UNIT-III: STATIC SHUNT COMPENSATORS

1. Objectives of Shunt Compensation

 steady-state transmittable power can be increased.
 voltage profile along the line controlled by appropriate reactive shunt
compensation.
 shunt connected, fixed or mechanically switched reactors are applied to
minimize line overvoltage under light load conditions,
 shunt connected fixed or mechanically switched capacitors are applied to
maintain voltage levels under heavy load conditions.
 Var compensation is thus used for voltage regulation at the midpoint to
segment the transmission line and at the end of the (radial) line to prevent
voltage instability.
 dynamic voltage control to increase transient stability and damp power
oscillations.

2. Midpoint Voltage Regulation for Line Segmentation

Consider the simple two-machine (two-bus) transmission model in which an ideal

VAR compensator is shunt connected at the midpoint of the transmission line

 For the lossless system assumed real power is the same at each terminal can be
derived readily from the phasor diagram
 𝑉2
 Real power= p= 2 𝑆𝑖𝑛 /2
𝑋
4 𝑉2 
 Reatcive power= Q= (1 − 𝐶𝑜𝑠 2)
𝑋

 The relationship between real power P, reactive power Q, and angle  for the
case of ideal shunt compensation is shown plotted in below Figure.

 It can be observed that the midpoint shunt compensation can significantly

increase the transmittable power (doubling its maximum value) at the expense
of a rapidly increasing reactive power demand on the midpoint compensator
(and also on the end-generators).
 the midpoint of the transmission line is the best location for the compensator.
This is because the voltage sag along the uncompensated transmission line is
the largest at the midpoint.
 Theoretically, the transmittable power would double with each doubling of the
segments for the same overall line length.
  with the increase of the number of segments, the voltage variation along the
line would rapidly decrease, approaching the ideal case of constant voltage
proflle.

3. End of Line Voltage Support to Prevent Voltage Instability

 if a passive load, consuming power P at voltage V, is connected to the
midpoint in place of the receiving-end part of the system.
 Without compensation the voltage at the midpoint (which is now the receiving

end) would vary with the load (and load power factor).

 A simple radial system with feeder line reactance of X and load impedance
Z,is shown in Figure (a) together with the normalized terminal voltage ,
versus power P plot at various load power factors, ranging from 0.8 lag and
0.9 lead.
 The "nose-point" at each plot given for a specific power factor represents the
voltage instability corresponding to that system condition
 The voltage stability limit decreases with inductive loads and increases with
capacitive loads.
 The V, versus P plots shown, clearly indicate that shunt reactive
compensation can effectively increase the voltage stability limit by supplying
 the reactive load and regulating the terminal voltage (V – Vr = 0) as
illustrated in Figure (b).

4. Improvement of Transient Stability

 Consider the simple two machine (the receiving end is an infinite bus),
two line system shown in Figure (a)
 The corresponding P versus 6 curves shown in Figure (b).
 Assume that the complete system is characterized by the P versus  curve
"a" and is operating at angle 1 to transmit power P1.
 when a fault occurs at line segment "1", During the fault the system is
characterized by the P versus  curve "b" and thus, over this period, the
transmitted electric power decreases significantly while mechanical input
power to the sending-end generator remains substantially constant
corresponding to P1.
 As a result, the generator decelerates and the transmission angle increases
from 1 to 2 at which the protective breakers disconnect the faulted line
segment "1" and the sending-end generator absorbs accelerating energy,
represented by area "A1"
 After fault clearing, without line segment "1" the degraded system is
characterized by the P versus 6 curve "c." At angle 62 on curve "c" the
transmitted power exceeds the mechanical input power P1 and the sending
end generator starts to decelerate
 However, angle  further increases due to the kinetic energy stored in the
machine. The maximum angle reached at 3.
 Where the decelerating energy, represented by area "A2," becomes equal
to the accelerating energy represented by area "A1".
 The limit of transient stability is reached at 3 =  critical, beyond which the
decelerating energy would not balance the accelerating energy and
synchronism between the sending end and receiving end could not be
restored. The area "A-margin," between 3 and critical represent the
transient stability margin of the system.
 Suppose Consider the simple two machine of Figure (a), with and without
the midpoint shunt compensator, transmits the same steady-state power.
Assume that both the uncompensated and the compensated systems are
subjected to the same fault for the same period of time.
 The dynamic behavior of these systems is illustrated in below Figures (a)
& (b).
  Comparison of Figures (a) and (b) clearly shows a substantial increase in
the transient stability margin the ideal midpoint compensation.

5. Power Oscillation Damping

 In the case of an under-damped power system, any minor disturbance can cause
the machine angle to oscillate around its steady-state value at the natural
frequency of the total electromechanical system.
 The angle oscillation, of course, results in corresponding power oscillation around
the steady-state power transmitted.
 The lack of sufficient damping can be a major problem in some power systems
and, in some cases; it may be the limiting factor for the transmittable power.
 Since power oscillation is a sustained dynamic event, it is necessary to vary the

applied shunt compensation, and thereby the (midpoint) voltage of the

transmission line, to counteract the accelerating and decelerating swings of the
disturbed machine(s).
 When the rotationally oscillating generator accelerates and angle  increases
(d/dt > 0), the electric power transmitted must be increased to compensate for the
excess mechanical input power.
 The requirements of var output control, and the process of power oscillation
damping, is illustrated by the following waveforms.
 Waveforms in Figure (a) show the undamped and damped oscillations of angle 
around the steady-state value 0.
 Waveforms in Figure (b) show the undamped and damped oscillations of the
electric power P around the steady-state value P0". (The momentary drop in power
shown at the beginning of the waveform represents an assumed disturbance that
initiated the oscillation.)
 Waveform c shows the reactive power output Qo of the shunt-connected var
compensator.
6. Methods of Controllable VAR Generation

