Rediscovery of Inclusive Growth by Dinesha P T

Dr.
Ramachandra Murthy K, is Though, India is one of the fastest growing

currently working as Research countries in the world, this growth is
Assistant of the Centre for study of accompanied by social stratification and
Social Exclusion and Inclusive widening economic disparity between states,
Policy. He has done his PhD in social groups, sex and others. Hence, the
Economics from University of
concept of inclusive growth tries to makes
Mysore, India. He has Published
sure everyone is included in growth,
noted Papers in various Journals
and edited few Books also. He regardless of their economic class, gender,
has Presented Papers in various sex, disability and religion. This approach
National and International takes on long term perspective and the focus
conferences. His field of interests is on productive employment or work rather
is International and Development than merely direct income redistribution as a
Economics. He has assisted in means of increasing income for excluded
preparing District Human groups. Thus inclusive growth approach took
Development Reports (2014) of a long term perspective of development.
Mysuru and Chikkamagalore
Districts of Karnataka. The feature of this book is that the
contributions have been made by the experts
who have in depth knowledge about skill
REDISCOVERY OF INCLUSIVE GROWTH related issues. Besides that this book probes
into some important aspects of under
development and the process by which the
RAMACHANDRA MURTHY K. underclass is left behind by focusing on the
Dr. Dinesha .P.T is currently working National Centre for Inclusive Growth and Development Research R DINESHA P.T. country's most neglected regions. This book
as Assistant Professor cum Assistant Mysuru-570 012 will be a valuable source of reference for
Director of the Centre for Study of academicians, policy-makers, trainers,
Social Exclusion and Inclusive sociologists, economists, industry, not for
Policy, University of Mysore, India. ISBN 978-81-910230-6-0
profits organizations and development
He has done PhD in Economics from thinkers. It also aid the researchers in using
Mangalore University, India. He has
women development and skill related data
published noted research papers
more effectively to support priority settings
and books also. He has presented
papers in various national and and improve development outcomes.
international conferences and also
788191 023060
undertaken sponsored research
projects. His fields of interests are
International and Financial
Economics, Development Studies
and Rural Development.
REDISCOVERY OF INCLUSIVE GROWTH
Edited by
RAMACHANDRA MURTHY K
DINESHA P.T
Rediscovery of Inclusive Growth
© Authors
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced, stored,

adapted or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic,
mechanical, photocopying, micro-filming recording or otherwise, or
translated in any language, without the prior written permission of the
copyright owner and the publisher. The book is sold subject to the
condition that it shall not, by way of trade or otherwise, be lent, resold,
hired out, or otherwise circulated without the prior publisher’s written
consent in any form of binding or cover other than that in which it is
published.
The views and opinion expressed in this book is author own and the facts
reported by them have been verified to the extent possible and the
publishers are not in any way liable for the same.
ISBN: 978-81-910230-6-0
Price: 1200/-
First Published in December 2016
Published by
Rural Organization for Appropriate Development (ROAD) Trust®,
Vinayaka Nagar, Mysore -570 012
Phone No: 8105806756
Email: jythidcn@gmail.com
Printed at: Sri Annapurna Offset Printers, Mysore, Karnataka
ii
UNIVERSITY OF MYSORE
DR. S MAHENDRA KUMAR

M.A. PH,D
Foreword
Inclusive growth is necessary for sustainable development and

equitable distribution of wealth and prosperity. Achieving inclusive
growth is the biggest challenge in a country like India. In a democratic
country like India, bringing 600 million people living in rural India into
the mainstream is the biggest concern. The challenge is to take the levels of
growth to all section of the society and to all parts of the country. The best
way to achieve inclusive growth is through developing people’s skills. Mr.
Jeffrey, Chairman and CEO of Manpower Planning, USA, said that, a
multifaceted approach towards education and skills development is
necessary to achieve grow.
Since independence, significant improvement in India’s economic
and social development made the nation to grow strongly in the 21st
century. Rapid and sustained poverty reduction requires inclusive growth
that allows people to contribute to and benefit from economic growth.
Rapid pace of growth is unquestionably necessary for substantial poverty
reduction, but for this growth to be sustainable in the long run, it should
be broad-based across sectors, and inclusive of the large part of the
country’s labor force. India’s government has made “inclusive growth” a
key element of their policy platform, stating as a goal. In order to reap the
benefits of economic growth, we need to make it inclusive. In addition to
being valuable for its own sake, inclusive growth could actually result in a
virtuous cycle of fuelling further economic growth. However, this
iii
virtuous cycle is unlikely to be unleashed on its own. The government,
through pro-active policies, has to make it happen and this is the
challenge for the 13th Five Year Plan.
I take this opportunity to congratulate Dr. Ramachandra Murthy
and Dr. Dinesha P T for his useful work through this edited volume and
may this book a gift to the existing knowledge.
DR. S. MAHENDRA KUMAR

PROFESSOR
DEPARTMENT OF STUDIES IN ECONOMICS
AND CO-OPERATION
UNIVERSITY OF MYSORE
MYSORE, KARNATAKA
iv
PREFACE
Inclusive growth is a concept that advances equitable opportunities

for economic participants during economic growth with benefits incurred
by every section of society. Inclusion is one of the most important words
spoken with regard to diversity. But the most frequent spoken words
among them could be inclusive growth. Inclusive growth basically means
making sure everyone is included in growth, regardless of their economic
class, gender, sex, disability and religion. Inclusive growth approach takes
on long term perspective and the focus is on productive employment
rather than merely direct income redistribution as a means of increasing
income for excluded groups. Thus inclusive growth approach took a long
term perspective of development. According to World Bank, the growth
said to be inclusive when the growth to be sustainable in long run and it
should be broad based across the sector and inclusive of large part of
countries labour force. The high growth performance of the Indian
economy since the launch of economic reforms in the early 1990s has been
much lauded. But how much of this growth has made its way to the poor?.
Though, India is one of the fastest growing countries in the world.
However, high economic growth is accompanied by social stratification
and widening economic disparity between states. This book probes into
some important aspects of underdevelopment and the process by which
the underclass is left behind by focusing on the country's most neglected
regions.
We would like to express my heartfelt thanks to all the authors who
have enriched the book by contributing their learned papers. I also thank
Prof..K.S.Rangappa, Vice Chancellor and Prof.Rajanna, Registrar,
University of Mysore, Mysore for their never ending encouragement and
logistic support. I thank to Dr.Nanjunda and Dr.Siddaraju faculty
members and Non-Teaching Staff of CSSEIP, University of Mysore for
their support. We acknowledge all others who have supported and
assisted directly and indirectly for completion of this work. I also grateful
to the ROAD Trust®, Mysore and Sri Annapurna Printers, Mysore,
Karnataka for publishing this edited volume.
Editors
Dr. Ramachandra Murthy K
Dr. Dinesha P.T
v
Contents
Contents
Foreword
Preface
List of Contributors
1 Status of Tribal Women: A Case Study in Karnataka 1-9

-Usharani B
2 Analysis Of Beneficiaries Response Towards Public 10-31

Distribution System And Its Impact On Food Security - A
Study In Mysore District, Karnataka
-H. M. Chandrashekar
3 Impact Of Reservation On Higher Education In India 32-45

-Chethana. B And Dr. M. Mahesha.
4 Gender Disparity And The Possibility Of Inclusive Growth: 46-60

Study Of Muslim Women In An Urban Setting
-Suchismita Sur
5 Constitutional Regime on Affirmative Action in Public 61-75

Employment- Doctrinal Study
-B.B.Ballari
6 Agriculture And Sustainable Development 76-93

-J. Lakshmi
vi
7 Inclusion And Exclusion Error In The Public Distribution 94-107
System In Karnataka State
-Huchhe Gowda
8 Excluded Among The Scheduled And Strategies For inclusive 108-116

Development
-Bagavathi Raja. A, And Dr. C. Satheeshkumar
9 Contextualizing Tribal Redistribution Amidst 117-133

Dwindling Forest Cover And Shifting Livelihood Patterns:
A Case Study Of Jharkhand, Orissa And Chattisgarh (1961 –
2001)
-Tanushree Kundu
10 New Strategies for Sustainable Agriculture Development 134-149

-Harish D. N
11 A Pragmatic Case Study Of The Impact And Intricacies Of 150-166

Micro Financing On Financial Inclusion
-Jnaneshwar Pai Maroor
12 Problemes In Inclusive Growth In India 167-177

Sunita Acharya
13 Urban India And Environmental Degredation - Is Inclusive 178-188

Growth Attained Without Environmental Sustainability?
-Savitha K L
14 Gender Disparities in Karnataka: Need for an Effective 189-205

Inclusive Policy for Women Empowerment
-Nagaraj M. Muggur
15 Challenges Of First Generation Students 206-211

-A Thiruvenkateswari
16 Career Opportunities In Agribusiness Management 212-224

-H. M. Chandrashekar
vii
17 A Discourse on Dalit Women’s Social Exclusion: Dalit Women’s 225-233
Autobiographies
-Vanamala S. M
18 Economic Empowerment Of Women: A Measure Towards 234-243

Inclusive Growth
-Shilpa S. Byadagi
19 Women Empowerment through Skills Development: 244-248

-T. Ramesh
20 A Bird Eye on the Health Status and the Health Infrastructure 249-256
in Mysuru District-India
-D.C. Nanjunda
21 Agriculture Credit Reform and Financial Inclusion in India 257-266

-Ramakrishna
22 Empowering Rural Women: An Impact Assessment of Selp 267-279

Help Groups
-Kiran Kumar P
23 Social Exclusion a Study on Child Labour 280-284

M.D.Umesha
24 Green Schools for Green Economy and Inclusive Growth 285-289

-G.H.Nagaraja
25 Inclusive Development of Scheduled Caste and Scheduled 290-298

Tribes through MGNREGA in Karnataka
-Siddaraju V.G and Dr. Manjuprasad C
26 Discourse On Sustainable Development In India 299-311

-Ramesh.M.N
28 Tourism And Inclusive Growth In India 325-332

-Harisha N and Dr Jayasheela
viii
29 Rashtriya Swasthya Bima Yojna (RSBY) in Karnataka: An 333-340
Overview
-Dinesha P T and Ramachandra Murthy K
30 Disparities in Literacy Rate in Karnataka: An Overview 341-348

-Somashekar C.L
ix
LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS
 B.B.Ballari Dr., Asst Prof (Gf) University Law College. Bangalore

University. Gnana Bharathi Compus. Bangalore
 Bagavathi Raja. A, PhD Research Scholar, Department of Social
Work, Pondicherry University, Puducherry – 605014
 C. Satheeshkumar Dr., Assistant Professor, Department of Social
Work, Pondicherry University, Puducherry – 605014
 Chethana B, Research Scholar, DoS in Economics and Cooperation,
UOM, Manasagangothri, Mysore.
 D.C. Nanjunda Dr., UGC-CSSEIP Research Centre, Mysore
University
 Dinesha P T Dr., Centre for the Study of Social Exclusion and
Inclusive Policy, University of Mysore, Mysore, Karnataka.
 G.H.Nagaraja Dr., Associate Prof. Dept. of political science and
public administration, maharaja’s College, University of Mysore.
 H. M. Chandrashekar Dr., Assistant Professor of Agribusiness
Management, Institute of Development Studies, University of
Mysore, Manasagangotri, Mysore, Karnataka, India.
 Harish D. N. Associate Professor, Department of Management
Studies, Visvesvaraya Technological University, Postgraduate
Centre, Kalaburagi–585106.
x
 Harisha N, Assistant Professor, Department of Economics,
Karnataka State Open University, Mukthagangothri, Mysore
 Huchhe Gowda Dr, Assistant Professor, Department of Studies in
Economics, Rani Channamma University, Vidyasangama, PBNH-4,
Belagavi-591156, Karnataka (State), India.
 J. Lakshmi, Asst. Professor, Dept. Of Social Work (Sf) Madras
School Of Social Work, Chennai
 Jayasheela Dr, Professor, Department of Economics, Tumkur
University, Tumkur-572103, Karnataka
 Kiran Kumar P Dr., Assistant Professor, Department of Economics,
Rani Channamma University, S.R Kanthi, P.G Centre S.C
Nandimath Law College Campus Bagalkot, Karnataka.
 M.D.Umesha Dr., Faculty Dept of Gandhian studies, University of
Mysore, Mysore.
 Mahesha M Dr, Associate Professor, DoS in Economics and
Cooperation, UOM, Manasagangothri, Mysore.
 Manjuprasad C Dr., DoS in Economics and Co-operation,
Manasagangothri, University of Mysore, Mysuru.
 Mr. Jnaneshwar Pai Maroor, Assistant Professor & Ph.D Research
Scholar Justice K.S. Hegde Institute Of Management Nmamit, Nitte
 Nagaraj M. Muggur Dr, Assistant Professor, Center for Study of
Social Exclusion and Inclusive Policy (CSEIP), Mangalore
University, Karnataka, India
 Pradeep K.D, research Scholar, School of Gender Studies, Indira
Gandhi national Open University, New Delhi
 Ramachandra Murthy K Dr, Research Scholar, DoS in Economics
and Co-operation, Manasagangothri, University of Mysore, Mysuru.
 Ramakrishna Dr., Faculty and Post Doctoral Fellow, Institute of
Development Studies, University of Mysore, Manasagngothri,
Mysore, Karnataka, India.
 Ramesh T. Dr., Faculty, Gandian Studies, Manasagangothri,
University of Mysore, Mysore.
xi
 Ramesh.M.N Dr, Assistant Professor, Department Of Political
Science, Vidya Sangama, Bootharamana Hatti, Rani Channamma
University, Belagavi.
 Savitha K L, Research Scholar, Central University Of Kerala,
Kasaragod
 Shilpa S.Byadagi, Research Scholar, P.G Department of Studies in law,
Karnatak University, Dharwad-580003
 Siddaraju V.G, Associate Professor, Centre for Study of Social

Exclusion and Inclusive Policy, University of Mysore, Mysore,
Karnataka, India.
 Somashekar C.L, Asst. Professor, DOS in Public Administration,

University of Mysore, MG, Mysore.
 Suchismita Sur, Department of Anthropology, University of

Calcutta, India
 Sunita Acharya Dr., Lecturer in Education, Kalinga Institute of
Social Sciences, KIIT, Campus-10, Bhubaneswar-24, Odisha, India
 Tanushree Kundu, Research Scholar, Centre for the Study of
Regional Development (C.S.R.D.) Jawaharlal Nehru University
(J.N.U.), New Delhi
 Thiruvenkateswari A .Dr., Assistant Professor, Department Of
Economics, Snmv College Of Arts And Sciences, Coimbatore-641050
 Usharani B, Research Scholar, Department of Sociology, Mangalore
University
 Vanamala. S.M Dr, Assistant Professor of English, University of
Mysore, Mysore.
xii
Status of Tribal Women: A Case Study in Karnataka
Usharani B
Abstract
Women play an important role in their house hold economy. They work in
most operations of all sectors of the local economy and for longer hours each
day than men. In addition to the domestic and reproductive activities
associated with household maintenance they also collect and gather free
goods especially fuel, fodder and water. Tribal women operate effectively in
most economic and social institutions, participating in both local and migrant
labour activities. Women’s autonomy in terms of decision- making is highly
constrained among tribals. They have little access to, and exercise limited
control over resources; and few are free from threat and violence at the hands
of their husbands. Working for wages is not necessarily an indicator of
autonomy. The wage earning tribal women cannot make the decision to work
on their own, nor do they have control over their earnings. The marriage
pattern and family ties ensure that women are not cut off from family
support.
Introduction
The tribal women, as women in all social groups, are more illiterate than
men. Like others social groups, the tribal women share problems related to
reproductive health. When primary and secondary subsistence activities are
counted, women work more than men. Status of women varies in different
1
societies. The conceptual framework to analyse women’s status comprise the

seven roles women play in life and work: - parental, conjugal, domestic, kin,
occupational, community and as an individual. The tribal women work very
hard, in some cases even more than the men. All the tribal societies in the
study area are patriarchal in which men dominate in public sector. However,
in their own world women have a freedom, and a self-expression. With the
onset of development programmes economic changes are taking place but
tribal women remain traditional in their dress, language, tools and resources,
because they grow food crops rather than cash crops. Modernisation is
bringing changes, which affect men and women differently. India as a whole
is characterised by sharp gender disparities, although women’s status varies
considerably by region. On virtually all frontiers of human societal pursuits-
economic, educational, scientific, legal, political, official, political and
religious sphere Indian women suffer profoundly. For all time there are
socio-cultural factors, which validate for the status of women in particular
society. It is always culture (a set of collective experiences of ideas, norms,
values and beliefs associated with a people) with its gender role inequalities
and socialisation (the intricate process through which culture is transmitted
from one generation to another) determines the position of women in a
society. Gender roles are socially constructed. The family structure in India is
patriarchal, patrilocal and patrilineal. Patriarchy denotes a culture of power
relationship that promotes man’s supremacy and women subjugation.
It encompasses institutional endorsement of man’s ascendancy within
the family and other social structures. It justifies the normative process
pertaining to the recognition and sustainability of his dominance in society.
Consequently a boy is looked upon as the perpetuator of the family line, and
a girl ‘a bird of passage’. The Indian family organisation makes
discrimination between the sexes. It promotes a hierarchy of classification in
which man centred issues take dominance where as women derive their
personalities from their fathers’, husbands’, brothers’ and sons. With a
secondary status, women play but a submissive role in social life. Despite
several economic, political and social changes, women, are still far behind.
One of the most unflattering statistics concerning India’s girl child shows that
the preference for a son runs across rich as well as poor households, educated
as well as illiterate families.
2
Widespread use of modern technology, a joint failure of medical ethics

and failure to shed concept of a male heir has pushed female foeticide to high
proportions. Female foeticide is just one side of the vast anti-women
behavioural range in India. The tragedy is that even women, who have the
choice, opt for a male child. They feel that only with a birth of a son, they will
achieve higher status.
Tribal societies have been by and large characterised as egalitarian societies
especially in relation to the hierarchical character of caste society. However, it
cannot be said of women status. Status of women varies in different societies.
All societies offer its children the presence of two genders and related roles,
according to kinship, sexuality, work, marriage and age. It also supplies the
broad guidelines for undertaking these roles through a body of attitudes,
specifications, metaphors and myths. In the present study an effort has been
to describe the status of women in four different ecological regions, with
different socio-economic conditions and cultural backgrounds.
Objectives:
 To study the role in different spheres and determining status of tribal
women with special reference to the tribes of Madikeri district of
Karnataka State.
 To understand the recent changes in tribal culture
Methodology:
The population selected for the study is 50, on probability basis, belonging to
all the two tribal groups( Soliga & Jenukuruba) of the district.
Limitations Of The Study

 The study is restricted to tribal women only. The study on tribal
men and other women has not been conducted.
 The study is confined to two tribal communities of Madikeri District
viz. Soliga, and Jenu Kuruba tribes.
Socio-Economic Status of Tribal Women:

In this paper, we attempted to understand the different aspects of
social and economic conditions of respondents. The main features of the
socio-economic profile are age-composition, religion, caste composition,
occupation composition, age at marriage, income, saving pattern and family
3
background of respondents. Nevertheless, these variables could help us to

know the socio-economic status of tribal women in the selected study area in
the paper.
In India women are discriminated due to several historical, religious and
other reasons. A girl child is suppressed from the movement she is born in
terms of personal development. She is made to undergo the feelings of being
inferior and feeble. She is denied the prospects for personal expression. There
are various hypotheses about why women have relatively high or low status.
The common premise is that women status is high when they contribute
substantially to primary subsistence activities. Women position is low in the
societies where food getting is entirely men’s job like hunting, herding or
intensive agriculture. In the historical times when warfare was essential, men
were more esteemed than women. Likewise in the centralised political
systems men had high status. Men in most societies contribute more to
primary subsistence activities, as women have infant and child care
responsibilities. However, women contribute substantially to primary
subsistence activities that depend heavily on gathering and horticulture and
in which men are gathering and horticulture and in which men are away on
labour or pastoral duties while subsistence work has to be done. When
primary and secondary subsistence activities are counted, women work more
than men.
In India the low status of women derives from a lack of control over
material or social resources and from a lack of choice in the unfolding of
one’s destiny. This started with men maintaining their monopoly over the
use of ox-drawn plough used for breaking the dry, hard packed soils. Men
achieved this monopoly for essentially the same reasons that they achieved
over the weapons of hunting and warfare. Their greater bodily strengths
enabled them to be more efficient than women. However a single measure
cannot be used to assess the status of women; rather a multi-dimensional
cluster of variables is required to indicate the status. Status is not a fixed rigid
concept, it changes over time. Women occupy different positions in the social
structure as they pass through the life cycle, and the very basis upon which
the community ascribes power, privilege and prestige also changes.
4
Tribes too have son preference but do not discriminate against girls by
female infanticide or sex determination tests. Boys and girls do not have
similar inheritance laws. Tribal girls do not inherit land, except in matrilineal
societies or under special circumstances. Nonetheless they are not abused,
hated, or subjected to strict social norms. Girls are free to participate in social
events, dancing and other recreational programmes. There is no dowry on
marriage. Among tribes, the father of the bridegroom pays a bride price to
the father of the girl. Widowed or divorced women are free to marry again.
As incidence of child labour is high among the tribes, girls are no exception.
Girls care for younger siblings, perform household jobs and work in the
fields along with their brothers. This leaves no time for education of girls;
consequently there is gender gap in education. Both boys and girls are
equally exposed to hazards, infections and under nourishments. Infant and
child mortality among tribal is high due to poverty and its related
malnutrition for both boys and girls. However, all household members are
heavily involved in agriculture and subsistence tasks, and that all family
members contribute long hours each day to the household economy.
Married Women
Tribal women in India contribute positively to the local economy and
participate along with men in subsistence activities. In reality, women do
more work than men. They participate in all agricultural activities (except
ploughing) and other sectors of indigenous cottage industries. They share
major responsibilities in the production process. In addition, they have to
manage household chores, which is a stupendous task. Child rearing is also
the responsibility of the women.
Women’s Role in Economic Sphere

In the traditional societies which lack market system, the business of
everyday living is usually carried on gender division of labour (Illich, 1982).
In the study area, the division of labour is mainly between herding and
agriculture. Major portion of agriculture is done by women who do weeding,
hoeing, planting, harvesting and thrashing except ploughing (which are done
by men) in the fields adjacent to houses or far off fields. The other activities of
women include looking after the house, children and cattle. Food processing
5
and cooking is women’s job. It is the women who with the assistance of
children are largely responsible for the cattle, water fuel and fodder. This
permits them considerable time away from home and the village. When they
are away from home, they are free to talk to whom so ever they please, male
or female, of any caste or creed. As a consequence, communication among
women and between men and women is as high as it is among men.
Women’s Role in Social Sphere

Role of tribal women in the study area is not only of importance in the
economic activities, but her role in non- economic activities is equally
important. Formation and continuity of family hearth and home is the
domain of the women. Women’s role as wives, mothers, and organisers and
as basic foundation of other dimensions of social life is of extreme
importance. The role of women in childbirth, funerals and fairs and festivals
is an important part of village life. In the tribal areas, women are carriers of
traditional information in absence of written records. They are crucial actors
in the preservation and dissemination of such knowledge. They are not only
competent food producers and house makers but are also the transmitters of
rich local oral traditions.
Women’s Role in Religious Sphere

As the religious sphere is most dominating among tribals it constitutes
a major field for male domination. The women are deprived of public
authority. Religion legitimises gender hierarchy. The subordination of
women in religious activities and their denial of access to positions of
religious leadership has been a powerful tool in most world religions in
supporting the patriarchal order and the exclusion of women, from the
public form (Ortner, 1974; Sered, 1994; Franzmen, 2000). The religious sphere
is a major field for male dominance, and a strategy to deprive women of
public authority (Scott, 1988; Jones, 1993). There are few innovations s in
religious sphere, and hence these changes must exist within a traditional,
ritual and textual structure. Religious institutions are resistance to gender
equality. In structure an explicitly male religious framework contains the
tribal societies. Though the secular institutions strive to eradicate inequality
but it was seen that women of these areas were lagging behind in all fields.
6
Concept of Women’s Space

Among tribals in the study area the concept of women’s space is where
only women may sit, work or enter freely at any time is relatively informal
and flexible and depends on the separation of activities that result from the
sexual division of labour. It is a characteristics feature of traditional societies
to set apart, or see a distinction in physical space, which is used by men
women (de Schlippe, 1956; Edelberg and Jones, 1979; Ladurie, 1979; Illich,
1982). In the study area, there are no such private or intimate spaces for
women, though men have
public space to hold meetings, settle disputes, and discuss political and
farming issues. There is at least one such space in each of the settlements,
either under a tree or in the open space. Women do not have a similar, formal
sitting space.
Equal Rights to Men and Women

Tribal women in the study area recognise the fact that they have been
discriminated against in education, income, consumption, status and access
to power; they have a worse health record than men; they suffer from social,
cultural and legal discrimination and often from violence. They are
discriminated on grounds of equity (which refers to equality of opportunities
and choices) Labour Work. Earlier when a woman was working on her farm
or collecting minor forest produce from the forest for her family, she felt
belonged to it. However with the change in scenario, when she has to do the
labour work, she has to collect forest produce for the other agencies, her
economic role becomes different. They feel as they are working as unskilled
labourers, it does not help in improving their position. Providing skilled
training to women may help in elevating their status. Tribal women insist on
a need based plan for providing work on year round basis, in line with the
multiple occupational pattern of their work.
Violence against Women
Few tribal women are free from threat and violence at the hands of
their husbands. Violence often becomes a tool to socialise family members
according to prescribed norms of behaviour with an overall perspective of
male dominance and control.
7
Reproductive Rights
Women in the study areas have no personal opinion on the women’s
movement in the other parts of the world on the reproductive health issue as
a part of women’s reproductive rights. They are not comfortable with the
idea of women regulating their own fertility. Though they do manage to have
abortion with crude methods but men tackle major issues of planning the
family. However, the women’s reproductive health problems are originated
in gender inequalities, control of power and resources.
Utilisation of Health Services
Utilisation of health and maternal health services is influenced by the
characteristics of the health delivery system such as the availability, quality
and the cost of the services. However, it does not necessarily means that if
medical services are operational in an area all women are expected to avail
the facility. It may be true that, even under the same conditions of
availability, the response is different. Other factors such as social structure
and status of women are equally important. In the study areas women could
not take the decision on their own about going to health centres. It was not
only peer pressure but lack of education was the deciding factor.
Conclusion:
The present study corroborates the premise that women status is high
when they contribute substantially to primary subsistence activities.
Although they lack control of material and social resources, their
contribution to subsistence economy give them important and irreversible
position. It may be concluded as it is observed that ecology and
environmental factors existing in tribal areas under study have given these
women a special economic power, and an elevated status. Community still is
in the hands of men. There is kind of duality observable here. Men dominate
in public, in social and religious affairs, and continue to play the role of the
head of the family and breadwinner, women enjoy a greater say in their
family life, they have a greater deal of social freedom and several of their
actions are condoned/tolerated (Bhasin, 1991). Modernization brought by
outside agencies is set in a male biased ideology, women are seen as
inherently ‘incapable’; the new techniques are aimed at men by men. Male
values are also reflected in the view that development is solely dependent on
technological and economic advances. Inadequate planning and
8
implementation as well as culture resistance gave rise to more gender

disparities. The association between cultures, economic organisations and
different patterns of women’s labour force participation ought to be implicit.
Though efforts have been made in almost all countries to improve the status
of women but it is still an unequal world.
References:
 Franzmann, Majella. 2000. Women and Religion. Oxford: Oxford University
Press.
 Hewitt, Farida. 1989. “Woman’s work, woman’s place: A gendered lifeword of
a high mountain community in northern Pakistan.” Mountain Research and
Development, 9: 335-352 (1989).
 Kelkar, G. 1991. Violence against Women In India: Perspectives and Strategies.
Bangkok: Asian Institute of Technology.
 Chitrasen,Pasayat,(2006):“Development of Tribal Women Problems and
Potential”,Anmol Publications, New Delhi.
Vijayalaxmi,V(2001): “Politics of Inclusion and scheduled Tribe women in Local
Governance”, Working Paper 88, The Institute for Social and Economic
Change(ISEC), Bangalore
9
2
Analysis of Beneficiaries response towards Public
Distribution System and its impact on Food Security - A
Study in Mysore District, Karnataka
H. M. Chandrashekar
Abstract
Food grains are an important source for the human consumption. As
India’s backbone lies in the agriculture, the farmers grow various crops and
food grain, cereals etc., throughout the country. In the food grains, mainly
wheat, paddy, rice comprises an important place in the human consumption.
The food grain production in India is increasing prosperously from past
years. That is in recent statistics given by the Department of Agriculture has
updated that the total food grain production has reached at 241Million Tons
in 2010-2011. This food grains are procured by the Government of India and
will be stored at Food Corporation of India, Central Warehouse Corporation
and State Warehouse Corporation. It will be distributed to the public through
Public Distribution System. Food Corporation of India is playing a significant
role in providing the services to the entire nation. An attempt is made to
analyze the Beneficiaries response towards Public Distribution System A
Study in Mysore District.
10
Introduction
Food Corporation of India was established under the food corporation
act, 1964 to accomplish all the basic objectives of the food policy. Food
Corporation of India is playing a significant role in providing the services to
the entire nation. The Food Corporation of India has set up its first district
office at Thanjavur on 14-January 1965, the rice bowl of Tamil Nadu, and
working towards to implement the objectives of the National Food policy. Its
effective price support operations for safeguarding the interests of the
farmer’s, distribution of food grains throughout the country for public
distribution system, maintaining satisfactory level of operational and buffer
stocks of food grains to ensure National Food Security.
It is one of the largest corporations in India and probably the largest
supply chain management in Asia. It operates through 5 zonal offices and 26
regional offices. Each year, the Food Corporation of India purchases roughly
15-20 percent of India’s wheat output and 12-15 percent of its rice output. The
purchases are made from the farmers at the rates declared by the
Government of India. This rate is called as MSP (Minimum support price).
There is no limit for procurement in terms of volume; any quantity can be
procured by Food Corporation of India provided the stock satisfies FAQ (Fair
Average Quality) specifications with respect to Food Corporation of India.
Significance of the study

The study on Public Distribution System is very important because it is
a chain of operations done by various governmental departments performing
various functions at every step like procurement of food grains from farmers
at markets for minimum support price and storage of procured food grains
from farmers, maintaining it as a buffer stock for nations food security in
emergency times, and distribution of food grains to the public through public
distribution system. The distribution of food grains is done by Food
Corporation of India to the state governments and then the state government
will distribute it through the government agencies. To understand this
system and to know the problems in distribution of food grains it is very
important to study the public distribution system.
11
Objectives of the study

