
Fit
100 100
1.E+02 1.E+03 1.E+04 1.E+05 1.E+06 1.0E+02 1.0E+03 1.0E+04 1.0E+05 1.0E+06
Nf , Cycles Nf, Cycles
621
σar, MPa
414
207 0.6
Morrow, Intercept
0.4
-207 0.02
0 AISI 4340 Steel -0.3
0 Fit σu = 1172 MPa -0.6 R-ratio
-1
-1 Fit
100 100
1.E+02 1.E+03 1.E+04 1.E+05 1.E+06 1.E+02 1.E+03 1.E+04 1.E+05 1.E+06 1.E+07
Nf , Cycles Nf, Cycles
Figure 7(c) - Morrow σ ′f life correlation for AISI 4340 Figure 8(a) – Goodman life correlation for 2024-T3 alumi-
steel. num.
1000 1000
Morrow, Fracture
2024-T3 Al
σar , MPa
621
0.6
414 0.4
207 SWT 0.02
-207 -0.3
AISI 4340 Steel -0.6 R-ratio
0 -1
σu = 1172 MPa -1 Fit
0 Fit
100
100 1.E+02 1.E+03 1.E+04 1.E+05 1.E+06 1.E+07
1.E+02 1.E+03 1.E+04 1.E+05 1.E+06 Nf , Cycles
Nf , Cycles
Figure 8(b) - Morrow ~
σf B life correlation for 2024-T3 alu-
Figure 7(d) – SWT life correlation for AISI 4340 steel.
minum.
1000 1000
0.6 0.6
0.4 R-ratio 0.4
R-ratio
0.02 0.02
-0.3
-0.3
-0.6
σar, MPa
-0.6
-1
σar, MPa
-1 Fit -1
Fit
34.5
-1 SAE 1015 Steel
69
-1 Fit
103
σar , MPa
-34.5
-69
0 Fit
SWT
2024-T3 Al
100
1.E+02 1.E+03 1.E+04 1.E+05 1.E+06 1.E+07
Nf , Cycles
100
Figure 8(d) – SWT life correlation for 2024-T3 aluminum. 1.E+04 1.E+05 1.E+06
Nf , Cycles
The Morrow expression of Eq. 6(a) with the true fracture
Figure 9(a) - Morrow ~
σf B life correlation for SAE 1015
strength ~
σf B gives considerably better results than Good-
steel.
man in all cases, except for SAE 1045 steel, where the re-
sults are similar. For the three steels, the Morrow form of 1000
0
Eq. 6(b) with the intercept constant σ ′f gives essentially the SWT
SAE 1015 Steel Mean Stress, MPa 34.5
having similar values. However, Eq. 6(b) gives very poor -34.5
-69
and nonconservative values for the nonferrous metals due to 0 Fit
the high values of σ ′f .
1,000 15 and 16, and see Dowling [22, 23] for descriptions and
0 and -138 to +138 discussion of the overall strain-based approach for making
690 life estimates for notched components.
-345 Mean Stress, MPa
1000
0 Fit
Approx. R
100 0.45
1.E+00 1.E+01 1.E+02 1.E+03 1.E+04 1.E+05 1.E+06 0.05
Nf , Cycles -0.37
σar, MPa
-1.0
Figure 10(a) - Morrow ~
σf B life correlation for SAE 1045 -1.0 Fit
steel.
10,000 Morrow, Fracture
SWT 2014-T6 Al
SAE 1045 Steel
595 HB 100
1.E+03 1.E+04 1.E+05 1.E+06 1.E+07
σar , MPa
Nf, Cycles
1,000
0 and -138 to +138 Figure 11(a) - Morrow ~
σf B life correlation for 2014-T6
690
-345 Mean Stress, MPa
aluminum.
0 Fit
100 1000
1.E+00 1.E+01 1.E+02 1.E+03 1.E+04 1.E+05 1.E+06 Approx. R
Nf , Cycles 0.45
0.05
Figure 10(b) – SWT life correlation for SAE 1045 steel. -0.37
σar, MPa
-1.0
-1.0 Fit
STRAIN-LIFE EQUATIONS WITH MEAN STRESS
curve of Eq. 16, the quantities σ ′f and b are the same as in Nf, Cycles
σar, MPa
σar, MPa
Approx. R
100 Approx. R
-1.0
0.45
0 to -0.78
0.05
0.1 to 0.2
-0.37 SWT
0.5
-1.0 Ti-6Al-4V
-1.0 Fit
-1.0 Fit
100
10
1.E+02 1.E+03 1.E+04 1.E+05 1.E+06 1.E+07
1.E+03 1.E+04 1.E+05 1.E+06 1.E+07 1.E+08
Nf, Cycles Nf, Cycles
Figure 12(b) – SWT life correlation for 7075-T6 aluminum. Figure 13(b) – SWT life correlation for titanium 6A1-4V.