 Capacitors generate and reactors (inductors) absorb reactive power when

connected to an ac power source. They have been used with mechanical
switches for controlled var generation and absorption since the early days of ac
power transmission.
 Continuously variable var generation or absorption for dynamic system
compensation was originally provided by over- or under-excited rotating
synchronous machines
 Now a days for controlled var generation Saturating reactors in conjunction with
fixed capacitors are used.
 There are three ways of controllable VAR generation
 Variable Impedance Type Static VAR Generators
 Switching Converter Type VAR Generators
 Hybrid Var Generators, SVC and STATCOM

7. Variable Impedance Type Static Var Generators

There are two types of variable impedance type static VAR generators. They are
I. The thyristor controlled reactor (TCR)
II. The thyristor-switched capacitor. (TSC)
III. Fixed Capacitor, Thyristor-Controlled Reactor Type VAR Generation
IV. Thyristor-Switched Capacitor, Thyristor-Controlled Reactor Type VAR
Generator.

I.The thyristor controlled reactor (TCR)

  An elementary single-phase thyristor-controlled reactor (TCR) is shown
in Figure (a).
 It consists of a fixed (usually air-core) reactor of inductance L, and a
bidirectional thyristor valve (or switch) sw.
 The current in the reactor can be controlled from maximum (thyristor
valve closed) to zero (thyristor valve open) by the method of firing
delay angle control.
 That is, the closure of the thyristor valve is delayed with respect to
the peak of the applied voltage in each half-cycle,
 This method of current control is illustrated separately for the positive
and negative current half-cycles in Figure (c)

II. The thyristor-switched capacitor. (TSC)

 A single-phase thyristor switched capacitor (TSC) is shown in Figure (a).
 It consists of a capacitor, a bidirectional thyristor valve, and a relatively
small surge current limiting reactor.
  The TSC branch can be disconnected ("switched out") at any current zero
by prior removal of the gate drive to the thyristor valve.
 Consequently, the voltage across the non conducting thyristor valve varies
between zero and the peak-to-peak value of the applied ac voltage, as
illustrated in Figure (b).

III. Fixed Capacitor, Thyristor-Controlled Reactor Type VAR Generation

  A basic var generator arrangement using a fixed (permanently connected)
capacitor with a thyristor-controlled reactor (FC-TCR) is shown functionally
in Figure (a).
 The current in the reactor is varied by the previously discussed method of
firing delay angle control.
 The fixed capacitor in practice is usually substituted, fully or partially, by a
fllter network that has the necessary capacitive impedance at the fundamental
frequency to generate the reactive power required, but it provides a low
impedance at selected frequencies to shunt the dominant harmonics produced
by the TCR.

IV. Thyristor-Switched Capacitor, Thyristor-Controlled Reactor Type VAR Generator.

 T
he thyristor-switched capacitor, thyristor-controlled reactor (TSC-TCR)
type compensator was developed primarily for dynamic compensation of
power transmission systems with the intention of minimizing standby
losses and providing increased operating flexibility.
 A basic single-phase TSC-TCR arrangement is shown in Figure (a). For a
given capacitive output range, it typically consists of n TSC branches and
one TCR.
  The number of branches, n, is determined by practical considerations that
include the operating voltage level, maximum var output, current rating of
the thyristor valves, bus work and installation cost, etc. Of course, the
inductive range also can be expanded to any maximum rating by employing
additional TCR branches.

8. Switching Converter Type VAR Generators

 The aim of this approach is to produce a variable reactive shunt impedance that
can be adjusted (continuously or in a step-like manner). to meet the
compensation requirements of the transmission network.
 Controllable reactive power can be generated by all types of dc to ac and ac to
ac switching converters.
 A power converter of either type consists of an array of solid state switches
which connect the input terminals to the output terminals.
 Consequently, a switching power converter has no internal energy storage and
therefore the instantaneous input power must be equal to the instantaneous
output power.
 Also the termination of the input and output must be complementary, that is, if
the input is terminated by a voltage source (which can be an active voltage
source like a battery or a passive one like a capacitor) then the output must be
terminated by a current source (which in practice would always mean a voltage
source with an inductive source impedance or a passive inductive impedance)
and vice versa.
 Converters presently employed in FACTS Controllers are the voltage-sourced
type.
 Current sourced converters require power semiconductors with bi-directional
voltage blocking capability.
Basic Control Approaches:
 A static (var) generator converter comprises a large number of gate-controlled
semiconductor power switches (GTO thyristors).
  The gating commands for these devices are generated by the intemal converter
control (which is part of the var generator proper) in response to the demand for
reactive and/or real power reference signal(s).

9.
Hybrid Var Generators, SVC and STATCOM

 The converter-based var generator can generate or absorb the same amount of
maximum reactive power; in other words, it has the same control range for
capacitive and inductive var output.
 However, many applications may call for a different var generation and
absorption range.
 This can simply be achieved by combining the converter with either fixed
and/or thyristor-switched capacitors and/or reactors.
 The combination of a converter-based var generator with a fixed capacitor is
shown in below Figure.
 This arrangement can generate vars in excess of the rating of the converter,
shifting the operating range into the capacitive region, as illustrated by the
associated V-I characteristic shown in Figure (b).