Section 1.

1.9 Cartesian Tensors

As with the vector, a (higher order) tensor is a mathematical object which represents
many physical phenomena and which exists independently of any coordinate system. In
what follows, a Cartesian coordinate system is used to describe tensors.

1.9.1 Cartesian Tensors

A second order tensor and the vector it operates on can be described in terms of Cartesian
components. For example, (a  b)c , with a  2e1  e 2  e 3 , b  e1  2e 2  e 3 and
c  e1  e 2  e 3 , is

(a  b)c  a(b  c)  4e1  2e 2  2e 3

Example (The Unit Dyadic or Identity Tensor)

The identity tensor, or unit tensor, I, which maps every vector onto itself, has been
introduced in the previous section. The Cartesian representation of I is

e 1  e1  e 2  e 2  e 3  e 3  e i  e i (1.9.1)

This follows from

e1  e1  e 2  e 2  e 3  e 3 u  e1  e1 u  e 2  e 2 u  e 3  e 3 u
 e1 e1  u   e 2 e 2  u   e 3 e 3  u 
 u1e1  u 2 e 2  u 3 e 3
u

Note also that the identity tensor can be written as I   ij e i  e j  , in other words the
Kronecker delta gives the components of the identity tensor in a Cartesian coordinate
system.
■

Second Order Tensor as a Dyadic

In what follows, it will be shown that a second order tensor can always be written as a
dyadic involving the Cartesian base vectors ei 1.

Consider an arbitrary second-order tensor T which operates on a to produce b, T(a)  b ,

or T(ai e i )  b . From the linearity of T,

1
this can be generalised to the case of non-Cartesian base vectors, which might not be orthogonal nor of
unit magnitude (see §1.16)

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 Section 1.9

a1T(e1 )  a 2 T(e 2 )  a3 T(e 3 )  b

Just as T transforms a into b, it transforms the base vectors ei into some other vectors;
suppose that T(e1 )  u, T(e 2 )  v, T(e 3 )  w , then

b  a1u  a 2 v  a3 w
 a  e1 u  a  e 2 v  a  e 3 w
 u  e1 a  v  e 2 a  w  e 3 a
 u  e1  v  e 2  w  e 3 a

and so

T  u  e1  v  e 2  w  e 3 (1.9.2)

which is indeed a dyadic.

Cartesian components of a Second Order Tensor

The second order tensor T can be written in terms of components and base vectors as
follows: write the vectors u, v and w in (1.9.2) in component form, so that

T  u1e1  u 2 e 2  u 3e 3   e1    e 2    e 3

 u1e1  e1  u 2 e 2  e1  u 3 e 3  e1  

Introduce nine scalars Tij by letting u i  Ti1 , vi  Ti 2 , wi  Ti 3 , so that

T  T11e1  e1  T12 e1  e 2  T13 e1  e 3

 T21e 2  e1  T22 e 2  e 2  T23 e 2  e 3 Second-order Cartesian Tensor (1.9.3)
 T31e 3  e1  T32 e 3  e 2  T33e 3  e 3

These nine scalars Tij are the components of the second order tensor T in the Cartesian
coordinate system. In index notation,

T  Tij e i  e j 

Thus whereas a vector has three components, a second order tensor has nine components.
Similarly, whereas the three vectors e i  form a basis for the space of vectors, the nine
dyads e i  e j  from a basis for the space of tensors, i.e. all second order tensors can be
expressed as a linear combination of these basis tensors.

It can be shown that the components of a second-order tensor can be obtained directly
from {▲Problem 1}

Tij  e i Te j Components of a Tensor (1.9.4)

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 Section 1.9

which is the tensor expression analogous to the vector expression u i  e i  u . Note that,
in Eqn. 1.9.4, the components can be written simply as e i Te j (without a “dot”), since
e i  Te j  e i T  e j .

Example (The Stress Tensor)

Define the traction vector t acting on a surface element within a material to be the force
acting on that element2 divided by the area of the element, Fig. 1.9.1. Let n be a vector
normal to the surface. The stress σ is defined to be that second order tensor which maps
n onto t, according to

t  σn The Stress Tensor (1.9.5)

x2

n  31
 11
t t
 21
x1
e1

x3

Figure 1.9.1: stress acting on a plane

If one now considers a coordinate system with base vectors e i , then σ   ij e i  e j and,
for example,

σe1   11e1   21e 2   31e 3

Thus the components  11 ,  21 and  31 of the stress tensor are the three components of
the traction vector which acts on the plane with normal e1 .