1. To know the beneficiaries opinion towards Public Distribution System
and Fair Price Shop in Mysore District.
2. To study the problems in Public Distribution System in the study area.
3. To suggest the suitable measures to overcome the problems faced by
the government in Public distribution System.
Methodology
The study is based on primary data. The primary data is collected from
three taluk of Mysore District. The taluks for study were selected on the basis
of developmental index of all the seven taluks and finally selected Mysore,
Hunsur, and H.D.Kote taluk. The Sample size drawn for primary data is 15
Fair Price Shops in each taluk, 5 fair price shops were selected and for each
shop ten consumers were surveyed. The total sample size for consumers are
150.
Sample size
Sl.No. Taluk No of FPS No of consumers
1 Mysore 5 50
2 H.D.Kote 5 50
3 Hunsur 5 50
Total 15 150
Statistical Tools and Techniques:
The statistical techniques which are adopted in the study are growth model,
forecasting techniques and simple tabular analysis, SPSS – Frequency
analysis was adopted in the study.
Results and Discussions

Table 1: Category of Card holders
Taluk BPL APL ANTYODAYA Total
38 11 1 50
H.D.Kote
(76%) (22%) (2) (100%)
34 11 5 50
Hunsur
(68%) (22%) (12%) (100%)
28 16 6 50
Mysore
(56%) (32%) (12%) (100%)
Total 100 38 12 150
Source: Primary data March 2013
12
Figure1: Category of Ration Card holders
The table and figure 1 indicates that majority of the people from BPL
category (Below poverty line) in all the taluks. In H.D.Kote, out of 150
respondents 76% of people are of BPL card holders, 22% of people are of APL
card holders, and 2% are from Antyodaya, here Antyodaya card holders
were very less. In Hunsur, 68% of people are from BPL category, 22% of
people are of APL card holders, and 12% of card holders were from
Antyodaya category. In Mysore taluk, we had surveyed 56% of people from
BPL category and 32% of card holders were from APL category and the 12%
card holders are from Antyodaya.
Table 2: Age of the respondents

Less More than
Taluk 18 to 30years 30 to 50years Total
than 18 50 yrs
1 3 42 4
H.D.Kote 50
(2%) (6%) (84%) (8%)
0 6 35 9 50
Hunsur
(0%) (12%) (70%) (18%) (100%)
0 8 33 9 50
Mysore
(0%) (16%) (66%) (18%) (100%)
Total 1 17 110 22 150
13
Figure 5.2: Age of the respondents
In our survey most of the respondents are from the age group of 30 to
50 years of age. In H.D.Kote taluk, 84 per cent of the card holders were of age
group from 30 to 50 years of age, 2% of card holders from 18years of age, 6%
of card holders are from 18 to 30 years of old, and 8% of them are from more
than 50 years of age. In Hunsur 70% of card holders are from 30 to 50 years of
age group and 12% of were from 18 to 30 years of age, 18% of card holders
are from 50 years of age. In Mysore, 66% of card holders are from 30 to 50
years of age, and 18% of are from more than 50 years of age and 16% of are
from 18 to 30 years of age group.
Table 3: Occupation of the respondents

Taluk Labour Agriculture Employment(p) Business Others Total
30 4 7 8 1 50
H.D.Kote
(60%) (8%) (14%) (16) (2%) (100%)
16 10 6 15 3 50
Hunsur
(32%) (20%) (12%) (30%) (6%) (100%)
23 6 10 8 3 50
Mysore
(46%) (12%) (20%) (16%) (6%) (100%)
Total 69 20 23 31 7 150
Source: Primary Data 2013
14
Figure 3: Occupation of the respondents
In the survey most of the respondents were of labors, majority were of

agricultural labors. In H.D.Kote, the 60% of respondents were employed as
labors, 16% are having their own business, 14% of were employed in private
sector, and 8% were of agriculturist, and 2% of were from others like
vendors, vegetable, and other flower sellers. In Hunsur, the 32% of
respondents were of labors and 30% were of having their own business, 29%
were of agriculturist, 12 were employed in private sector, and 6% were
having their small business (street vendors). In Mysore, 46% of respondents
were labors, majority of them were employed in small scale industries, and
factories, 20% were employed in private sector, 16% were having their own
business, 12% of were agriculturist in rural areas of Mysore taluk, 6% of them
having small business of their own.
Table 4: Income of the Card holders

Lessthan Rs2500 to Rs5000 to Rs10000 to Above
Taluk Total
Rs2500 Rs5000 Rs10000 RS25000 Rs25000
1 37 2 9 1 50
H.D.Kote
(2%) (74%) (4%) (18%) (2%) (100%)
5 31 3 10 1 50
Hunsur
(10%) (62%) (6%) (20%) (2%) (100%)
13 15 12 8 2 50
Mysore
(26%) (30%) (24%) (16%) (4%) (100%)
Total 19 83 17 27 4 150
15
Figure 4: Income of the card holders
The table and figure 4 indicates that while in the survey the respondent
was hesitating to give their income level, some of them had cooperated with
us very nicely. So here the most of the respondent's income level were from
Rs 2500 to Rs 5000. In H.D.Kote 74% of respondent's income were from
Rs.2500 to Rs.5000. And the 18% of respondents were getting income
between Rs 10,000 to 25,000 Rs. In Hunsur, 62% of respondent's income was
between Rs 2500 to Rs.5000 and 20% of respondents were having income
between Rs 10,000 to 25,000 Rs. In Mysore, 30% of respondents income were
ranging from Rs 2500 to Rs 5000 and 26% of were ranging less than 2500 Rs
and 24% of were ranging between 5000 Rs to 10,000 Rs.
Table 5: Family size of the respondents

1 to 3 4 to 6 Above 6
Taluk Total
members members members
10 39 1 50
H.D.Kote
(20%) (78%) (2%) (100%)
17 31 2 50
Hunsur
(34%) (62%) (4%) (100%)
17 32 1 50
Mysore
(34%) (64%) (2%) (100%)
Total 44 102 4 150
16
Figure 5: Family size of the respondents
In the survey the most of the card holder's family size were ranging
from 4 to 6 members. In H.D.Kote most of the respondents family members
were ranging between 4 to 6 members in a family, 78% of were having 4 to 6
members in a family, 20% were having 1 to 3 members in a family, 2% were
having above 6 members in a family. In Hunsur taluk, 62% were having 4 to
6 members in a family, 34% were having 1 to 3 members in a family, and 4%
were having more than 6 members in a family. In Mysore, 64% were having 4
to 6 members in a family, 34% wre having 1 to 3 members in a family.
Table 6: Education status of the respondents

Taluk Illiterate Primary Secondary Intermediate Graduate Others Total
16 O 6 22 6 0 50
H.D.Kote
(32%) (0%) (12%) (44%) (12%) (0%) (100%)
12 1 13 19 5 0 50
Hunsur
(24%) (2%) (26%) (38%) (10%) (0%) (100%)
23 0 2 11 10 4 50
Mysore
(46%) (0%) (4%) (22%) (20%) (8%) (100%)
Total 51 1 21 52 21 4 150
Source: Primary Data March 2013
17
Figure 6: Education status of the respondents
In the present study, it has been seen that the literacy rate was good. In
H.D.Kote taluk 68% of respondents were literates, and 32% were illiterates. In
Hunsur, 76% were of literates and 24% were illiterates. In Mysore 54% were
of literates and 46% of were illiterates. Here in all the three taluks literates
were more in numbers. In that, in all the three taluk, majority of the
respondents had intermediate qualification. In H.D.Kote taluk, 44% of the
respondents were having their intermediate education, and in Graduation
and Post Graduation were very less in number. In Hunsur, 38% of the
respondents were had their intermediate education and 26% were secondary
education. In Mysore, 22% of respondents were having intermediate
education and 20% were graduated.
Table 7: Service provided by the Fair Price Shops

Taluk Very good Good Average Total
H.D.Kote 0 (0%) 49 (98%) 1 (2%) 50 (100%)
Hunsur 0 (0%) 46 (92%) 4 (8%) 50 (100%)
Mysore 1 (2%) 41 (82%) 8 (16%) 50 (100%)

Total 1 136 13 150
18
Figure 7: Service provided by Fair Price Shops
The table and figure 7 indicates the opinion about the service of the
Fair Price Shop is good and most of them were expecting good service from
the Fair Price Shop. But according to us, when we were asking questions the
respondents were hesitating to answer. But we were not possible to get
particular problem they are facing. According to some people it is been said
that sometimes the Fair Price Shops delay in distributing the food grains and
also some times the quality of food grains supplied is not good. So the
respondents were requesting to supply good quality of food grains.
Table 5.8: Purchase of food grains by respondents
Taluk Purchased regularly Total
50 50
H.D.Kote
(100%) (100%)
50 50
Hunsur
(100%) (100%)
50 50
Mysore
(100%) (100%)
Total 150 150
Source: primary data 2013
19
Figure 8: Purchase of food grains by respondents
The table and figure 8 indicates the purchase of food grains supplied
by the public distribution system. As the government is supplying food
grains at subsidized rate, it is been observed that consumers are happy with
this because as the price of the food grains in market is very high, public
distribution system is very helpful for all kind of consumers.
Table 9: Opinion about the quality of food grains

Taluk Satisfied Average Dissatisfied Total
16 32 2 50
H.D.Kote
(32%) (64%) (4%) (100%)
24 25 1 50
Hunsur
(48%) (50%) (2%) (100%)
35 15 0 50
Mysore
(70%) (30%) (0%) (100%)
Total 75 72 3 150
Figure 9: Opinion about the quality of food grains
20
The table and figure 9 reveals the respondents opinion about supply of
foodgrains and respondents opinion was average as 32% of respondents in
H.D.Kote were satisfied and 64% of respondents were averagely satisfied and
4% of were dissatisfied with the quality of food grains supplied. In Hunsur
48% of respondents were satisfied and 50% of respondents were just
averagely satisfied, and 2% of were dissatisfied. In Mysore, 70% of the
respondents were of just satisfied and the remaining were averagely satisfied
with the quality of food grains supplied. So here we come to know that the
quality of food grains supplied are not good to some extent, so consumers are
requesting to supply the good quality food grains.
Table 10: Food grains purchased other than Fair Price Shops
Taluk
Wholesaler Retail outlets Shandies Others No Total
9 12 15 0 14 50
H.D.Kote
(18%) (24%) (30%) (0%) (28%) (100%)
8 9 17 0 16 50
Hunsur
(16%) (18%) (24%) (0%) (32%) (100%)
15 21 4 1 9 50
Mysore
(30%) (42%) (8%) (2%) (18%) (100%)
Total 32 42 36 1 39 150
Figure 10: Food grains purchased other than Fair Price Shops
21
The table and figure 10 indicates the food grains purchased from other
than fair price shops. The respondents purchase the food grains in other
places also because sometimes they will be in shortage of food grains. In
H.D.Kote taluk 30% of the respondents were purchasing in shandies and 28%
of respondents said that they won't purchase anywhere other than the Fair
price shops. Due to they are economically weaker section people so they
won't buy in other places and 24% of respondents are purchasing food grains
from retail outlets and 18% of consumers are purchasing from wholesalers
shop. In Hunsur, 54% of the respondents were purchasing food grains from
shandies and 32% of respondents were not purchasing anywhere and 18% of
consumers are purchasing from wholesalers. In Mysore, 42% of consumers
are purchasing from retail outlets as the retail outlets are more in numbers
than others. 30% of respondents were purchasing food grains from
wholesalers. 18% of consumers were not purchasing any where due to
financial problems.
Table 11: Purchase of food grains from Fair Price Shops

2 Years to 5 Years to
Taluk 2 Years Above 10 Years Total
5 Years 8 Years
0 14 34 2 50
H.D.Kote
(0%) (28%) (68%) (4%) (100%)
1 24 22 3 50
Hunsur
(2%) (48%) (44%) (6%) (100%)
3 24 22 1 50
Mysore
(6%) (48%) (44%) (2%) (100%)
Total 4 62 78 6 150
22
Figure 11: Purchase of food grains from Fair Price Shops
The table and figure 11 reveals that respondents purchase food grains
from 5 to 8 years. In H.D.Kote taluk, 68% of respondents were purchasing
from 5 to 8 years and 28% were purchasing from 2 to 5 years and 4% were
purchasing from above 10 years. In Hunsur, 48% were purchasing from 2 to 5
years, and 44% were purchasing from 5 to years and others were less in
numbers. In Mysore, 48% of respondents were purchasing from 2 to 5 years
and the rest were purchasing from 5 to 8 years and above.
Table 12: Reason for purchasing Food grains from Fair Price Shops
Taluk Less price Availability Total

47 3 50
H.D.Kote
(94%) (6%) (100%)
39 11 50
Hunsur
(78%) (22%) (100%)
37 13 50
Mysore
(74%) (26%) (100%)
Total 123 27 150
Source: Primary data 2013
23
Figure 12: Reason for purchasing food grains from Fair Price Shop
The table and figure 12 represents that majority of the consumers

opined that they buy food grains in fair price shop it is because less in price.
In H.D.Kote taluk, 94% of respondents were purchase food grains because it
is less in price, 6% were due to the availability they are purchasing. In
Hunsur 78% of respondents have opined that they are purchase because less
in price. And the 22% of respondents because of availability they are
purchasing. In Mysore, 74% of consumers are of opinion that the price of the
food grains in fair price shop is less so they are purchase from here and 26%
were due to availability they are purchasing so here we can see that most of
the consumers are feeling that the prices of the food grains are reasonable.
Table 13: Prices of food grains in Fair Price Shop

Taluk Reasonable price Total
50 50
H.D.Kote
(100%) (100%)
50 50
Hunsur
(100%) (100%)
50 50
Mysore
(100%) (100%)
Total 150 150
Source: Primary data 2013
24
Figure 13: Prices of food grains in Fair Price Shop
The table and figure 13 states that all the consumers have opined that
the prices are reasonable when compared to the market price. So hence the
people are of in good opinion about the prices. As it will help poor people to
buy the food grains at reasonable price.
Table 14: Consumers rating to the Fair Price Shop

Taluk Very good Good Total
33 17 50
H.D.Kote
(66%) (34%) (100%)
26 24 50
Hunsur
(52%) (48%) (100%)
25 25 50
Mysore
(50%) (50%) (100%)
Total 84 66 150
Figure 14: Consumers rating to the Fair Price Shop
25
The table and figure above indicates that the most of the consumers
rate the fair price shop as very good. In H.D.Kote taluk 66% of the
respondent rated as very good and 34% of respondents rated as only good. In
Hunsur 52% of the respondents rated very good and 48% they rated it as
good. In Mysore, 50% of the consumers rated it as very good and the rest
they rated it as good.
The findings of the study

1. In the study it is found that most of the respondents are from BPL
category. In the study it clearly shows that the reason behind this is
most of the people are labours in occupation in the rural area.
2. In the present study is noticed that most of the respondents’ age
group is between 30 years to 50 years, that it shows that the
respondents in the rural area in this age group are more.
3. The study reveals that the most of the respondents’ occupation is
labour, it clearly shows that the respondents are economically weaker
and hence all are below poverty line.
4. In our study we found that family size of the most of the respondents
is in between 3 members to 5 members.
5. the respondents opined for the services provided by the Fair Price
Shop, most of them opined that the service given is good, but
according to our view consumers were not openly giving their
opinion, they were just saying even though there are some problems
with fair price shop the service provided by them are good.
6. In our findings the respondents opinion to the quality of food grains,
they opined equally that they are satisfied and averagely satisfied that
the quality of food grains supplied to them by the fair price shops.
Even then some of the respondents were just requesting to supply
good quality food grains.
7. The beneficiaries purchase food grains from outside from wholesaler,
retail outlets, shandies etc, because they are getting shortage of food
grains at the end of each month so hence they are purchasing outside.
8. The most of the beneficiaries purchase food grains regularly from the
fair price shop without missing, because the foodgrains supplied by
26
the fair price shops are less in price when compared to market price,
here even respondents are requesting that the market price should be
controlled by the government to possible extent.
9. The fair price shops were very small in size and are very old and
dilapidated, so they are requesting funds from government to
renovate the shops, so that they can maintain hygiene of the food
grains stored in shop.
Suggestions
The following suggestions were made to overcome the problems
prevailing in Public Distribution system in the study area.
(1) Shops are not opened regularly:

The respondents were of opinion that the shops are not regularly
opened and they open their shops at the time of distribution of ration to the
beneficiaries and after that they are not open at the other days. So this is
causing a problem in consumers, and also if the consumers are not coming at
the time of distribution of food grains, their portion of food grains for that
month will not be issued and the consumer has to wait till the next month for
food grains are issued. So by this the consumers of poor families are facing a
lot of problems. So for these things the government can implement
computerization system and adopt biometric system, it works in correct
pathway in the current situation. The state government should notify strictly
stating that all the fair price shop should indicate in a board that the days the
shops are open and also the timings of the shop opened and the days the
shop kept holidays should also be put in the board and government should
form a group of officials in each taluk, so that the consumers who are facing
the problem they can come to this officials and get their problems solved
within a short time the officials will verify the problem and notify the
concerned person rectify the errors.
(2) Weighing instruments are not proper:

Here in this consumer were complaining mainly about weighing
machines in the fair price shops that they are of older which they don’t show
the correct weight of the items and also the shop owner will hurrily weigh
27
the food grains and lift it so by this they are getting less amount of food
grains and by this the fair price shop owners are making malpractice and
they are making good profits, by this consumers are facing shortage of food
grains even some poor consumers are not been able to purchase the food
grains in the market because as the market price of food grains are high. So
the government should make separate rule that all the fair price shop should
keep electronic weighing machines which are approved by the government
of India. And also it should make a rule that once in every year it should be
checked out by the government officials about the efficiency of machines.
(3) Fair Price Shop runners are not getting good profit:
When we communicated to the shop owners they were informing us
that they are not getting good profit so they are requesting for increasing
their profit ratio. So by this they can operate their shops regularly and also
they were telling that due to less profit ratio they are not in position to
operate this distribution in flexible way. So that the government shall see this
problem and set a panel to study how the profit ratio can be increased.
(4) Transportation facilities for transport food grains from Godown's to the
fair price shop
Fair Price Shop owners are also facing another problem that they are
needed to go to the Godown's and lift the food grains and transport this to
their shops on their own cost which is causing an extra burden on the shop
runners. So the government shall imburse the transport cost with minimum
possible extent or else it can provide transport facility by calling tender and
operate it in a possible low cost.
(5) Bogus card menace should be avoided:

In our survey we found that some shops are having bogus cards, where
the beneficiaries are not at all in that name. So by doing this they are
diverting the food grains which are entitled to the poor people and they are
selling these in the open market at the market price. By this they are making
large amount of profit leading to a large amount of losses to the government
and also making poor people starving from non-availability of food grains
28
which are entitled to them by the state government. So to stop this menace
the government should computerized the whole Public Distribution System,
as this is the big issue in the country. By this system the government can
check that what amount of food grains each beneficiary are getting and how
much of food grains are diverted from the public distribution system,
automatically this problem can be solved.
(6) There is a malpractice in while transporting food grains:

While reviewing the literature we found that there is a lot of
malpractice in while transporting the food grains from depot to depots in the
district level. While transporting the food grains the good quality food grains
were been taken out and it is replaced by poor quality food grains by some
illegal persons. The state government and the central government both
coming together should make a strict rules and regulation so that this
malpractice shall be stopped. Here we have a suggestion like the government
shall make a transportation system computerized, where every bag will have
a secret bar coding system and image that in while uploading the food grains
from departing depot to receiving deport, the officials while loading food
grains to the vehicle they will stick the secret barcodes where this will be
approved that food grains transported are authenticated. while in receiving
depot the official by encoding this barcode if the data management system
shows that it is the correct goods which are transported from other similar
depots, then this will be updated in the management system. By this the
malpractice can be stopped and automatically the poor people can get the
good quality food grains.
(7) Identification of beneficiaries of BPL and ANTYODAYA scheme

It is found that even some of the consumers are providing some fake
information for authorities to get the BPL schemes benefits. So to eliminate
these problems the government should frame such a rules and regulation like
every person should provide their income status related which are prescribed
to be authentic document by the government and it should be verified and
approved by the concerned official.
29
(8) Labor problem in rural areas:

In our survey majorly we found that there is a labor problem in
agricultural sector, where agriculturist are facing a lot of problems without
the labors, even if they get also the labors are demanding high wages which
is not worth to the growers and it leads to the huge lose to the growers, so the
government shall come out with some schemes to purchase the agricultural
machineries to the agriculturist to overcome from this labor problems where
by providing these machineries on rental basis to the growers by this the
government also will not fall in any burden, the growers also get the benefit
from this system and automatically the production of agricultural products
will also increases. which will both consumers and growers will benefit from
this scheme.
(9) Higher Education facility has to be improved.
It has been found in our survey that the secondary and intermediate
education has improved to good extent but the higher education in the
graduation and post graduation are still to be improved, and the government
shall open graduate colleges in the rural areas to facilitate the rural youths to
get the higher education facilities near to them.
Conclusion
Even there is a proposal to the computerization of Public Distribution
System to eliminate all the problems related to the public distribution system
in the country. So many great economists in our country have proposed to
computerize the whole Public Distribution System. There are so many
technologies to implement the computerization, like the government can
select some district from each state on a pilot basis where in by it can
computerize the distribution system for temporary process and then if the
system works efficiently it can be implemented in the nationwide. It can also
develop unique software only for the public distribution system where in all
the functionaries in the system can be brought under the computerization
scheme. The system will work by using biometric system where it can tie up
with AADHAR unique card authority so that it can work effectively. Any
food grains lifted from one godown to other godown, there we can use
thumb impression of concerned officer and also transport operators also will
30
be scanned through the scanners and this will be the best solution to stop the
malpractice in the public distribution system. at any time if there is any
complaint about the food grains and service this system will help the
government in many ways, which it can find out who are the culprits. Like
this it can also be used in fair price shops and also for the consumers also.
Where it will eliminate the malpractice of fair price shop runners and also
can find out the bogus card menace easily and it can come into control in
great extent.
References
 Anonymous, (2010), Pre-Feasibility study for (Storage & Distribution) Logistics
architecture in Karnataka
 Anonymous, (2005), Performance Evaluation of Targeted Public Distribution
System (TPDS)
 Bhaskar Majumdar (2007), Public Distribution System of Essential Commodities
as a social safety net
 Ganesh-Kumar (2008), reforming foodgrains management: Achieving Food
security with cost effectiveness
 Ganesh-Kumar (2007), Foodgrains policy and Management in India,
Responding to today's challenges and opportunities.
 Mallikarjuna Gouda.S.Patil, (2007), Performance of warehousing in Karnataka-
A Comparative Analysis
 Mahendra Dev, (2004), Economic Liberalization, Targeted Programmes, and
Household Food Security: A case study of India
 Reetika Khera (2011), India's Public Distribution System: Utilization and Impact
 Rob Jenkins, (2002), Civil Society Engagement and India’s Public Distribution
System: Lessons from the Rationing Kruti Samiti in Mumbai
 Ruth Kattumuri (2011), Food security and the targeted public distribution
system India
 Sampark, the Game of Targeted Public Distribution System in the Life of Tribal
Communities of Madhya Pradesh
 Vinayak Rao, (2008), e-Public Distribution Monitoring system (e-PDMS)
 Vivek Kumar Dhand, Computerization of Paddy Procurement and Public
Distribution System in Chhattisgarh
 Zhang-Yue Zhou, (2006), The Public Distribution Systems of Foodgrains and
Implications for Food Security
31
3
Impact of Reservation on Higher Education in India
Chethana. B and Dr. M. Mahesha
Abstract:
Education is a means for realization of variety of goals like higher
productivity and income, better employment opportunities, better health,
greater political and social participation and above all enhancing individual’s
personal and social endowments and capabilities for a more intensive,
socially enriching and sustained well being. Though the education offers
aforementioned advantages, the equitable access to education specially the
higher education in India is poor. Hence equitable access of higher education
to social, religious, occupational and economic groups living both in rural
and urban areas as remained is a major challenge before the policy makers of
India. The reservation policy is executed as to balance the inequality faced by
the social, religious and economic groups. In this way, Article 15(4)
empowers the State to make special provisions for the advancement of the
SC/STs. Under this provision, the State has reserved seats for SC/ST
students in all type of educational institutions. Article 29(2) provides
protection for admission and against discrimination in any educational
institution on grounds only of religion, race, caste, language or any of them.
32
With this background this study is going to make an analysis of Impact of

Reservation on Higher Education in India.
1. Introduction
Reservation as subject in the Indian society is not a new one. It was
running even from the pre-independence times. The Britishers for their
colonies initially used this concept in the name of welfare purposes but the
main aim behind this was to control the power by dividing the individuals
for the personal interest i.e. the policy of DIVIDE & RULE. By the
Government of India Act 1909 and 1919, the British Empire allotted some
reservation or quota for Muslims and other minority classes in the
administration according to the proportion of their population. From these
historical backgrounds, this doesn’t means that reservation or quota system
is a vice for the Indian society but the importance of reservation was
considered in welfare prospective by the framers of Indian Constitution. This
was felt that it is important to make certain provisions which deals in the
upliftment of poor and depressed classes. So in the part IV of the Indian
Constitution i.e. Directive Principles of State some provisions were made
which works as guidelines for good governance.
History of Legislature and Judiciary on Reservation System in Higher
Education
The implementation of reservation or quota system for weaker
sections for their upliftment was not carried out smoothly. The Congress
government headed by the Prime Minister Pt. J.L. Nehru felt unable to
implement the policies of Planning Commission whose one of the objectives
at that time (1951-56) was to raising the standard of living of people
especially the people belongs to weaker sections because these policies to
some extent infringes the fundamental rights provided under Article 14, 15,
16, 21 etc. In State of Madras v/s Champakam Dorairajan, a seven Judge
Bench of the Supreme Court struck down the classification for allotting seats
in the State medical colleges as being based on caste, race and religion for the
purpose of admission to educational institutions in the ground that Art. 15
did not contain a clause such as Art 16(4) ( Rajesh Punia).
33
To overcome this decision, by the 1st Amendment in 1951, the

legislature added Clause 4 in Art. 15. Clause 4 says that the state is not
prevented from making any special provisions for the advancement of any
socially and educationally weaker sections of citizens or for the Scheduled
Castes and Scheduled Tribes. By this provision the legislature overcome the
judicial decision and makes reservation or Quota for the weaker sections. The
reservation was initially provided for the period of 10 years that has being
extended from time to time. Till 1980 the reservation was generally provided
for SCs and STs, but after the Mandal Commission Report on Reservation the
provision is also granted 27% reservation for the other weaker sections in
jobs as well as in the higher education. After these lots of litigations were
filed on the matter the reservation for other weaker sections including the
order of the then P.V. Narasimha Rao’s government in 1991, which provided
the reservation of 10% for Other Economic Weaker sections (OEBC). The
Supreme Court to curb the overall percentage of reservation in the
educational as well as in public jobs fixed the maximum limit upto 50%
(Rajesh Punia).
Conflict over Reservation

At the time of independence of India, the living conditions of weaker
sections specially of SC’s and ST’s was so pathetic and in order to uplift them
and help them to establish in the new environment, government provided
them quota or reservation facilities specially in educational institution and
public jobs. But now after 59 years of independence anti-reservation
supporters feel that now it is the right time to strike down the policy of
reservation or atleast lessens the percentage especially in educational
institution. Presently in almost all Universities and Colleges, reservation is
provided upto 50% and only 50% seats where left to the general category.
With weaker sections, some more reservation given to the minority groups,
women, handicapped, state quota etc. in the Universities (Rajesh Punia).
This is a very debatable issue that whether reservation should be
provided in higher educational institutes which produces the leaders and
intellectuals who will governs the country. Due to the quota system the
reserved candidates preferred over the high merit candidates. In this
globalizing and technological period should these reservations be maintained
34
as it is in the past? On this issue different people have different opinion

according to their individual interest. But this thing was clear that with the
time the reservation has been increasing. In the period of 60s and 70s the
reservations was only provided for SCs and STs but now after Mandal
Commission report the reservation percentage has increased.. By the
Supreme Court Judgment in Indra Sawhney’s case, the creamy layer is
excluded from the reservation but it doesn’t work on SCs and STs. To avoid
the competition, the formula of forged documents for proving backward
class status is also prevailing. The State by its executive order provides
reservation in the state institutions as they want and also sometimes
overturns the judicial decisions they repeatedly make laws or amends the
existing law as happened in the Tamil Nadu in 1994 by providing total 69%
reservation and recently by UPA government by providing 27% reservation
for OBC’s in Higher education like IITs and IIMs. So in one line, from time to
time the political party who are in the power use reservation policy for their
political interests. Also it is considered that the higher institutions like IIMs,
IITs produces the leaders who governs the country by their excellence and by
reservation for weaker sections in these types of institutions affects its
standards ( Rajesh Punia). Even though these institutions should provide
more opportunity for these marginal groups, since the enrollment of weaker
sections is low in these institutions. Then only we can achieve social justice in
India.
2. Statement of the Problem

Poor access to higher education by weaker sections in India is one of
the important features in the educational system of India. The most of the
studies (Aikara.J 1980, Kirpal.v 1978, Aman verma 2013, Thomas E Wiesskop
2004) showed that higher education is accessed more by the well to do
persons. It has also been shown that the access to higher education has been
unequal with respect to region, class, sex and caste. Thus, despite major
structural changes in higher education institutions, the poor access to higher
education has been an outstanding problem for the great majority of Indian
households. In this context, the reservation system has come to existence to
take care of weaker sections in higher education.
3. Objectives
35
1. To examine the empowerment of weaker sections through a reservation

policy in higher education.
2. To analyse the level of enrolment among gender and social groups.
4. Methodology
This study makes use of the secondary data from the UGC Reports,
RBI Reports, NSSO, Ministry of HRD, Govt. of India and its agencies
published reports. The data collected for the research are analyzed with the
help of simple statistical techniques such as percentage, averages and graphs.
5. Higher Education at All India Level

Higher Education is a very important sector for the growth and
development of human resource which can take responsibility for social,
economic and scientific development of the country. The University
Education Commission (1948-49), under the Chairmanship of Dr. S.
Radhakrishnan, gave the foundations of the future of Indian Higher
Education. The report of the Education Commission (1964-66) under the
Chairmanship of Dr. D.S. Kothari symbolized the symbiotic relationship
between education and national development. A lot of thought has since
been generated towards the emerging concerns of higher education. The
vision of higher education in India is to realize the country's human resource
potential to its fullest with equity and inclusion. This essentially means the
need to provide greater opportunities of access to higher education with
equity to all eligible, and in particular, to the vulnerable sections of the
society.
36
Figure 1: Number of universities
Figure 2: Number of colleges
Source: Planning Commission, Govt. of India, FICCI Higher Education Summit 2012.
India is one of the largest higher education systems in the world, and has
been witnessing healthy growth in its number of institutions and enrollment
in the last few decades. The number of universities has grown more than six
times in the last four decades and India has more than 33,000 colleges with
one-third of the colleges having been set up in the last five years. There were
only 20 universities and 500 colleges at the time India attained independence
.But as the figure 1 and 2 shows this has increased to 659 universities and
university-level institutions and 33023 colleges as on 2011. The concern that
merely increasing the number of higher educational institutions and their
enrolment capacity will not achieve the national developmental goals
without concurrent attention to quality and its access to all those who desire
37
it, is addressed in the 12th FYP. Also special efforts need to be made to
ensure fair and impartial treatment to the disadvantaged sections of the
society in making available to them the benefits of higher education.
Figure 3: GER in Higher Education
Figure 4: Student Enrolment in Higher Education (million)
Source: Planning Commission, Govt. of India, FICCI Higher Education Summit 2012.
Indian higher education system is one of the largest in the world.