-69
Although Eqs. 17 and 18 may give reasonable life estimates, Fit
Approx. R
fect included on the Nf side of the equation. To proceed,
-1.0
0 to -0.78
first combine Eqs. 3 and 19 to obtain
0.1 to 0.2
0.5 f (σ a , σ m )
-1.0 Fit
Morrow, Fracture
σ ar = f (σa , σm ) = σ a = σ ′f (2 N f )b (20)
100
Ti-6Al-4V
σa
1.E+02 1.E+03 1.E+04 1.E+05 1.E+06 1.E+07
Nf, Cycles Then solve for stress amplitude σa and manipulate the
Figure 13(a) - Morrow ~
σf B life correlation for titanium stress quantities on the right side of the equation to be
6Al-4V.
within brackets with Nf , allowing us to define an equivalent PARTICULAR CASES - Now let us consider particular
life N*. cases of σ ar = f ( σ a , σm ) . For the Morrow form of Eq.
1000
6(a), substitution into Eq. 22 gives
Approx. R
0.45 1/ b
0.05 ⎛ σm ⎞
*
=N ⎜ ⎟
-0.37 N mf f ⎜1 − ~ ⎟ (25)
σar, MPa
-1 ⎝ σf B ⎠
Fit
1/ b ⎤ b
⎡
⎛ σa ⎞
σa = σ ′f ⎢ 2 N f ⎜ ⎟ ⎥ = σ ′f (2 N *)b (21) γ = 0.650
⎢ ⎝ f (σ a , σ m ) ⎠ ⎥
⎣ ⎦
0.001
1.E+02 1.E+03 1.E+04 1.E+05 1.E+06 1.E+07 1.E+08
An explicit expression for N* is thus
N*w , Walker Equivalent Cycles
Hence, one can determine the life N* that is expected for a 0.100
given stress amplitude σa under zero mean stress, and then γ = 0.505 0
Mean Stress, MPa 72
estimate the life Nf , as affected by a nonzero mean stress,
εa, Strain Amplitude
140 to 230
by solving Eq. 22 for Nf . 290
-70 to -135
0.010 Fit
−1/ b
⎛ σa ⎞
Nf = N* ⎜ ⎟ (23)
⎝ f (σ a , σ m ) ⎠
2024-T4 Al
Prestrained
The effect on life must be the same regardless of 0.001
whether one employs a stress-life or a strain-life curve. This 1.E+01 1.E+02 1.E+03 1.E+04 1.E+05 1.E+06 1.E+07 1.E+08
permits Eq. 16 to be generalized to N*w, Walker Equivalent Cycles
where N* is the life calculated from the strain amplitude εa Where σ′f ≈ ~σf B might be a good approximation, as for
as if the mean stress were zero, and then Nf as affected by
steels, Eq. 6(b) applies, and Eq. 22 yields
the nonzero mean stress is obtained from Eq. 23. Also, on a
strain-life plot, data plotted as εa versus the equivalent life 1/ b
⎛ σm ⎞
N* are expected all fall together along the curve for zero *
N mi = N f ⎜⎜1 − ⎟
⎟ (26)
mean stress, Eq. 16. This is demonstrated in Figs. 16 and 17 ⎝ σ′f ⎠
for AISI 4340 steel and 2024-T4 aluminum, respectively,
where the f ( σ a , σm ) is in this case based on the Walker The added subscripts now indicate Morrow and intercept.
expression, Eq. 8. Note that Eqs. 24 and 26 combined are not the same as Eq. 17,
as the latter has no mean stress adjustment for the second
term.
