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 INTRODUCTION TO STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS
Basis for the Analysis of Indeterminate
Structures

2.1 Introduction ......................................................................................................... 3

2.1.1 Background .................................................................................................... 3
2.1.2 Basis of Structural Analysis .......................................................................... 4
2.2 Small Displacements............................................................................................ 6
2.2.1 Introduction.................................................................................................... 6
2.2.2 Derivation ...................................................................................................... 7
2.2.3 Movement of Oblique Members ................................................................. 10
2.2.4 Instantaneous Centre of Rotation ................................................................ 13
2.3 Compatibility of Displacements ....................................................................... 19
2.3.1 Description................................................................................................... 19
2.3.2 Examples...................................................................................................... 20
2.4 Principle of Superposition ................................................................................ 22
2.4.1 Development ................................................................................................ 22
2.4.2 Example ....................................................................................................... 24
2.5 Solving Indeterminate Structures.................................................................... 25
2.5.1 Introduction.................................................................................................. 25
2.5.2 Illustrative Example 1: Propped Cantilever ................................................ 26
2.5.3 Illustrative Example 2: 2-Span Beam .......................................................... 28
2.5.4 Force Method: General Case ....................................................................... 30
2.6 Problems ............................................................................................................. 33
2.7 Displacements .................................................................................................... 34

1
2.7.1 Point Displacements .................................................................................... 34
2.7.2 General Equations........................................................................................ 35

Rev. 1

2
2.1 Introduction

2.1.1 Background
In the case of 2-dimensional structures there are three equations of statics:

Fx 0
Fy 0
M 0

Thus only three unknowns (reactions etc.) can be solved for using these equations
alone. Structures that cannot be solved through the equations of static equilibrium
alone are known as statically indeterminate structures. These, then, are structures that
have more than 3 unknowns to be solved for. Therefore, in order to solve statically
indeterminate structures we must identify other knowns about the structure.

3
2.1.2 Basis of Structural Analysis
The set of all knowns about structures form the basis for all structural analysis
methods. Even if not immediately obvious, every structural analysis solution makes
use of one or more of the three ‘pillars’ of structural analysis:

Structural Analysis

Constitutive Relations
Compatibility of
Displacement
Equilibrium

Equilibrium
Simply the application of the Laws of Statics – you have been using this pillar all
along.

Compatibility of Displacement
This reflects knowledge of the connectivity between parts of a structure – as
explained in a later section.

4
Constitutive Relations
The relationship between stress (i.e. forces moments etc) and strain (i.e. deflections,
rotations) for the material in the structure being analysed. The Principle of
Superposition (studied here) is an application of Constitutive Relations.

5
2.2 Small Displacements

2.2.1 Introduction
In structural analysis we will often make the assumption that displacements are small.
This allows us to use approximations for displacements that greatly simplify analysis.

What do we mean by small displacements?

We take small displacements to be such that the arc and chord length are
approximately equal. This will be explained further on.

Is it realistic?
Yes – most definitely. Real structures deflect very small amounts. For example,
sways are usually limited to storey height over 500. Thus the arc or chord length is of
the order 1/500th of the radius (or length of the member which is the storey height).
As will be seen further on, such a small rotation allows the use of the approximation
of small displacement.

Lastly, but importantly, in the analysis of flexural members, we ignore any changes
in lengths of members due to axial loads. That is:

We neglect axial deformations – members do not change length.

This is because such members have large areas (as required for bending resistance)
and so have negligible elastic shortening.

6
2.2.2 Derivation
Remember – all angles are in radians.

Consider a member AB, of length R, that rotates about A, an amount , to a new

position B’ as shown:

The total distance travelled by the point B is the length of the arc BB’, which is R .

There is also the ‘perpendicular distance’ travelled by B: CB’. Obviously:

CB '
BB '
There is also a movement of B along the line AB: BC, which has a length of:

R 1 cos

Now if we consider a ‘small’ displacement of point B:

We can see now that the arc and chord lengths must be almost equal and so we use
the approximation:

BB ' R tan R

This is the approximation inherent in a lot of basic structural analysis. There are
several things to note:
It relies on the assumption that tan for small angles;
There is virtually no movement along the line of the member, i.e.
R 1 cos 0 and so we neglect the small notional increase in length

AB ' AB shown above.

8
A graph of the arc and chord lengths for some angles is:

0.7

Distance Moved 0.6

0.5

0.4

Chord
0.2 Arc

0.1

0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Angle (Degrees)

For usual structural movements (as represented by deflection limits), the difference
between the arc and chord length approximation is:

0.25
Arch & Chord Difference

0.2

0.15

0.1

0.05

0
1 10 100 1000
Deflection Limit (h/?)

Since even the worst structural movement is of the order h 200 there is negligible
difference between the arc and chord lengths and so the approximation of small
angles holds.

9
2.2.3 Movement of Oblique Members

Development
We want to examine the small rotation of an oblique member in the x-y axis system:

The member AB, which is at an angle to the horizontal, has length L and
undergoes a small rotation of angle about A. End B then moves to B’ and by the
theory of small displacements, this movement is:

We want to examine this movement and how it relates to the axis system. Therefore,
we elaborate on the small triangle around BB’ shown above, as follows:

10
By using the rule: opposite angles are equal, we can identify which of the angles in
the triangle is and which is 90 . With this knowledge we can now
examine the components of the displacement as follows:

Y
cos
L cos
LX

X
sin
L sin
LY

Therefore, the displacement of B along a direction (x- or y-axis) is given by the

product of the rotation times the projection of the radius of movement onto an axis
perpendicular to the direction of the required movement. This is best summed up by
diagram:

11
 X
LY

Y
LX

Problem
For the following structure, show that a small rotation about A gives:

CX
0.6 ; CY
2.7 ;
BX
0; BY
1.5

12
2.2.4 Instantaneous Centre of Rotation

Definition
For assemblies of members (i.e. structures), individual members movements are not
separable from that of the structure. A ‘global’ view of the movement of the structure
can be achieved using the concept of the Instantaneous Centre of Rotation (ICR).

The Instantaneous Centre of Rotation is the point about which, for any given moment
in time, the rotation of a body is occurring. It is therefore the only point that is not
moving. In structures, each member can have its own ICR. However, movement of
the structure is usually defined by an obvious ICR.

13
Development
We will consider the deformation of the following structure:

Firstly we must recognize that joints A and D are free to rotate but not move.
Therefore the main movement of interest in this structure is that of joints B and C.
Next we identify how these joints may move:
Joint B can only move horizontally since member AB does not change length;
Joint C can only move at an oblique angle, since member CD does not change
length.

Thus we have the following paths along which the structure can move:

14
Next we take it that the loading is such that the structure moves to the right (we could
just as easily have taken the left). Since member BC cannot change length either, the
horizontal movements at joints B and C must be equal, call it . Thus we have the
deformed position of the joints B and C:

Now knowing these positions, we can draw the possible deflected shape of the
structure, by linking up each of the deformed joint positions:

15
Looking at this diagram it is readily apparent that member AB rotates about A (its
ICR) and that member CD rotates about D (its ICR). However, as we have seen, it is
the movements of joints B and C that define the global movement of the structure.
Therefore we are interested in the point about which member BC rotates and it is this
point that critically defines the global movements of the structure.

To find the ICR for member BC we note that since B moves perpendicular to member
AB, the ICR for BC must lie along this line. Similarly, the line upon which the ICR
must lie is found for joint C and member CD. Therefore, the ICR for member BC is
found by producing the lines of the members AB and CD until they intersect:

From this figure, we can see that the movements of the structure are easily defined by
the rotation of the lamina ICR-B-C about ICR by an angle .

16
Example
Find the relationship between the deflections of joints B and C.

Our first step is to find the ICR by producing the lines of members AB and CD, as
shown opposite.

Because of the angle of member CD, we can determine the dimensions of the lamina
ICR-B-C as shown.