Student enrolment in HEIs has grown 12 times in the last four decades and
GER in higher education has reached close to 18% in 2011–12 as stated in the
figure 3. The size of the Indian higher education system is reflected in the
current enrolment of students in the institutions of higher learning. The
number of students enrolled in the universities and colleges has increased
since independence. As shown in the figure 4, only 2 million students had
enrolled to higher education in the year 1970-71.But in the year 2011-12 it has
increased to 25.9 million.
38
NSS 61st round (2004-05) NSS 64th round (2007-08)

Enrolment (000) GER % Enrolment (000) GER %
(a) General and Reserved Categories
SC 1898.5 8.72 2485.5 11.54
ST 767 8.44 652 7.67
OBC 5027.4 11.48 6599.6 14.72
Others 7787.2 22.52 8886.6 26.64
Total 15480.1 14.19 18623.7 17.21
(b) Rural and Urban Areas
Rural 8.42 11.06
Urban 16.18 19.03
6. Table 1: Enrollment and Gross Enrollment Ratio (Ger) (18-22 Years)

Source: NSSO reports (61st & 64th)
Even though there is a significant growth in student enrolment in higher

education system, especially in the last two decades, the GER in higher
education in India is still about half the world's average GER (24%) and about
two thirds that of the developing countries (18%) and much lower than that
of developed nations (58%).
As the above table 1(a) reveals that in the 61st and 64nd NSSO rounds, SCs
and STs Enrolment to higher education and GER is very less compare to
OBCs and Others. The enrolment in Higher education of STs has been
decreased in 64th NSS round report compared to 61st NSS report. And as the
table 1(b) represents rural peoples have less access to higher education
compare to urban areas in India.
As the table 2 revealed, we can easily say that, there is a significant
difference in enrolment and GER between girls and boys even within the SC
community. In 2005-06, 16 lakh SC students have admitted to higher
education, but the proportion of girls is only 6 lakh. Even though the number
of SC students enrolment has increased to 24 lakh in 2009-10, the difference
between girls and boys has remained same as the earlier. It has reflected even
39
in the GER. In 2005-06, the GER of boys was 10.1, but at the same time girls
GER was only 6.4. Even though the girls GER has increased over a successive
period of time, the rate of increase in GER of boys was higher than girls.
Finally in the year 2009 -10, boys GER was 13 & girls GER was only 9.
7. Women in Higher Education

Women constitute 48% of the total population of India. The principle of
gender equity is enshrined in Indian Constitution in its preamble,
Table: 2 Enrolment and GER of SC students in Higher education in India

Enrolment(in lakh) GER (Age Group 18-23 years)
Year Boys Girls Total Boys Girls Total
2005-06 10 6 16 10.1 6.4 8.4
2006-07 12 6 18 11.5 6.9 9.4
2007-08 15 9 24 13.2 8.6 11
2008-09 14 8 22 12.5 8.3 10.5
2009-10 15 9 24 13 9 11.1
Source: Ministry of Human Resource Development, Govt of India.
fundamental, rights, fundamental duties and directive principles and also

reducing the gender gap in higher education is a focus area. Women gained
access to higher education gradually during the first four decades after
independence in 1947. It was possible because higher education was fully
state funded and was highly subsidized. However, their participation was
characterized by clustering in the feminine, non-professional and non-market
courses in general education. Further, socio-cultural and economic factors
acted as barriers to their ability to access higher education (Karuna Chanana
2000).
Table: 3 Women Students per 100 Men Students in Higher Education in

India
Year Enrolment per hundred men
1950-51 14
1999-00 55
2000-01 60
2001-02 66
2002-03 67
40
2003-04 67
2004-05 68
2011-12 74
Source: Indiastat.com
University grant commission (ON357) & (ON404).
As the table 3 shown Women Students per 100 Men Students in
Higher Education in India was not good. In 1950-51 it is 14 only, because at
the time of independence, there was no much provision to women to learn
higher education. Even though this scenario has changed as the years went
on, still women enrolment is not sufficient, in 2011-12; only 74 women’s have
enrolled per 100 men. In the year 2001-02, the women enrollment per 100
men students in higher education was 66, to increase to 68, it has taken 5
years.
Table -4: Percentage of Girls Enrolment to Total Enrolment in Higher

Education in India
year % Year %
1950-51 10 1996-97 36.7
1955-56 14.6 1997-98 37.5
1960-61 16 1998-99 38.8
1965-66 20.4 1999-00 38.7
1970-71 20 2000-01 39.4
1975-76 23.2 2001-02 39.8
1980-81 26.7 2002-03 40.1
1985-86 33 2003-04 40.2
1990-91 33.3 2004-05 40.4
1991-92 32.3 2005-06 40.5
1992-93 33.2 2006-07 40.6
1993-94 33.5 2007-08 40.6
1994-95 34 2008-09 41.4
1995-96 36 2009-10 41.6
Source: Indiastat.com
41
States/UTs SC Students ST Students

Boy Girl Total Boy Girl Total
Andhra Pradesh 141330 69807 211136 73261 25820 99082
Arunachal Pradesh 7 3 10 11357 8364 19721
Assam 28289 12913 41202 22357 11557 33914
Bihar 66068 21500 87569 10040 3749 13789
Chhattisgarh 37505 21967 59471 80604 48430 129034
Goa 244 236 479 896 940 1836
Gujarat 58262 32717 90979 46339 26925 73265
Haryana 39752 23068 62819 3 0 3
Himachal Pradesh 14007 12617 26623 5569 4833 10402
Jammu and Kashmir 9127 7014 16141 7555 5575 13130
Jharkhand 17689 6756 24444 34442 13794 48236
Karnataka 124819 72433 197252 40757 22365 63122
Kerala 22034 28872 50906 2823 3309 6132
Madhya Pradesh 73157 47886 121042 48106 28219 76325
Maharashtra 210934 142245 353179 47105 19332 66437
Manipur 1110 918 2028 11128 7877 19005
Meghalaya 265 204 469 25907 27681 53588
Mizoram 0 0 0 18298 15133 33431
Nagaland 270 234 503 21246 18964 40211
Orissa 22144 8517 30661 22667 5738 28405
Punjab 25994 20668 46662 176 93 269
Rajasthan 65483 30608 96092 52863 24652 77515
Sikkim 302 233 534 3166 2737 5903
Tamil Nadu 98530 77376 175906 4101 3367 7469
Tripura 5161 3364 8525 6584 4491 11075
Uttar Pradesh 264962 166835 431797 5815 3371 9186
Uttarakhand 20736 27987 48723 12307 15397 27704
West Bengal 120457 78573 199030 52304 37065 89369
Andaman and 0 0 0 693 763 1456
Nicobar
Chandigarh 1388 1122 2510 225 209 434
Dadra and Nagar 49 58 107 164 109 273
Haveli
Daman and Diu 54 45 99 109 42 151
Delhi 27801 19836 47637 12017 8597 20615
Lakshadweep 0 0 0 113 297 410
Puducherry 2407 2641 5048 0 0 0
India 1500337 939253 2439583 681097 399795 1080897
Ministry of Human resource development, Govt. of India. (13456)
As the above table 4 shown Percentage of Girls Enrolment to Total

Enrolment in Higher Education in India has increased over the period of
42
Source: Ministry of Human Resource Development, Govt of India.

time. In 1950-51, only 10% of girls have enrolled, but it has takes nearly 40
years to reach 33% of Girls Enrolment to Total Enrolment in Higher
Education. Even in the 2009-10(41.6%) also it has shown low enrollment of
women in higher education. In 1998-99 girls enrollment to total enrollment
was 38.8%, in 2007 it has reached upto 40.6%. To increase 1.8% it has taken 9
years.
8. Higher Education At State Level

State level analysis of higher education is must, because if we analyse
all India level we cannot understand the problems of higher education at
micro level. In India some states have shown very significant achievement in
terms of higher education. But most of the states are still to be develop in
terms of higher education and some few states have very worsen condition
even in the primary level education also. So there is a need of state level
analysis. In this context an analysis has been made as following.
The table 5 explained about the State-wise Enrolment of SC and ST

Students in Higher Education in India in the year 2009-10. The number of
students is very high in Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra, West Bengal,
Karnataka, Tamilnadu, and Uttar Pradesh. Whereas in some states or UTs
(Arunachal Pradesh, Meghalaya, Manipur, Nagaland, etc...) the number of
SC students is very low compare to STs. Some states or UTs have no even one
SC student enrolment in Higher Education. The enrolment of SC and STs
Proportion in higher education is very low compare to their total population
in all the states.
9. Conclusion and Policy Implications

It is found that in this paper there is significant differences in the
enrolment to Higher Education among the different social groups i.e., SCs,
STs, OBCs and others. It is also found that within the different social groups,
there is a significant difference in the boys and girls enrollment ratio. Even
though there is existence of reservation system in the higher education to the
weaker section of the society, still the percentage of the beneficiaries of
reservation is low. This is mainly because of lack of awareness regarding
43
reservation and poor governance. This has to be taken into consideration

while implementing the policies regarding to the upliftment of the weaker
sections. It observed that the GER of the weaker sections is less than half of
the total GER of the general category. Majority of the vulnerable sections are
excluded from the access of higher education even though there is
reservation in higher education. Further, the accessibility of the women
towards higher education is not sufficient. In the year of 1950-51, the number
of women enrolment was 14 per every 100 men, whereas in 2011-12, even
though it has been reached to 74 per 100 men which imply insufficient
accessibility of women towards higher education. At present the reservation
is provided only in the government institutions which are not sufficient to
the total population of the weaker sections in the country. And also, the
present enrollment ratio of weaker sections and women is achieved by only
the results of the government reservation policies. So, there is a need to
increase the percentage of reservation and provide the reservation in the
private higher education institutions.
References
 Aikara, J (1980), “Scheduled Castes and Higher Education: A Study of
College Students in Mumbai”, Dastane, Pune.
 Aman Verma (2013), “Caste-Education Syndrome Impact Of Reservations
On Institutions Of Higher Education”, International Journal of Social Science
& Interdisciplinary Research, Vol. 2.
 Higher Education in India: Twelfth Five Year Plan (2012- 2017) and beyond,
FICCI Higher Education Summit 2012.
 Inclusive and Qualitative Expansion of Higher Education(2011), Compilation
Based on the Deliberations of the Working Group for Higher Education in
the 12th Five-Year Plan (2012-17).
 Karuna Chanana(2000), “Women in Higher Education in India”, Economic
and Political Weekly, Vol-35, pp 1012-1022.
 Kirpal, V (1978), “'Higher Education for the Scheduled Castes and Scheduled
Tribe”', Economic and Political Weekly,Vol- 13, pp 165-69.
 Kirpal.V and M Gupta (1999), “ Equality Through Reservations”, Rawat
Publications, Jaipur.
 Ministry of Human Resource Development, Govt of India.
 NSSO Reports (61st and 64th).
44
 Rajesh Punia, http://www.legalserviceindia.com/articles/resmod.htm

 Rashtriya Uchchatar Shiksha Abhiyan Report (2013).
 Reports of University Grant Commission.
 Sameer Pandit(2005), “Marginalisation And Reservation In India: An
Analysis In The Light Of Rawlsian Theories Of Justice And Equality”, Socio-
Logical Review,vol-1.
 Suranjan Das(2007), “The Higher Education in India and the Challenge of
Globalisation”, Social Scientist, Vol- 35, PP 47-67.
 Sukhadeo thorat and chittaranjan Senapathi (2007), “Reservation in
Employment, Education and Legislature — Status and Emerging Issues”,
Working Paper Series Indian Institute of Dalit Studies New Delhi, Volume II,
Number 05.
 Thomas E Weisskopf (2004), “Impact of Reservation on Admissions to
Higher Education in India”, Economic and Political Weekly, Vol-39, PP 4339-
4349.
 Ved Prakash (2007), “Trends in Growth and Financing of Higher Education
in India”, Economic and Political Weekly, Vol- 42,PP 3249-3258.
 Virginius Xaxa (2002), “Ethnography of Reservation in Delhi University”,
Economic and Political Weekly, Vol-37, PP-2849-2851+2853-2854.
 Weisskopf Thomas (2001), “The Consequences of Affirmative Action in US
Higher Education:A Review of Recent Empirical Studies”, Economic
and Political Weekly, Vol-36, PP 4719-4734.
45
Gender Disparity and the Possibility of Inclusive

Growth: Study of Muslim Women in an Urban Setting
Suchismita Sur
Abstract
Inclusive growth ensures opportunities for all sections of the
population, with a special emphasis on the poor, particularly women and
young people, who are most likely to be marginalized. Development can be
inclusive and reduce poverty only if all groups of people contribute to
creating opportunities, share the benefits of development and participate in
decision-making. This study examines the gender inequality and inclusive
growth of Muslim women in an urban setting of Kolkata. If they get
empowered in all those aspects then gender disparity will be diminish and
inclusive growth of the country will enhance. The study is based on the
methodology phenomenology and Marxism. The technique used for the data
collection is the oral history technique. The familial sub-culture from very
birth of girls instigate them to be subordinate the men. But now the time has
come when women seeks their freedom through secular laws. By the grace of
urbanization Muslim women slowly educated themselves. Elegance of
urbanization boon the Muslim women to acquire their space in not only their
family but also in society. Decreasing of gender disparity among the Muslim
46
community is essential for accomplishing sustainable development of our

country and even beyond.
Keywords: Muslim Women, Urbanization, Empowerment, Gender Discrimination,
Inclusive Growth.
Introduction
Inclusive growth connotes “broad based growth, shared growth and
pro-poor growth”. It diminishes the rapid growth rate of poverty and
enlarges the involvement of people into the growth process of the country.
Inclusive growth by its very definition implies an unbiased allocation of
resources with benefits incurred to every section of the society and all of its
members in micro level. But the allocation of resources must be focused on
the intended short and long term benefits of the society such as availability of
consumer goods, people access, employment, health, education, standard of
living etc. It ensures opportunities for all sections of the population, with a
special emphasis on the poor, particularly women and young people, who
are most likely to be marginalized (Dipna & Sharma, 2013).
Gender inequality refers to the unequal treatment and discrimination

in terms of their gender. It is socially constructed disparity between men and
women in India which meticulously empower one group to the detriment of
the other. Gender inequalities include unequal rights, responsibilities, and
opportunities for Indian women and translate to poor health status,
educational attainment and economic status compared to men.
Many people are excluded from development because of their gender,

ethnicity, age, sexual orientation, disability or poverty. The effects of such
exclusion are staggering, deepening inequality across the world.
Development can be inclusive - and reduce poverty - only if all groups of
people contribute to creating opportunities, share the benefits of
development and participate in decision-making (UNDP, n.d.).
A growing body of evidence shows that gender inequalities can make

the process of development less inclusive (Rodgers & Zveglich, Jr., 2012).
Indian Planning Commission made an attempt to move beyond
47
empowerment and recognize women as agents of sustained socio-economic

growth and change. The 11th Five Year Plan acknowledges women’s
agencies and tries to ensure that their needs, rights and contribution are
reflected in every section of the Plan document. Gender is, therefore, a cross
cutting theme based on integrated approach on women and children. While
endeavoring to guarantee the rights and entitlements of all women, the 11th
Plan recognizes that women are not a homogenous category. Their situations,
and consequently requirements, differ based on their locations within
various castes, communities, religions, geographic and development zones
and the effort during the 11th Plan is to cater to all these differential and
specific requirements (Planning Commission of India, 2007).
The strategy for inclusive growth in the 11th Plan is not just a
conventional strategy for growth to which some elements aimed at inclusion
have been added. On the contrary, it is a strategy which aims at achieving a
particular type of growth process which will meet the objectives of
inclusiveness and sustainability. Inclusive growth in the Eleventh Plan
envisages respecting the differential needs of all women and providing them
with equal access to opportunities. This can only happen when women are
recognized as agents of socio-economic growth with autonomy of decision-
making are respected (Planning Commission of India, 2007).
The Government of India proposed five-fold agenda for gender parity
which include economic empowerment; political empowerment; social
empowerment; strengthening mechanisms for effective implementation of
women related legislations; and augmenting delivery mechanisms for
mainstreaming gender.
The constitution of India provides equal rights to all men and women
in the country. But women are not able to enjoy equal status at par with men
since economic power and political power are mostly vested with men rather
than women. The place of rural women in socio-economic and political
sphere is worse than their urban counter parts, though there has been a
change in the position of women during the last centuries, especially during
the last decade. Women have been given more social, economic, political and
legal powers.
Although after independence to recent times, the Indian Constitution
have made several Acts for the betterment of women but still now they have
48
been suffered from different spheres of the society. Women have been
neglected from education, health, their occupational milieu. They have
suffered from several harassments like dowry, divorce, rape, other sexual
harassment etc. they also have ignored from political scenario. The bias
against women assumes different forms. It could be exploitation or
discrimination or upholding of unequal economic and social structures and
religio-cultural violence. Women are subject to cruelty from womb to tomb.
Female foeticide is justified on the ground that it helps in population control.
Female infanticide is also a ground reality all over India.
Research studies on intra-household poverty indicate that the girl
children are deprived of adequate access to nutritive food and health care.
Hospital records indicate that more boys than girls are admitted for various
childhood diseases. This is mainly because of the biased attitude of parents
and not because girls are less prone than boys to diseases are. Son mania is a
very strong cultural factor in India that is very much responsible for such
differential treatment.
Fortunately, though society makes many efforts to end the life of the
girl child, she manages to survive. But then her life is made so miserable that
death would have been a better alternative. She is forced into child labour to
contribute her share in family survival. If not, she is compelled to discontinue
her studies so that she can take care of the younger siblings and act as
'surrogate mother' at a very young age. Even before she becomes an adult she
is pushed into marriage and childbirth.
This is the life story of majority women of India who belong to the
lower strata of society. The so-called partially liberated middle class educated
and employed women are like the proverbial 'cat on the wall' neither being
traditional nor modern. They are unable to abandon the traditional cultural
values, which bring tremendous strain to their dual role performance. They
are also unable to become completely westernized. They are thus
experiencing severe psychological pangs.
But there are some positive macro-level findings are supported by a
wealth of micro-level evidence to suggest that not only does women’s access
to employment and education opportunities reduce the likelihood of
household poverty but resources in women’s hands have a range of positive
outcomes for human capital and capabilities within the household
49
(Quisumbing, 2003) (Kabeer, 2003). Such findings suggest a strong

instrumental rationale for ensuring women’s participation in processes of
growth: it will contribute to the inclusiveness of growth, not merely because
women constitute 50% of the world’s population, but also because women’s
access to economic resources improves distributional dynamics within the
household.
Evidence on the converse relationship - that economic growth
promotes gender equality - is far more mixed and indeed some of the fastest
growing developing countries show the least signs of progress on basic
gender equality outcomes (Kabeer, 2012).
Although home to a Hindu majority, India has a Muslim population of
some 150 million, making it the state with the third largest Muslim
population in the world after Indonesia and Pakistan. While many Indian
Muslims achieve celebrity status and high profile positions abroad and in
India’s government—the past president was Muslim—India’s booming
economy has left the nation’s largest minority group lagging behind.
Muslims experience low literacy and high poverty rates and Hindu-Muslim
violence has claimed a disproportionate number of Muslim lives. Yet
Muslims can impact elections, using their power as a voting bloc to gain
concessions from the candidates who court them.
But the Muslim Women have generally been subjected to stifling

oppression and stultifying suppression, resulting in their subordination
throughout the history irrespective of socio-economic, demographic and
religious differences. The inferior status assigned to women is a result of
social evaluation of her biological activities of child bearing and child
rearing as the only one’s appropriate to her which give fulfillment in life.
The stereotypes are formed on the basis which becomes part of cultural
tradition which validate and justify their inferior status and account for
their dependency discrimination and degradation (Naeem, 2005).
Since men and women considered as two wheels of vehicles of a
society, both wheels should work equally to move the vehicle of society.
Women constitute approximately half of the world’s population yet they
are placed at various disadvantageous positions due to gender differences.
They have been victim of violence, exploitation and discrimination.
50
Throughout the world women are still relegated to second class status that
makes them more vulnerable to abuse and less able to protect themselves
from discrimination. History has evidences that woman have been
regarded as the properties of men (Jain, 1988).
Whenever talk revolves around gender equality, women’s right or
their empowerment people are found to be indifferent toward 70 million
Muslim women in India who have been facing the most humiliating aspect of
their lives like polygamy and divorce. They are compelled to bear this pang
of social humiliation for centuries under the water tight compartment of
Shariat (Islamic law). A number of Muslim-majority countries like Turkey,
Morocco and Indonesia have already reformed this medieval law and
allowed much freedom to their women citizens befitting the rapidly
changing social environment all over the world. However, the diehard
Mullhas in the name of Muslim identity still maintains that Shariat is a
permanent ingredient of Islam which is not subject to any scrutiny.
Therefore, Muslim women owing to the deeper and different layer of
discrimination under this law are more vulnerable than their counterparts in
other religions (Upadhyay, 2008).
Seema Kazi in 1999, on her report “Muslim Women in India” said that,
on the completion of five decades of independence, women in Muslim
communities face considerable challenges as citizens of India and as
members of India’s largest minority. Their poor socio-economic status
reflects a lack of social opportunity which, though not a feature exclusive to
Muslim women, is exacerbated by their marginal status within an overall
context of social disadvantage for most Indian women. This point was
highlighted in a study of 39 districts in 1981 (where the population of
Muslims ranged from 20% to 95% – which could be considered a fairly
representative sample of the status of Muslims in India). In the study, the
literacy rate of Muslim women was found to be 21.91%– lower than even the
poor national average of 24.82%. An improvement in literacy rates would
directly influence Muslim women’s socio-economic and political status as
citizens of India. The acknowledgement of the universality of women’s rights
by the international community is relevant to the debate on Islam and
women’s rights, particularly with reference to women’s rights in the family.
51
The formation of forums and associations of Muslim men and women’s

initiatives in the 1990s is an important step towards facilitating public debate
on Muslim women’s issues. Muslim women and men must collaborate with
individuals and organizations that are committed to the realization of
women’s human rights. The alliance of Muslim women with the women’s
movement in India, as well as movements for secularism, democracy and
human rights, are crucial for forging a common front against forces opposed
to women’s self-determination.
Sachar Committee report (2006) also highlights the role of community
identity for the status of Muslim women. They state, “Women in general are
the torch bearers of community identity when community identity is seen to
be under siege. It naturally affects women in dramatic ways, women
sometimes of their own volition sometimes because of community pressure,
adopt visible marker of community identity on their person and in their
behaviour. The community and its women withdraw into the safety of
familiar orthodoxies, reluctant to participate in the project of modernity
which threatens to blur community boundaries. It was said that for a large
number of Muslim women in India today the only safe place (both in term of
physical protection and in term of Protection of identity) is within the
boundaries of home and community”.
The literature on Indian women in general is characterized by three
broad tendencies; it ignores Muslim women and considers their status a
product of personal law and assumes sameness in the status and form of
oppression, cross community, first the problem of omission with some
important exception & most studies take notice of Muslim women (Hasan, &
Menon, 2005).
The preceding analysis shows that Muslims form the largest minority
in West Bengal, although they constitute 25 % of the population of the state,
their concentration in six districts (where they form more than 25% of
population of the district) are of paramount significance. It is found that the
growth of Muslim minority is slightly higher than that of the general
population. It generally shows that lesser percentage of Muslims in an Islam
and Muslim Societies (Census of India, 2001).
After completion of six decades of independence, the majority of
Muslim women are among the most disadvantaged, least literate,
52
economically impoverished, and politically marginalized sections of Indian

society. This point cannot be overstated in a context where, in 1983, the Gopal
Singh Committee instituted by the government of India, declared Muslims as
a 'backward' community in India as well as West Bengal. A central feature of
this 'backwardness' of Muslims in West Bengal, particularly Muslim women
is their appalling educational and socio-economic status, these social and
economic issues confronting women in Muslim community that do the
violation of their rights as citizens of India.
A large number of Muslims in West Bengal, in fact a vast majority, is of
poor and illiterate variety. Most of them are converts from low Hindu castes
and still pursue their ancestral vocations. Very few have emerged
successfully from their inherited professions to take up modern professions.
As a result, the women of the community are silent due to suppressed state
of mind and educational backwardness. Since the Muslims of the West
Bengal are mainly the converted Muslim mostly they are artisans and self-
employed and sociologically speaking they have restricted world -view and
live in their own universe. Then there are those Muslims who live in rural
areas and are engaged as agricultural labourers and related operations. They
tend to be even more conservative. Thus, the Muslim women are subjugated
and the victims of different queer practices like pardah pratha (veiling
customs), burqa, talaq etc., and also the victims of different exploitations
(Hussain & Siddiqui, 2009) (Mainuddin, 2011).
This study examines the gender inequality and inclusive growth of
Muslim women in an urban setting of Kolkata, with the focus on structural
diverse participation of Muslim women in economy, education and health
care system.
In this work, the objective is to study the Muslim women of an urban
area Behala of Kolkata, West Bengal and their roles and performances for
getting empowered in their everyday life and all aspects of the society. In the
present study, the aim is to look up the empowering effect on Muslim
women for choice and decision taken on personal or collective affairs on
health care system, education and economy. If they get empowered in all
those aspects then gender disparity will be diminish and inclusive growth of
the country will enhance.
53
Methodology
The study is based on the qualitative research method, using
phenomenology as the underpinning philosophical approach because of its
emphasis on actual experiences and it is one of the best ways to achieve the
aims of this study. Such an approach examines and reveals the meaning of
the words that buried within their languages, which is lived experienced of
the participants in their household chores and educational, economical and
political activities which lead them authorization of power.
Another approach which is the core methodology to study is the
Marxism. The term ‘empowerment’ was inspired by the writings of Karl
Marx, who viewed peasant women as dual victims of capitalism and
patriarchy (Chattopadhyay, 2001). Marx’s believed that the women’s
oppression started from primitive communism, in a pre-capitalist period. On
the basis of the values and the equation of man-woman relations in pre-
capitalist and non-European societies, he observes the possibility of a new set
of relationships on the basis of the equality of the sexes as an outcome of a
revolution. Marx deals with matters like women requiring permission from
their husbands to dispose off their own property and declares that women
should be independent to exercise control over her property. He visualized
ending this discrimination through a complete overhauling of the society
through revolution.
The technique which has been used for the data collection is the oral
history technique. The oral history has become an increasingly popular
research technique since historian Allan Nevins first gave it the scholar's
imprimatur as director at the Oral History Research Office at Columbia
University in 1948. Oral history collects information about the past from
observers and participants in that past. It gathers data not available in written
records about events, people, decisions, and processes. Oral history
interviews are grounded in memory and memory is a subjective instrument
for recording the past, always shaped by the present moment and the
individual psyche. Besides, field observation, unstructured interview, open-
ended questionnaire and rapport establishment methods are employed.
54
Analysis of Data
Muslim women at Behala are deprived from many components of their
own society. Women’s participation rate is very limited in different sectors of
society. Women do not get that independency to participate in communal
affairs also. In every sphere of their life have to stay at home; society doesn’t
give them the right to take any decision or to place their opinion for any
communal matters. In their own community women are still now much
backward than the males.
Major number of men believed that house is the one and only space of
the women where they used to live and the rest of the world are meant only
for men. Women not have any space outside their house; if they need to go
outside. They have to remain in the veil. This veiling custom is proceeding on
age after age in the Muslim society.
Even in this 21st Century, the above picture is seen in majority of the
Muslim women. On the one hand, where urbanization and westernization
are rapidly grown up, on the other hand, at that same time women of the
Muslim community still remain in the obscurity. In these modern days, the
girls and the women never freely interacted with others members of their
community; and this is forbidden by the males and those females who
cherished these conceptions of males.
It is seen from the Islamic text and Qur’an which liberates women but
in case of religious affairs women have a clear boundary of not to involve in
pertaining to masjid (mosque). Even women cannot entrance into the masjid
rather they have no right to enter into the masjid of Behala. And accordingly
they are not the members of masjid maintenance committee.
Now-a-days, Muslim community of Behala tries to give consciousness
to the conservative families for removing the women from the veiling system.
Because of the notion that, without women participation any community
cannot elevate them and stand in front of other communities.
To uplift and empower the girls and women, few enlightened Muslim
men with the help of local political party took some endeavour. They did it in
different directions of social life such as, education, economy, health and
political participation.
For the girls’ education few men along with the ‘Nagarik Committee’
of Behala, had open up a primary school named ‘South Behala Primary
55
School’ where girls can learn their primary education. They visit each and
every house and explain the importance of girls’ education. In spite of that,
they console less number of families and they enrolled their daughter’s name
into the school. But a large section of girls remain in obscurity.
All over again, those who able to enrolled themselves in primary
school and completed their primary education but did not get the
opportunity for further higher studies.
Besides raising the girls’ education, ‘Bangiyo Sakharata Parishad’ with
the help of local Muslim men made an attempt to literate the Muslim women
and taught how to sign their name. They in addition visited every house and
tried to persuade the male member of the family to include women in
‘Sakharata Avijan’ (literacy programme).
This programme was bang on in its way as women made a great
response in it. This programme made possible because ‘Bangiyo Sakharata
Parishad’ taught women in their own house.
Along with all these programmes, renowned Imams from Ajmer and
Lucknow per 3 to 4 months came over Khan Muhammad masjid (mosque) of
Behala and speechifying about women education to aware the Muslim women about
their educational right. But they have been failed to aware the men about women
education. As a result, a large number of women still remained in the darkness of illiteracy.
Beside education, few enlightened Muslim men with the local political
party also tried to economically independent women. For that, they tried to
set up a ‘Self Help Group’ and they also got confirmation for this
organization. With the help of this organization, women could earn to stay at
home. But local club had made an objection before it and still now ‘Self Help
Group’ cannot run in Behala.
Women health status is very poor in Muslim clusters of Behala as
health wise gender discrimination persists in almost every family. Now-a-
days, to raise health awareness among both the men and women, a ‘Jana
Swastha Committee’ (public health committee) was established in the
leadership of Salaudiin Saheb and Pulin Das. Every year Committee
arranged a health camp to provide health awareness among the Muslims
especially women. Women responses are increased day by day to this camp.
56
In case of progressive women, apart from religious affair, in every

aspect of society they eagerly engaged. In their own community they have
contributions and take part in communal decision making.
In previous days, although women are deprived and humiliated not
only in home but also in their community. But now-a-days this scenario is
exhibited with changing attributes. By and large, the women of the Muslim
community of Behala, endeavour to get empowered despite manifold
obstacles and hassles triggered from intra as well as inter- community levels.
Very few numbers of Muslim women at Behala regular went outside
their house. When they stepped out from their house, their own community,
it is immediately meant that they stepped in a greater cultural context. In this
contest, they duly experienced their co-existence with the peoples of other
communities. Subsequently they have gone from beginning to end with the
inter-community relationship.
Not merely Muslim women made their relationship with other
community’s women but furthermore they intermingle with the men as well.
They have established their existence before the immense multiethnic
urban-settings. They have stained own self with the colour of this greater
world beyond their community. One side they maintained their traditional
sanctity at the same time they supposed to change themselves with the help
of urbanization over and above the way of cognition.
The Muslim women have recognized themselves in a new way as much
they blend with the amenities and facilities of urban-settings. They
increasingly have been taken part to the different institutions of the society.
Accordingly they have been involved in inter-community relationships.
For higher education when women are enrolled their name in colleges
or universities, on the convenient they build relationships with peoples of
other communities. They had created friendship with females as well as
males of other communities and also interacted with male teachers.
In economic aspect Muslim women now-a-days got engage them in few
economic sectors like business, office etc. Consequently they interrelated
with the peoples of other communities. The inert-community relationships
are so much profound in its nature that women economically depend on the
peoples of other communities rather than her own one. Because of the fact
that, Muslim families and their community, age after age poisoned the
57
women and girls into the boundary of their house; and as a result women
had that urge in their subconscious mind to be free from the prison. So, when
they got that chance easily grab it and strive to fulfill the hidden desires. To
establish their dream, they choose other communities before the own one.
Discussion
Muslim Women have generally been subjected to stifling oppression
and stultifying suppression, resulting in their subordination throughout the
history irrespective of educational, socio-economic, demographic and
religious differences. The inferior status assigned to women is a result of
social evaluation of her biological activities of child bearing and child rearing
as the only one’s appropriate to her which give fulfillment in life. The
stereotypes are formed on the basis which becomes part of cultural tradition
which validate and justify their inferior status and account for their
dependency discrimination and degradation.
The familial sub-culture from very birth of girls instigate them to be

subordinate the men. The women are also enchanting this spurious idea
which men have been indulged into the each breathing of women. By the
name of Shariat men are continuously exploited the women, imposing
various restrictions among them. Women also deprived from the education.
In this postmodern era, the main cause of these distressed conditions of the
girls is that lack of education. Still now the light of education did not
penetrated into their lives. At the present time, the girls are neglected and
oppressed from the proper education as they treated in the past. And Muslim
women thus start believing there can be no liberation within Islam.
But the research data hold that, now the time has come when women
seeks their freedom through secular laws. By the grace of urbanization
Muslim women slowly educated themselves. They followed regularly the
printed media and digital media to make themselves liberate. Muslim men
could not hinder the women with chain by the sake of Shariati norms and
patriarchal dominance. They enthusiastically gained knowledge about
women emancipation. Consequently they proceed with the inter-community
relationship. They believing that women of other major communities do not
faced any discrimination as those communities accepted the idea of gender
58
neutrality rather than gender specific. Elegance of urbanization boon the