Augustin-Louis Cauchy was the first to regard stress as a linear map of the normal vector
onto the traction vector; hence the name “tensor”, from the French for stress, tension.

2
this force would be due, for example, to intermolecular forces within the material: the particles on one side
of the surface element exert a force on the particles on the other side

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 Section 1.9

Higher Order Tensors

The above can be generalised to tensors of order three and higher. The following notation
will be used:

, ,  … 0th-order tensors (“scalars”)

a, b, c … 1st-order tensors (“vectors”)
A, B, C … 2nd-order tensors (“dyadics”)
A, B, C … 3rd-order tensors (“triadics”)
A, B, C … 4th-order tensors (“tetradics”)

An important third-order tensor is the permutation tensor, defined by

E   ijk e i  e j  e k (1.9.6)

whose components are those of the permutation symbol, Eqns. 1.3.10-1.3.13.

A fourth-order tensor can be written as

A  Aijkl e i  e j  e k  e l (1.9.7)

It can be seen that a zeroth-order tensor (scalar) has 3 0  1 component, a first-order tensor
has 31  3 components, a second-order tensor has 3 2  9 components, so A has 33  27
components and A has 81 components.

1.9.2 Simple Contraction

Tensor/vector operations can be written in component form, for example,

Ta  Tij e i  e j a k e k

 Tij a k e i  e j e k 
(1.9.8)
 Tij a k  jk e i
 Tij a j e i

This operation is called simple contraction, because the order of the tensors is contracted
– to begin there was a tensor of order 2 and a tensor of order 1, and to end there is a
tensor of order 1 (it is called “simple” to distinguish it from “double” contraction – see
below). This is always the case – when a tensor operates on another in this way, the order
of the result will be two less than the sum of the original orders.

An example of simple contraction of two second order tensors has already been seen in
Eqn. 1.8.4a; the tensors there were simple tensors (dyads). Here is another example:

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 Section 1.9

TS  Tij e i  e j S kl e k  e l 

 Tij S kl e i  e j e k  e l  
(1.9.9)
 Tij S kl  jk e i  e l 
 Tij S jl e i  e l 

From the above, the simple contraction of two second order tensors results in another
second order tensor. If one writes A  TS , then the components of the new tensor are
related to those of the original tensors through Aij  Tik S kj .

Note that, in general,

AB  BA
ABC  ABC … associative (1.9.10)
AB  C  AB  AC … distributive

The associative and distributive properties follow from the fact that a tensor is by
definition a linear operator, §1.8.2; they apply to tensors of any order, for example,

ABv  ABv  (1.9.11)

To deal with tensors of any order, all one has to remember is how simple tensors operate
on each other – the two vectors which are beside each other are the ones which are
“dotted” together:

a  b c  b  c a
a  b c  d   b  c a  d 
(1.9.12)
a  b c  d  e   b  c a  d  e 
a  b  c d  e  f   c  d a  b  e  f 
An example involving a higher order tensor is

A  E  Aijkl E mn e i  e j  e k  e l e m  e n 
 Aijkl Eln e i  e j  e k  e n 

and

uv 
AB  C
Au  v
Ab  C
AB  C

Note the relation {▲Problem 10}

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 Section 1.9

AB  CD  AB   CD (1.9.13)

Powers of Tensors

Integral powers of tensors are defined inductively by T 0  I , T n  T n 1T , so, for

example,

T 2  TT The Square of a Tensor (1.9.14)

T 3  TTT , etc.

1.9.3 Double Contraction

Double contraction, as the name implies, contracts the tensors twice as much a simple
contraction. Thus, where the sum of the orders of two tensors is reduced by two in the
simple contraction, the sum of the orders is reduced by four in double contraction. The
double contraction is denoted by a colon (:), e.g. T : S .

First, define the double contraction of simple tensors (dyads) through

a  b  : c  d   a  cb  d  (1.9.15)

So in double contraction, one takes the scalar product of four vectors which are adjacent
to each other, according to the following rule:

a  b  c  : d  e  f   b  d c  e a  f 

For example,

T : S  Tij e i  e j  : S kl e k  e l 
 
 Tij S kl e i  e k e j  e l  (1.9.16)
 Tij S ij

which is, as expected, a scalar.

Here is another example, the contraction of the two second order tensors I (see Eqn.
1.9.1) and u  v ,

I : u  v  e i  e i  : u  v 
 e i  u e i  v 
(1.9.17)
 u i vi
 uv

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 Section 1.9

so that the scalar product of two vectors can be written in the form of a double contraction
involving the Identity Tensor.