Next we give the lamina a small rotation about the ICR and identify the new positions
of joints B and C.

We then work out the values of the displacements at joints B and C by considering
the rule for small displacements, and the rotation of the lamina as shown.

17
 4 16
BX
4
3 3
4 20
C
5
3 3
16
CX BX
3
CY
4
2.3 Compatibility of Displacements

2.3.1 Description
When a structure is loaded it deforms under that load. Points that were connected to
each other remain connected to each other, though the distance between them may
have altered due to the deformation. All the points in a structure do this is such a way
that the structure remains fitted together in its original configuration.

Compatibility of displacement is thus:

Displacements are said to be compatible when the deformed members of a

loaded structure continue to fit together.

Thus, compatibility means that:

Two initially separate points do not move to another common point;
Holes do not appear as a structure deforms;
Members initially connected together remain connected together.

This deceptively simple idea is very powerful when applied to indeterminate

structures.

19
2.3.2 Examples

Truss
The following truss is indeterminate. Each of the members has a force in it and
consequently undergoes elongation. However, by compatibility of displacements, the
elongations must be such that the three members remain connected after loading,
even though the truss deforms and Point A moves to Point A’. This is an extra piece
of information (or ‘known’) and this helps us solve the structure.

Beam
The following propped cantilever is an indeterminate structure. However, we know
by compatibility of displacements that the deflection at point B is zero before and
after loading, since it is a support.

20
Frame
The following frame has three members connected at joint B. The load at A causes
joint B to rotate anti-clockwise. The ends of the other two members connected at B
must also undergo an anti-clockwise rotation at B to maintain compatibility of
displacement. Thus all members at B rotate the same amount, B , as shown below.

Joint B

21
2.4 Principle of Superposition

2.4.1 Development
For a linearly elastic structure, load, P, and deformation, , are related through
stiffness, K, as shown:

For an initial load on the structure we have:

P1 K
1

If we instead we had applied P we would have gotten:

P K

Now instead of applying P separately to P1 we apply it after P1 is already applied.

The final forces and deflections are got by adding the equations:

22
 P1 P K 1 K

K 1

But, since from the diagram, P2 P1 P and 2 1 , we have:

P2 K
2

which is a result we expected.

This result, though again deceptively ‘obvious’, tells us that:

Deflection caused by a force can be added to the deflection caused by another
force to get the deflection resulting from both forces being applied;
The order of loading is not important ( P or P1 could be first);
Loads and their resulting load effects can be added or subtracted for a
structure.

This is the Principle of Superposition:

For a linearly elastic structure, the load effects caused by two or more
loadings are the sum of the load effects caused by each loading separately.

Note that the principle is limited to:

Linear material behaviour only;
Structures undergoing small deformations only (linear geometry).
23
2.4.2 Example
If we take a simply-supported beam, we can see that its solutions can be arrived at by
multiplying the solution of another beam:

The above is quite obvious, but not so obvious is that we can also break the beam up
as follows:

Thus the principle is very flexible and useful in solving structures.

24
2.5 Solving Indeterminate Structures

2.5.1 Introduction
There are two main approaches to the solution of indeterminate structures:

The Force Method

This was the first method of use for the analysis of indeterminate structures due to
ease of interpretation, as we shall see. It is also called the compatibility method,
method of consistent deformations, or flexibility method. Its approach is to find the
redundant forces that satisfy compatibility of displacements and the force-
displacement relationships for the structure’s members. The fundamental ideas are
easy to understand and we will use them to begin our study of indeterminate
structures with the next few examples.

The Displacement Method

This method was developed later and is less intuitive than the force method.
However, it has much greater flexibility and forms the basis for the finite-element
method for example. Its approach is to first satisfy the force-displacement for the
structure members and then to satisfy equilibrium for the whole structure. Thus its
unknowns are the displacements of the structure. It is also called the stiffness method.

25
2.5.2 Illustrative Example 1: Propped Cantilever
Consider the following propped cantilever subject to UDL:

Using superposition we can break it up as follows (i.e. we choose a redundant):

Next, we consider the deflections of the primary and reactant structures:

26
Now by compatibility of displacements for the original structure, we know that we
need to have a final deflection of zero after adding the primary and reactant
deflections at B:

P R
B B B 0

From tables of standard deflections, we have:

P wL4 R RL3
B and B
8EI 3EI

In which downwards deflections are taken as positive. Thus we have:

wL4 RL3
B 0
8EI 3EI
3wL
R
8

Knowing this, we can now solve for any other load effect. For example:

wL2
MA RL
2
wL2 3wL
L
2 8
4wL2 3wL2
8
wL2
8

Note that the wL2 8 term arises without a simply-supported beam in sight!

27
2.5.3 Illustrative Example 2: 2-Span Beam
Considering a 2-span beam, subject to UDL, which has equal spans, we break it up
using the principle of superposition:

Once again we use compatibility of displacements for the original structure to write:

P R
B B B 0

Again, from tables of standard deflections, we have:

4
P 5w 2L 80wL4
B
384EI 384EI

28
And:
3
R R 2L 8RL3
B
48EI 48EI

In which downwards deflections are taken as positive. Thus we have:

80wL4 8RL3
B 0
384EI 48EI
8R 80wL
48 384
10wL
R
8

Note that this is conventionally not reduced to 5wL 4 since the other reactions are
both 3wL 8 . Show this as an exercise.

Further, the moment at B is by superposition:

Hence:
RL wL2 10wL L wL2 10wL2 8wL2
MB
2 2 8 2 2 16
2
wL
8

And again wL2 8 arises!

29
2.5.4 Force Method: General Case
Let’s consider the following 2° indeterminate structure:

We have broken it up into its primary and redundant structures, and identified the
various unknown forces and displacements.

We can express the redundant displacements in terms of the redundant forces as

follows:

30
 R R
BB
RB f BB BC
RB f BC
R R
CC
RC f CC CB
RC f CB

We did this in the last example too:

R 8L3
B RB RB f BB
48EI

The coefficients of the redundant forces are termed flexibility coefficients. The
subscripts indicate the location of the load and the location where the displacement is
measured, respectively.

We now have two locations where compatibility of displacement is to be met:

P R
B B
0
P R
C C
0

As we can see from the superposition, the redundant displacements are:

R R R
B BB CB

R R R
C CC BC

And if we introduce the idea of flexibility coefficients:

R
B
RB f BB RC
f CB
R
C
RC f CC RB f BC RB f BC RC f CC
31
Then the compatibility of displacement equations become:

P
B
RB f BB RC f CB
0
P
C
RB f BC RC f CC
0

Which we can express in matrix form:

P
B
fBB f CB RB 0
P
C
f BC fCC RC 0

And in general we have:

δP f R 0

Since we know the primary structure displacements and the flexibility coefficients we
can determine the redundants:

1
R f δP

Thus we are able to solve a statically indeterminate structure of any degree.

32
2.6 Problems
Use compatibility of displacement and the principle of superposition to solve the
following structures. In each case draw the bending moment diagram and determine
the reactions.

3PL
1. MA
16

2.