Muslim women to acquire their space in not only their family but also in
society.
An educated middle class is emerging among Muslims of Behala,

Kolkata, though still small which is well aware of changing society and need
for change among Muslim women. The educated Muslim women exposed to
democratic politics, electronic and print media, are becoming aware of their
rights and no longer prepared to accept what is being imposed on them in
the name of religion. These educated Muslim Women have been established
their space publicly as well as domestically. Thus, development and
progressive nature of Muslim women is really of utmost value for inclusive
growth.
Out of the above mentioned observation, to recognize the gender
inequality and inclusive growth of Muslim women I may put forward my set
of opinions there after—
There is, therefore, a real need for contemporary Muslim women
constantly to engage with Islamic issues, mount a challenge against the
monopoly of interpretation and constantly maintain their struggle against the
control by patriarchal religious authorities. Contemporary Muslim women
also need to change the terms of the Islamic discourse and at the same time
try to build bridges between secular and progressive Muslim feminists and
human rights activists.
Removing the dilemma of the women, it is necessary to change the age
old prejudices of the Muslim men and to liberate the women. The Muslim
community has to believe in the equal status of man and woman and their
independence in their own spheres.
Hence, decreasing of gender disparity among the Muslim community
is essential for accomplishing sustainable development of our country and
even beyond.
References
 Census of India. (2001). Provisional Papers Total Paper 1. Retrieved From the
website: http://censusindia.gov.in.
 Chattopadhyay, P. (2001). Marx on Women. Economic and Political Weekly.
59
 Dipna, & Sharma, P. (2013). Women Empowerment as a Means of Inclusive

growth. Journal of Business Management & Social Sciences Research, 2 (4),
2013.
 Hasan, Z. & Menon, R. (2005). Educating Muslim Girls - A Comparison of Five
Indian Cities. Women Unlimited.
 Hussain, N. & Siddiqui, F.A. (2009). Literacy and Socio-Economic
Marginalization of Muslim Population of Malda District, West Bengal (India).
Arab World Geographer, 12 (2), 62-75.
 Jain, S. (1988). The Process of Modernization in India and the Status of Muslim
Women. In: Sushila Agarwal (Ed.), Status of Women. Printwell Publishers.
 Kabeer, N. (2003). Mainstreaming Gender in Poverty Eradication and the
Millennium Development Goals. London: Commonwealth Secretariat/IDRC
Publication.
 Kabeer, N. (2012). Women’s Economic Empowerment and Inclusive Growth:
Labour Markets and Enterprise Development. SIG Working Paper, 2012
 Kazi, S. (1999). Muslim Women in India. Minority Right Group International.
UK.
 Mainuddin, Md. (2011). Socio- Economic Condition and Political
Representation of Indian Muslims: A Study of West Bengal. Researchers World
- Journal of Arts, Science and Commerce, 2 (4), 123-134.
 Naeem, H. (2005). The Problem of Muslim Women in India Special Focus on
Kashmiri Women. In: Asger Ali Engineer (Ed.), Women and Gender Justice.
Kaplaz Publishers.
 Planning Commission of India. (2007). Inclusive Growth Vision and Strategy.
Retrieved From the Planning Commission of India website:
http://planningcommission.nic.in
 Quisumbing, A. (2003). Household Decisions, Gender and Development. A
Synthesis of Recent Research Washington: IFPRI.
 Rodgers, Y.M., & Zveglich, Jr. J.E. (2012). Inclusive Growth and Gender
Inequality in Asia’s Labor Markets. ADB Economics Working Paper Series, 321,
2012.
 Sachar Committee Report. (2006). Social, Economic and Educational Status of
the Muslim Community. (Chairman: Justice Rajinder Sachar), Prime Minister’s
High Level Committee. Cabinet Secretariat. New Delhi. Government of India.
 United Nations Development Programme. (n.d.). Retrieved From the United
Nations Development Programme website: http://www.undp.org
 Upadhyay, R. (2008). Muslim Women in India: The Rise of All India Muslim
Women Personal Law Board. South Asia Analysis Group. Retrieved From the
website: http://www.southasiaanalysis.org
60
5
Constitutional Regime on Affirmative Action in Public
Employment- Doctrinal Study
B.B.Ballari
Abstract
Discrimination represents the ugly face of the modern society. An experience
of the past demonstrates arbitrary treatment for certain sections of the society. The
remedies for discrimination are beyond control of individuals and groups. Certain
categories of people were and are subjected to different kind of exploitation for
various reasons.The present study aims at how far the Constitutional Law,
Legislature by enacting the laws and the Apex judiciary by laying down the
laws have been protecting the interest of the depressed class in the
contemporary era through affirmative programs, which evidently are the
compensatory measures for historical deprivations and come out with some
conclusions. I have adopted doctrinal method of research by analyzing
various primary sources such as the provisions of the Indian Constitution,
various constitutional Amendments, decisions of the Honorable Supreme
Court of India decisions reported in AIR, SCC and JT etc. The secondary
sources such as Articles published in law journals, newspapers written by the
academicians and leading lawyers etc.
Key Words: Protection, Affirmative action, Social Justice, Judiciary, Law and
Discrimination
61
1. Introduction
Experiences of the past show that arbitrary treatment have been
made for the certain set of peoples which are beyond the control of
individuals and groups and such group of peoples have been exploited
for the purpose of ensuring the dominance of certain groups of peoples.
Justice requires equitable and just distribution of social goods and resources
and benefits but that has not been implemented in the past. A group of
people have been discriminated in one or other form in the entire world,
blacks in United States of America, apartheid system of South Africa, or
the plight of low caste people of India, all have suffered the same fate,
i.e. exploited and deprived for the reasons beyond their control. Therefore
the affirmative action programme are the tools to remove the present and
continuing effects of past discrimination, to lift the limitations in access to
equal opportunities which has been impeding the access of the classes of
people to public offices and administration. Such measures as protective
discrimination or reservations are adopted to remedy the continuing ill
effects of prior inequalities stemming from discriminatory practices against
various classes of people which have resulted in their social, educational and
economic backwardness. The founding fathers of Indian Constitution
accepted and adored equality as one of the basic principles of Indian
Constitution when it was brought into force in 1950.
II. Affirmative Action Programmes

The Constitution of India has provided, among other various
protections and safeguards, safeguards for Public employment to the persons
belonging to the Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes and backward class,
keeping in view the discrimination and disabilities suffered by these classes
in the past and to compete successfully with the more fortunate ones in the
matter of securing public employment. Specific provisions for reservations
in services in favour of the members of Scheduled Castes and Scheduled
Tribes and backward class have been made in the Constitution of India.
The equality of opportunity in matters relating to employment under
the State guaranteed under Article 16 (1) of the Constitution and the
prohibition against discrimination on the ground of only of religion, race,
caste, sex, descent, place of birth, residence or any of them, covers the entire
62
field relating to appointments under the state. Article 16(4) of the

Constitution makes an exception and enables the State to make the special
provisions for the reservation of appointments or posts in favour of any
backward classes of citizens which in the opinion of the State is not
adequately represented in the Services under the State. The other
Constitutional provisions relating to reservation are Articles 335 of the
Constitution provides for the claims of Scheduled Caste and Scheduled
Tribes to services and posts and under Article 338 and 338-A of the
Constitution provides for the establishment of National Commission for
Scheduled Caste and Scheduled tribes for the purpose of investigation and
monitor all matters relating to the safeguards provided for the Scheduled
Caste and Scheduled tribes under the Constitution or under any other law for
the time being in force and to evaluate the working of such safeguards etc.,
The main object of reservation is to achieve the objective of equality as

enshrined under Articles 14 and 16 of the Constitution. If a reservation is
validly made in exercise of power conferred under Article 16(4) of the
Constitution, cannot be called in question as it violates the fundamental
rights guaranteed under Article 16(1) of the Constitution. The equality
guaranteed under Article 14 and 16(1) of the Constitution does not aim at
absolute equality of treatment to all persons in utter disregard of every
conceivable circumstances and differences such as age, sex, education etc., as
may be found among the people in general.
Article 16(4), of the Constitution of India imposes an obligation upon

the State Government to decide, that the backward class for which the
reservation is made is not adequately represented in the State services. While
doing so, the state Government may take the total population of a particular
backward class and the representation in the State services. The state
Government after doing the necessary exercise of identifying the inadequacy
of representation in public employment and the total population of backward
class, make the reservation and provides the extent of the percentage of
reservation of posts to be reserved for the backward class.
63
Backward Classes: the term backward class has not been defined under the
Constitutional law nor it is defined under the any enactments. According to
dictionary meaning the term backward class meant “members of a caste or a
community who are recommended for special help in education and
employment” The Central Government of India classifies some of its citizens
based on their social and economic condition as Scheduled Caste, Scheduled
Tribe, and Other Backward Class.
Therefore the term backward classes means in whose favour the State
is authorized to make special provision under Article 15(4) and 16(4) of the
Constitution of India in relation to education and employment under the
State is termed as backward class. The Scheduled Caste and Scheduled Tribes
which have been defined were known to be backward and the Constitution
of India provided special protections for their advancement. Article 341
provides for the issue of notification by the president of India specifying the
caste, race or tribe shall be deemed to be Scheduled Castes either in the State
or the Union territory. Similarly, Article 342 provides for the issue of
notification by the president of India in respect of Scheduled Tribe either in
the State or the Union territory. The notification issued by the President of
India under Article 341 and 342 of the Indian Constitution specifying the list
of castes as Scheduled Caste and Scheduled Tribe is final subject to the power
of Parliament. The Hon`ble Supreme Court of India in Nityanand Sharma V.
State of Bihar held that the Constitutional provisions clarify that the contents
of the Presidential notifications specifying the castes as Scheduled Caste and
Scheduled Tribe cannot be varied by any authority except the Parliament of
India.
The Supreme Court of India in Action Committee V. Union of India

held that, a person belong to Scheduled Caste or Scheduled Tribe in relation
to his original State, of which he is a permanent resident cannot be deemed to
Scheduled Caste or Scheduled in relation to any other State on his migration
to that State for the purpose of the employment, education etc.
Further the Supreme Court of India has been pleased to made it clear
in Devadasan V. Union of India that though Article 16(4) of the Constitution
only states that reservation of posts can be made in favour of the backward
64
classes, the word “backward classes” obviously includes Scheduled Caste or

Scheduled Tribes.
Classification of Backward Classes: According to Article 16(4) of the

Constitution of India, State is empowered to make provision for the
reservation in appointments in favour of backward class of citizens. It is open
for the State to classify and declare as to the classes of citizens belongs to the
‘backward class.’ While classifying the citizens, the state has to consider
social and educational status of the citizens. Therefore, in determining
whether a class of citizens is a backward class or not, caste also is relevant
criteria for determination of backward class, but caste cannot be a sole criteria
for determining the backwardness of class for the purpose of Article 16(1) of
the Constitution. It is very difficult to determine the backward class, since the
problem of determining backwardness is very complex. The sociological and
economic considerations are playing an important role for determination of
backward class.
A backward class classification made by the State Government on the

basis of the recommendations made by the high powered commission
appointed by the State and collected the relevant materials and submitted its
report cannot be held to be invalid on the ground that some of the castes are
declared as backward castes.
The Supreme Court in Chitralekha V. State of Mysore held that, classification

of backward class made by the State Government on the basis of the
occupation and income cannot be held invalid.
Further the Supreme Court of India considered the question for

determination of backward class under Article 15(4) and 16(4) of the
constitution in K.C.Vasanth Kumar V. State of Karnataka the Hon`ble
Supreme Court observed as follows;
The Supreme Court of India Speaking through Chief Justice

Chandrachud had made the following propositions on the issue of
reservation may serve as a guidelines to the Commission which the
65
Government proposes to appoint, for examining the question of affording

better employment and educational opportunities to Scheduled Castes,
Scheduled Tribes and other Backward Classes which problem is a burning
issue today.
The only point on which the unanimity of views of the judges with
regard to determination of Backward class under Article 15(4) and 16(4) of
the Constitution of India are; caste cannot be the sole determinant of
backwardness, but it is not an irrelevant test and can be taken into account
along with certain other factors. The Hon`ble Judges have expressed separate
opinion in the matter relating to reservation, but a clear guideline is
discernible from their opinion is as follows;
(a) The reservation in favour of Scheduled Caste and Scheduled Tribe
must be continued at present, without the application of means test, for a
further period of fifteen years.
(b) The means test i.e., the test of economic backwardness ought to be
applicable even to the Scheduled Caste and Scheduled Tribe after fifteen
years.
(c) So far as other backward class is concerned should be comparable to
the Scheduled Caste and Scheduled Tribe in the matter of their backwardness
and should satisfy the means test.
(d) The policy of reservation in employment, education, and legislative
institutions should be revived for every five years.
Further the scope of reservation under Article 16(4) of the Constitution
has been examined by the Hon`ble Supreme Court of India in Indira
Sawhney V. Union of India (Mandal Commission Case) the observation of
the Supreme Court is summarized as follows;-
(a) Backward class of citizen in Article 16(4) of the Constitution can be
identified on the basis of caste and not only on economic basis.
The majority of the Judges held that a caste can be and quite often is a social
class in India and if it is backward socially it would be a backward class for
the purpose of Article 16(4) of the Constitution. The identification of
backward can certainly be made with reference to the castes among and
along with other occupation groups, classes and sections of the peoples.
66
(b) The majority held that the backward class of citizens contemplated in
Article 16(4) of the Constitution is not the same as the socially and
educationally backward classes as referred to in Article 15(4) of the
Constitution. Backward class under Article 16(4) is much wider and does not
contain the qualifying words ‘socially and educationally’ as Article 15(4). The
‘backward class of citizens’ under Article 16(4) means SC`s, ST`s and all other
backward classes of citizens including socially educationally backward
classes.
(c) The majority held that while identifying the backward classes the
socially advanced persons known as “creamy layer” among them should be
excluded. The Hon`ble Supreme Court directed the Government of India to
set up a commission within four months from the decision specifying the
basis and socio economic criteria to exclude socially and advanced persons
among backward classes.
(d) Further the Supreme Court held that backward class of citizens cannot
be identified exclusively with reference to economic criteria. It would defeat
the very object of the Article 16(4) of the Constitution to give adequate
representation to backward classes in the services. Article 16(4) not only
aimed at economic upliftment of poverty. It is specifically designed to give
due share in the state power to those who have remained out of states
employment on account of their social, economic and educational
backwardness.
(e) The majority held that the maximum limit of reservation for backward
class cannot exceed fifty percent. Further in extraordinary situations it may
be relaxed in favour of people living in far flung and remote areas of country
who because of their peculiar conditions and characteristics need a different
treatment.
(f) The majority held that the reservation under Article 16(4) cannot be
made applicable in promotion and the reservation is confined to initial
appointments.
The Supreme Court of India has delivered the very thoughtful, creative
and exhaustive opinion dealing with various complex aspects of the
reservation problem in India with the object of attaining the equality.
After the decision of the Supreme Court of India in Indira Sawhney for
the future socio- economic development of the nation, as a whole, is
67
progressively lessening, not increasing reservation, so that ultimately

meritocracy may have some chance to prevail over mediocrity. The Supreme
Court in Indira Sawhney`s case had held that the reservation to backward
class in Government jobs could be given only after excluding the ‘creamy
layer’ the Supreme Court has clearly and authoritatively laid down that the
socially advanced members of the backward class, the “creamy layer” has to
be excluded from the backward class and the benefit of reservation under
Article 16(4) can only be given to a class which remains after the exclusion of
the “creamy layer”. This would more appropriately serve the purpose and
object of Article 16(4). But the Government of Kerala, instead of
implementing the directions of the Hon`ble Supreme Court, enacted an Act
known as The Kerala State Backward classes (Reservation of Appointments
or Posts in Services) Act 1995., which declared that having regard to the
‘Known facts’ in existence in the State of Kerala there are no socially
advanced category in any backward classes and they would continue to be
entitled to reservation under Article 16(4) of the Constitution. The
Constitutional validity of the said Act was challenged in Indira Sawhney V.
Union of India(II) the Hon`ble Court held that The Kerala State Backward
classes (Reservation of Appointments or Posts in Services) Act 1995, is
discriminatory and violative of Articles 14, 16(1) and 16(4) of the Constitution
and therefore, unconstitutional and invalid. The creamy layer in the
backward classes is to be treated “on par” with the forward classes and are
not entitled to the benefit of reservation.
In E.V.Chinnaiah V. State of Andhra Pradesh the Supreme Court
invalidated the Andhra Pradesh legislation dividing Scheduled Caste citizens
into four classes for the purpose of Article 16(4) of the Constitution, for the
reason that it tinkered with the list of SC`s made by the President, which
could be changed only by parliament and also such division could not be
justified under Article 14 of the Constitution of India. In the instant case the
State of Andhra Pradesh by an Ordinance the A.P.S.C. (Rationalization of
Reservation) Ordinance, 2000 which became an Act subsequently, divided
the 57 castes listed in Presidential list into four groups based on their inter-se
backwardness and fixed the separate quota in reservation for each of these
groups. The Hon`ble Supreme Court of India held that such sub-
68
classification is violative of Article 14 of the Constitution and liable to be

struck down.
In Ashok Kumar Thakur V. State of Bihar held that the concept of
Creamy layer as laid down in Mandal Commissions case, does not apply to
Scheduled Caste and Scheduled Tribes. The Supreme Court has quashed the
economic criteria laid down by Bihar and Uttar Pradesh Government for
identifying the affluent sections of the backward class i.e., creamy layer and
exclude them for the purpose of job reservation, and held that the criteria for
identification of “creamy layer’ is violative of 16(4) and Article 15(4) of the
Constitution.
Therefore, as per the various decisions of the Supreme Court of India,

Article 16(4) of the Constitution is not an exception to Article 16(1) of the
Constitution, but rather is a facet of equality of opportunity in matter of
employment with an object of achieving the equality as enshrined under the
Constitutional law of India.
III. Reservation in Promotion

The Constitutional 77th Amendment Act, 1995: The 77th Amendment
has added a new clause (4-A) to the Article 16 0f the Constitution of India
which provides that;
“Nothing in this article shall prevent the state from making any
provision for reservation in matters of promotion, with consequential
seniority, to any class or classes of posts in the services under the State in
favour of the Scheduled Caste and the Scheduled Tribe which in the opinion
of the State, are not adequately represented in the Services under the State.”
The 77th Amendment guarantees the reservation in promotion in
Government jobs will be continued in favour of Scheduled Caste and
Scheduled Tribes. Though the providing for reservation in promotion was
abolished by the Supreme Court, but just with an intent to nullify the
decision of the Hon`ble Supreme Court in Mandal Commission case the
seventy seventh Constitutional amendment was passed for political
consideration.
The Supreme Court of India after the 77th Amendment to the
Constitution of India in Union of India V. Virpal Singh in this case the
69
legality of the extent of reservation to promotions in Railway Service which

provides the specified group of employees a reservation in employment as
well as promotion on the basis of the caste was called in question. The
Supreme Court tries to mitigate to some extent the inequity that the
reservation in general has to represent by holding that caste criteria for
promotion is violative of Article 16(4) of the Constitution and held that
seniority between the reserved category candidates and general category
candidates shall continue to be governed by their panel position prepared at
the time of selection.
IV. Reservation In Respect Of Backlog Vacancy:

The Constitutional 81st Amendment Act, 2000: The 81st Constitutional
Amendment has added new clause (4-B) after clause (4-A) of Article 16(4) of
the Constitution. Article 16(4-B) reads as follows.
“Nothing in this Article shall prevent the state from considering any
unfilled vacancies of a year which are reserved for being filled for in that year
in accordance with any provision for reservation made under clause (4) or
clause (4A) as a separate class of vacancies shall not be considered together
with the vacancies of the year in which they are being filled up for
determining the ceiling of fifty per cent, reservation on total number of
vacancies of that year.”
Article 16(4-B) seeks to end the fifty per cent ceiling on reservation for
Scheduled Caste, Scheduled Tribes and backward classes in backlog
vacancies which could not be filled up in the previous year due to the non-
availability of the eligible candidates of the SC`s/ST`s and backward class
categories will be considered as a separate class and be filed up in any
succeeding year or years. Such class of vacancies would not be considered
together with the vacancies of the year in which they are being filled up for
determining the ceiling of fifty per cent reservation on total number of
vacancies of that year. This means that the unfilled reserved vacancies are to
be carry forward from year to year without any limit, and are to be filled
separately.
70
Therefore the Eighty First Amendment sought to modify the

proposition laid down by the Supreme Court in Mandal Commission case.
This amendment increases the employment opportunities for Scheduled
Caste, Scheduled Tribe and Backward class candidates.
The Constitutional 85th Amendment Act, 2001

The 85th Amendment has substituted, in clause 4-A of Article 16 of the
Constitution for the words “in matter of promotion to any class” the words
“in matters of promotion, with consequential seniority, to any class”. This
amendment aims at extending the benefit of reservation in favour of
Scheduled Caste and Scheduled Tribe in matter of promotion with
consequential seniority.
The Constitutional validity, interpretation and implementation of 77th

amendment Act 1995, 81st amendment Act 2000, 82nd amendment Act 2000
and 85th amendment Act 2001 was challenged in M. Nagaraj V. Union of
India The Supreme Court held that, these Constitutional amendments, by
which Article 16(4A) and 16(4B) have been inserted flow from Article 16(4) of
the Constitution. These amendments are enabling provisions and do not alter
the structure of Article 16(4) of the Constitution. They retain the controlling
factors namely, backwardness and inadequacy of representation which
enable the State to provide for reservation keeping in mind the overall
efficacy of the State administration under Article 335 of the Constitution of
India. These amendments are confined only to Scheduled Caste and
Scheduled Tribe, and amendments do not obliterate any of the Constitutional
requirements of ceiling limits of fifty per cent, the concept of creamy layer,
the sub-classification of OBC on one hand and SCs/STs on the other hand
and the concept of post based roster with inbuilt concept of replacement. The
Hon`ble Court reiterated that the ceiling limit of 50 per cent, the concept of
creamy layer and compelling reasons such as backwardness, inadequacy of
representation and efficacy of administration are all Constitutional
requirement without which the structure of equality of opportunity as
guaranteed under the Constitution would collapse.
71
Therefore the Supreme Court held that subject to the above limitations,
the State can make reservation but the State has to show in each case the
existence of compelling reasons such as backwardness, inadequacy of
representation and efficacy of administration before making provision for
reservation. Article 16(4A) and (4B) are enabling provisions. The State is not
bound to make reservation. However, if the State wishes to exercise their
discretion for making such provision they have to collect quantifiable data
showing the grounds namely backwardness and inadequacy of
representation of that class in the Government Services. Thus the Supreme
Court upheld the Constitutional validity of 77th, 81st, 82nd and 85th
amendments.
The three conditions laid down in M.Nagarj case rise a number of
concerns. It must be remembered that Article 16(4A) permits reservation in
promotion only for the Scheduled Caste and Scheduled Tribes and not for
other backward classes. As per the law laid down in the Nagaraj case,
requiring the State to demonstrate backwardness of the persons seeking
benefits, inadequacy of representation and maintenance of efficiency are the
essential requirement for reservation in promotion.
The issue of implementation of the reservation in promotion through
existing statutory enactment by the State Legislature and the subsequent
rules framed by the authorities of the State or concerned Corporation of the
State of Uttar Pradesh known as Uttar Pradesh Public Servants (Reservation
for Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes and other Backward Classes) Act,
1994 and Rule 8A of the 1991 Rules, as brought into force in 2007, was
challenged in Uttar Pradesh Power Corporation Ltd V. Rajesh Kumar the
Supreme Court strike down the reservation in promotion for not meeting the
required criteria as laid down by the Supreme Court in M Nagaraj case.
Subsequent to the decision of the Hon`ble Supreme Court India the
response of the Government as reflected in 117th Constitution Amendment
Bill introduced in the Rajya Sabha. The proposed law sought to remove the
criteria laid down in M. Nagraj case, on the issue of backwardness of
SCs/STs. The Bill provides that all the Scheduled Castes and Scheduled
Tribes notified in the Constitutional shall be deemed to be backward.
72
The proposed Article 16(4A), which seek to substitute the existing

Article 16(4A), has done away with concerns of efficiency by stating that
nothing Article 335 can be an impediment, and with reference to ‘adequacy
of representation’ has been sought to be deleted.
V Conclusion
The fundamental principle enshrined in the Constitution of India set
the agenda of post-colonial state in India in terms of abolition or at least
reduction of social-inequalities. The objective of ‘welfare’ state was to make a
modern society based upon the equal representation of peoples all category,
by reducing centuries old disabilities inflicted upon the ‘depressed’ and
“economically backward class” and attempt to improve their social and
economic status by providing them ‘reservations’ and ‘quotas’ in education
as well as in employment. In this direction the Government of India by way
of affirmative programmes and the Supreme Judiciary by laying down the
laws tries to protect the interest of the depressed class as well as
economically backward class peoples of India. Though the constitutional
Law and the laws enacted by the Indian parliament from time to time for
providing reservation in public employment to the depressed and
economically backward class, unfortunately the policies and the programmes
have not been implemented in true perspectives. Therefore the policy makers
and the Supreme Judiciary have to take care of the particular section of the
society who has suffered a lot during the colonial era and even during the
contemporary era.
Foot Notes
1 Article 16(2) of the Constitution of India
1 Justice M.Rama Jois. ‘Services Under the State’ p 120.
1 Article 335. Claims of Scheduled Caste and Scheduled Tribes to services
and posts- The claims of the members of the scheduled caste and scheduled
tribe shall be taken into consideration, consistently with the maintenance of
efficiency of administration, in the making of appointments to service and
posts in connections with the affairs of the Union or of a State.
[Provided that nothing in this article shall prevent in making of any provision
in favour of the members of the scheduled caste and the scheduled tribe for
73
relaxation in qualification marks in any examination or lowering the

slandered of evaluation, for reservation in matter of promotion to any class or
classes of the service or posts in connections with the affairs of the Union or of
a State. (Ins, by the Constitution Eighty Second Amendment Act 2000) ].
1 Oxford dictionary
1 Article 341. Scheduled Castes (1) The President may with respect to any
State or Union territory, and where it is a State after consultation with the
Governor thereof, by public notification, specify the castes, races or tribes or
parts of or groups within castes, races or tribes which shall for the purposes of
this Constitution be deemed to be Scheduled Castes in relation to that State or
Union territory, as the case may be
(2)Parliament may by law include in or exclude from the list of Scheduled
Castes specified in a notification issued under clause ( 1 ) any caste, race or
tribe or part of or group within any caste, race or tribe, but save as aforesaid a
notification issued under the said clause shall not be varied by any
subsequent notification
1 342. Scheduled Tribes. (1) The President may with respect to any State or
Union territory, and where it is a State, after consultation with the Governor
thereof, by public notification, specify the tribes or tribal communities or parts
of or groups within tribes or tribal communities which shall for the purposes
of this Constitution be deemed to be Scheduled Tribes in relation to that State
or Union territory, as the case may be
(2) Parliament may by law include in or exclude from the list of Scheduled
Tribes specified in a notification issued under clause ( 1 ) any tribe or tribal
community or part of or group within any tribe or tribal community, but save
as aforesaid a notification issued under the said clause shall not be varied by
any subsequent notification
1 AIR 1996 SC 2306

1 (1994) 5 SCC 244
1 AIR 1964 SC 179
1 AIR 1964 SC 1823
1 AIR 1985 SC 1495
1 AIR 1993 SC 477
1 Ibid
1 Justice M. Rama Jois. ‘Service Under the State’ p 157
74
1 AIR 2000 SC 498