An example of double contraction involving the permutation tensor 1.9.6 is {▲Problem

11}

E : u  v   u  v (1.9.18)

It can be shown that the components of a fourth order tensor are given by (compare with
Eqn. 1.9.4)

Aijkl  e i  e j  : A : e k  e l  (1.9.19)

In summary then,

A:B  
A :b 
A:B  c
A:B  C

Note the following identities:

A  B  : C  AB : C  B : CA
A : B  C  CA : B   A : B C (1.9.20)
A  B  : C  D  B : CA  D  A  DB : C
Note: There are many operations that can be defined and performed with tensors. The
two most important operations, the ones which arise most in practice, are the simple and
double contractions defined above. Other possibilities are:
(a) double contraction with two “horizontal” dots, T S , A b , etc., which is based on
the definition of the following operation as applied to simple tensors:
 a  b  c    d  e  f    b  e  c  d  a  f 
(b) operations involving one cross   :  a  b    c  d    a  d    b  c 
(c) “double” operations involving the cross  and dot:
 a  b   c  d    a  c    b  d 
 a  b   c  d    a  c  b  d 
 a  b   c  d    a  c  b  d 

1.9.4 Index Notation

The index notation for single and double contraction of tensors of any order can easily be
remembered. From the above, a single contraction of two tensors implies that the indices

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 Section 1.9

“beside each other” are the same3, and a double contraction implies that a pair of indices
is repeated. Thus, for example, in both symbolic and index notation:

AB  C Aijm Bmk  Cijk

(1.9.21)
A:B  c Aijk B jk  ci

1.9.5 Matrix Notation

Here the matrix notation of §1.4 is extended to include second-order tensors4. The
Cartesian components of a second-order tensor can conveniently be written as a 3  3
matrix,

 T11 T12 T13 

T  T21 T22 T13 
T31 T32 T33 

The operations involving vectors and second-order tensors can now be written in terms of
matrices, for example,

 T11 T12 T13   u1   T11u1  T12 u 2  T13 u 3 

Tu  T u   T21 T22 T13  u 2   T21u1  T22 u 2  T23 u 3 
T31 T32 T33  u 3  T31u1  T32 u 2  T33 u 3 

symbolic “short”
notation matrix “full”
notation matrix
notation

The tensor product can be written as (see §1.4.1)

 u1v1 u1v 2 u1v3 

u  v  u v   T
 u 2 v1 u 2 v 2 u 2 v3  (1.9.22)
u 3 v1 u 3 v2 u 3 v3 

which is consistent with the definition of the dyadic transformation, Eqn. 1.8.3.

3
compare with the “beside each other rule” for matrix multiplication given in §1.4.1
4
the matrix notation cannot be used for higher-order tensors

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 Section 1.9

1.9.6 Problems

1. Use Eqn. 1.9.3 to show that the component T11 of a tensor T can be evaluated from
e1Te1 , and that T12  e1Te 2 (and so on, so that Tij  e i Te j ).
2. Evaluate aT using the index notation (for a Cartesian basis). What is this operation
called? Is your result equal to Ta , in other words is this operation commutative?
Now carry out this operation for two vectors, i.e. a  b . Is it commutative in this case?
3. Evaluate the simple contractions Ab and AB , with respect to a Cartesian coordinate
system (use index notation).
4. Evaluate the double contraction A : B (use index notation).
5. Show that, using a Cartesian coordinate system and the index notation, that the double
contraction A : b is a scalar. Write this scalar out in full in terms of the components
of A and b.
6. Consider the second-order tensors
D  3e1  e1  2e 2  e 2  e 2  e 3  5e 3  e 3
F  4e1  e 3  6e 2  e 2  3e 3  e 2  e 3  e 3
Compute DF and F : D .
7. Consider the second-order tensor
D  3e1  e1  4e1  e 2  2e 2  e1  e 2  e 2  e 3  e 3 .
Determine the image of the vector r  4e1  2e 2  5e 3 when D operates on it.
8. Write the following out in full – are these the components of scalars, vectors or
second order tensors?
(a) Bii
(b) C kkj
(c) Bmn
(d) ai b j Aij
9. Write a  b  : c  d  in terms of the components of the four vectors. What is the
order of the resulting tensor?
10. Verify Eqn. 1.9.13.
11. Show that E :  u  v   u  v – see (1.9.6, 1.9.18). [Hint: use the definition of the
cross product in terms of the permutation symbol, (1.3.14), and the fact that
 ijk   kji .]

Solid Mechanics Part III 83 Kelly