3. VC 3P 8

wL2
4. MB
16

33
2.7 Displacements

2.7.1 Point Displacements

Configuration Translations Rotations


  5wL4 wL3
 C A B
 384EI 24EI


  PL3 PL2
 C A B
  48EI 16EI


Pa L a
  C
PL3
48EI L3a aL
3
A 2L a
 4 6LEI
  Pa
L2 a2
 B
6LEI

  ML
C 3a 2 6a 2
 3EI2
ML A
6EI
 a 1 a 1 2a
ML
 B 3a 2 1
6EI


wL4 wL3
  B B
 8EI 6EI


PL3 PL2
  B B
 3EI 2EI

 ML2 ML
  B B
 2EI EI

34
2.7.2 General Equations
Coordinate x is zero at A and increases to the right. The right angled brackets evaluate to zero if the term inside is
negative (called Macaulay brackets).

wL
VA
2
 wL3
  EI A
 24
 VA 2 w 3
EI x x x EI A
2 6
VA 3 w 4
EI x x x EIA x
6 24
Pb
VA
L
 Pb 2
  EI A L b2
 6L
  VA 2 P 2

EI x x x a EI A
2 2
VA 3 P 3
EI x x x a EIA x
6 6
 M
VA
L
M 2
  EI A L 3b 2
 6L

M 2
 EI x x M x a EI A
2L
M 3 M 2
EI x x x a EI A x
6L 2

In 1864 James Clerk Maxwell

V published
wc
L b
c the first consistent treatment of the flexibility
 A
L 2
 
V w 4 4
  EI A A L2 L b L a
6 24L
 VA 2 w 3 w 3
EI x x x a x b EI A

2 6 6
VA 3 w 4 w 4
EI x x x a x b EIA x
6 24 24

35

Unit-I-FLEXIBILITY METHOD
Flexibility Method

In 1864 James Clerk Maxwell published the first consistent treatment of the flexibility
method for indeterminate structures. His method was based on considering deflections, but
the presentation was rather brief and attraced little attention. Ten years later Otto Mohr
independently extended Maxwell’s theory to the present day treatment. The flexibility
method will sometimes be referred to in the literature as Maxwell-Mohr method.

With the flexibility method equations of compatibility involving displacements at each of

the redundant forces in the structure are introduced to provide the additional equations
needed for solution. This method is somewhat useful in analyzing beams, framse and
trusses that are statically indeterminate to the first or second degree. For structures with a
high degree of static indeterminacy such as multi-story buildings and large complex trusses
stiffness methods are more appropriate. Nevertheless flexibility methods provide an
understanding of the behavior of statically indeterminate structures.
 LecturE: The Flexibility Method

The fundamental concepts that underpin the flexibility method will be illustrated by the
study of a two span beam. The procedure is as follows

1. Pick a sufficient number of redundants corresponding to the degree of

indeterminacy

2. Remove the redundants

3. Determine displacements at the redundants on released structure due to external or

imposed actions

4. Determine displacements due to unit loads at the redundants on released structure

5. Employ equation of compatibility, e.g., if a pin reaction is removed as a redundant

the compatibility equation could be the summation of vertical displacements in the
released structure must add to zero.
Lecture : The Flexibility Method

The beam to the left is

statically indeterminate to
the first degree. The
reaction at the middle
support RB is chosen as the
redundant.
The released beam is also
shown. Under the external
loads the released beam
deflects an amount B.
A second beam is
considered where the
released redundant is treated
as an external load and the
corresponding deflection at
the redundant is set equal to
B.
5
RB wL
8
 lecture : The Flexibility Method

A more general approach consists in finding the displacement at B caused by a unit load in
the direction of RB. Then this displacement can be multiplied by RB to determine the total
displacement

Also in a more general approach a consistent sign convention for actions and displacements
must be adopted. The displacements in the released structure at B are positive when they are
in the direction of the action released, i.e., upwards is positive.

The displacement at B caused by the unit action is

L3
B
48EI
The displacement at B caused by RB is δB RB. The displacement caused by the uniform load
w acting on the released structure is

5 w L4
B
384 EI
Thus by the compatibility equation
B 5
B B RB 0 RB wL
B 8
Lecture : The Flexibility Method

If a structure is statically indeterminate to more

than one degree, the approach used in the
preceeding example must be further organized
and more generalize notation introduced.

Consider the beam to the left. The beam is

statically indeterminate to the second degree. A
statically determinate structure can be obtained
by releasing two redundant reactions. Four
possible released structures are shown.
Lecture : The Flexibility Method

The redundants chosen are at B and C. The

redundant reactions are designated Q1 and Q2.

The released structure is shown at the left

with all external and internal redundants
shown.

DQL1 is the displacement corresponding to Q1

and caused by the external actions on the
released structure

DQL2 is the displacement corresponding to Q2

caused by external actions on the released
structure.

Both displacements are shown in their

assumed positive direction.
 Lecture : The Flexibility Method

We can now write the compatibility equations for this structure. The displacements
corresponding to Q1 and Q2 will be zero. These are labeled DQ1 and DQ2 respectively

DQ1 DQL1 F11Q1 F12Q2 0

DQ 2 DQL 2 F21Q1 F22Q2 0

In some cases DQ1 and DQ2 would be nonzero then we would write

DQ1 DQL1 F11Q1 F12Q2

DQ 2 DQL 2 F21Q1 F22 Q2

 Lecture : The Flexibility Method

The superposition equations from the previous page can be written in matrix format as
DQ DQL F Q

where:
{DQ } - matrix of actual displacements corresponding to the redundant
{DQL } - matrix of displacements in the released structure corresponding to the
redundant action [Q] and due to the loads
[F] - flexibility matrix for the released structure corresponding to the redundant
actions [Q]
{Q} - matrix of redundant

DQ11 DQL1
QL Q11
DQ D Q
D QL
DQL 2 Q2
Q2

F11 F12
F
F21 F22
 Lecture : The Flexibility Method

The vector [Q] of redundants can be found by solving for them from the matrix equation
on the previous overhead.

F Q DQ DQL

1
Q F DQ DQL

To see how this works consider the previous beam with a constant flexural rigidity EI. If
we identify actions on the beam as

P1 2P M PL P2 P P3 P

Since there are no displacements corresponding to Q1 and Q2, then

0
DQ
0
 Lecture : The Flexibility Method

The vector [DQL] represents the displacements in the released structure corresponding to
the redundant loads. These displacements are

13PL3 97 PL3
DQL1 DQL 2
24EI 48EI

The positive signs indicate that both displacements are upward. In a matrix format

PL3 26
DQL
48EI 97
 Lecture : The Flexibility Method

The flexibility matrix [F ] is obtained by subjecting the beam to unit load corresponding
to Q1 and computing the following displacements

L3 5L3
F11 F21
3EI 6EI

Similarly subjecting the beam to unit load corresponding to Q2 and computing the
following displacements

5L3 8L3
F12 F22
6EI 3EI
 Lecture : The Flexibility Method

The flexibility matrix is

L3 2 5
F
6EI 5 16

The inverse of the flexibility matrix is

1 6EI 16 5
F
7 L3 2
 Lecture : The Flexibility Method

The redundants have been obtained. The other unknown reactions can be found from
the released structure. Displacements can be computed from the known reactions on
the released structure and imposing the compatibility equations.
Lecture : The Flexibility Method

Example

A three
h span bbeam shown
h at the
h lleft
f iis
acted upon by a uniform load w and
concentrated loads P as shown. The
beam has a constant flexural rigidity EI.
Treat the supports at B and C as
redundants and compute these
redundants.
In this problem the bending moments at B
and C are chosen as redundants to
indicate how unit rotations are applied to
released structures.
Each redundant consists of two moments,
one acting in each adjoining span.
 Lecture : The Flexibility Method

The displacements corresponding to the two redundants consist of two rotations – one for
each adjoining span. The displacement DQL1 and DQL2 corresponding to Q1 and Q2.
These displacements will be caused by the loads acting on the released structure.

The displacement DQL1 is composed of two parts, the rotation of end B of member AB
and the rotation of end B of member BC

wL3 PL2
DQL1
24EI 16EI

Similarly,
PL2 PL2 PL2
DQL 2
16EI 16EI 8EI
such that

L2 2wL
2 L 3P
DQL
48EI 6P
 Lecture : The Flexibility Method

The flexibility coefficients are determined next. The flexibility coefficient F11 is the sum
of two rotations at joint B. One in span AB and the other in span BC (not shown below)

L L 2L
F11
3EI 3EI 3EI
Similarly the coefficient F21 is equal to the sum of rotations at joint C. However, the
rotation in span CD is zero from a unit rotation at joint B. Thus

L
F21
6EI
 Lecture : The Flexibility Method

Similarly

L L 2L
F22
3EI 3EI 3EI
L
F12
6EI
The flexibility matrix is
L 4 1
F
6EI 1 4
The Direct Stiffness
Method: An
Introduction
Instructional Objectives:
After reading this chapter the student will be able to
1. Differentiate between the direct stiffness method and the displacement
method.
2. Formulate flexibility matrix of member.
3. Define stiffness matrix.
4. Construct stiffness matrix of a member.
5. Analyse simple structures by the direct stiffness matrix.