1 (2005) 1 SCC 394
1 (1995) 5 SCC 403
1 Supra note xii
1 (1995) 6 SCC 684
1 AIR 1993 SC 477
1 AIR 2007 SC 71
1 CIVIL APPEAL No. 2608 OF 2011 dated 27th April 2012
75
6
Agriculture and Sustainable Development
J. lakshmi
Abstract
Agriculture is a way of life, a tradition, which, for centuries, has
shaped the thought, the outlook, the culture and the economic life of the
people of India. Agriculture, therefore, is and will continue to be central to all
strategies for planned socio-economic development of the country. Rapid
growth of agriculture is essential not only to achieve self-reliance at national
level but also for household food security and to bring about equity in
distribution of income and wealth resulting in rapid reduction in poverty
levels.
Indian agriculture has, since Independence, made rapid strides. In

taking the annual food grains production from 51 million tonnes in early
fifties to 206 million tonnes at the turn of the century, it has contributed
significantly in achieving self-sufficiency in food and in avoiding food
shortages.
Over 200 million Indian farmers and farm workers have been the
backbone of India’s agriculture. Despite having achieved national food
security the well being of the farming community continues to be a matter of
grave concern for planners and policy makers. The establishment of an
76
agrarian economy which ensures food and nutrition to India’s billion people,
raw materials for its expanding industrial base and surpluses for exports, and
a fair and equitable reward system for the farming community for the
services they provide to the society, will be the mainstay of reforms in the
agriculture sector.
Introduction
Agriculture in India has a significant history. Today, India ranks second
worldwide in farm output. Agriculture and allied sectors like forestry and
fisheries accounted for 16.6% of the GDP in 2009, about 50% of the total
workforce. The economic contribution of agriculture to India's GDP is
steadily declining with the country's broad-based economic growth. Still,
agriculture is demographically the broadest economic sector and plays a
significant role in the overall socio-economic fabric of India.
As Per the 2010 FAO world agriculture statistics, India is the world's
largest producer of many fresh fruits and vegetables, milk, major spices,
select fresh meats, select fibrous crops such as jute, several staples such as
millets and castor oil seed. India is the second largest producer of wheat and
rice, the world's major food staples.[3] India is also the world's second or
third largest producer of several dry fruits, agriculture-based textile raw
materials, roots and tuber crops, pulses, farmed fish, eggs, coconut,
sugarcane and numerous vegetables. India ranked within the world's five
largest producers of over 80% of agricultural produce items, including many
cash crops such as coffee and cotton, in 2010. India is also one of the world's
five largest producers of livestock and poultry meat, with one of the fastest
growth rates, as of 2011. One report from 2008 claimed India's population is
growing faster than its ability to produce rice and wheat. Other recent
studies claim India can easily feed its growing population, plus produce
wheat and rice for global exports, if it can reduce food staple spoilage,
improve its infrastructure and raise its farm productivity to those achieved
by other developing countries such as Brazil and China.
In fiscal year ending June 2011, with a normal monsoon season,

Indian agriculture accomplished an all-time record production of 85.9
77
million tonnes of wheat, a 6.4% increase from a year earlier. Rice output in
India also hit a new record at 95.3 million tonnes, a 7% increase from the
year earlier. Lentils and many other food staples production also increased
year over year. Indian farmers thus produced about 71 kilograms of wheat
and 80 kilograms of rice for every member of Indian population in 2011. The
per capita supply of rice every year in India is now higher than the per
capita consumption of rice every year in Japan. India exported around 2
million metric tonnes of wheat and 2.1 million metric tonnes of rice in 2011
to Africa, Nepal, Bangladesh and other regions around the world.
Aquaculture and catch fishery is amongst the fastest growing industries in
India. Between 1990 and 2010, Indian fish capture harvest doubled, while
aquaculture harvest tripled. In 2008, India was the world's sixth largest
producer of marine and freshwater capture fisheries, and the second largest
aquaculture farmed fish producer. India exported 600,000 metric tonnes of
fish products to nearly half of all the world's countries.
India has shown a steady average nationwide annual increase in the

kilograms produced per hectare for various agricultural items, over the last
60 years. These gains have come mainly from India's green revolution,
improving road and power generation infrastructure, knowledge of gains
and reforms. Despite these recent accomplishments, agriculture in India has
the potential for major productivity and total output gains, because crop
yields in India are still just 30% to 60% of the best sustainable crop yields
achievable in the farms of developed as well as other developing countries.
Additionally, losses after harvest due to poor infrastructure and
unorganised retail cause India to experience some of the highest food losses
in the world.
Sustainable Agriculture
The agricultural policy will seek to promote technically sound,
economically viable, environmentally non-degrading, and socially acceptable
use of country’s natural resources – land, water and genetic endowment to
promote sustainable development of agriculture. Measures will be taken to
contain biotic pressures on land and to control indiscriminate diversion of
78
agricultural lands for non-agricultural purposes. The unutilized wastelands

will be put to use for agriculture and afforestation.
Rational utilization and conservation of the country’s abundant water
resources will be promoted. Conjunctive use of surface and ground water
will receive highest priority. Erosion and narrowing of the base of India’s
plant and animal genetic resources in the last few decades has been affecting
the food security of the country. Survey and evaluation of genetic resources
and safe conservation of both indigenous and exogenously introduced
genetic variability in crop plants, animals and their wild relatives will receive
particular attention. The use of bio-technologies will be promoted for
evolving plants which consume less water, are drought resistant, pest
resistant, contain more nutrition, give higher yields and are environmentally
safe.
Sensitization of the farming community with the environmental
concerns will receive high priority. Balanced and conjunctive use of bio-mass,
organic and inorganic fertilizers and controlled use of agro chemicals
through integrated nutrients and pest management (INM & IPM) will be
promoted to achieve the sustainable increases in agricultural production. A
nation-wide programme for utilization of rural and urban garbage, farm
residues and organic waste for organic matter repletion and pollution control
will be worked out.
The history and traditional knowledge of agriculture, particularly of

tribal communities, relating to organic farming and preservation and
processing of food for nutritional and medicinal purposes is one of the oldest
in the world. Concerted efforts will be made to pool, distil and evaluate
traditional practices, knowledge and wisdom and to harness them for
sustainable agricultural growth.
Food and Nutritional Security

Special efforts will be made to raise the productivity and production of
crops to meet the increasing demand for food generated by unabated
demographic pressures and raw materials for expanding agro-based
industries. A regionally differentiated strategy will be pursued, taking into
account the agronomic, climatic and environmental conditions to realize the
79
full growth potential of every region. Special attention will be given to

development of new crop varieties, particularly of food crops, with higher
nutritional value through adoption of bio-technology particularly genetic
modification, while addressing bio-safety concerns.
A major thrust will be given to development of rainfed and irrigated

horticulture, floriculture, roots and tubers, plantation crops, aromatic and
medicinal plants, bee-keeping and sericulture, for augmenting food supply,
exports and generating employment in rural areas. Availability of hybrid
seeds and disease-free planting materials of improved varieties, supported
by a network of regional nurseries, tissue culture laboratories, seed farms will
be promoted to support systematic development of horticulture having
emphasis on increased production, post-harvest management, precision
farming, bio-control of pests and quality regulation mechanism and exports.
Animal husbandry and fisheries also generate wealth and employment

in agriculture sector. Development of animal husbandry, poultry, dairying
and aqua-culture will receive a high priority in the efforts for diversifying
agriculture, increasing animal protein availability in the food basket and for
generating exportable surpluses.
Generation and dissemination of appropriate technologies in the field

of animal production as also health care to enhance production and
productivity levels will be given greater attention. Cultivation of fodder
crops and fodder trees will be encouraged to meet the feed and fodder
requirements and to improve animal nutrition and welfare. Priority will also
be given to improve the processing, marketing and transport facilities, with
emphasis on modernization of abattoirs, carcass utilization and value
addition thereon. Since animal disease eradication and quarantine is critical
to exports, animal health system will be strengthened and disease-free zones
created. The involvement of cooperatives and private sector will be
encouraged for development of animal husbandry, poultry and dairy.
Incentives for livestock and fisheries production activities will be brought at
par with incentives for crop production.
80
An integrated approach to marine and inland fisheries, designed to

promote sustainable aquaculture practices, will be adopted. Biotechnological
application in the field of genetics and breeding, hormonal applications,
immunology and disease control will receive particular attention for
increased aquaculture production.
Generation and Transfer of Technology

A very high priority will be accorded to evolving new location-specific
and economically viable improved varieties of agricultural and horticultural
crops, livestock species and aquaculture as also conservation and judicious
use of germplasm and other bio-diversity resources. The regionalization of
agricultural research, based on identified agro-climatic zones, will be
accorded high priority. Application of frontier sciences like bio-technology,
remote sensing technologies, pre and post-harvest technologies, energy
saving technologies, technology for environmental protection through
national research system as well as proprietary research will be encouraged.
The endeavour will be to build a well organized, efficient and result-oriented
agriculture research and education system to introduce technological change
in Indian agriculture. Upgradation of agricultural education and its
orientation towards uniformity in education standards, women
empowerment, user-orientation, vocationalization and promotion of
excellence will be the hallmark of the new policy. Mainstreaming gender
concerns in agriculture will receive particular attention. Appropriate
structural, functional and institutional measures will be initiated to empower
women and build their capabilities and improve their access to inputs,
technology and other farming resources.
Inputs Management
Adequate and timely supply of quality inputs such as seeds, fertilizers,
plant protection chemicals, bio-pesticides, agricultural machinery and credit
at reasonable rates to farmers will be the endeavour of the Government. Soil
testing and quality testing of fertilisers and seeds will be ensured and supply
of spurious inputs will be checked. Balanced and optimum use of fertilizers
will be promoted together with use of organic manures and bio-fertilizers to
optimize the efficiency of nutrient use.
81
Protection to plant varieties through a sui generislegislation will be

granted to encourage research and breeding of new varieties particularly in
the private sector in line with India’s obligations under TRIPS Agreement.
Integrated pest management and use of biotic agents in order to minimize
the indiscriminate and injudicious use of chemical pesticides will be the
cardinal principle covering plant protection. Selective and eco-friendly farm
mechanization through appropriate technology will be promoted, with
special reference to rainfed farming to reduce arduous work and to make
agriculture efficient and competitive as also to increase crop productivity.
Incentives for Agriculture

The Government will endeavour to create a favourable economic
environment for increasing capital formation and farmer’s own investments
by removal of distortions in the incentive regime for agriculture, improving
the terms of trade with manufacturing sectors and bringing about external
and domestic market reforms backed by rationalization of domestic tax
structure. It will seek to bestow on the agriculture sector in as many respects
as possible benefits similar to those obtaining in the manufacturing sector,
such as easy availability of credit and other inputs, and infrastructure
facilities for development of agri-business industries and development of
effective delivery systems and freed movement of agro produce.
The structure of taxes on food grains and other commercial crops will
be reviewed and rationalized. Similarly, the excise duty on materials such as
farm machinery and implements, fertilizers, etc., used as inputs in
agricultural production, post harvest storage and processing will be
reviewed. Appropriate measures will be adopted to ensure that agriculturists
by and large remain outside the regulatory and tax collection systems.
Farmers will be exempted from payment of capital gains tax on compulsory
acquisition of agricultural land.
Investments in Agriculture
The agriculture sector has been starved of capital. There has been a
decline in the public sector investment in the agriculture sector. Public
investment for narrowing regional imbalances, accelerating development of
82
supportive infrastructure for agriculture and rural development particularly

rural connectivity will be stepped up. A time-bound strategy for
rationalisation and transparent pricing of inputs will be formulated to
encourage judicious input use and to generate resources for agriculture.
Input subsidy reforms will be pursued as a combination of price and
institutional reforms to cut down costs of these inputs for agriculture.
Resource allocation regime will be reviewed with a view to rechannelizing
the available resources from support measures towards assets formation in
rural sector.
Rural electrification will be given a high priority as the prime mover

for agricultural development. The quality and availability of electricity
supply will be improved and the demand of the agriculture sector will be
met adequately in a reliable and cost effective manner. The use of new and
renewable sources of energy for irrigation and other agricultural purposes
will also be encouraged.
Emphasis will be laid on development of marketing infrastructure and

techniques of preservation, storage and transportation with a view to
reducing post-harvest losses and ensuring a better return to the grower. The
weekly periodic markets under the direct control of Panchayat Raj institutions
will be upgraded and strengthened. Direct marketing and pledge financing
will be promoted. Producers markets on the lines of Ryatu Bazars will be
encouraged throughout the width and breadth of the country. Storage
facilities for different kinds of agricultural products will be created in the
production areas or nearby places particularly in the rural areas so that the
farmers can transport their produce to these places immediately after harvest
in shortest possible time. The establishment of cold chains, provision of pre-
cooling facilities to farmers as a service and cold storage in the terminal
markets and improving the retail marketing arrangements in urban areas,
will be given priority. Upgradation and dissemination of market intelligence
will receive particular attention.
Institutional Structure
83
Indian agriculture is characterized by pre-dominance of small and

marginal farmers. Institutional reforms will be so pursued as to channelize
their energies for achieving greater productivity and production. The
approach to rural development and land reforms will focus on the following
areas:
 Consolidation of holdings all over the country on the pattern of north-
western States;
 Redistribution of ceiling surplus lands and waste lands among the
landless farmers, unemployed youth with initial start-up capital;
 Tenancy reforms to recognize the rights of the tenants and share
croppers;
 Development of lease markets for increasing the size of holdings by
making legal provisions for giving private lands on lease for
cultivation and agri-business;
 Updating and improvement of land records, computerization and
issue of land pass-books to the farmers, and
 Recognition of women’s rights in land.
The rural poor will be increasingly involved in the implementation of

land reforms with the help of Panchayati Raj Institutions, Voluntary Groups,
Social Activists and Community Leaders.
Private sector participation will be promoted through contract farming

and land leasing arrangements to allow accelerated technology transfer,
capital inflow and assured markets for crop production, especially of
oilseeds, cotton and horticultural crops.
The basic support to agriculture has been provided by cooperative

sector assiduously built over the years. The Government will provide active
support for promotion of cooperative-form of enterprise and ensure greater
autonomy and operational freedom to them to improve their functioning.
The thrust will be on:
 Structural reforms for promoting greater efficiency and viability by
freeing them from excessive bureaucratic control and political
interference;
84
 Creation of infrastructure and human resource development;

 Improvement in financial viability and organizational sustainability of
cooperatives;
 Democratisation of management and increased professionalism in their
operations, and
 Creating a viable inter-face with other grass-root Organizations.
The Legislative and regulatory framework will be appropriately amended

and strengthened to achieve these objectives.
Risk Management
Despite technological and economic advancements, the condition of
farmers continues to be unstable due to natural calamities and price
fluctuations. National Agriculture Insurance Scheme covering all farmers and
all crops throughout the country with built-in provisions for insulating
farmers from financial distress caused by natural disasters and making
agriculture financially viable will be made more farmer-specific and effective.
Endeavour will be made to provide a package insurance policy for farmers,
right from sowing of crops to post-harvest operations, including market
fluctuations in the prices of agricultural produce.
The Central Government will continue to discharge its responsibility to

ensure remunerative prices for agricultural produce through announcement
of Minimum Support Prices policy for major agricultural commodities. The
food, nutrition and other domestic and exports requirements of the country
will be kept in view while determining the support prices of different
commodities. The price structure and trade mechanism will be continuously
reviewed to ensure a favourable economic environment for the agriculture
sector and to bring about an equitable balance between rural and urban
incomes. The methodology used by the Commission on Agricultural Costs
and Prices (CACP) in arriving at estimates of cost of production will be
periodically reviewed. The price structure of both inputs and outputs will be
monitored to ensure higher returns to the farmers and bring about cost
effectiveness throughout the economy. Domestic market prices will be closely
85
monitored to prevent distress sales by farmers. Public and cooperative

agencies undertaking marketing operations will be strengthened.
The Government will enlarge the coverage of futures markets to minimize
the wide fluctuations in commodity prices as also for hedging their risks. The
endeavour will be to cover all important agricultural products under futures
trading in course of time.
Management Reforms
The database for agriculture sector will be strengthened to ensure
greater reliability of estimates and forecasting which will help in the process
of planning and policy making. Efforts will be made to significantly improve
and harness latest remote sensing and information technology to capture
data, collate it, add value and disseminate it to appropriate destinations for
managing the risk and in accelerating the growth process. The objective will
be to engage in a meaningful continuous dialogue with the external
environment in the changing scenario and to have on-line and real time
system of ‘Agriculture on-line’ capacity to analyze signals emanating from
the farms and markets for the benefit of farmers.
Sustainable Development Strategy

The UN bodies and many governments consider three dimensions of
sustainable development- economic, social and environmental. Economic
efficiency is necessary for achieving the maximum possible growth with
limited resources. The social dimension is in terms of equity, particularly
intra generational equity. Poverty eradication is one of the Millennium
Development Goals (MDGs); it has become a global public good by global
public choice. The environmental dimension captures internalization of
environmental costs of pollution and natural resource degradation in
decision making of all economic agents and intra generational equity. It is
being realized that natural resource degradation and pollution are not just
environmental challenges; they threaten poverty eradication and
achievement of the MDGs.
Until recently, the major goal of India’s development had been

economic growth. The Eleventh Plan (2007-12) articulated the need for
86
pursuing an inclusive growth strategy. This broad vision includes ‘several

inter-related components: rapid growth that reduces poverty and creates
employment opportunities, access to essential services in health and
education especially for the poor, equality of opportunity, empowerment
through education and skill development, employment opportunities
underpinned by the National Rural Employment Guarantee, environmental
sustainability, recognition of women’s agency and good governance’.
Even though the linkages between growth and environment and

between poverty and environment are known that they have not been
incorporated adequately in Indian planning and public policies. Economic
growth is subject to ecosystem constraints. Dasgupta (1993) explores the two-
way links between poverty and environmental resource base. The
Millennium Ecosystems Assessment (2005) depicts the strength of linkages
between categories of ecosystem services and components of human well-
being that are commonly encountered and includes indications of the extent
to which it is possible for socioeconomic factors to mediate the linkage. It also
notes that other factors - including other environmental factors as well as
economic, social, technological, and cultural factors - influence human well-
being, and ecosystems are in turn affected by changes in human well-being.
External factors behind the decision to prepare a new Strategy

 harp and unexpected rise in Food prices on the international markets
 Enlargement of the EU membership and its implications on the
Egyptian agricultural trade. Global trend towards the use of food crops
in the production of biofuel, as a strategic objective in both the USA
and the EU
 Global climate changes due to the greenhouse effect and its probable
adverse effects on Nile delta and yield of different crops
 Exposure to external crises which negatively affect the agricultural
productive capacity (avian influenza and other trans-boundary insects
and diseases)
87
 The completion of the Greater Arab Free-Trade Area, and the Common
Market of Eastern and Southern Africa (COMESA), as well as other
regional trade agreements.
 The emergence of a new trend towards agricultural investments
beyond the national borders of many countries.
Lesson Learned from The Past

Exposure to external crises which negatively affect the agricultural
productive capacity (avian influenza and other trans-boundary insects and
diseases).
The completion of the Greater Arab Free-Trade Area, and the Common
Market of Eastern and Southern Africa (COMESA), as well as other regional
trade agreements
The emergence of a new trend towards agricultural investments
beyond the national borders of many countries.
Development efforts implemented over the past two decades have had
positive results, including:
1. Improved productivity of various crops;
2. Increased export capacity; and
3. Reduced food gap.
However, there are additional lessons learned from past experience,
and taken into consideration in designing the updated agricultural strategy
2030. Those include:
1. Maximizing returns of Economic Reform and Structural Adjustment
Program (ERSAP) in the agricultural sector must be established on two
major pillars:
A) Pricing Policy Reform (which was successfully accomplished).
B) Institutional development which has not been given the attention it
deserves. Improving the performance of state agricultural institutions
would create an enabling environment for farmers to establish their
own organizations so as to cope well with free market economy
mechanisms.
2. Despite the current scarcity of water resources, policies could not
help create an agricultural environment seeking to rationalize the use
88
of an already scarce resource. This makes it imperative to review the

existing policies and action plans in this field.
3. Although there are policies for protecting the agricultural land
against urban use, encroachment is still going on. This requires an
integrated policies and programs to strike balance between the
national objectives of protecting the country’s productive land base
and the problem of housing in rural Egypt.
4. While there is a common agreement that fragmentation of land
holdings impedes agricultural development, policies are still needed to
be developed in the future to help in minimizing this negative impact,
while maintaining harmony with inheritance law.
5. Despite success stories in land reclamation (adding about 2.0 million
Fadden), the process was accompanied by certain shortcomings in the
land distribution policies. Future scenarios should be developed as
options for agro industrial/ settlements in the newly reclaimed area.
6. Deficiency of skilled labor calls for a link between HR development
policies/learning system/ investment/ agricultural development
policies.
7. A need to Develop and strength links between different agricultural
research communities (in country and intra country relations).
8. Sustainable fishery development policies are highly needed to
enhance investment in this sector.
9. Linking Egyptian agricultural development with the regional
economic communities (Arab and African).
Vision of the strategy

“To achieve comprehensive economic and social development based
on a dynamic agricultural sector paying growth, while capable of sustained
and rapid special attention to helping the underprivileged social groups and
reducing rural poverty”
Mission of the strategy

“Modernizing Egyptian agriculture based on achieving food security
and improving the livelihood of the rural inhabit through the efficient use of
89
development resources, utilization of geopolitical and environmental

comparative advantages of the different agro-ecological regions”
The Strategy 'S Main Objectives

•Promoting sustainable use of natural agricultural resources
•Increase the productivity of both land and water units
•Raising the degree of food security of the strategic food commodities
•Increasing the competitiveness of agricultural products in local and
international markets
•Improving the climate for agricultural investment
•Improving the livelihood of rural inhabitants, and reducing poverty
rates in rural areas
AG. Policies Needed to Realize the Strategy's Objectives

To achieve the strategy's objectives, many of the on-going policies must be
revisited, and new ones designed including:
 To Productive village Development.
 Agricultural research and Extension System Development.
 Agricultural Institutions Development.
 Water resources rationalized use.
 Soil Conservation and Amelioration.
 Agricultural Land and Environment Protection.Agricultural "Takaful"
(Mutual Solidarity).
 Contract Agriculture.
 Food Safety.
 Agricultural Investment environment.
 Futures Markets.
 Crisis Management.
 Agriculture e-commerce.
 Regional Agricultural Cooperation.
 International Agricultural Cooperation.
 Settlement in the New Agricultural Communities.
Investment Programs and Projects of the First Business Plan (2011-2017)
The business plan encompasses nine main programs with 25 National
Projects covering the following areas:
90
1. Sustainable water and land resource management

2. Field crops Improvement
3. Horticultural Crops Improvement
4. Animal Husbandry, Dairy and Fisheries 'Development
5. Marketing and Agro-Industries
6. Livelihood Improvement in Rural Areas
7. Information Technology and Communication
8. Policy Reform and Agricultural Organizations
9. Agricultural Research and Technology Transfer
The first business plan Development Goals
1. Rationalizing Water and Land Use
2. Human Resources Development
3. Increased Production and Ensuring Food Security
4. Promoting Competitiveness
5. Livelihood improvement and Decreasing Rural Poverty
 Increasing wheat production to meet 74% of local demand.
 Maintaining self-sufficiency in rice with a surplus for export of
about 200,000 tons;
 increasing maize production from 6.5 to 13.9 million tons, sorghum
to 1.4 million tons and barley to 400,000 tons;
 Reducing pre-and post-harvest losses by half;
 increasing broad bean self-sufficiency to 75%;
 increasing green fodder production by 50%
 increasing oil crops area to 343,000 Acres;
 increasing domestic production of sugar by 52%, and self-
sufficiency lo 82%,
 Increasing overall vegetable production between 20-40%;
 Increasing productivity of fruit crops by 40-50%xii. Devoting
resources to improve medicinal, aromatic plants and ornamentals
according to domestic and export market needs;
 increasing dairy production to 7.2 million tons
 increasing poultry production of broilers to 1.1 million birds
annually and egg production to about 7.2 million eggs annually;
and
91
 Increasing inland and marine fisheries to the level of 1.5 million

tons,
Estimated investment funding for the business plan
Public Sector US $ 8.38 billion (45.8%)
Private Sector US $ 9.92 billion (54.2%)
Total investments $ 18.3 billion
Expected Impact of the business plan
 Increase the efficiency of irrigation water from 50% to 68%
 Save water required to reclaim more than one million Acre
 Increase Agricultural GDP by more than 20%
 Create about 1.6 million jobs
 Increase productivity of most crops by nearly 15-20%
 Improve farmer’s income
 Reduce poverty in the rural areas
 Increase level of food security of different crops (wheat 74%, maize
78%, sugar 82%, milk 98% ….etc)
Areas of Investment
 Manufacture and procurement of farm machinery
 Manufacture of modern irrigation equipments
 Food processing
 Grains storage facilities
 Marine aquaculture
 Milk collection centres and dairy industry
 Grading and packing facilities for fruits and vegetables
 On farm irrigation improvement
 Land reclamation
 Nitrogenous fertilizer production
 Seed production
 Improving domestic agricultural marketing facilities
 Dairy processing
 Linking small farmers to export markets
Conclusion
India's agricultural subsidies are below the de minis levels set by the
WTO. What we need is expenditure switching from current expenditures,
92
particularly reduction of perverse agricultural subsidies which do not

promote equity and environmental sustainability, to capital expenditure
which augment the quantity and quality of natural capital stocks. We also
need policies which signal farmers about the social costs of different natural
resources and eco system services and incentivize them to adopt productivity
enhancing farming methods and practices, crop diversification and post -
harvest technologies for reducing wastes and better price realization.
Subsidies must be targeting to achieve equity and environmental
sustainability.
Sustainable management of agriculture, forests, fisheries and eco-
system services is necessary for achieving the goals of intro generational
equity and inter generational equity. As the dependence of the poor on the
natural resource base is relatively higher than for the non - poor sustainable
management of natural resources helps in poverty eradication.
References
 Gupta K, R. (2002). Liberalization and globalization of Indian economy
Atlantic publishers and distributors, New Delhi, ISBN 81 -7156 -963 - 3
 Mohan P.D. Shrivastava (2010), Second Green Revolution Vs Rainbow
Revolution ISBN 978-81-8450-264-0, published by Deep and Deep
Publication Pvt. Ltd, New Delhi, ISSN NO 2031 -5063
 Suhas Avhad, (2011). Sustainable Development of Agriculture, VOL.1,
ISSUE. VI, ISSN NO 2031 -5063, pp. 1-4.
 Agricultural Economics Research Review, Year: 2013, Volume: 26, Issue: 2
ISSN: 0971-3441. Online ISSN: 0974-0279.
 Agricultural Policies in India: Retrospect and Prospect Arora V.P.S.Vice-
Chancellor, Supertech university, Rudrapur, Uttarakhand, Annual
Conference of Agricultural Economics Research Association (India) held at
SKUAST-Kashmir, Srinagar
 Katar Singh, (2009). Rural Development Principles, Policies and
Management, Sage Publication India Pvt. Ltd, ISBN 978-81-7829-926-6
 http://rrtd.nic.in/agriculture.html
93
7
Inclusion and Exclusion Error in the Public Distribution
System in Karnataka State
Huchhe Gowda
Abstract
Public Distribution System (PDS) is the largest food distribution
network in the world to ensure the food security to the poor by the Indian
Government. It has a network of more than 4 lakh Fair price shops (FPS) that
distribute commodities to 16 crore households at a cost of more than
Rs.15,000 crore. Until 1997, PDS provided food subsidies to all. In 1997, the
central government divided the population into two categories as Above
Poverty Line (APL) and Below Poverty Line (BPL) to target the consumers
that need food subsidies the most. Thus the BPL population is entitled to
receive food grains at highly subsidized prices while the APL population
receives food grain at prices closer to open market rates. The current reality is
that 57% of the PDS food grain does not reach the intended people. The
Planning Commission has identified that for every Rs.4 spent on PDS, only
Rs.1 reaches the poor which meant 75% of the money spent on PDS does not
reach the needy. The Karnataka state government providing subsidized food
grains for these additional families wrongly included in the BPL list results in
monthly over-allotment loss. The other losses are incurred to the government
94
as the over-allotted food grains are carried through the supply chain giving
way to corruption at all levels burdening it with a monthly loss of Rs 144.8
crore. Related to this issues present study attempt to analyse the inclusion
and exclusion errors in the public distribution system in Karnataka state
using secondary sources.
Key Words: Food Security, Fair Price Shops, Commodities, Subsidy and
Households.
Introduction
The government has used a flawed system for identifying the poor that
ultimately led to huge inclusion and exclusion error in the PDS. During the
period of 2008-09 Parliamentary elections, government under the directions
of highest political office of the state mandated that any family could be
called BPL if they produced a self-declared affidavit that said they are poor.
Thus PDS was used as a political tool to gain votes and garner support.
According to the Government’s claim there are 96 lakh BPL families in the
state whereas the investigation found the number of genuine BPL families in
Karnataka to be 44 lakh.
In order to ensure food security to the people who are below the
poverty line, the public distribution system (PDS) provides concessional food
to the poor. Procurement and supply of food to the State is the responsibility
of the Central Government and its distribution through fair price shops
(FPSs) is the responsibility of the State Government. Food grains are
distributed through the PDS to the poor at fixed rates throughout the year.
The PDS runs parallel with the market mechanisms to provide food at
controlled rates to the poor to provide sustenance and food security to the
people for whom food at market prices are beyond reach. As in other States,
rice, wheat, sugar, and kerosene oil are distributed through the FPS s in
Karnataka as well. The identification of beneficiary families and allotment of
food grains to them is the responsibility of the State Government. The issue
rates (i.e., the rate at which food is supplied through the FPS to different
categories of cardholders) are fixed by the State Government, except for those
who are eligible under Anthyodaya Anna Yojana (AAY) scheme for whom
the issue rate is fixed by the Central Government (Table 1). The Central
95
Government allotment of food grain to the state is for 31.29 lakh families
which includes AAY and other below Poverty line (BPL) families.
The balance requirement of food grains are purchased by the State
from the central pool at the above poverty line (APL) rates and distributed at
BPL rates to the ration card holders who have been identified by the State
Government.
Table no. 1: Issue Prices for the BPL/AAY Food Grains (Rs/Quintal) (2012)
Sl. Commodities Central State Issue Difference (Subsidy borne by the
No Issue Price Price (Rs.) State Government) (Rs.)
(Rs.)
AAY Issue Prices
1 Rice 300.00 300.00 Only the margin amount to the
wholes ale and retail issues are
borne by the state.
2 Wheat 200.00 200.00
3 Sugar 1939.83 1350.00 GOI bears the difference
BPL Issue prices
1 Rice 565.00 300.00 265 .00
2 Wheat 415.00 300.00 160.00
3 Sugar 1939.83 1350.00 GOI bears the difference
APL Issue prices (This quantity is for the BPL families identified by the
State in addition to the central Government figures )
1 Rice 830.00 300.00 530.00
2 Wheat 610.00 300.00 355.00
Sources: Karnataka Economic Survey 2012-13
Fair Price Shops