TABLE 3 - Additional Constants for Strain-Life Curve
For the Walker relationship, the form of Eq. 8(c) and Eq. *
Fit N w vs. P Cyclic σ-ε Curve1, 2
22 give Material
⎛1− R ⎞
(1− γ ) / b ε'fw cw Ε H' n'
*
Nw = Nf ⎜ ⎟ (27) AISI 4340
⎝ 2 ⎠ 0.624 -0.620 207,000 1655 0.131
Steel3
where subscript w of course specifies Walker. Letting γ = 2024-T4 Al4 0.632 -0.858 73,100 738 0.080
0.5 gives us the special case of this for the SWT equation. Notes: 1Units are MPa for E and H'. 2Values from [6] for AISI 4340
and [17] for 2024-T4. 3Fit to P > 1.5 × 10−4 and Nw < 5 × 105. 4Fit to
1/( 2b) P > 1.5 × 10−4 and Nw < 104.
* ⎛ 1− R ⎞
N swt = Nf ⎜ ⎟ (28)
⎝ 2 ⎠ First, employ the cyclic stress-strain curve, Eq. 15, to
estimate strain amplitudes εa from stress amplitudes σ a for
It is useful to write as a single equation the form provided by any tests in the data set where strain was not measured.
Eqs. 24 and 27 for the Walker relationship. (This is often the case for tests run in stress control at rela-
(1− γ ) / b ⎤ b (1− γ ) / b ⎤ c
tively long lives.) Next, using b w and γ , calculate values
σ ′f ⎡
⎛1− R ⎞
⎡
⎛ 1− R ⎞
εa = ⎢2 N f ⎜ ⎟ ⎥ + ε ′f ⎢ 2 N f ⎜ ⎟ ⎥ *
of N w from Eq. 27 for each data point. Then use εa and
E ⎢ ⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎥ ⎢ ⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎥
⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦
*
(29) Nw to calculate values of the second (plastic strain) term of
Eq. 24 by subtracting the first (elastic strain) term from εa .
Similarly, Eqs. 24 and 28 give the corresponding form for
the SWT equation.
* cw
σ ′fw * bw
P = ε ′fw (2 N w ) = εa − (2 N w ) (31)
σ ′f ⎡ 1/(2b) ⎤ b ⎡ 1/(2b ) ⎤ c E
⎛ 1− R ⎞ ⎛1− R ⎞
εa = ⎢2N f ⎜ ⎟ ⎥ + ε ′f ⎢ 2 N f ⎜ ⎟ ⎥ (30)
E ⎢⎣ ⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ ⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎥⎦ where the values of the plastic strain term are denoted P as a
convenience. Now do a least squares fit using these P and
Note that the latter is not the same as Eq. 18, but instead * *
Nw values by first solving for 2 N w .
represents a different generalization of the strain-life equa-
tion that is consistent with SWT expressed in terms of stress,
1/ c
Eq. 7. ⎛ P ⎞ w
*
2N w = ⎜⎜ ⎟
⎟ (32)
CORRELATION OF STRAIN-LIFE DATA ⎝ ε′fw ⎠
As already noted, strain-life correlations based on the Taking logarithms of both sides of this equation gives
Walker mean stress equation are given in Figs. 16 and 17 for
AISI 4340 steel and 2024-T4 aluminum, respectively. In 1 1
each case, the data points are seen to agree closely with the
*
log (2 N w )= log P − log ε′fw (33)
cw cw
strain-life curve for zero mean stress, Eq. 24, indicating suc-
cess for Eq. 27. Note that the strain values plotted are simply A linear regression can now proceed using
strain amplitudes, ε a . Correlation of the data for various
mean stresses is achieved by plotting on the horizontal axis y = mx + d (34)
*
Walker equivalent lives N w
from Eq. 27, in which b w and
where
γ from Table 2 are employed.
*
y = log (2 N w ), x = log P
The curves shown in Figs. 16 and 17 correspond to the
usual form of strain-life equation for zero mean stress, Eq. (35)
1 1
24, but new values of the fitting constants are employed. m= , d =− log ε ′fw
This is done to take advantage of the ability of the Walker cw cw
equation to include all of the data at all mean stresses in the
fit, as previously described. The constants used with Eq. 24 Once the fitting constants m and d have been determined, the
are the Walker stress-life fitted values, σ ′fw and b w from desired values are easily obtained.
7) The incorporation of the Walker equation into the [10] Topper, T. H., and B. I. Sandor, “Effects of Mean
strain-life curve, Eq. 29, is a promising approach that Stress and Prestrain on Fatigue Damage Summation,”
should be further evaluated and employed. Effects of Environment and Complex Load History on
Fatigue Life, ASTM STP 462, Am. Soc. for Testing
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