23.1 Introduction
All known methods of structural analysis are classified into two distinct groups:-

(i) force method of analysis and

(ii) displacement method of analysis.

In module 2, the force method of analysis or the method of consistent

deformation is discussed. An introduction to the displacement method of analysis
is given in module 3, where in slope-deflection method and moment- distribution
method are discussed. In this module the direct stiffness method is discussed. In
the displacement method of analysis the equilibrium equations are written by
expressing the unknown joint displacements in terms of loads by using load-
displacement relations. The unknown joint displacements (the degrees of
freedom of the structure) are calculated by solving equilibrium equations. The
slope-deflection and moment-distribution methods were extensively used before
the high speed computing era. After the revolution in computer industry, only
direct stiffness method is used.

The displacement method follows essentially the same steps for both statically
determinate and indeterminate structures. In displacement /stiffness method of
analysis, once the structural model is defined, the unknowns (joint rotations and
translations) are automatically chosen unlike the force method of analysis.
Hence, displacement method of analysis is preferred to computer
implementation. The method follows a rather a set procedure. The direct stiffness
method is closely related to slope-deflection equations.

The general method of analyzing indeterminate structures by displacement

method may be traced to Navier (1785-1836). For example consider a four
member truss as shown in Fig.23.1.The given truss is statically indeterminate to
second degree as there are four bar forces but we have only two equations of
equilibrium. Denote each member by a number, for example (1), (2), (3) and (4).
Let α i be the Px and
angle,
the i-
th
memb
er
makes
with
the
horizo
ntal.
Under
the

action
of
extern
al
loads
Py , the joint E displaces to E’. Let u and v be its
vertical and horizontal displacements. Navier solved this problem as follows.

In the displacement method of analysis u and v are the only two unknowns for
this structure. The elongation of individual truss members can be expressed in
terms of these two unknown joint displacements. Next, calculate bar forces in the
members by using force–displacement relation. Now at E, two equilibrium
equations can be written viz., ∑ F x = 0 and ∑ F y = 0 by summing all forces
in x and y directions. The unknown displacements may be calculated by solving
the equilibrium equations. In displacement method of analysis, there will be
exactly as many equilibrium equations as there are unknowns.

Let an elastic body is acted by a force F and the corresponding displacement be

u in the direction of force. In module 1, we have discussed force- displacement
relationship. The force (F) is related to the displacement (u) for the linear elastic
material by the relation
F = ku (23.1)

where the constant of proportionality k is defined as the stiffness of the structure

and it has units of force per unit elongation. The above equation may also be
written as

u = aF (23.2)
The constant a is known as flexibility of the structure and it has a unit of
displacement per unit force. In general the structures are subjected to n forces at
n different locations on the structure. In such a case, to relate displacement at i
to load at j , it is required to use flexibility coefficients with subscripts. Thus the
flexibility coefficient a ij is the deflection at i due to unit value of force applied at
j . Similarly the stiffness coefficient k ij is defined as the force generated at i
due to unit displacement at j with all other displacements kept at zero. To
illustrate this definition, consider a cantilever beam which is loaded as shown in
Fig.23.2. The two degrees of freedom for this problem are vertical displacement
at B and rotation at B. Let them be denoted by u1 and u 2 (= θ 1 ). Denote the
vertical force P by P1 and the tip moment M by P2 . Now apply a unit vertical
force along P1 and calculate deflection u1 and u 2 .The vertical deflection is
denoted by flexibility coefficient a11 and rotation is denoted by flexibility
coefficient a 21 . Similarly, by applying a unit force along P1 , one could calculate
flexibility coefficient a12 and a 22 . Thus a12 is the deflection at 1 corresponding to
P1 due to unit force applied at 2 in the direction of P2 . By using the principle of
superposition, the displacements u1 and u 2 are expressed as the sum of
displacements due to loads P1 and P2 acting separately on the beam. Thus,

u1 = a11 P1 + a12 P2
u 2 = a 21 P1 + a 22 P2 (23.3a)

The above equation may be written in matrix notation as

{u} = [a ]{P}
⎧u ⎫ ⎡ a11 a12 ⎤ ⎧P ⎫
where, {u} = ⎨1 ; ⎬ {a} = ⎢a ⎥ ; and { P} = 1⎨ ⎬
⎩u 2 ⎭ ⎣ 21 a22 ⎦ ⎩ P2 ⎭
The forces can also be related to displacements using stiffness coefficients.
Apply a unit displacement along u1 (see Fig.23.2d) keeping displacement u 2 as
zero. Calculate the required forces for this case as k11 and k 21 .Here, k 21
represents force developed along P2 when a unit displacement along u1 is
introduced keeping u 2 =0. Apply a unit rotation along u 2 (vide Fig.23.2c) ,keeping
u1 = 0 . Calculate the required forces for this configuration k12 and k 22 . Invoking
the principle of superposition, the forces P1 and P2 are expressed as the sum of
forces developed due to displacements u1 and u 2 acting separately on the beam.
Thus,

P1 = k11u1 + k12 u 2

P2 = k 21u1 + k 22 u 2 (23.4)

{P} = [k ]{u}
 ⎧P ⎫ ⎡k k12 ⎤ ⎧u ⎫
where, { P} = 1⎨ ; ⎬{k} = 11 ⎢ ⎥ ;and {u} = 1⎨ . ⎬
⎩ P2 ⎭ ⎣ k21 k22 ⎦ ⎩u2 ⎭

[k ] is defined as the stiffness matrix of the beam.

In this lesson, using stiffness method a few problems will be solved. However this
approach is very rudimentary and is suited for hand computation. A more formal
approach of the stiffness method will be presented in the next lesson.

23.2 A simple example with one degree of freedom

Consider a fixed–simply supported beam of constant flexural rigidity EI and span
L which is carrying a uniformly distributed load of w kN/m as shown in Fig.23.3a.

If the axial deformation is neglected, then this beam is kinematically

indeterminate to first degree. The only unknown joint displacement is θ B .Thus
the degrees of freedom for this structure is one (for a brief discussion on degrees
of freedom, please see introduction to module 3).The analysis of above structure
by stiffness method is accomplished in following steps:

1. Recall that in the flexibility /force method the redundants are released (i.e.
made zero) to obtain a statically determinate structure. A similar operation
in the stiffness method is to make all the unknown displacements equal to
zero by altering the boundary conditions. Such an altered structure is
known as kinematically determinate structure as all joint displacements
are known in this case. In the present case the restrained structure is
obtained by preventing the rotation at B as shown in Fig.23.3b. Apply all
the external loads on the kinematically determinate structure. Due to
restraint at B, a moment M B is developed at B. In the stiffness method we
adopt the following sign convention. Counterclockwise moments and
counterclockwise rotations are taken as positive, upward forces and
displacements are taken as positive. Thus,

2
M B = − wl (-ve as M B is clockwise) (23.5)
12

The fixed end moment may be obtained from the table given at the end of lesson
14.
2. In actual structure there is no moment at B. Hence apply an equal and
opposite moment M B at B as shown in Fig.23.3c. Under the action of (-
M B ) the joint rotates in the clockwise direction by an unknown amount. It
is observed that superposition of above two cases (Fig.23.3b and
Fig.23.3c) gives the forces in the actual structure. Thus the rotation of joint
 B must be θ B which is unknown .The relation between − M B and θ B is
established as follows. Apply a unit rotation at B and calculate the
moment. ( k BB ) caused by it. That is given by the relation