Depending on the topography and existing cardholders, there is one
FPS in every Revenue village and, currently, 20434 FPS are operating in the
State. In the hilly areas of Dakshina Kannada, Kodagu, Raichur, Mysore and
Chamarajanagara, 9 mobile FPS are also working which are operated by the
Karnataka Food and Civil Supplies Corporation.
Targeted Public Distribution System (TPDS)

The PDS was revamped as targeted public distribution system (TPDS)
in1997 in order to target the system towards the poor. The State Government
96
identifies the poor and makes arrangements for the delivery of food grains in
a transparent and accountable manner to the poor through the FPS. Based on
the Planning Commission's criterion, the Government of India has identified
31.29 lakh families in Karnataka as BPL families. The State Government has
accepted the Planning Commission's estimates for the AAY families but has
not agreed with the BPL estimates. For identification of the same, the State
Government conducted a BPL survey in 2005 on the basis of its own criteria.
The task of issuing computerized cards with bio-metric indicators and photo
graphs were given to a private agency. It was found that the number of BPL
families in the State were more than the number of families as estimated by
the Planning Commission for the State.
Hence, a massive drive to identify the addition al families in the State

ha s bee n undertake n in January 2011.The additional cards issued by the
private agency have been identified through linking Electricity Revenue
Register (RR) number to the urban ration cards and the Grama Panchayat
house hold number to the rural ration cards. This process was facilitated by
the National Informatics Center (NIC). Consequently, more than 15.67 lakh
cards in urban areas and more than 15.57 lakh cards in rural areas were
identified and cancelled. All the details of this cancellation have been
published in the website of the Food and Civil Supplies department.
Anthyodaya Anna Yojana (AAY)

Anthyodaya Anna Yojana (AAY) covers the poorest of the poor and is
designed for those who are not able to afford two square meals per day. They
are the poorest segment of the BPL population such as landless agriculture
labourers, households headed by widows, terminally-ill persons and elderly
persons with no specific income or family persons affected by HVI .These
beneficiaries are identified by Panchayats in the Gramasabha. Under this
scheme, so far 1036860 families have been identified. 29 kgs of rice at Rs.3.00
per kg, and 6kgs of wheat at Rs.2.00 per kg per month are being provided to
these families. Table no. 2 provides details of numbers of AAY, BPL and APL
category as identified by the State Government.
97
Table no. 2: Number of PDS Cardholders in Karnataka

Annual income Card No of Card Holders
type 2008-09 2009-10 2010-11 2011-12 2012-13*
Up to Rs 12000 in rural AAY 1199700 1199700 1128912 1199700 1036319
area and Rs 17000 in BPL 9413430 8643323 8504993 8401792 8189692
urban area
More than Rs 12000 in APL 5297772 5297772 3996511 3832931 3322021
rural area and Rs 17000 in
urban area
Total Cards in the State 15910902 15140795 13630416 13434423 12548032
Sources: Karnataka Economic Survey 2012-13
Note: * till September 2012
Allotment and off take of Food grains

The allocated quota of food grains to the State is transported to the
State's godowns by the Food Corporation of India (FCI).The subsequent
distribution of the food grains is the responsibility of the State Government.
The State Government has identified agencies for lifting and distribution
from FCI wholesale godowns to the taluk godowns in the State. The State
Government has two agencies, Karnataka Food And Civil Supplies
Corporation Ltd, (KFCSC) which is a Government organization, and Taluk
Agricultural Produce Cooperative Marketing Societies (TAPCMS). Under
PDS, food grains are lifted from FCI godowns and stored in State-owned or
hired godowns. The percentage of allotment and off take of food grains by
the State in the past five years is given in Table no. 3.
Table no. 3: Allotment and off take of food grains for different categories
(MTs)
Year Rice Wheat
Allotment Off take Percentage Allotment Off take Percentage
AAY
2008-09 416508 415779 99 87384 87510 100
2009-10 416508 416343 99 87384 87363 99
2010-11 384480 384473 100 75553 75348 99
2011-12 411120 411120 100 86253 85413 99
2012-13* 202452 202452 100 42474 42474 100
BPL(Excluding AAY)
98
2008-09 669840 669588 99 129024 129024 100

2009-10 669840 669558 99 140544 140544 100
2010-11 808606 807617 99 168145 167203 99
2011-12 932982 932982 100 114005 113975 99
2012-13* 441007 441007 100 97258 97258 100
APL
2008-09 666102 627387 94 78263 71703 92
2009-10 914170 857699 94 119507 93142 78
2010-11 912078 832084 91 129743 103320 79
2011-12 970067 902692 93 92094 87484 94
2012-13* 518970 418012 81 48756 31091 64
Sources: Economic Survey of Karnataka 2012-13
Note: * till Sept 2012
Sugar Allotment and off take

As in the case of rice, the Government of India allots levy sugar from
sugar mills under its sugar directorate. Levy sugar, thus collected, is being
supplied to the AAY and BPL families through PDS at the rate of Rs. 13.50
per kg. Each card holder is allotted 1 kg of sugar per card per month. 59
sugar mills are working in Karnataka and sugar is lifted from these factories.
Details o f allotment and off take during the past few years in Karnataka are
given in Table no.4.
Table no. 4: Allotment and off take of sugar
Year Allotment (MTs) Off take (MTs)
2008-09 108714 73389
2009-10 118659 81301
2010-11 196330 167740
2011-12 112696 95549
2012-13* 54891 44470
Note: *till September 2012
Superior Kerosene Oil (SKO)

The allocation quota of the State has been reduced to 43572 KL
(from46900KL) of SKO since June 2010. SKO is distributed to FPS through
designated wholesale distributors and allotment to these wholesalers is fixed
by the oil companies. For the distribution of SKO at the household level,
99
ration cards are divided as Gas and Non-Gas cards. The quota of SKO is fixed
according to number of gas connections. LPG cards do not get SKO
allotment. In January 2011, due to linking of LPG connections of Electricity
RR numbers, more than 1573734 LPG connections are identified as fictitious
and cancelled.
Thus, the State Government has contributed to reduction in the

subsidy burden of the Government of India. The retail price of SKO in the
State differs across taluks, and between urban and rural areas, as the retail
end price is based on the terminal point distance. The retail price varies
between Rs.15.10 to Rs.16.50 per litre. There are 25567 SKO retail licenses in
the State, and there are 339 SKO wholesalers of different oil companies in the
State. In order to avoid misuse; the colour of PDS card for SKO has been
made blue and is distributed only to ration card holders. SKO is also give n
to fishing purposes through permits issued by the deputy commissioners in
the coastal districts of Dakshina Kannada, Udupi and Uttar Kannada. Each
permit holder is eligible for 200 litres of SKO per month during the fishing
season.
Levy on Rice Millers

Under the Karnataka Rice Millers (Levy) Order 1999 (Essential
Commodities Act 1955), levy is imposed on all the working rice mills. These
rice mills are required to deposit 33% of the rice milled by them in the form
of levy to the Central Government through FCI. The levy period starts in
October/November. In 2008-09, the levy collected from rice mills was 96.9
thousand MTs that declined to 75.5 thousand MTs in 2009-10 which further
increased to 153.5 thousand MTs in 2010-11. From 2011-2012, the State
Government entered into a Memorandum of Understanding (MOU) with the
Government of India to become a Decentralized Procurement State (DCP). As
a consequence, it is the responsibility of the State to procure rice from millers
for PDS. The target fixed for this year was 300000 MTs. and the state has
procured 2.02 thousand Mts. KFCSC is the nodal agency for the procurement
of rice from the mills.
100
Food Subsidy and Transportation

The subsidy provided for supply of food grains through PDS, the cost
of maintaining the stock and, the difference between procurement prices and
issue prices borne by the State Government is collectively called as “food
subsidy”. The State is bearing the cost of transportation to the FPS through its
transporters appointed every year. The total amount of food subsidy and
transportation cost spent is given in Table no.5.
Table No. 5: Food subsidy & transportation (Rs. Lakh)

Year 2008- 2009-10 2010- 2011- 2012-
09 11 12 13*
Food Subsidy 65,142 1,07,499 82,296 67642 46131
Transportation (includes BPL and AAY 7,784 9,187 10041 11377 9228
category)
Total 72,926 1,16,686 92,337 79019 55,359
Note: *till September 2012
Computerization of Public Distribution system in the State:

Computerization of Public Distribution system (PDS) has been done
for all the units of department of food and civil supplies and linked to
various departments at PRI level. For processing of ration card data at the
village level photographs and fingerprint bio-metrics of card holders and the
applicants are captured. The data of all ration cards beneficiaries have been
digitized and a central data base has been setup so that the department
officers of all levels can access it for the purpose of processing and
monitoring. Besides status of food grain lifting by the fair price shops in the
state and stock positions in all the godowns of the state made available to the
departmental officers and the public on the linkage “Karnataka PDS Data
Centre”. The data base setup by the department is very huge and the ration
card, LPG electricity meter, property-tax number data are linked to one
another. The department officers are able to see all the data pertaining to a
ration card holder in a single screen, thus enabling them to take decision
about ineligible cards, false claims etc. The public can submit applications for
new ration card and request for modification or correction to the existing
ration card 'online' using the department website. The department officers
101
process the applications for new ration cards or corrections and

modifications to the existing ration cards by entering the data base.
Computerization of Fair Price Shops:

In order to eradicate illegalities in the fair price shops, “Electronic
Weighing-cum-Point of Sale Machines” having special features are being
installed in all the fair price shops. The machines have the following special
features;
i) The data of all the ration card holders attached to the FPS including the
fingerprint bio-metric is stored in the machine.
ii) The beneficiary accounts opens when the card holder places his thumb
on the bio-metric device of the machine.
iii) When the sales person places food grain or kerosene on the platform
the weight is shown on the touch screen and the machine announces
the commodity name and weight.
iv) The machine deducts the container weight and shows the kerosene
poured in liters on the screen.
v) When the bill is printed on thermal paper, the machine announces the
particulars and automatically transfers the data to the central server
through GSM modem.
Justice Wadha Committee Major Recommendations on PDS System in

Karnataka
The system of allowing TAPCMS to store PDS grain as an intermediary
wholesaler must be done away with immediately as the Committee found
large scale diversion from such go downs.
 Ideally there should be a system by which the grain allocated to the
State can be equated with the grain distributed to the beneficiaries.
Since the scale of distribution and the number of beneficiaries is very
large this cannot be achieved manually. Complete automation and
Computerization is the need of hour.
 The Scheme of temporary ration cards which defeats the successes
gained through the introduction of automation must be done away
with immediately.
102
 The end to end automation being implemented in the State must be

completed without political interference and monitored by an
independent agency such as an ombudsman or the Lokayukta of the
State.
 Political influence should be done away with in the operation of PDS.
This includes appointment of FPS dealers, awarding of contracts for
transportation of food grains.
 In view of the findings on viability of FPS, the Committee is of the
view that the concept of a standalone FPS should be changed. This
way he can earn profits and the shop will remain open throughout the
month. Moreover attached numbers of cards mean a set number of
customers in any case. In Karnataka the government must give
priority to multi service co operatives as they are a viable proposition
in the village level. However this does not derogate from the finding
that cooperatives should have no role at the wholesale level.
 The Committee has found that one of the other reasons affecting the
viability of FPS is the unequal distribution of the ration cards. It is
recommended that the authority should undertake an exercise to
rationalize and bring some uniformity in the distribution of ration
cards to respective FPS’s.
 FPS dealers found indulging in malpractices should be summarily
dealt with, including cancellation of license. Similarly, contracts of
transporters involved in diversion of food grains should be cancelled
forthwith and such transporters or their agents should be
permanently debarred from obtaining contracts for transportation of
food grain items. Further, induction of Global Positioning System
(GPS) technology is recommended for keeping a track on the
movement of trucks carrying food grains from the FCI up to Fair Price
Shops. This will also enable the authority to fix responsibility on the
transporter if the stock does not reach the FPS at the scheduled time.
 Urgent action may be taken by the concerned State authorities to
reconstitute FPS Vigilance Committees. The process of selection and
appointment of members of such committees should be transparent
and should involve ration card holders, particularly, the household
women in the area. The Vigilance Committee should meet at least
103
once in two months at the Collectrate on a fixed day and time. The
date of such meeting should be notified for information of general
public. The minutes of meeting of the committee should be prepared
and a copy of the same along with the action taken report should be
sent to the department. The ration card holders of the area may
submit their complaints to the Vigilance Committee which should
report to higher officers about the nature of action taken on the
complaints received.
Findings and Recommendations

While civil society is clamouring that the PDS be universalised,
without any distinctions between BPL and APL, so that the poor get self-
selected as it was earlier when the country was growing at the Hindu rate
of growth of about 3%, the concept note seeks to make the targeted PDS
statutory. The targeted PDS is costly and gives rise to a lot of corruption in
the process of trying to decide who is and who is not poor. This results in
the genuinely poor being left out whilst the ineligible get several cards.
Currently, the limits of annual income required for a household to be

declared BPL are illogical. Karnataka’s PDS is loaded with errors of
exclusion of actual BPL families from the BPL status, inclusion of APL
families into the BPL category. In Karnataka, for instance, the figures are Rs
11,000 and Rs 17,000 in rural and urban areas respectively. That means that
a household of five people in Bangalore would have to be living on around
Rs 47 per day, or about Rs 10 per person, on which even a beggar would
not survive. In other words, a person would have to be earning less than
half the minimum wage of Rs 88 (which itself is inadequate) to be
considered poor. If universalisation of the PDS is not accepted, those
earning less than the minimum wage need to be considered poor.
The concept note assumes without any justification that the nation
may not be able to procure the required amount of foodgrain or bear the
cost of a food subsidy. It is therefore proposing to reduce the scale of issue
to 25 kg per BPL household, or 5 kg per person. This, despite the Supreme
Court ruling that every BPL family shall be given 35 kg, and that no
104
changes shall be effected in any food-related scheme without its

permission. This will result in families having to buy 10 kg from the
market, paying more for the same amount of food than earlier. The
government providing subsidized food grains for these additional families
wrongly included in the BPL list results in monthly over-allotment loss.
The other losses are incurred to the government as the over-allotted food
grains are carried through the supply chain giving way to corruption at all
levels burdening it with a monthly loss of Rs
144.8 Crore.
As mentioned before, of the total loss incurred by the government 39%
is distribution leakage loss, 38% is over-allotment loss and 17% is active
suspect loss. Distribution leakage occurs throughout the supply chain and
can be rectified by a stricter monitoring of the three primary players
(Transporters, 9 wholesalers, FPSs) of the distribution system. Losses due to
over-allotment and active suspects can be controlled by rectification of the
ration card distribution process.
The installation of following technologies are also recommended,
 Weigh bridge at the wholesale level
 Point of sale Device at the retail FPS level
 Computerized smart card technology at the consumer level
 Computerized Inventory Management System at all levels
 WAN all over the state linking the Commissionerate, district and
taluka level department offices, the wholesalers and retailers. The
software could also be linked to the Food Corporation of India
Inventory system.
 GPS tracking devices connected to the trucks used for transportation.
Conclusion
Taking all this into consideration, the Wadhwa Committee
recommends that “the income criterion needs to be revisited” and that
“estimation of poverty should not be made on a criteria which is less than
the minimum wage fixed by the state for agricultural labourers”. Also, that
the government may also consider using calorie intake per person per day
as an indicator of poverty. The People’s Health Movement has demanded
105
that every person be given enough foodgrain to ensure 2,400 calories per
day. Moreover, the predominance of cereals and lack of adequate pulses,
oil, fruit and vegetables in the diet of most Indians is what is causing high
levels of malnutrition among them. We need to find ways to get these items
to the populace through the PDS, if malnutrition is to be addressed.
The concept note does not mention the word ‘malnutrition’ at all; it
completely ignores the contentious issue of defining who is poor and how
much and what constitutes ‘adequate and nutritious food’. It does not
recognise anywhere that entitlements should be linked to levels of
malnutrition, if food security is to be achieved. It concentrates wholly on how
to reduce the number of BPL families, reduce entitlements, and reduce
subsidies. A great way indeed to ensure food security and raise Karnataka’s
position on the India Hunger Index and World Hunger Index. Further, the
concept note seeks to take away the freedom enjoyed by the states until now
to: (1) fix the numbers of those who are BPL in their respective states; (2)
decide the amount of foodgrain to be given to them, and (3) fix the rate at
which these shall be provided. As a result of this freedom, the note says, the
actual number of BPL ration cards issued by all the states is 10.68 crore while
the accepted figure of BPL households by the Centre is 6.52 crore, resulting in
an excess of 4.16 crore BPL cards. Tamil Nadu, for instance, has universalised
the PDS, while Karnataka has issued BPL cards to 85% of households.
References
 Economist 2010a. The Millennium Development Goals. The Economist, 25th
September 2010. p. 31-34.
 FAO 2004. Committee on World Food Security. Food and Agricultural
Organization of the United Nations. Rome, 2004.
http://www.fao.org/docrep/meeting/008/j2789e.htm, accessed on 3rd
July 2010.
 Huchhe Gowda (2012), “Food Security and Public Distribution System in India:
Evidence from Inclusive Growth” in the edited books on “Inclusive Agricultural
Development: New Dimensions” Published by APH Publishing Corporation,
New Delhi.
 Gowda H. (2013), “Analysis of the Hunger Indicators and the Public
Distribution System in India: Evidence to Global Food Security Scenario” in
106
International Research Journal of Humanities and Environmental Issues,

ISSN No. 2277 9329. Vol. I, Issue 11, pp 29-34, February 2013.
 Justice Wardha Committee report on Public Distribution System in
Karnataka, 2009
 Karnataka Economic Survey 2012-13, Government of Karnataka
 Ministry of Women and Child Development, Government of India, Five
Year Strategic Plan (2011–2016),
http://wcd.nic.in/MWCD_Strategic_Plan_10-02-2011.pdf, accessed
November 16, 2012.
 Ruth Kattumuri (2011) Food Security and the Targeted Public Distribution
System in India Asia Research Centre (ARC) Houghton Street London
WC2A 2AE United Kingdom Economist 2010. How to get children out of jobs
and into school. The Economist, 31st July 2010. p. 19-20.
 WFP 2010. World Food Programme. http://www.wfp.org/our-work
accessed 2nd August 2010.
107
8
Excluded among the Scheduled and Strategies for
Inclusive Development
Bagavathi Raja. A and Dr. C. Satheeshkumar
Abstract
The Government of India recognizes the tribal groups under the
constitutional term ‘Scheduled Tribes’ derived from a schedule in The
Constitution (Scheduled Tribes) Order of 1950. Under this provision,
Scheduled Tribes enjoy constitutional provisions, affirmations and welfare
measures thereby finding out ways for development. In another case, some
of the identical tribes being not scheduled struggle for their development in
all the aspects. This dissimilar recognition results them to be vulnerable,
impoverished, and marginalized and to the most excluded which ultimately
impacts their overall development. Such a case is evident in the Union
Territory of Puducherry where the presence of tribes has been for aeon times.
The empirical paper reports the constraints of Non-Scheduled Tribal
Communities to their educational development that are living in a
Palangudiyinar Makkal Nagar, Puducherry. By applying census method all
the 59 households were included. The major finding of the study exposes the
pitiful condition of the tribes with respect to their social, economic and in
particular the educational status. This calls for the immediate action on the
108
part of the government to devise appropriate strategies for their inclusive

development.
Tribe: The Concept and Nomenclature

Indian Society is characterized by its heterogeneous features of
religion, territory, language, culture and caste. The major social groups or
categories were formed on the basis of the perceived differences. These
categories were reinforced during British rule through the decennial
enumeration and classification of the population into groups and categories.
To these existing categories, a new category was added during this period i.e.
Tribes. It is well known fact and claimed that tribes are the oldest inhabitants
of India and communities that did not practice religion by and with written
text; did not have a political form of state; did not have divisions of classes
and the most important they did not have castes in any form and were
neither Hindus not peasants.
In so far as the Indian literature is concerned, several attempts have
been made to define the word ‘Tribe’, but no concrete definitions could be
arrived at. The Census of India 1921 defines them as “groups of simple
persons occupying a common area, having common language and a common
action in warfare”. SyIvan Levi (1988) who has given a thought provoking
contribution to define ‘tribe’ says that a tribe is “a prospective caste which
has not yet attempted to adopt itself to the sacred mould of Hinduism”. In
broad terms, tribe is defined as “a community occupying a common
geographic area and having similar language and culture or beliefs and
practices.
In this regard, even the Constitution of India does not ascertain a
concrete definition for Scheduled Tribes. Article 366(25) refers to Scheduled
Tribes as those communities who are scheduled in accordance with Article
342 (i) of the Constitution which depicts that the Scheduled Tribes are the
tribes or tribal communities or part of or groups within these tribes and tribal
communities which have been declared as such by the President through a
public notification. The term ‘tribe’ was described differently in different
times such as Forest Tribes (Census 1891), Animists (Census 1901), Tribal
Animists (Census 1911), Hill and Forest Tribes (Census 1921), Primitive
109
Tribes (Census 1931), Backward Tribes (Government of India Act 1935),

Tribes (Census 1941), and Scheduled Tribes (Census 1951).
Scheduled Tribes in India: An Overview

It is perceived notion that the tribes have been socially distanced and
living outside the mainstream society. The areas inhabited by the tribal
population constitute a significant part of the underdeveloped areas of the
country. In order to bring development and uplift the community on par
with mainstream society, after independence Indian government realised to
include them in the development planning and process. Keeping their state
of vulnerability, impoverishment and extreme backwardness in all the
aspects, the tribes were “Scheduled” through constitutional provisions i.e.
The Constitution (Scheduled Tribes) Order 1950 for safeguarding the interest
and their accelerated socio-economic development. During the
commencement of the order, there were 212 tribes declared in 14 states but at
present there are 705 tribal communities.
The population of Scheduled Tribes, according to 2001 Census,
constitute 8.2 percent accounting 8,43,26,240 of the total population and in
2011 Census, constitute 8.6 percent accounting 10,42,81,034 of the total
population. The growth rate of the Scheduled Tribe population in this
corresponding decade is marked with 23.7 Crore. The share of the Scheduled
Tribe population in the major States are significantly higher contributing 94.4
percent in Mizoram, 86.5 percent in Nagaland, 86.1 percent in Meghalaya and
68.8 percent in Arunachal Pradesh to the total population. Whereas
Uttarakhand accounts 2.6 percent, Kerala 1.5 percent, Bihar 1.3 percent and
Tamil Nadu is 1.1 percent are some of the states having smaller share of
Scheduled Tribes population. The literacy rate of the Scheduled Tribe
Population is marked with remarkable changes of 47.1 percent in 2001
Census to 59 percent in 2011 Census to the total population. Despite of
progress in the literacy level, they lag behind the average total literacy rate of
India i.e. 74.04 percent.
Non-Scheduled Tribes: Concept and Definition

The list of Scheduled Tribes is State and Union Territory specific and a
community declared as a Scheduled Tribe in a State need not be so in another
110
State and / or Union Territory. This case might be applicable when there is a
clear demarcation of geographical boundaries. The Union Territory of
Puducherry consists of four enclaves namely Puducherry, Karaikal, Mahe
and Yanam which are lying geographically separated from one another and
sharing the boundary with nearby states i.e. Mahe shares its boundary with
Kerala State, Yanam with Andhra Pradesh and Puducherry and Karaikal
Regions share their boundaries with Tamil Nadu. The geographical
boundary of Puducherry region itself is scattered and located here and there.
In this juncture, the presence of one tribal community and / or group of
tribal communities having identical linguistic and culture features can be
living in both the areas and to the most extend their clan, relatives and
neighbours too. In this situation, notifying and scheduling one tribal
community of a state under a specific category which gives constitutional
provisions and leaving the same tribal community notifying or classifying
under different category in the adjacent state will pave a way for inequality,
injustice to and dissimilar development among them.
For instance, Irular Tribal Community is notified as Scheduled Tribe
through the Constitution (Scheduled Tribes) Order, Part XIV-Tamil Nadu, Sl.No:
4; Part VII-Kerala, Sl.No: 5 and Part VI-Karnataka, Sl.No: 13. But the same tribal
community living in Puducherry Union Territory has been classified under
Most Backward Class category and not enjoyed constitutional provisions and
safeguards as their did in the neighbouring states. Similar case is applicable
to some other tribal communities living in the Puducherry region viz.
Kattunayakkan, Malaikuravan, Kuruman and Yerukkula Tribal
Communities. It is inferred that though these tribal communities are notified
as Scheduled Tribes in one state but they are excluded from scheduling in the
other state thereby not availing affirmative actions and welfare measures.
Therefore author denotes such tribes as Non-Scheduled Tribes because
of the state of dissimilar recognition and provisions by the government.
Hence the concept of Non-Scheduled Tribe is operationally defined as “a
tribal community who has dissimilar recognition having categorized under
different social groups by the government, even though living within the
same geographical location”. So concerning the tribal communities’
development as thrust area, the policy makers should concentrate more on
111
formulation and implementation of inclusive measures meant for the

upliftment and development in all the aspects.
Inclusive Growth and Non-Scheduled Tribal Communities

Our Indian economy accelerated in the Tenth Plan period (2002–03 to
2006–07) to record an average growth of 7.7%. Besides, there was acceleration
even within the Tenth Plan period and the growth rate reached to 8.7%,
making India one of the fastest growing economies in the world.
Notwithstanding this positive growth, the major weakness in the Indian
economy is that the growth is not perceived as being sufficiently inclusive to
many socially disadvantaged communities especially Scheduled Castes,
Scheduled Tribes and Minorities. In such situation, the plight of Non-
Scheduled Tribes needs to be studied and attention towards their status in
the society should be disclosed to the policy makers and executers so that
appropriate policy and welfare measures could be formulated and
implemented for their overall development.
Methodology
The study has adopted descriptive research design and empirical data
was collected through structured interview schedule from Non-Scheduled
Tribal Communities living in Palangudiyinar Makkal Nagar (part of Vadanur
village, Mannadipet Commune, Puducherry). Adopting Census method for
the study, all the 59 households have been taken up as the study population.
It comprises 220 individuals representing equal sex ratio i.e. 110:110.