4EI L
k BB = (23.6)

where k BB is the stiffness coefficient and is defined as the force at joint B due to
unit displacement at joint B. Now, moment caused by θ B rotation is

M B = k BBθ B (23.7)

3. Now, write the equilibrium equation for joint B. The total moment at B is
M B + k BBθ B , but in the actual structure the moment at B is zero as
support B is hinged. Hence,

M B + k BBθ B =0 (23.8)

MB
θ B =−
k BB

wl 3
θ B = (23.9)
48EI

4EI
The relation M B = θ B has already been derived in slope –deflection method
L
in lesson 14. Please note that exactly the same steps are followed in slope-
deflection method.
23.3 Two degrees of freedom structure
Consider a plane truss as shown in Fig.23.4a.There is four members in the truss
and they meet at the common point at E. The truss is subjected to external loads
P and P acting at E. In the analysis, neglect the self weight of members. There
1 2
are two unknown displacements at joint E and are denoted by u 1 and u 2 .Thus
the structure is kinematically indeterminate to second degree. The applied forces
and unknown joint displacements are shown in the positive directions. The
members are numbered from (1), (2), (3) and (4) as shown in the figure. The
length and axial rigidity of i-th member is l and EAi respectively. Now it is sought
i
to evaluate u 1 and u 2 by stiffness method. This is done in following steps:

1. In the first step, make all the unknown displacements equal to zero by
altering the boundary conditions as shown in Fig.23.4b. On this restrained
/kinematically determinate structure, apply all the external loads except
the joint loads and calculate the reactions corresponding to unknown joint
displacements u 1 and u 2 . Since, in the present case, there are no
external loads other than the joint loads, the reactions (R L ) 1 and (R L ) 2
will be equal to zero. Thus,

⎧(R L ) 1 ⎫ ⎧0⎫
⎨ ⎬= ⎨ ⎬ (23.10)
⎩(R L ) 2 ⎭ ⎩0⎭

2. In the next step, calculate stiffness coefficients k11 , k 21 , k12 and k 22 .This is
done as follows. First give a unit displacement along u1 holding
displacement along u 2 to zero and calculate reactions at E corresponding
to unknown displacements u1 and u 2 in the kinematically determinate
structure. They are denoted by k11 , k 21 . The joint stiffness k11 , k 21 of the
whole truss is composed of individual member stiffness of the truss. This
is shown in Fig.23.4c. Now consider the member AE . Under the action of
unit displacement along u1 , the joint E displaces to E ′ . Obviously the new
length is not equal to length AE . Let us denote the new length of the
members by l1 + Δ l1 , where Δ l , is the change in length of the
member AE ′ . The member AE ′ also makes an angle θ 1 with the
horizontal. This is justified as Δ l1 is small. From the geometry, the change
in length of the members AE ′ is

Δ l1 = cos θ 1 (23.11a)
The elongation Δ l1 is related to the force in the member AE ′ , AE
F' by

F AE' l1
Δ l1 = (23.11b)
A1 E

Thus from (23.11a) and (23.11b), the force in the members AE ′ is

FA′ E =
EA1
cos θ 1 (23.11c)
l1

This force acts along the member axis. This force may be resolved along u1 and
EA1
u 2 directions. Thus, horizontal component of force FA′ E is cos θ 1 (23.11d)
2
l1
EA1
and vertical component of force FA′ E
cos θ 1 sin (23.11e)
l1
is θ 1
Expressions of similar form as above may be obtained for all members. The sum
of all horizontal components of individual forces gives us the stiffness coefficient
k11 and sum of all vertical component of forces give us the required stiffness
coefficient k 21 .

k11 = EA1 cos 2 θ 1 + EA2 cos 2 θ 2 + EA3 cos 2 θ 3 + EA4 cos 2 θ 4

l1 l2 l3 l4

4
EAi cos 2
k11 = ∑ (23.12)
li θ
i
i =1

EAi cos θ
k 21 = i sin (23.13)
li
θ i
∑
In the next step, give a unit displacement along u 2 holding displacement along
u1 equal to zero and calculate reactions at E corresponding to unknown
displacements u1 and u 2 in the kinematically determinate structure. The
corresponding reactions are denoted by k12 and k 22 as shown in Fig.23.4d. The
joint E gets displaced to E ′ when a unit vertical displacement is given to the joint
as shown in the figure. Thus, the new length of the member AE ′ l1 + Δ l1 .
is
From the geometry, the elongation Δ l1 is given by

Δ l1 = sin (23.14a)
θ 1
EA1
Thus axial force in the member along its centroidal axis is sin θ 1 (23.14b)
l1

Resolve the axial force in the member along u1 and u 2 directions. Thus,

sin θ 1 cos θ
EA1
horizontal component of force in the member AE ′ (23.14c)
l1 1
is
EA1
and vertical component of force in the member AE ′ is sin 2 (23.14d)
θ 1
l1

In order to evaluate k 22 , we need to sum vertical components of forces in all the

members meeting at joint E .Thus,
 4

∑
EAi
= sin 2 θ i (23.15)
i =1
li

k 22

∑
EAi
Similarly, k12 = sin θ i cos θi (23.16)
i =1
li

3. Joint forces in the original structure corresponding to unknown

displacements u1 and u 2 are

⎧F1 ⎫ ⎧P1 ⎫
⎨ ⎬= ⎨ ⎬ (23.17)
⎩ F2 ⎭ ⎩P2 ⎭
Now the equilibrium equations at joint E states that the forces in the original
structure are equal to the superposition of (i) reactions in the kinematically
restrained structure corresponding to unknown joint displacements and (ii)
reactions in the restrained structure due to unknown displacements themselves.
This may be expressed as,

F1 = (R L )1 + k11u1 + k12 u 2
F2 = (R L )2 + k 21 u1 + k 22 u 2 (23.18)

This may be written compactly as

{F }= {Ri } + [k ]{u} (23.19)

where,

⎧F ⎫
{F } = ⎨ 1
⎬;
⎩F2 ⎭

⎧(R ) ⎫
{RL } = ⎨ L 1 ⎬
⎩ (R L ) 2 ⎭

⎡k k12 ⎤
[k ] = ⎢ 11

⎣k 21 k 22 ⎥⎦

⎧u1 ⎫
{u} =⎨ ⎬ (23.20)
 ⎩u 2 ⎭ L
= , A1 = A2 = A3 = A4 = A and
sin θ i

For example take P1 = P2 = P , Li

θ 1 = 35° , θ 2 = 70° , θ 3 = 105° and θ 4 = 140°

Then.

⎧P ⎫
{F } =⎨ P ⎬ (23.21)
⎩ ⎭

⎧0⎫
{R L } = ⎨ ⎬
⎩0⎭

∑ cos 2 θ i sin θ i = 0.9367

EA EA
k11 =
L L

∑ sin 2 θ i cos θ i = 0.0135 EA

EA
k12 =
L
L

∑ sin 2 θ i cos θ i = 0.0135

EA EA
k 21 =
L L

∑
EA 3 EA
k 22 = sin θ i = 2.1853 (23.22)
L L

⎧P⎫ EA ⎡ 0.9367 0.0135⎤ ⎧ u1 ⎫

=
⎨ ⎬
⎩P⎭ L ⎣⎢0.0135 2.1853⎦⎥ ⎩⎨u2 ⎭ ⎬

Solving which, yields

L
u1 = 1.0611
EA
u = 0.451 L
2
EA
Example 23.1
Analyze the plane frame shown in Fig.23.5a by the direct stiffness method.
Assume that the flexural rigidity for all members is the same .Neglect axial
displacements.

Solution
In the first step identify the degrees of freedom of the frame .The given frame has
three degrees of freedom (see Fig.23.5b):

(i) Two rotations as indicated by u1 and u 2 and

(ii) One horizontal displacement of joint B and C as indicated by u 3 .

In the next step make all the displacements equal to zero by fixing joints B and C
as shown in Fig.23.5c. On this kinematically determinate structure apply all the
external loads and calculate reactions corresponding to unknown joint
displacements .Thus,
 (R )
F
D 1 =
48× 2 × 4
16
⎛ 24 × 3 × 9 ⎞
+ ⎜−
⎝ 36 ⎠
⎟

(1)

= 24 − 18 = 6 kN.m

(R )
F
D 2 = − 24 kN.m

(R )
F
D 3
= 12 kN.m (2)

Thus,

⎧( R FD ) ⎫
⎪ 1⎪ ⎧6 ⎫
⎨ ( RD ) 2 ⎬ = −⎨ 24 ⎬
⎪ F ⎪ ⎪ ⎪
(3)
⎪ F ⎪ ⎪12 ⎪
⎪⎩( R D ) ⎪3 ⎭ ⎩ ⎭
Next calculate stiffness coefficients. Apply unit rotation along u1 and calculate
reactions corresponding to the unknown joint displacements in the kinematically
determinate structure (vide Fig.23.5d)

Version 2 CE IIT, Kharagpur

 4EI 4EI
k11 = + = 1.667
4 6

2EI = 0.5EI
k 21 =
4

6EI = − 0.166EI
k 31 = − (4)
6 ×6

Similarly, apply a unit rotation along u 2 and calculate reactions corresponding to

three degrees of freedom (see Fig.23.5e)

k12 = 0.5EI

k22 = EI

k32 = 0 (5)

Apply a unit displacement along u 3 and calculate joint reactions corresponding to

unknown displacements in the kinematically determinate structure.
 6EI = − 0.166E
k13 = −
L2

k 23 = 0

12EI = 0.056EI
k 33 = (6)
63

Finally applying the principle of superposition of joint forces, yields

⎧ F1 ⎫ ⎧6 ⎫ ⎧ 1.667 0.5 − 0.166 ⎫ ⎧u1 ⎫

⎪ ⎪ ⎪ ⎪ ⎪ ⎪⎪ ⎪
⎨ F2 ⎬ = ⎨− 24 ⎬ + EI ⎨ 0.5 1 0 ⎬ ⎨u2 ⎬
⎪ F ⎪ ⎪12 ⎪ ⎪ − 0.166 0 0.056 ⎪⎭ ⎪⎩u3 ⎭⎪
⎩ 3⎭ ⎩ ⎭ ⎩
Now,

⎧F1 ⎫ ⎧0⎫
⎪ ⎪ ⎪ ⎪
⎨ F2 ⎬ = ⎨0⎬ as there are no loads applied along u1 , u 2 and u 3 .Thus the
⎪ F ⎪ ⎪ 0⎪
⎩ 3⎭ ⎩ ⎭

unknown displacements are,

⎧u1 ⎫ 0.5 − 0.166 ⎤ ⎧6 ⎫

⎡ 1
1
⎨− 24 ⎬
⎨u ⎬ = − 0.5 1 0 −1
⎪2 ⎪ ⎥ ⎪ ⎪
⎪ ⎪ EI ⎢ ⎪ ⎪ (7)
⎩u3 ⎭ − 0.166 0 0.056 ⎩− 24⎭

Solving

18.996
u1 =
EI

14.502
u2 =
EI

270.587
u3 = − (8)
EI
UNIT-IV-Plastic
Analysis

1
Contents
1. Introduction ......................................................................................................... 4
1.1 Background...................................................................................................... 4
2. Basis of Plastic Design ......................................................................................... 5
2.1 Material Behaviour .......................................................................................... 5
2.2 Cross Section Behaviour ................................................................................. 7
2.3 Plastic Hinge Formation ................................................................................ 23
3. Methods of Plastic Analysis .............................................................................. 27
3.1 Introduction.................................................................................................... 27
3.2 Incremental Analysis ..................................................................................... 28
3.3 Important Definitions .................................................................................... 34
3.4 Equilibrium Method ...................................................................................... 36
3.5 Kinematic Method Using Virtual Work ........................................................ 40
3.6 Types of Plastic Collapse .............................................................................. 45
4. Theorems of Plastic Analysis............................................................................ 46
4.1 Criteria ........................................................................................................... 46
4.2 The Upperbound (Unsafe) Theorem ............................................................. 47
4.3 The Lowerbound (Safe) Theorem ................................................................. 48
4.4 The Uniqueness Theorem .............................................................................. 49
4.5 Corollaries of the Theorems .......................................................................... 50
4.6 Application of the Theorems ......................................................................... 51
4.7 Plastic Design ................................................................................................ 56
4.8 Summary of Important Points ....................................................................... 59
5. Plastic Analysis of Beams ................................................................................. 60
5.1 Example 1 – Fixed-Fixed Beam with Point Load ......................................... 60
5.2 Example 2 – Propped Cantilever with Two Point Loads .............................. 63
5.3 Example 3 – Propped Cantilever under UDL ............................................... 68
5.4 Continuous Beams ......................................................................................... 73

2
 5.5 Example 4 – Continuous Beam ..................................................................... 77
5.6 Problems ........................................................................................................ 81
6. Plastic Analysis of Frames ................................................................................ 83
6.1 Additional Aspects for Frames ...................................................................... 83
6.2 Example 5 –Portal Frame with Multiple Loads ............................................ 86
6.3 Example 6 – Portal Frame with Crane Loads, Summer 1997 ....................... 93
6.4 Example 7 – Oblique Frame, Sumer 1999 .................................................... 97
7. Past Exam Questions....................................................................................... 109
7.1 Sumer 2000 .................................................................................................. 109
7.2 Summer 2001............................................................................................... 110
7.3 Summer 2004............................................................................................... 111
7.4 Summer 2005............................................................................................... 112
7.5 Summer 2007............................................................................................... 113
7.6 Semester 2 2008........................................................................................... 114
7.7 Semester 2 2009........................................................................................... 115
8. References ........................................................................................................ 116

3
1. Introduction

1.1 Background
Up to now we have concentrated on the elastic analysis of structures. In these
analyses we used superposition often, knowing that for a linearly elastic structure it
was valid. However, an elastic analysis does not give information about the loads that
will actually collapse a structure. An indeterminate structure may sustain loads
greater than the load that first causes a yield to occur at any point in the structure. In
fact, a structure will stand as long as it is able to find redundancies to yield. It is only
when a structure has exhausted all of its redundancies will extra load causes it to fail.
Plastic analysis is the method through which the actual failure load of a structure is
calculated, and as will be seen, this failure load can be significantly greater than the
elastic load capacity.

To summarize this, Prof. Sean de Courcy (UCD) used to say:

“a structure only collapses when it has exhausted all means of standing”.

Before analysing complete structures, we review material and cross section behaviour
beyond the elastic limit.

4
2. Basis of Plastic Design

2.1 Material Behaviour

A uniaxial tensile stress on a ductile material such as mild steel typically provides the
following graph of stress versus strain:

As can be seen, the material can sustain strains far in excess of the strain at which
yield occurs before failure. This property of the material is called its ductility.

Though complex models do exist to accurately reflect the above real behaviour of the
material, the most common, and simplest, model is the idealised stress-strain curve.
This is the curve for an ideal elastic-plastic material (which doesn’t exist), and the
graph is:

5
As can be seen, once the yield has been reached it is taken that an indefinite amount
of strain can occur. Since so much post-yield strain is modelled, the actual material
(or cross section) must also be capable of allowing such strains. That is, it must be
sufficiently ductile for the idealised stress-strain curve to be valid.

Next we consider the behaviour of a cross section of an ideal elastic-plastic material

subject to bending. In doing so, we seek the relationship between applied moment
and the rotation (or more accurately, the curvature) of a cross section.

6
2.2 Cross Section Behaviour

Moment-Rotation Characteristics of General Cross Section

We consider an arbitrary cross-section with a vertical plane of symmetry, which is

also the plane of loading. We consider the cross section subject to an increasing
bending moment, and assess the stresses at each stage.

Cross-Section and Stresses

Moment-Rotation Curve

7
Stage 1 – Elastic Behaviour
The applied moment causes stresses over the cross-section that are all less than the
yield stress of the material.

Stage 2 – Yield Moment

The applied moment is just sufficient that the yield stress of the material is reached at
the outermost fibre(s) of the cross-section. All other stresses in the cross section are
less than the yield stress. This is limit of applicability of an elastic analysis and of
elastic design. Since all fibres are elastic, the ratio of the depth of the elastic to plastic
regions, α = 1.0 .

Stage 3 – Elasto-Plastic Bending

The moment applied to the cross section has been increased beyond the yield
moment. Since by the idealised stress-strain curve the material cannot sustain a stress
greater than yield stress, the fibres at the yield stress have progressed inwards
towards the centre of the beam. Thus over the cross section there is an elastic core
and a plastic region. The ratio of the depth of the elastic core to the plastic region is
1.0 < α < 0 . Since extra moment is being applied and no stress is bigger than the yield
stress, extra rotation of the section occurs: the moment-rotation curve losses its
linearity and curves, giving more rotation per unit moment (i.e. looses stiffness).

Stage 4 – Plastic Bending

The applied moment to the cross section is such that all fibres in the cross section are
at yield stress. This is termed the Plastic Moment Capacity of the section since there
are no fibres at an elastic stress, α = 0. Also note that the full plastic moment requires
an infinite strain at the neutral axis and so is physically impossible to achieve.
However, it is closely approximated in practice. Any attempt at increasing the
moment at this point simply results in more rotation, once the cross-section has

8
sufficient ductility. Therefore in steel members the cross section classification must
be plastic and in concrete members the section must be under-reinforced.

Stage 5 – Strain Hardening

Due to strain hardening of the material, a small amount of extra moment can be
sustained.

The above moment-rotation curve represents the behaviour of a cross section of a

regular elastic-plastic material. However, it is usually further simplified as follows:

With this idealised moment-rotation curve, the cross section linearly sustains moment
up to the plastic moment capacity of the section and then yields in rotation an
indeterminate amount. Again, to use this idealisation, the actual section must be
capable of sustaining large rotations – that is it must be ductile.

9
Plastic Hinge
Note that once the plastic moment capacity is reached, the section can rotate freely –
that is, it behaves like a hinge, except with moment of M P at the hinge. This is
termed a plastic hinge, and is the basis for plastic analysis. At the plastic hinge
stresses remain constant, but strains and hence rotations can increase.

10
Analysis of Rectangular Cross Section

Since we now know that a cross section can sustain more load than just the yield
moment, we are interested in how much more. In other words we want to find the
yield moment and plastic moment, and we do so for a rectangular section. Taking the
stress diagrams from those of the moment-rotation curve examined previously, we
have:

Elastic Moment
From the diagram:

2
MY = C × d
3

But, the force (or the volume of the stress block) is:

1 d
C = T = σY b
2 2

Hence:

11
 ⎛ 1 d ⎞⎛ 2 ⎞
MY =⎜ σY b ⎟ ⎜ d ⎟
⎝2 2 ⎠⎝ 3 ⎠
bd 2
= σY ⋅
6
= σY ⋅ Z

The term bd 2 6 is thus a property of the cross section called the elastic section
modulus and it is termed Z.

Elasto-Plastic Moment
The moment in the section is made up of plastic and elastic components:

M EP = M E' + M P'

The elastic component is the same as previous, but for the reduced depth, α d instead
of the overall depth, d:

⎛1 α = d ⎞ ⎛ = 2α d ⎞
M ' E = ⎜ σY
⎝2 2 ⎟⎠⎜⎝ 3 ⎟⎠
bd 2
= σY ⋅ α ⋅
2

The plastic component is:

M 'P = CP ⋅ s

The lever arm, s, is:

s = αd + hp

12
But

d −αd d
hp = = (1 − α )
2 2

Thus,

d αd
s = αd + −
2 2
d
= (1 + α )
2

The force is:

C P = σ Y h pb
d
= σY b (1 − α )
2

Hence,

⎡ d ⎤ ⎡d ⎤
M ' P = σ Y b (1 − α ) ⋅ (1 + α )
2 2
bd 2
= σY
4
(1−α 2 )

And so the total elasto-plastic moment is:

bd 2 bd 2
M EP = σ Y ⋅ α ⋅
2

6
+ σY
4
(1− α 2 )

bd 2 ( 3 − α )
2

= σY ⋅
6 2

13
Plastic Moment
From the stress diagram:

d
MP = C ×
2

And the force is:

d
C = T = σY b
2

Hence:

⎛ = bd ⎞ ⎛ =d ⎞
M P = ⎜σ Y ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 2 ⎠⎝ 2 ⎠
bd 2
= σY ⋅
4
= σY ⋅ S

The term bd 2 4 is a property of the cross section called the plastic section modulus,
termed S.
Shape Factor

Thus the ratio of elastic to plastic moment capacity is:

M P σY ⋅ S S
= =
MY σ Y⋅ Z Z

This ration is termed the shape factor, f, and is a property of a cross section alone.
For a rectangular cross-section, we have:

S bd 2 4
f = = 2 = 1.5
Z bd 6

And so a rectangular section can sustain 50% more moment than the yield moment,
before a plastic hinge is formed. Therefore the shape factor is a good measure of the
efficiency of a cross section in bending. Shape factors for some other cross sections
are:

Rectangle: f = 1.5 , as above;

Circle: f = 1.698 ;

Diamond: f = 2.0 ;

Steel I-beam: f is between 1.12 and 1.15.

Moment Rotation Curve of a Rectangular Section
It is of interest to examine the moment-rotation curve as the moment approaches the
plastic moment capacity of the section. We begin by recalling the relationship
between strain, ε , and distance from the neutral axis, y:

ε=κy

This is a direct consequence of the assumption that plane sections remain plane and is
independent of any constitutive law (e.g. linear elasticity). We next identify the yield
strain (that corresponds to the yield stress, σ y) as ε y. The curvature that occurs at the

yield moment is therefore:

εY ε
κY = =2 Y
( d 2) d

For moments applied beyond the yield moment, the curvature can be found by noting
that the yield strain, ε y, occurs at a distance from the neutral axis of α d 2 , giving:

εY ε
κ= =2 Y
(α d 2 ) α d

Thus, the ratio curvature to yield curvature is:

κ 2ε Y α d 1
= =
κY 2εY d α

From which α = κ Y κ .
Also, the ratio of elasto-plastic moment to yield moment is:

bd 2 ( 3 − α )
2

σY ⋅ (3 − α ) 2
M 6
= 2 =
2
MY bd 2
σY
6

If we now substitute the value α = κ Y κ we find:

M 1 ⎡ ⎛ κY ⎞ ⎤
2

= ⎢3 − ⎜ ⎟ ⎥
MY 2 ⎣ ⎝ κ ⎠ ⎦

And so finally we have:

−2
M ⎛κ⎞
= 1.5 − 0.5
⎜ ⎟
MY ⎝ ⎠
κ
Y

Plotting this gives:

1.5

1.25

1
M /M Y

0.75

0.5

0.25

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
κ /κ Y
There are some important observations to be made from this graph:
• To reach the plastic moment capacity of the section requires large curvatures. Thus
the section must be ductile.
• The full cross-section plasticity associated with the plastic moment capacity of a
section can only be reached at infinite curvature (or infinite strain). Since this is
impossible, we realise that the full plastic moment capacity is unobtainable.

To show that the idea of the plastic moment capacity of section is still useful, we
examine this further. Firstly we note that strain hardening in mild steel begins to
occur at a strain of about 10ε Y . At this strain, the corresponding moment ratio is:

M
= 1.5 − 0.5 (10 ) = 1.495
−2

MY

Since this is about 99.7% of the plastic moment capacity, we see that the plastic
moment capacity of a section is a good approximation of the section’s capacity.

These calculations are based on a ductility ration of 10. This is about the level of
ductility a section requires to be of use in any plastic collapse analysis.

Lastly, for other cross-section shapes we have the moment-curvature relations shown
in the following figure.

18
M MY

f = 2.0
f = 1.7
f = 1.5
f = 1.27

Ideal I-Section (f ≈ 1.0)

Typical I-Section (f ≈ 1.14)

κ κY

(Adapted from Bruneau et al (1998))

19
Effect of Axial Force on the Plastic Moment Capacity

Thus far the cross sections considered are only carrying moment. In the presence of
axial force, clearly some material must be given over to carry the axial force and so is
not available to carry moment, reducing the capacity of the section. Further, it should
be apparent that the moment capacity of the section therefore depends on the amount
of axial load being carried.

Considering a compression load as positive, more of the section will be in

compression and so the neutral axis will drop. If we consider the moment and axial
force separately, we have:

The axial force corresponding to this state is:

P = 2σ Y b ( β d )

If we label the plastic ‘squash load’ of the section as:

PC = σ Y bd

Then we have:

20
 P = 2 β PC

Next, the collapse moment that this section offers, M PC , is got by taking moments
about the centroidal axis:

⎛1 ⎞
M PC = M P − P⎜ β d ⎟
⎝2 ⎠

bd 2
Using, M P = σ Y and the expression for P above:
4

⎡ bd 2 ⎤ ⎛1 ⎞
M PC = ⎢σ Y ⎥ − ⎡2
⎣ σ Y b ( β d ) ⎤
⎦ ⎜ βd ⎟
⎣ 4 ⎦ ⎝2 ⎠
⎛ bd 2 ⎞
= ⎜σY ⎟ ⎡1
⎣ − 4 β 2 ⎤⎦
⎝ 4 ⎠

Giving,

M PC = M P (1 − 4 β 2 )

Noting that 2 β = P PC from earlier, we now have:

2
M PC ⎛P⎞
= 1 − ( 2β ) = 1 − ⎜ ⎟
2

MP ⎝ PC ⎠

Thus the interaction equation is:

 2
⎛ M PC ⎞ ⎛ P ⎞
⎜ ⎟ +⎜ ⎟ =1
⎝ M P ⎠ ⎝ PC ⎠

Plotting this shows the yield surface (which can be shown is always convex):

1
Rectangular Section
I-Section
0.8

0.6
P /PC

0.4

0.2

0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1

M PC /M P

Also shown in this plot is an approximate interaction line for I-sections, given by:

P M PC ⎛ P⎞
> 0.15 :
= 1.18 1 −
⎝ PC ⎠
⎜ ⎟
= 1.0
PC MP
P M PC
≤ 0.15 :
PC MP

This says that for I-sections with an axial load of less than 15% of the squash load,
the full plastic moment capacity may be still considered. This is because the web
carries the axial load whilst contributing little to the moment capacity of the section.

Shear force can also reduce the plastic moment capacity of a section in some cases. In
the presence of axial and shear, a three dimensional failure surface is required.
2.3 Plastic Hinge Formation

Simply-Supported Beam
We investigate the collapse of a simply supported beam under central point load with
the information we now have.

The bending moment at the centre of the beam is given by:

PL
MC =
4
Therefore the load at which yield first occurs is:

PY L
M C = MY =
4
4M
∴ PY = Y
L

Collapse of this beam occurs when the plastic hinge forms at the centre of the beam,
since the extra hinge turns the statically determinate beam into a mechanism. The
collapse load occurs when the moment at the centre reaches the plastic moment
capacity:

PP L
M C = MP =
4
4M
∴ PP = P
L

The ratio collapse to yield load is:

PP 4M P L M P
= =
PY 4M Y L M Y
But since,

MP S
= =f
MY Z

The ratio is just the shape factor of the section. This is a general result: the ratio of
collapse load to first yield load is the shape factor of the member, for statically
determinate prismatic structures.

Shape of the Plastic Hinge

We are also interested in the plastic hinge, and the zone of elasto-plastic bending. As
can be seen from the diagram, the plastic material zones extend from the centre out to
the point where the moment equals the yield moment.

Using similar triangles from the bending moment diagram at collapse, we see that:

M P M P − MY M − M EP
= = P
L lp 2z

In which M EP is the elasto-plastic moment at a distance z from the plastic hinge, and
lp
where z ≤ , where lp is the total length of the plastic region.
2

Equating the first two equations gives:

L ⎛ M ⎞ ⎛ 1⎞
lp = ( M P − M Y ) = L ⎜1 − Y ⎟ = L ⎜1 − ⎟
MP ⎝ MP ⎠ ⎝ f⎠

And so for a beam with a rectangular cross section ( f = 1.5 ) the plastic hinge extends
for a length:
 ⎛ = 1 ⎞ L
l =p L 1⎜− ⎟=
⎝ 1.5 ⎠ 3

Lastly, the shape of the hinge follows from the first and third equation
 M P M P − M EP
=
L 2z
z 1
= ( M P − M EP )
L 2M P
z 1 ⎛ M EP ⎞
= ⎜1 − ⎟
L 2⎝ MP ⎠

From our expressions for the elasto-plastic and plastic moments, we have:

z 1 ⎛ σ Y ( bd 6 ) (1 2 ) ( 3 − α ) ⎞
2 2

= 1−
L 2 ⎝⎜ σ Y ( bd 2 4 ) ⎟
⎠
=1 ⎛ 2 1 ⎞
= ⎜1 − ⋅ ⋅ ( 3 − α 2 ) ⎟
2⎝ 3 2 ⎠
z α 2

=
L 6

This shows that the plastic region has a parabolic profile, and confirms that the total
length of the hinge, l p = 2z , is L 3 at the location where α = 1.0 .

Using a similar form of analysis, we can show that under a UDL the plastic hinge has
a linear profile given by z L = 2α 3 and that its length is L 3.
3. Methods of Plastic Analysis

3.1 Introduction
There are three main approaches for performing a plastic analysis:

The Incremental Method

This is probably the most obvious approach: the loads on the structure are
incremented until the first plastic hinge forms. This continues until sufficient hinges
have formed to collapse the structure. This is a labour-intensive, ‘brute-force’,
approach, but one that is most readily suited for computer implementation.

The Equilibrium (or Statical) Method

In this method, free and reactant bending moment diagrams are drawn. These
diagrams are overlaid to identify the likely locations of plastic hinges. This method
therefore satisfies the equilibrium criterion first leaving the two remaining criterion to
derived therefrom.

The Kinematic (or Mechanism) Method

In this method, a collapse mechanism is first postulated. Virtual work equations are
then written for this collapse state, allowing the calculations of the collapse bending
moment diagram. This method satisfies the mechanism condition first, leaving the
remaining two criteria to be derived therefrom.

We will concentrate mainly on the Kinematic Method, but introduce now the
Incremental Method to illustrate the main concepts.
3.2 Incremental Analysis

Illustrative Example – Propped Cantilever

We now assess the behaviour of a simple statically indeterminate structure under
increasing load. We consider a propped cantilever with mid-span point load:

From previous analyses we know that:

3PL 5PL
MA = MC =
16 32

We will take the span to be L = 1 m and the cross section to have the following
capacities:

M Y = 7.5 kNm M P = 9.0 kNm

Further, we want this beam to be safe at a working load of 32 kN, so we start there.
Since the peak moments are less than the yield moments, we know that yield stress
has not been reached at any point in the beam. Also, the maximum moment occurs at
A and so this point will first reach the yield moment.

Load of 40 kN
At this load the BDM becomes that as shown. The moment at A has now reached the
yield moment and so the outer fibres at A are at yield stress.