In this section, status of Non-Scheduled Tribal Communities is
discussed taking some of the major indicators that aid development of the
community Household and Housing Conditions, Literacy Level,
Employment and Average Income and Health and Sanitation.
Households in the Study Area

From this study, it was found out that there are five tribal communities
living in the settlement comprising 59 households. They are as follow: nearly
half of the households i.e. 42.4 percent (25 in numbers) belong to Irular
112
Community; 28.8 percent (17) of the households belong to Vettaikaran; 15.3

percent (9) of the households belong to Kattu Nayakkan; 11.9 percent (7) of
the households belong to Yerukkula and only one of the household belongs
to Malaikuravan Community.
Housing Condition
All the 59 houses are built by mud walls and thatched roofs. They were
nomads in the region thereby were homeless and landless. Keeping their
backwardness in the mind, Puducherry Union Territory Government offered
them free and permanent place to settle in the outskirt of the Vadanur Village
but no efforts have been taken from the Government for construction of
pucca houses.
Literacy Level of the Study Area

In this section, overall literacy level of the study area is discussed and
all the members belonging to five tribal communities are classified into three
generation. Accordingly in the First Generation, there are 42 people aged
between 41 and 60 and above; Second Generation accounts 79 people aged
between 21 and 40 and Third Generation are 99 people aged between 7 and
20.
Table No - 1 Literacy Level Comparison on Generations Timeline
I II III Total
Literacy Level Generation Generation Generation Population
(42 People) (79 People) (99 People) (220)
Illiterate 39 (92.90) 54 (68.40) 30 (30.30) 123 (55.90)
Primary Level
01 (02.40) 03 (03.80) 29 (29.30) 33 (15.00)
(Standard: 1-5)
Middle Level
0 07 (08.90) 24 (24.20) 31 (14.10)
(Standard: 6-8)
High Level
01 (02.40) 13 (16.50) 12 (12.10) 26 (11.80)
(Standard: 9-10)
Higher Secondary
Level (Standard: 11- 0 02 (02.50) 03 (03.00) 05 (02.30)
12)
113
Technical Level
0 01 (01.30) 01 (01.00) 02 (00.90)
(Diploma/ITI)
Degree 01 (02.40) 00 00 01 (00.50)
Total 42 (100) 79 (100) 99 (100) 220 (100)
Out of the total population in all generations, 55.9 percent are illiterates
and 44.1 percent are literates of whom 15 percent are in the Primary Level;
14.1 percent are in the Middle Level; 11.8 percent are High Level; 2.3 percent
are in Higher Level; 0.9 percent are in Technical Level and 0.5 percent is in
Degree Level.
Nearly, 15 percent of the population has studied till Primary Level, it is
to note that only 0.5 percent of them have studied up to Degree Level. The
respondent who has done his graduation hails from Irular Community is a
native of Tamil Nadu where he is recognised as Scheduled Tribe. As he got
married and settled in Puducherry, his ST status has not been recognized by
Government of Puducherry.
Employment and Income

All the 5 tribal communities in the study area perform non-traditional
occupation like purchasing of raw materials; producing and selling of Blue
Liquid, Ala, Detergent Powder, Phenol, Basketry, Dolls and Cloth Bags for
their livelihood. Since Forest Protection Laws prohibit tribes from hunting,
they are left jobless as they cannot even depend on forest resources to earn
their livelihoods. This has made them more vulnerable and impoverished.
Thus, by practicing non-traditional occupation, they could earn on an
average of Rs. 40 to 120 per day and sometimes the earning may face ups and
downs.
Strategies for Inclusive Growth of the Non-Scheduled Tribal Communities

 The first and foremost inclusive strategy is that notifying them under
the Scheduled Tribes category. Though this power vests with Union
Government through enactment of law, the Puducherry Union
Government could devise some welfare measures which would give
accelerated development of the Non-Scheduled Tribal Communities on
114
par with the present development of their counterparts in the

neighbouring states.
 As the study area do have neither individual nor community toilets,
people practice open defecation which ultimately pollutes the
environment. It is reported in the 2011 census that only 39 percent of
the households have toilet facilities in the rural areas of Puducherry
Union Territory. Sanitation is referred to the provision of facilities and
services for the safe disposal of human wastes. In this case, such
practices are not followed in the tribal areas as they do not have
sufficient means to construct toilets. Therefore, in order to lead decent
life, hygienic activities must be practiced by the people concerned and
to improve the hygienic conditions, at least a sanitary complex must be
constructed under the State-run scheme called “The Pondicherry Chief
Minister’s Sanitation Scheme”.
 The government should take appropriate measures in rehabilitating
the tribals by constructing houses under the State-run Housing Scheme
called “Perunthalaivar Kamarajar Housing Scheme for Houseless
Poor” and “Indira Awas Yojana – a Central scheme. This is an
immediate requirement of the study area because they are settlement
near and directly opposite to the lake. If it overflows, all the mud
houses would be washed away in the flood and the streets would not
be conducive for walking.
 As far as these tribal communities are concerned, I and II Generations
did not attend schooling because their parents did not allow them as
they were ignorant of the significance of education. They were also
made to perform their traditional occupation by their parents.
Moreover frequent migration of the parents in searching for livelihood
and to escape from caste based discrimination and family problems
also forced them to be out of schooling. After knowing the significance
of education, both I and II Generations send their children to schooling.
But the children also go through a tough time in their respective
schools. They face bullying in the respective schools and were taunted
by the teachers using derogatory words mentioning their parents’
occupation. This results more drop-outs (Kavita Kishore, 2013). In this
115
regard, the teachers should be sensitized about the importance of

schooling for those children and government should take necessary
action against the teachers who harm the children thereby progressing
in the educational development and curbing the drop-outs can be
achieved.
 All the members, who were above 18 years of ages, should be included
in the “Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Scheme” to
generate employment. This would support them financially on a
regular basis to lead the family with some dignity in the society.
Bibliography
 Ahuja, R. (2013). Society in India: Concepts, Theories and Recent Trends. Jaipur:
Rawat Publications.
 Chandramouli, C. (2013). Scheduled Tribes in India: As revealed in Census 2011.
New Delhi: Registrar General Of India.
 India, G. o. (n.d.). Retrieved June 2, 2012, from
http://www.anagrasarkalyan.gov.in/pdf/constitution_scheduled_tribes_ord
er_1950.pdf
 Kishore, K. (2013, April 9). Facing bullying, Irula children quit schools. The
Hindu, 2. Tamil Nadu.
 Naidu, T. S. (2009). Identification of the Scheduled Tribes in Pondicherry.
Puducherry: Government of Puducherry.
 Puducherry, G. o. (2010). Notification of Tribes. Puducherry: LA GAZETTE DE
L'ETAT.
 Xaxa, V. (2003). Tribes in India. In V. Das, The Oxford India Companion to
Sociology and Social Anthropology (pp. 373-408). New Delhi: Oxford University
Press.
116
9
Contextualizing Tribal Redistribution amidst
Dwindling forest cover and shifting livelihood patterns:
A case study of Jharkhand, Orissa and Chattisgarh (1961
– 2001)
Tanushree Kundu
Abstract
The long process of peopling in India has placed the tribal population
in regions of complete isolation. Even a perfunctory glance at their
distribution pattern reveals that the “tribal territories” or areas of
concentration of tribal population are marked by relative isolation and have
essentially been positioned in “environmentally negative” densely forested
locales. These jungles have not only become their hearth areas but over the
centuries, have come to be a part and parcel of their cultures and economies.
This paper is a sincere effort towards situating the tribal plight amidst
decades of diminishing forest cover and deteriorating sources of livelihood
which have resulted in eroding traditional economic activities, shifting
workforce patterns and eventually in physically dislocating the indigenous
tribes or the adivasis from their native lands. This paper investigates the
forest resource degradation in the tribal belts of Jharkhand, Orissa and
Chattisgarh from State of Forest Reports and relates the changes in forest
117
cover, which have been the source of living for the native tribes, with their
changing workforce structure based on the Census industrial categories.
Studied as corollary to this backdrop is the tribal redistribution, over the last
five decades i.e. 1961-2001, wherein adivasis have been receding and
diminishing further and further into seclusion, unable to match the
economically and technologically advanced incursive non-tribals. The
process of dislocation and redistribution of tribal population have been
considered here in this exclusionary context.
Introduction
The tribal population constitutes of a significant section in the
kaleidoscopic Indian Social fabric. The contemporary setting of the tribals or
adivasis is a product of the long process of peopling in India, in compliance
with the miscellany of the geographical entity. The spatial manifestation of
the process is remarkably evident in the placement of tribal population in
complete isolation, often referred to as ‘tribal territories’, which have been
generally speaking ‘environmentally negative’, ‘physically isolated’ and
‘inaccessible areas’.
For centuries together, the adivasis or the original settlers i.e. the tribes
have been characterised by their ‘ethnic isolationism’ and are “typified by
their geographical isolation”. Ahmad (1985) is of the opinion that tribes
exhibit a staunch propensity to concentrate in the hilly, isolated and stagnant
economies giving the tribal territories the designation of cul de sac or refugee
zones.i However, the gradual evolutionary process and rapid regional
development efforts, in the backward tribal belts, over the last few decades,
have largely influenced the isolationist character of the tribals. Roy Burman
(1978) argues that complete isolation of tribals is a myth. The ongoing
processes of development-displacement, land alienation, mining in tribal
areas, imposing forest-restrictions, non-tribal incursions etc in the name of
tribal-regional development has been responsible for redistribution of the
indigenous tribal population particularly in the Central tribal belt of India.
By the virtue of being geographers, our keen interest lies in studying
the regional-spatial dimensions of tribal demography and socio-economic
issues. In compliance to this the present study shall embark upon the
problem of – tribal redistribution which has been contextualized in the
118
backdrop of diminishing forest cover, which implies gradual alienation of the

forest based tribes from their habitat, and shifting livelihood patterns which
have been captured through changing workforce structure, revealing the
erosion of their traditional economic activities.
The study region constitutes of present day Jharkhand, Orissa and
Chattisgarh with districts being the unit of study. The administrative
boundaries of the districts in the study region have undergone drastic
changes over the last five decades since the 1961 Census. In order to uphold
the spatial coherence of the temporal investigation, the district boundaries as
per the 1961 Census has been considered as the base and readjustments for
the subsequent censuses of 1971-2001 have been carried out accordingly. The
names of the districts however remain the same as given in the 1961 Census.
The changes that have occurred in the forest cover are compared with
the spatio-temporal changes in the workforce pattern. The linkage between
forest cover change and shift in workforce pattern have been analysed and
related to the corollary impact on tribal redistribution in the study region.
Conceptualising Redistribution:
The term “redistribution” implies the ‘rearrangement or reshuffling of
any phenomenon in time and space’. Population redistribution is a function
of birth, death, and migration. Migration may not be the sole factor of
redistribution but is significant especially when tribal redistribution is being
considered, as it also takes into consideration the displacement of population
resulting from various processes. In context to the present study , the term
“redistribution’ has been considered in a restricted sense focusing at the
varying share of tribal population with reference to total population in the
study region.
Forest Cover Changes:

Forest Cover, here, strictly refers to the definition and criteria adopted
by the Forest Survey of India (FSI) which is different from ‘forest area’ii and
the sub classes of dense and open are also based on the canopy density
criteria of FSI. The changes in the forest cover are based on the State of Forest
Reports of the Forest Survey of India. The district-level forest cover data is
available only from 1991, therefore the forest cover analysis has been done
119
from 1991 to 2007 (the latest available report of 2009 gives the 2007
assessment). The data is comparable with some limitations, one of which
needs an urgent mention. The “inclusion of Trees Outside Forest (TOF) in the
forest cover map which was started by the Forest Survey of India, to keep
abreast with changing definitions of forests since 2001”iii (FSI 2005) and the
techno-methodological changes have attributed to an apparent increase in the
forest cover data which is comparably misleading. The drastic increase in
forest cover after 1999 is due to inclusion of TOF in the forest cover.
Therefore the last comparable data belongs to 1999.
However, decline, instead of increase in forest cover resulting from
inclusion of TOF, is noted in 1999-2005 change assessment, especially in the
state of Chattisgarh (total -830 sq. km. and dense -829 sq. km)iv and coastal
districts of Orissa. The loss in forest cover in Chattisgarh in this period is
attributed mainly to “submergence due to construction of dams in Madhya
Pradesh and Chattisgarh”v and in coastal districts of Orissa due to Super
Cyclone in Orissa in October 1999 due to which “a large number of trees both
outside as well as within forest area were uprooted leading to a large scale
ecological devastation.”vi
The Change in forest cover, both total as well as dense, during 1991 to
1999 assessments, has displayed a constant decline, in almost the entire
region. The total change in Total forest cover from 1991-99 (shown in the
highlighted column in Table 1) gives the summary of the entire scenario.
Massive decline in forest cover has been witnessed in all the three states
under consideration, with Jharkhand loosing 135 sq. km, Orissa loosing 172
sq. km and Chattisgarh an immense 802 sq. km of their respective forest
cover. In case of dense forest cover (Table 2), Orissa and Chattisgarh are the
worst hit regions with a loss of 1276 sq. km and 7908 sq. km of dense forest
cover respectively which have either been converted into open forest or been
completely lost.
120
Table 1: Change in Total Forest Cover (in sq. km.)
Source: Compiled and computed by the author from State of Forest Reports of the respective years .
Table 2: Change in Dense Forest Cover (in sq. km.)
Source: Compiled and computed by the author from State of Forest Reports of the respective years.
121
In Chattisgarh each and every district has lost a substantial portion of

their dense forest cover with the maximum loss in absolute terms pertains to
Bastar district. In case of Orissa, Sambalpur district has lost the maximum
sizeable section of both of its total as well as dense forest cover. Reflecting a
similar plight is Singhbhum district of Jharkhand, with huge loss of total and
dense forest cover. Most interestingly, a significant portion of the total
decline in forest cover in the entire region, has especially taken place in the
Tribal Districts.
The decline in forest cover in the tribal districts is shown in Table 3. In
Jharkhand, all the three major tribal districts are worst hit by loss of forest
cover especially Singhbhum. In Orissa, Sambalpur, Keonjhar and
Mayurbhanj have suffered huge loss in case of forest cover. While in
Chattisgarh, Surguja, Bilaspur and Durg have the major forest cover
degradation.
The above detailed analysis proves it beyond doubt that decline in
forest cover have been occurring in the entire given study region and that the
degradation is especially significant in the tribal districts. It would be
interesting to note, that, how such a state of dwindling forest cover and forest
resources along with it, have influenced the tribal livelihood which revolves
around forest and its products. Forests have traditionally been central to the
economy and livelihood of the adivasis. The dwindling forest cover may
prove fatal for the tribal planet.
122
Table 3: Forest Cover in Tribal Districts (in sq. km.)
Source: Compiled from State of Forest Report 1997, Chapter 6, pp 57-62 and computed by the author
from State of Forest Reports of 1991 and 1999.
Tribal Livelihood Patterns

The tribal workforce structure of 1971 (Table 4) portrays that
agriculture is the primary occupation of the tribals in the given region, as is
the case for rest of India as well. But our concern is regarding those
occupations which might get affected by dwindling forest cover. Among the
nine industrial categories, Category III – Forestry, Livestock, Fishing etc. and
Category Va – Household Industry, are the major sections which might suffer
as a corollary to forest resource degradation particularly in the given study
region. Therefore, these are the only two categories which shall be studied in
detail here. The Workforce data has been considered from 1971 Census
onwards because that of 1961 Census does not stand comparable due to
subsequent change in the definition of workers.
The Census category of Forestry, Livestock, Hunting, Fishing and
allied activities constitutes a major section of workers who are engaged
mainly in forestry in the given study region, except the coastal districts of
Orissa (Puri, Cuttack and Baleshwar) where fishing comprises the majority of
123
this section. A significant decline in tribal workers engaged in this category

can be clearly noted in the Table 5.
Table 4: Distribution of Tribal Workforce
Percentage of Tribal Workforce, 1971
JHARKHA ORISS CHATTISGA INDI
INDUSTRIAL CATEGORIES ND A RH A
I Cultivators 63.86 52.75 70.37 57.56
II Agricultural Labourers 26.00 36.72 25.19 33.04
III Forestry, Livestock,
Fishing etc 1.09 1.87 0.65 2.35
IV Mining and Quarrying 1.60 1.32 0.50 0.61
Va Household Industry 1.46 1.18 1.10 1.03
Vb Other than Household
Industry 1.79 1.22 0.32 1.11
VI Construction 0.46 0.24 0.19 0.41
VII Trade and Commerce 0.21 0.58 0.25 0.60
VII Transport, Storage, Com.
I 0.85 0.67 0.20 0.58
IX Other Services 2.68 3.82 1.22 2.71
Source: Computed from Census of India, 1971
While the maximum decline is apparently in Orissa, which mainly
attributes to the coastal districts of Puri and Cuttack followed by
Mayurbhanj, Sundergarh, Keonjhar in that order which has suffered major
decline in forest cover both total and dense. Jharkhand also witnessed shift in
the workforce pattern with a substantial section of the workers engaged in
Forestry etc. moved out. A similar scenario is witnessed mainly in case of
Surguja district in Chattisgarh. The major limitation to this analysis lies in its
time period. It’s difficult to establish a clear correlation between the forest
cover changes and shifting workforce patterns in this case because the FSI
data is biennial starting from 1991 for district level, while, Census of India
data is decadal and the recent Census data in detailed form is yet to be
available.
Household Industry: Jharkhand has comparatively higher proportion
of tribal workers engaged in Household Industry (1.46 %) as compared to the
rest of the study region as well as the national average (Table 4). Amongst the
tribes engaged in household industry, the case of Birhor tribe of Jharkhand
124
has been dealt with in various studies, which includes Roy (1925), Prasad
(1961), Adhikary (1984), Sahu (1995) and Firdos Sohel ( 2005) to mention a
few. The Birhors of Jharkhand are traditionally engaged in Rope making
within Household industry. These studies have embarked upon the shift in
the livelihood pattern of this tribe from hunting of wild game to rope
making. Such a shift has been attributed to the decline in forest cover. With
extensive degradation of forest cover in the recent decades, as analysed in
details above, a further shift in livelihood pattern of the Birhors is expected to
occur.
Table 5: Percentage of Tribal Main Workers engaged in Forestry etc.
Source: Computed from Census of India Special Tables for Scheduled Tribes, 1971 and 1991
Firdos Sohel (2005) undertook an interesting study on the Birhors of
Jharkhand for 1961-1991. He pointed out that “the traditional sources of
livelihood of the Birhor was hunting and gathering along with rope making.
All these activities were sustained by the forest. The degradation of forest
land coupled with restrictions on their access to the forests has forced them
out of their traditional occupation”vii and finally concluded on the point that
“the degradation of the forest cover has uprooted the Birhors from their
traditional sources of livelihood and brought in instability in their economic
activities.”viii
125
Tribal Redistribution:
Immense research has gone into investigating the causative factors of
the exclusionary tribal redistribution process in this Tribal belt and their
consequences thereupon. Badgaiyan (1986) pointed out that during the
colonial period, in late 19th and early 20th century, various plantations and
mining enclaves were established by the British. Need for cheap labour
resulted in opening new economic vistas for tribal who migrated to these
regions. This resulted in considerable alteration in the ethnic constitution of
the tribal population in this region.ix This stands further justified by
Chowdhury and Bhowmic (1986) who were of the opinion that ‘Chotanagpur
region has experienced both out and in migration during 1961 and 1971’.
“The low growth of tribal communities in Bihar and Orissa and simultaneous
increase in neighbouring states like West Bengal and Madhya Pradesh
strengthen the mass tribal exodus”.x
Ahmad (1985) came up with yet another form of intervention

witnessed in this mineral rich region. The utilization of mineral resources
coupled with the process of industrialization and urbanization brought “non-
tribal elements of diverse origins into the tribal homelands”.xiThe waves of
this incursion were effectively vicious as it altered the tribal mode of life and
ruined their conventional economic activities. The design of tribal- non tribal
interface went through a qualitative revolution in the post independence
period. The process of regional development in the planned era brought
within its ambit the tribal regions as well. Thus began the entire process of
integration in this region which went a long way in dismantling not only
their traditional economic activities but also their social behaviour and
unique traditional characteristics.
More recent studies such as Maharatna & Chikte (2004) reveal that
Jharkhand’s tribal population has since independence, persistently
experienced a slower population growth than the non-tribal groups. They
empirically analysed that in the recent past, substantial tribal out migration
to other states over a long period appears to have been a major cause of this
trend.xii Firdos (2005) has captured the aspect of forest degradation which
has caused a change in the workforce structure of the tribes, finally resulting
126
in redistribution of Birhors in Jharkhand. The Birhor population has not been

diminishing, rather they are getting redistributed as a result of the
dismantling of their traditional activity of rope making due to forest
degradation.xiii
Thus, the entire exclusionary process of tribal redistribution is a

complex process, resulting from composite factors. The aspect considered
here is forest degradation and the consecutive shift in workforce pattern.
While diminishing forest cover remains as a causative factor for tribal out-
migration, changing workforce structure can be both a cause as well as
corollary to redistributive forces. Various indices have been considered here
to capture the redistribution aspect.
1. Percentage Of Tribal Population

The spatial distribution of tribal population is necessary to understand
its redistribution. Any change or shift in the spatial distribution reveals the
pattern of redistribution. Initially in 1961, there were four major districts of
Ranchi, Koraput, Mayurbhanj and Sundergarh with very high tribal
proportion. But by 2001, only Mayurbhanj remained in this category, the rest
of it drastically declined in their tribal proportion. Such a categorical shift
makes it clear that the tribal population is declining in the core tribal areas.
(Fig. 1)
Percentage of tribal population = Tribal population of a district *
100
Total Population of the district
2. Density Of Tribal Population

Density is a viable measure of the redistribution of tribal population. Any
increase in the density of tribal population shall indicate that the tribals are
being squeezed into limited area, generally their homeland. This results
when there is high in migration of non tribals into tribal areas or tribals being
displaced from areas and they are forced to settle in limited land available to
them. An over view of the density conditions of tribal population from 1961-
2001 clearly reveals that- initially there were no areas with high tribal density
but gradually the high density areas were converted into very high density
127
areas and simultaneously the moderate getting converted into high density
areas. There is a kind of continuous belt formed of very high tribal density.
(Fig. 2)
Density of Tribal Population = Total Tribal Population of a district

Total Area of the district
3. Concentration Of Tribal Population (Location Quotient)

The location quotient index offers the relative variation between the
concentration pattern at the national level and the level of component spatial
unit/district in this case. Location quotient is indicative of “local
specialization” or local concentration. The basic thrust here is to see the
change in the concentration of tribal population at two points of time i.e. 1961
and 2001. Location quotient is the best method to show the concentration and
clustering of tribal population.
The tribal concentration depicted by location quotient shows that the

core tribal areas of Ranchi, Singhbhum and Santhal Parganas of Jharkhand
and Sundargarh, Keonjhar, Mayurbhanj, Koraput, Kalahandi, and Phulbani
experienced high tribal concentration in 1961. But by 2001 Santhal Parganas,
Singhbhum, Kalahandi and Phulbani recorded drastic decline in their tribal
concentration. Areas with low concentration did not show much change but
the high concentration areas have declined drastically in tribal concentration
(Fig. 3).
Location Quotient (L.Q.) =
Total tribal population in the district / Total population in the district
Total tribal population of the region / Total population of the region
4. Exponential Growth Rate Of Tribal Population:

Growth rate is an indirect method of analyzing population redistribution.
The direction of growth rate by areal units give an indication, whether any
realignment or reshuffling has taken place in the distribution of population.
Growth rate = Pt = Po
e^rt
128
Where, Po= population at the beginning of the period

Pt= population at the end of the period of t years
t = time span between the first and subsequent population count
r = exponential rate of growth
If we compare the growth rate of tribal population with non tribal
population, we find that, in Jharkhand the growth rates of tribal population
remained lower than the non-tribal population in the district. Same is the
case with Orissa (Table 6). The reason for this is large scale influx of non
tribal population into the district/state. In general, Jharkhand has not much
variation in its growth rate, but the declining trend has been found
throughout the study area. Declining trend of growth rate means reduction
in tribal population, where as increasing trend of growth rate means increase
in tribal population.
Table 6: Growth Rate of Tribal and Non Tribal Population

1961-1971 (in % ) 1971-1981 (in % ) 1981-1991 (in % )
States ST Non ST ST Non ST ST Non ST
Jharkhand 1.64 1.97 1.64 2.21 1.30 2.19
Orissa 1.84 2.37 1.54 1.93 1.74 1.86
Source: Census of India, 1961, 1971, 1981, 1991.
5. ESTIMATED NET MIGRATION RATE:

Since data on migration for tribal are separately not available in the
Census of India, the estimates of Net Migration Rate by the “National Growth
Rate method” xiv have been taken. For a geographic division, a rate of growth
greater than the national average is interpreted as net in-migration and a rate
less than the national average as net out-migration. Here, slight modification
has been done on the original formula. Instead of taking national average we
have taken state average. Tribals are concentrated in segmented regions, so
that the exaggeration at the state level could be minimized.
Migration rate = District Growth rate – State
Growth rate.
(Following the “National Growth Rate Method”)
If, value is negative = out migration
129
If, value is positive = in migration

In this tribal belt, the pattern of tribal migration follows the route of
south to north. Here the northern districts like Palamau, Hazaribagh which
are relatively less exploited as far as the forest degradation and regional
development process is concerned, continues to be the place of destination of
poor tribal. Unlike, Ranchi and Singhbhum, which have undergone massive
forest degradation and are relatively more exposed to the alien world, have
always been showing out migration of nature loving tribal. This pattern of
tribal migration suggests that out migration in tribal population is generally
observed in those areas/districts which showed the ongoing regional
development processes either through forest degradation, rapid
industrialization or urbanization in that region. In migration is found in those
districts which are relatively less exploited and found interiority of its
location towards interstate borders. (Fig 5)
Conclusion:
The spatio-temporal analysis of tribal redistribution in the given study
region portrays that the share of tribal population is declining in the core
tribal areas, the causative factors of which could be forest degradation which
has been apparent in the out-migrating tribal regions and in regions where
the exponential growth rate of the tribals have been decreasing. The entry of
incursive non-tribes as a result of declining forest cover has resulted in the
increasing density of tribal population in tribal cores & tribes being squeezed
into lesser and remote areas. The concentration of tribal population has gone
down drastically in the conventional tribal regions. Forest degradation and
its corollary impact on workforce pattern might not be the only causative
factor for such redistribution, but definitely stands as an integral part of the
complex amalgam of factors leading to the exclusionary process of tribal
redistribution.
References
 A.Ahmad (1985): “A Regional Distribution Process and Redistribution of Tribal
population in Mid – India” in L.A.Kosinki and K.M.Elahi (eds.) Population
Redistribution and Development in S.Asia , Reidle Publishers Co.
130
 Badgaiyan (1986): “19th century in Chotanagpur and Santhal parganas –

Political Economy of migration”, in M.C.A. Rao (ed.) Studies in Migration,
Manohar Publication, New Delhi.
 Burman B.K.Roy (1971): “Redistribution of Scheduled Tribe of India”, Census
Centenary Monograph, No. 7, Census of India, pp – 483 – 538.
 Burman B.K.Roy (1978): “A Tribal India – Population and Society”, Indian
Anthropologist, vol.8, p. 75-76.
 Choudhury N.C. & Bhowmic S.K. (1986): “Migration of Chotanagpur Tribes to
West Bengal”, in M.C.A. Rao (ed.) Studies in Migration, Manohar Publication,
New Delhi.
 Corbridge Stuart (1988): “The Ideology of Tribal Economy and Society: Politics
in the Jharkhand, 1950-1980”, Modern Asian Studies 22, 1 (1988), pp.22
 Dhebar, U. N. (Chairman) (1962) Report of the Scheduled Castes and Scheduled
Tribes Commission (New Delhi: Government of India Press)
 Dube, S C, (1977) "Tribal Heritage of India, Ethnicity, Identity and Interaction",
Volume 1, Vikas Pub
 Firdos, Sohel(2005) : “Forest Degradation, changing workforce structure and
population redistribution: the case of Birhors in Jharkhand”, Economic and
Political Weekly, Vol. 40, No. 8, Feb. 19-25.
 Maharatna, Arup and Chikte, Rasika(2004): “Demography of tribal population
in Jharkhand 1951-1991”, Economic and Political Weekly, Vol. 39, No. 46-47,
Nov. 13-26, pp. 5053
 Moonis Raza and A.Ahmad (1990): An Atlas of Tribal India, New Delhi:
Concept Publication.
 Shryock Henry S. et al. (1975): The Methods and Materials of Demography, vol.-
2, pp- 388.
 Singh K S (1978) “Colonial Transformation of the Tribal Society in Middle India',
Economic and Political Weekly, Vol. 13, No. 30 (Jul. 29, 1978), pp. 1221-1232
 Subba Rao (1958): Personality of India, Baroda: University of Baroda.
131
Source: All maps prepared by the author from data computed from Census of India
(1961 to 2001)
132
133
10
New Strategies for Sustainable Agriculture Development
Harish D. N.
Abstract:
The value-driven pillars of an economy are the tri-sectors viz.: the
primary (agriculture), the secondary (industry), and the tertiary (service). Of
these, the agricultural sector has been overlooked due to the charisma of the
industrial sector in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, while it was once
again ignored owing to the intellectual chutzpah of the service sector. All the
same, the power of the agriculture sector could not be overlooked for long, as
it is the sector which feeds all the other sectors. This paper studies the
existing problems of agriculture in the Indian context and comes out with
ideas to overcome the same in terms of not just for the present, but also to
carry forward the ideas progressively in a sustainable fashion.
Introduction:
“The discovery of agriculture was the first big step towards a civilised life.”
Arthur Keith (5 February 1866–7 January 1955)
Scottish anatomist and physical anthropologist
“Agriculture not only gives riches to a nation, but the only riches she can call
her own.”
Samuel Johnson (7 September 1709–13 December 1784)
134
English poet, essayist, lexicographer, biographer, and iconic literary

critic
“The greatest advances of civilisation, whether in architecture or painting, in
science and literature, in industry or agriculture, have never come from
centralised government.”
Milton Friedman (31 July 1912–16 November 2006)
American economist and intellectual
For decades, global agriculture was characterised by policy-induced
production surpluses in industrialised countries and stagnating growth in
developing countries. Policy reforms and economic growth across the globe
have been changing demand and supply fundamentals sufficiently to turn
agriculture into a more market-driven sector which provides investment
opportunities, particularly in developing countries. Agricultural trade is
projected to increase with developing countries capturing most of the export
growth. Expansion of agricultural production is likely to slow at least in the
medium-term with slower area and productivity growth. Supply should
keep pace with demand at prices that are expected to remain relatively high.
In this context, measures to reduce food loss and waste will be important in
meeting rising demand and for increasing productivity. Developments in
global agriculture may have a major influence on world markets. With
increasing production constraints and strong demand growth, additional
agricultural imports may be anticipated.
At the very outset, several sustainable agricultural issues were
identified. The issues included the measurement of sustainability, land use,
degradation of resources, preservation of biodiversity, water use and quality,
use of common property, the economic situation, social problems, trade,
federal and provincial policies, and global change. Discussion of these issues
provided a background for developing a conceptual framework for analysing
the impact of government policies upon sustainable agriculture.
Sustainable agriculture is one that, over the long term, enhances
environmental quality and the resource base on which agriculture depends,
provides for basic human food and fibre needs, is economically viable and
enhances the quality of life for farmers and society as a whole (Vasavada,
1991). Though both parties are interested in achieving sustainability,
135
measurement of sustainability is rendered complex by the differences

between the views of economists and ecologists.
Review of Literature:
Rao (2002), in his paper, proposes a framework based on an
identification of agricultural production systems at different levels and their
linkages, assessments of production requirements and supplies over time,
tradeoffs between production increases and the quality of the natural
resource base, and the capabilities of knowledge and technologies to alter the
balance of tradeoffs. The paper also identifies the challenges posed to the
existing agricultural research and education systems in India in the transition
towards sustainable agriculture.
Kushwaha (2008) reviews land use pattern and observes that large
forest areas have been converted to cropland creating unprecedented
ecological imbalance with no scope of expansion of agricultural land without
further damage to natural environment. In the face of increasing demand for
food grains intensive agriculture based on irrigation-fertilizer-high-yielding
seed technology is the common practice. However, the intensive agriculture
gives rise to serious environmental problems like pollution of water bodies
with fertilizer and pesticides, contamination of ground water, and land
degradation apart from the loss of indigenous crop species and genetic
diversity. Sustainable agriculture with its emphasis on preservation of
ecology, optimisation of economic and social benefits and conservation of
energy is seen to provide stable and lasting solution. Ways and means have
been discussed to operationalise the sustainable agriculture. Some of the
aspects of sustainable agriculture have been illustrated through an example
comparing farming practices of two farmers in two different regions of
Bareilly district of the state of Uttar Pradesh in Northern India.
Green technology is used for conserving natural environment and
resources and to reduce human involvement. It is an alternative to improve
the national economy without harming the environment. Ghadiyali and
Kayasth (2012) explain the contribution of green technology in the
sustainable development of agriculture sector by trying to elaborate green
technology and related terms along with how it would be helpful in the
sustainable development in terms of contribution and impact of green
technologies under various parameters such as poverty reduction through
136
ecological agriculture and rural renewable energy by considering the

regional eco-socio aspect including various practical and technical aspects of
green technologies such as organic farming, integrated pest management,
biomass, biogas, biofuel, wind energy and use of ICT for facilitating green
technology.
Bargout (2014) advises using a precautionary principle to identify
sustainable adaptation solutions, ecological farming offers the most practical
and holistic traits of resilience, particularly in the areas of soil, water, and
biodiversity. When acknowledging ecological agriculture as an empowering
adaptation strategy for smallholders, the evident sustainability of this
approach is also apparent alongside key structural dynamics limiting its
adoption.
Sengupta and Sonwani (2012) attempt to tackle and explore the issue of
sustainable development in agriculture in India. Further they aim to compare
the sustainable agriculture system with the traditional system and the current
system in practice, across the dimensions of ecological, economic, and social
sustainability. It also tries to give long-term solutions to solve the problems
plaguing the system so that sustainable practices could be promoted and
practiced.
Nerker et al. (2013) study the growth and sustainability in agriculture
sector which entails attaining equilibrium between the demand and supply
of agriculture produce. The green revolution may bring the efficiency in
agriculture produce and thus, the productivity increases. The ultimate
performance of agriculture depends on the performance of various resources,
the strategies and methods adopted. To face dryness due to the decrease in
the rainfall, the agriculturist has to use the innovative strategies. The findings
of the study reveal the innovative strategies and achieving the growth.
Statement of the Problem:
India started her quest for industrial development after independence
in 1947. The Industrial Policy Resolution of 1948 marked the beginning of
evolution of the Indian Industrial Policy. The Resolution not only defined the
broad contours of the policy, it delineated the role of the State in industrial
development both as an entrepreneur and as an authority. Successive policy
resolutions also reiterated this basic tilt in favour of the public sector. The
Industrial Policy Resolution of 1956 gave the public sector strategic role in the
137
economy. It categorised industries which would be the exclusive

responsibility of the State or would progressively come under State control
and others. Earmarking the pre-eminent position of the public sector, it
envisaged private sector co-existing with the State and thus attempted to give
the policy framework flexibility.
The Industrial Policy initiatives undertaken by the Government of
India since July 1991 have been designed to build on the past industrial
achievements and to accelerate the process of making Indian industry
internationally competitive. It recognises the strength and maturity of the
industry and attempts to provide the competitive stimulus for higher growth.
The thrust of these initiatives has been to increase the domestic and external
competition through extensive application of market mechanisms and
facilitating forging of dynamic relationships with foreign investors and
suppliers of technology. The process of reform has been continuous.
Degradation of Agricultural Soil Resources:
“Despite its widespread severity and global impact, soil degradation
remains an emotional rhetoric rather than a precise and quantifiable scientific
entity,” (Lal and Stewart, 1990). Soil is degraded as a result of processes that
reduce its productivity (Campbell et al., 1986). Such processes usually arise
from poor management of the resource. Soils are degraded primarily by the
following reasons:
1. Soil Erosion: It reduces soil productivity through losses of nutrients,
water storage capacity, and organic matter. The losses in terms of
productive capacity are significant though presently obscured by the
application of fertilizer.
2. Decline in Organic Matter: The main chemical constituents of soil organic
matter are carbon and nitrogen. The former is the energy source for most
soil microbes while the latter is one of the most important nutrients for
plants. Other necessary components of organic matter are phosphorous
and sulphur. Under the ecosystem prevailing previous to cultivation,
mineralisation and immobilisation processes were closely integrated.
Plant growth (immobilisation) and mineralisation of soil organic matter
occurred simultaneously. Therefore, losses of nutrients were minimised
allowing for the accretion of organic matter over time, but the same has
not been over the decades that rolled by.
138
3. Soil Salinity: Even before cultivation, large areas of the prairies contained
saline soils. However, an expansion of these areas has occurred under
cultivation. The rate of increase in the salinised area is related in part to
the increase in ground water over time. Salinisation occurs as water
containing soluble salts moves upward through the soil horizon.
Evapotranspiration concentrates the salts in the soil solution to reach
levels in the root zone that are detrimental to crop growth.
4. Soil Acidification: Though not a major problem in other than a limited
part of the prairies. Acidification can be overcome by application of lime.
However, heavy applications of nitrogen fertilizers over time have been
found to result in soil acidification. Consequently, acidification may
become a significant problem in parts of the prairie region under intensive
cropping practices which require major inputs of nitrogen fertilizer.
While degradation of the soil resource can be reduced or halted by
changes in cultural practices, unless these are demonstrated to be economic
they are unlikely to be adopted even though desirable from the standpoint of
society. Producers are more likely to be interested in maximising profits in
the short-run rather than be concerned with conservation of natural resources
and protection of the environment. Any sizeable shift in cropping practices
by producers will depend on their ability to survive difficult economic times.
Principles for Sustainable Agriculture:
Biodiversity is defined as “the variability among living organisms from
all sources including, inter alia, terrestrial, marine and other aquatic systems
and the ecological complexes of which they are a part; this includes diversity
within species, between species, and of ecosystems” (Sopuck, 1993).
Biodiversity is considered essential for the resilience of ecosystems. Many
ecosystem processes regulate conditions for life.
The following set of principles is put forward as including those which
are essential to the sustainability of agriculture. They have been classified
into categories of stewardship, economic viability, and social concerns.
I. Stewardship:
1. Management:
Our sojourn here is limited. During this period, there exists both
an individual and a collective responsibility to sustain the environment
139
for both our own and future generations. Economic and social activities
should be undertaken in such a fashion as to maintain and preferably
enhance the capacity of the resources used for the benefit of future
generations as well as our own.
2. Conservation:
The need to maintain biological diversity should be further
explored while strengthening essential ecological processes. Non-
renewable resources must be used wisely. A balance must be
maintained between the use of resources and the economic and social
effects on society. The major renewable resource in agriculture, the soil,
must be protected so that its inherent productivity is maintained.
3. Rehabilitation:
Where renewable resources such as the soil have been damaged,
a feasible effort must be expended for their rehabilitation. The original
productivity is thereby restored or preferably increased, noting that
improvement may be possible only over a long term. It is recognised
that the lack of adequate care has contributed to soil degradation on
the globe. The destruction of habitat which has occurred must be
mitigated. Where the quality of water has been impaired by
inappropriate practices, the causes should be removed so that the
original quality may be restored.
II. Economic Viability:

Market Viability Production cannot be sustained unless it is
economically viable. Such viability requires that the net returns from
marketing are positive. Unless such returns are adequate within a region,
the prairies for example, producers cannot be expected to continue to
utilise their available resources for this purpose. The net returns from
production should enable an adequate standard of living to be
maintained, while at the same time being sufficient to continue to attract
replacement operators.
1. Internalisation of Costs:
In our society, certain production inputs and outputs are not
priced in terms of their real value. Examples include the air we breathe
and the carbon dioxide absorbed by plants. Furthermore, the by-
140
products of production in terms of their environmental damage or

enhancement are not necessarily subject to a monetary penalty or
premium. What is required is that the real costs of both, presently
considered, free goods or undervalued goods be incorporated into the total
costs when determining the net returns of production. Such costing, for
example, will include the value of any net loss or gain in soil nutrients
as a result of crop production.
2. Scientific and Technological Innovation:
Research to enhance the development of technologies which
contribute to the maintenance of environmental quality and economic
growth must be supported. Such support should extend to provision of
educational services which will further the research programme while
at the same time maintains social and cultural values. Maintenance of
human health should coincide with this provision. Improving the
efficiency of production is now an objective of research, but the
development of research institutions and markets in order to capture
the externalities associated with production is required. Means to
ensure that the results of the research are effectively communicated to
farmers are necessary.
3. Trade Policy:
Barriers to trade can create impediments to the achievement of
sustainability. Consequently, trade liberalisation is an important
component of progress towards sustainable development. In addition,
such liberalisation leads to greater international efficiency in
production. As a result, true comparative advantage should be an
objective of trade policy. This objective implies recognising the real
costs of production and, therefore, the maintenance of environmental
integrity. E.g., exports of wheat should be made only where the real
costs of production are less than the prices available in the world
market. On the other hand, unsubsidised imports of sugar from
developing countries should not be reduced as a result of internal price
support schemes. An open approach to trade is necessary. Such a
stance requires a degree of international cooperation not yet
experienced. Nonetheless, trade policy should support and augment
141
the degree of cooperation achievable through international trade

agreements.
III. Social Concerns:
1. Societal Consideration:
Economic activity should minimise social costs while
maximising social benefits. At the same time, it should not detract from
human health and cultural resources or the quality of land and water.
Cultural and social diversity should be respected. In agriculture, a
balance must be struck between the size of production units consistent
with technology and a social structure acceptable to all stakeholders,
including those providing the infrastructure.
2. Global Responsibility:
Ecological interdependence exists among nations as there is no
boundary to our environment. Stakeholders in the maintenance of the
environment are, therefore, not necessarily local. How the local
environment is treated ultimately impacts on other parts of the world
and could be expected to haunt those guilty of its mistreatment. For
example, excess use of fossil fuels with the attendant production of
carbon dioxide and other contaminants, unless accompanied by
appropriate means for their absorption, will impact unfavourably on
the environments of other nations. There is a responsibility on the part
of all nations to “think globally while acting locally.” In agriculture, for
example, cropping practices should be adopted which minimise the
contaminants produced while providing sinks for those which are
produced. There is a continuing need to merge environmental
considerations with those of economics in decision-making at the local
and international levels in order to provide equitable solutions to
problems. For agriculture, this need implies provision of technology,
where appropriate, to assist other nations in overcoming their
problems. At the same time, social and cultural differences must be
respected while attempting to improve the human condition. There
remains a moral responsibility to ensure that developing nations have
an adequate supply of food. That doesn’t necessarily mean they should
be given food, but rather that, if possible, they be enabled to produce
their own supply.
142
3. Food and Nutritional Security:

Special efforts should be made to raise the productivity and
production of crops to meet the increasing demand for food generated
by unabated demographic pressures and raw materials for expanding
agro-based industries. A regionally differentiated strategy should be
pursued, taking into account the agronomic, climatic, and
environmental conditions to realise the full growth potential of every
region. Special attention would be given to development of new crop
varieties, particularly of food crops, with higher nutritional value
through adoption of biotechnology particularly, genetic modification,
while addressing bio-safety concerns.
A major thrust should be given to the development of rainfed
and irrigated horticulture, floriculture, roots and tubers, plantation
crops, aromatic and medicinal plants, bee-keeping and sericulture, for
augmenting food supply, exports and generating employment in rural
areas. Availability of hybrid seeds and disease-free planting materials
of improved varieties, supported by a network of regional nurseries,
tissue culture laboratories, seed farms should be promoted to support
systematic development of horticulture having emphasis on increased
production, postharvest management, precision farming, bio-control of
pests and quality regulation mechanism and exports.
Animal husbandry and fisheries also generate wealth and
employment in agriculture sector. Development of animal husbandry,
poultry, dairying, and aquaculture would receive a high priority in the
efforts for diversifying agriculture, increasing animal protein
availability in the food basket and for generating exportable surpluses.
A national livestock breeding strategy should be evolved to meet the
requirements of milk, meat, egg, and livestock products, and to
enhance the role of draught animals as a source of energy for farming
operations and transport. Major thrust should be on genetic
upgradation of indigenous/native cattle and buffaloes using proven
semen and high quality pedigreed bulls and by expanding artificial
insemination network to provide services at the farmer’s doorstep.
Generation and dissemination of appropriate technologies in the
field of animal production as also healthcare to enhance production
143
and productivity levels should be given greater attention. Cultivation

of fodder crops and fodder trees should be encouraged to meet the
feed and fodder requirements and to improve animal nutrition and
welfare. Priority should also be given to improve the processing,
marketing and transport facilities, with emphasis on modernisation of
abattoirs, carcass utilisation, and value addition thereon. Since animal
disease eradication and quarantine is critical to exports, animal health
system will be strengthened and disease-free zones created. The
involvement of cooperatives and private sector should be encouraged
for development of animal husbandry, poultry, and dairy. Incentives
for livestock and fisheries production activities should be brought at
par with incentives for crop production.
An integrated approach to marine and inland fisheries, designed
to promote sustainable aquaculture practices, should be adopted.
Biotechnological application in the field of genetics and breeding,
hormonal applications, immunology and disease control should
receive particular attention for increased aquaculture production.
Development of sustainable technologies for fin and shell fish culture
as also pearl culture, their yield optimisation, harvest and postharvest
operations, mechanisation of fishing boats, strengthening of
infrastructure for production of fish seed, berthing, and landing
facilities for fishing vessels and development of marketing
infrastructure should be accorded high priority. Deep sea fishing
industry should be developed to take advantage of the vast potential of
country’s exclusive economic zone.
4. Generation and Transfer of Technology:
A very high priority should be accorded to evolving new
location-specific and economically viable improved varieties of
agricultural and horticultural crops, livestock species and aquaculture
as also conservation and judicious use of germplasm and other
biodiversity resources. The regionalisation of agricultural research,
based on identified agro-climatic zones, should be accorded high
priority. Application of frontier sciences like biotechnology, remote
sensing technologies, pre- and postharvest technologies, energy-saving
technologies, technology for environmental protection through
144
national research system as well as proprietary research should be

encouraged. The endeavour would be to build a well-organised,
efficient, and result-oriented agriculture research and education system
to introduce technological change in Indian agriculture. Upgradation
of agricultural education and its orientation towards uniformity in
education standards, women empowerment, user-orientation,
vocationalisation, and promotion of excellence would be the hallmark
of the new policy.
The research and extension linkages should be strengthened to
improve quality and effectiveness of research and extension system.
The extension system should be broad-based and revitalised.
Innovative and decentralised institutional changes should be
introduced to make the extension system farmer-responsible and
farmer-accountable. The role of krishi vigyan kendras (KVKs), non-
governmental organisations (NGOs), farmers organisations,
cooperatives, corporate sector and para-technicians in agricultural
extension should be encouraged for organising demand-driven
production systems. Development of human resource (HR) through
capacity building and skill upgradation of public extension
functionaries and other extension functionaries should be accorded a
high priority. The Government should endeavour to move towards a
regime of financial sustainability of extension services through
effecting in a phased manner, a more realistic cost recovery of
extension services and inputs, while simultaneously safeguarding the
interests of the poor and the vulnerable groups.
Mainstreaming gender concerns in agriculture should receive
particular attention. Appropriate structural, functional, and
institutional measures should be initiated to empower women and
build their capabilities and improve their access to inputs, technology,
and other farming resources.
5. Investments in Agriculture:
The agriculture sector has been starved of capital. There has been
a decline in the public sector investment in the agriculture sector.
Public investment for narrowing regional imbalances, accelerating
development of supportive infrastructure for agriculture and rural
145
development particularly rural connectivity should be stepped up. A

time-bound strategy for rationalisation and transparent pricing of
inputs should be formulated to encourage judicious input use and to
generate resources for agriculture. Input subsidy reforms should be
pursued as a combination of price and institutional reforms to cut
down costs of these inputs for agriculture. Resource allocation regime
should be reviewed with a view to rechannelising the available
resources from support measures towards assets formation in rural
sector.
A conducive climate should be created through a favourable
price and trade regime to promote farmers’ own investments as also
investments by industries producing inputs for agriculture and agro-
based industries. Private sector investments in agriculture should also
be encouraged more particularly in areas like agricultural research,
human resource development, postharvest management and
marketing.
Rural electrification should be given a high priority as the prime
mover for agricultural development. The quality and availability of
electricity supply should be improved and the demand of the
agriculture sector should be met adequately in a reliable and cost
effective manner. The use of new and renewable sources of energy for
irrigation and other agricultural purposes should also be encouraged.
Bridging the gap between irrigation potential created and
utilised, completion of all ongoing projects, restoration and
modernisation of irrigation infrastructure including drainage, evolving
and implementing an integrated plan of augmentation and
management of national water resources should receive special
attention for augmenting the availability and use of irrigation water.
Emphasis should be laid on development of marketing
infrastructure and techniques of preservation, storage and
transportation with a view to reducing postharvest losses and ensuring
a better return to the grower. The weekly periodic markets under the
direct control of Panchayat Raj institutions should be upgraded and
strengthened. Direct marketing and pledge financing should be
promoted. Producers’ markets on the lines of Ryatu Bazaars should be
146
encouraged throughout the width and breadth of the country. Storage

facilities for different kinds of agricultural products should be created
in the production areas or nearby places particularly in the rural areas
so that the farmers can transport their produce to these places
immediately after harvest in the shortest possible time. The
establishment of cold chains, provision of pre-cooling facilities to
farmers as a service and cold storage in the terminal markets and
improving the retail marketing arrangements in urban areas, should be
given priority. Upgradation and dissemination of market intelligence
should receive particular attention.
Setting up of agro-processing units in the producing areas to
reduce wastage, especially of horticultural produce, increased value
addition, and creation of off-farm employment in rural areas should be
encouraged. Collaboration between the producer cooperatives and the
corporate sector should be encouraged to promote agro-processing
industry. An interactive coupling between technology, economy,
environment, and society should be promoted for speedy development
of food and agro-processing industries and building up a substantial
base for production of value added agro-products for domestic and
export markets with a strong emphasis on food safety and quality. The
Small Farmers Agro-Business Consortium (SFAC) should be energised
to cater to the needs of farmer entrepreneurs and promote public and
private investments in agri-business.
Conclusion:
The present pattern of agriculture has been moulded by the
government policies adopted over time. These were designed to further
national objectives. The course of development was also influenced by the
environment, the effects of which required major initiatives to overcome, and
by the distance to the export markets within which much of the agriculture
product of the region found an outlet. The region is well-acquainted with
adversity, due to both the natural environment and world economic
conditions.
Agriculture has progressed through a series of stages, beginning with
the initial breaking of the land and followed by a conservation stage made
147
necessary by the type of cultivation being practiced and existing climatic

conditions. During the 1940s, industrial development largely outside the
region and the armed forces drained the surplus labour from the farms
necessitating replacement by mechanisation. Following this stage of
development, there was a period during which information on the products
of research was distributed, many of these products being utilised directly in
farm operations. Next came the induced innovation stage, problems which
must be solved gave rise to induced innovation. This stage of development
remains underway.
Technology continues to have a major impact on the economic size of
the farm unit and, in turn, on rural communities. Those communities which
survive are taking on some urban characteristics. Residents on the land are
willing to travel considerable distances to obtain the selection and mix of
commodities desired. Community development programmes must,
therefore, address both rural and urban concerns if they are to be successful.
These concern the quality of education, health services, housing, and other
social services. A major challenge arising for rural communities becomes how
to meet the opportunities and challenges for growth without losing the
attractions which have led farm people and other local residents to prefer
rural life.
References:
 Bargout, R. N. (2014). Ecological agriculture and sustainable adaptation
to climate change: A practical and holistic strategy for Indian smallholders.
Consilience: The Journal of Sustainable Development, 12(1), 95-122.
 Campbell, C. A., Zentner, R. P., Dormaar, J. F., & Voroney, R. P. (1986). Land
quality, trends and wheat production in western Canada in A. E. Slinkard &
D. B. Fowler, (Eds.). Wheat production in Canada: A Review: Proceedings of the
Canadian Wheat Production Symposium, March 3-5, 1986, Saskatoon,
Saskatchewan, Canada. Saskatoon: Division of Extension and Community
Relations, University of Saskatchewan. pp. 318-353.
 Ghadiyali, T. R., & Kayasth, M. M. (2012, July/September). Contribution of
green technology in sustainable development of agriculture sector. Journal of
Environmental Research and Development, 7(1A), 590-596.
 Kushwaha, N. (2008, April). Agriculture in India: Land use and
sustainability. International Journal of Rural Studies, 15(1), 1-10.
148
 Lal, R., & Stewart, B. A. (1990). Need for action: Research and development
priorities in R. Lal B. A. Stewart, (Eds.) Advances in soil science: Soil degradation
(Ser. 11). New York, NY: Springer-Verlag. 331-336.
 Nerker, K. R., Kale, V. S., & Bhadale, R. (2013, June). The sustainable growth
and development of Indian agriculture. Asia Pacific Journal of Marketing &
Management Review, 2(6), 117-119.
 Rao, N. H. (2002, April). Sustainable agriculture: Critical challenges facing
the structure and function of agricultural research and education in India.
Paper presented for National Workshop on Agricultural Policy: Redesigning
R&D to Achieve the Objectives. New Delhi. 1-9.
 Sengupta, A., & Sonwani, D. (2012, December). Sustainable development in
India with reference to agricultural sector. International Journal of Emerging
Research in Management and Technology, 24-29.
 Sopuck, R. D. (1993, July). Canada’s agricultural and trade policies:
Implications for rural renewal and biodiversity. Working Paper No. 19
(Ottawa, Canada: National Round Table on the Environment and the Economy, 14.
 Vasavada, U. (1991). Trade Policy Implications of Sustainable Agriculture.
Canadian Journal of Agricultural Economics/Revue Canadienne D'agroeconomie,
39(4), 593-605. doi:10.1111/j.1744-7976.1991.tb03610.x
149
11
A Pragmatic Case Study of the Impact and Intricacies of
Micro Financing on Financial Inclusion
Jnaneshwar Pai Maroor
Abstract
The impact of Micro Finance on poverty has been debated widely in
academic circle, and the debate has drawn strong proponents for both sides
of argument. An important reason for the ambiguity is that programme
design and its impact is sensitive to programme placement and programme
participation which is endogenous. Consistency in employment, guaranteed
income, knowledge and cognizance through financial aid from MFI ushered
rural destitute to put themselves into the braces of financial inclusion. This
paper examines the hypothesis of selection of good borrowers into micro
finance by analysis of the characteristics of loan offered in terms of interest
rates charged, depth of outreach and an estimation of self selection. The
present study assessed 382 samples from Karnataka to quantify the impact of
micro financing on the rural poor in financial inclusion. The outcome of the
survey indicates that MFI played a major role in accessing the banking
services to the poor and imparting financial education to the poor.
Keywords: Micro Finance Institution, Financial Inclusion, Employment, Income,
Savings, Insurance, Borrowings, Repayment.
150
Introduction
Micro finance is now kinfolk’s term through numerous benefits to the
poor by way of extensive growth, innovation, and impact (Ledgerwood,
2013). It has grownup worldwide and acknowledged as an effective and
innovative mechanism to ease poverty by advancement of small and micro
enterprises in support of generating employment for the assetless poor
(Hulme, 2000). Its rapid expansion has made micro finance an inevitable
portion of global economy in the twenty first century (Hossain, 2012), which
fascinated academicians, researchers, economists and public administrators
to blow-out its growth at the world level and invited investors, donors and
promoters amenably by its incredulous performance in the credit
disbursement and recovery. Micro finance is a bouquet of financial and non-
financial services where, financial services motivate the poor for a sustainable
economic empowerment and social change. Financial services include micro
credit, savings, insurance and investments. Non-financial services are bunch
of all other services rendered by MFIs except financial services, which are
hard to define and measure, that include dialogue based education, linkages
to health products and providers (Gray, 2011). In spite of expansion and
extension of micro finance services, the deprived rural population need
access to a synchronized micro finance and other development services to
enhance income, build assets, improve health, nutrition, family planning,
education, social support networks and more that lead to improved
operational efficiencies and synergies of benefits (Gray 2011). All these micro
finance interventions share a common goal of human development (Hulme,
2009; Ghalib, 2009) by way of economic empowerment and social
transformation or vise-versa.
To assess the effectiveness of these programs, Micro Finance
Institutions (MFIs) need to measure the impact of such programs on the
borrowers (Ghalib 2009). Number of studies debate that of micro financing
has two dimensions - economic and social (Holcombe, 1995; Khandker, 1998;
Hulme, 2000). The economic impact could be acknowledged through
economic indicators such as income, employment and changes in lifestyle
and standard of living etc. However, the information on social impact
indicators is generally limited and descriptive, which cannot be used as a
basis for numerical reasoning, quantification, forecasting and making
151
predictions of how micro credit programs transform livelihoods of the

particular MFI (Ghalib 2009). Due to lack of information, controversy persists
about the true impacts of micro finance on poverty and on the objective of
social change (Oliver 2010). The present study is an attempt to identify the
impact of micro finance interventions on the financial activities of the rural
poor.
Till date, various studies on impact of micro finance laid emphasis on

two distinct views; viz. Social impact and Economic impact of micro finance
(Mukhopadhyay and Rath, 2011). However, an innovative growth in access,
usage, knowledge on financial services and the benefits of risk coverage were
assessed under economic impact, as an outcome of micro finance
intervention though they fall under the head financial inclusion. There is lack
of studies on micro finance and its impact on financial inclusion. The first
study on the role of MFIs in financial inclusion by Mukhopadhyay and Rath,
2012, found that MFIs play a crucial role in financial inclusion especially in
rural areas and the study further argue that it is better to focus on
instruments and institutions that will promote financial inclusion, instead of
focusing on financial inclusion as a process. In the present study, findings
suggests that financing without collateral securities through micro financing
had a productive impact on employment and income that stimulated the
poor to have an access for financial services. According to Breckland Council,
London, Financial inclusion means “The ability of an individual, household,
or group to access appropriate financial services or products. Without this
ability, people are often referred to as financially excluded”. The financial
services include access to banking, insurance services for financing and risk
coverage. Micro finance intervention added the ability of accessing the
financial services to the rural poor through SHG-bank linkage programs. The
argument in the present study focuses on financial inclusion as an impact of
micro finance
Impact Assessment
Micro finance programs and institutions are increasingly important in
the development policies but knowledge about their impacts is partial and
contested (Hulme 2000). Several researchers and practitioners debate that
152
carrying out an impact assessment is unnecessary (Kamaha, 2013). However,

impact evaluation is applied to assess the impact of a program on the target
population. Policymakers typically conduct impact evaluations of programs
to decide how best to allocate scarce resources (World Bank, 2007). Impact
has a wider application in social science dominion where impact is an ideal
technique for assessment of changes brought through a particular
development intervention (Yadav, 2011). Impact is the outcome of an
intervention of a development program or it is the differences between before
the implementation of the program and after implementation of the program
that brings a change in the socio-economic activities of the target group. The
changes might be constructive or destructive; that could be understood by
way of “impact evaluation”. An objective behind the impact studies is to
discover what qualitative differences have had taken place after the
intervention (Schrieder & Sharma, 1999). Further, a proper examination and
evaluation of development programs by researchers, academicians will
accentuate the flaws of the program and their cherished recommendations
will work as managerial ideologies for the successful implementation of any
innovative development programs at a lower cost, which is more
sophisticated. Impact refers to the change affected by a development
initiative and evaluation is the measurement of the nature and magnitude of
that change (Yadav, 2011). According to business dictionary, impact is the
measure of tangible and intangible effects of one thing or entity’s action or
influence upon another. However, there is no common methodology for
evaluating the impact of micro finance (Brau et al., 2009). The nature of the
impact evaluation depends on the purpose and objective.

1. To identify the determinants of financial inclusion as an impact of
microfinance
2. To measure the impact of micro finance on financial inclusion in
members in-
i) accessing the savings account and banking services;
ii) accessing the Insurance products;
iii) accessing the credit and;
iv) To measure the repayment performance.
153
Methodological approaches in measuring an impact

Recent development in the micro finance sector offers an open debate
about the impact of micro financing on the beneficiaries. Although, micro
finance is accepted as an effective poverty alleviation tool, the researchers
and academicians from various parts of the world focus more on the impact
of micro finance on the poor. Measuring the impact on clients of financial
services provided by MFIs is the most difficult and controversial aspect of
performance evaluation (Meyer, 2002). Since the domain of research on
impact of micro finance programs on beneficiaries is relatively new, there is
no identifiable list of best practices to measure the impact (Brau et al, 2009).
Impact of Microfinance and Financial Inclusion

Figure 1 shows how financial inclusion is different from tangible
(Economic) and intangible (Social) impact of micro finance.
Micro Finance Institution
Financial Services Non-financial Services
Members
Impact
Tangible Impact Intangible Impact

Savings
Financial
Inclusion Insurance
Borrowing
s
Repaymen
t
The above figure indicates how the financial inclusion derived as an

impact of microfinance, which lies in between Tangible Impact and
Intangible Impact. A detailed description of variables for the measurement of
financial inclusion described in Table 1.
154
Description of Variables
Table 1: Description of Variables

Variables Impact range Expected Effects
Bank account Access to bank account
Patterns of use Cheque, ATM,
Knowledge Banking transactions
Savings
Nature Regular/Irregular
Purpose Goals
Life Self & family risk coverage
Insurance products
Micro insurance Health benefits
Number of times
Borrowings Loan availed
Purposes
Repayment Regular/Irregular
Repayment
Defaults Number of times & reasons for defaults & Actions
Source: Literature Survey
Discussion on Variables
1. Savings and Bank Account
A bank account in any form of financial institutions is a key for
accessing the formal financial services for the rural poor. In India, formal
financial institutions include public, private sector banks, cooperatives MFIs
and Post Offices. Having an account in any form of the financial institutions
in India, considered as individuals has an access for banking services.
Accounts of MFI members are of personal in nature and same account used
for business, if they are operating any individual micro enterprises.
Pattern of use
Among the different groups and class of people used financial services
in numerous forms. Cheque book, Automated Teller Machine (ATM),
Internet banking and mobile banking. Information of the banking
transactions obtained through Short Message Services (SMS). Cheque book is
the traditional form of banking service whereas internet, mobile and SMS
banking services are of new generation paperless banking services. In
traditional banking system, the customer used to approach the banker for
any transactions in his bank account, which was troublesome in rural areas
155
where the customer has to travel longer distances to reach his banker
(Mukhopadhyay & Rath, 2012). An ATM is a system to access customer’s
account for frequent withdrawals anywhere and anytime through ‘Debit
card’. Now a day, banking institutions are issuing multipurpose cards
depending upon the customers’ requirements. The modern mobile and
internet banking system is easy for accessing their bank accounts anywhere
and anytime. Mobile banking is appropriate for semi-urban and rural
educated customers who own a mobile instrument with minimum features
and an access for mobile network service. Internet banking is a bunch of
financial services, offered by the banking institutions, where customers can
perform financial transactions without the assistance of a banker, accessed
through mobile as well as a computer. Customer can transfer funds, book
tickets, recharge mobile phone account and direct to home (DTH) cable
services without consulting the branch.
Knowledge on banking transactions

During the interview, researcher identified four types of MFI members:
 Members having a bank account without having knowledge on
banking transactions
 Members having a bank account and knowledge on banking
transactions.
 Members having knowledge on banking transactions but no bank
account
 Members do not have an account and knowledge on banking
transactions
Based on the above, to identify the impact of microfinance intervention, we
used the knowledge on banking transactions.
Savings Behaviour
One of the essential features of the microfinance is promoting savings
among the members. Group members should compulsorily save on weekly
basis. A minimum of ten rupees per week and the maximum amount
depends on the capability of the member. Members prefer to save money to
accomplish some long-term purpose. During the survey, observed that more
emphasis given for regular savings. These two variables strongly measure
156
the savings behaviour of a member. Therefore, consistency in savings and the

purpose of savings used to measure the savings behaviour of a member.
2. Insurance
Three insurance products considered for the evaluation of impact of
micro financing. General insurance includes policies against agricultural
crops, Fire insurance against the house property and Vehicle insurance for
tractors, power tillers, two wheelers and three wheelers to safeguard against
future risks. Life insurance on individual and family against future
astonishments. Micro insurance is compulsory for all SHG members, which
provides risk coverage against life and health of individual and family. The
strategy of risk coverage initiated after the microfinance intervention. Few
microfinance institutions have an association with insurance companies and
providing insurance services at a lower rate of premium.
3. Borrowings
Credit is the fundamental requirement of any economic activity.
Microfinance is the gateway for accessing collateral free credit at local level.
Poor people need to borrow money for construction or for renovation of their
house, to invest in education or towards the expenses of wedding or funeral
(Kunt & Klapper, 2013). Moneylenders are the only source of funding to
these poor when they are in crucial time. The requirements of the poor are
meagre and repaid in a short term. In India formal financial institutions work
according to the guidelines laid by the Reserve Bank of India and lending is
through proper documentation and based on the collateral securities. Micro
credit is an adaptable financial assistance program devoted for asset-less
poor. Amount of borrowings depends on some particular purpose.
Therefore, the study considered the number of times of credit borrowed and
the purpose of borrowings for measuring the borrowings.
4. Repayment
Repayment is the key variable, which measures the financial
sustainability of the borrower and the financing institution. Borrower is
financially stable, if his repayment is regular and the institution is financially
sustainable, if its defaults are zero. Hence, the nature of repayment of the
157
borrower and the number of defaults during repayment tenure considered to

measure the repayment.
Research Methodology
In India, at the regional level, the South continues to dominate (65%)
the sector in concentration of numbers of MFIs (IMR, 2007; RBI, 2011) and in
the growth of microfinance activity. MFIs with Micro finance Information
Exchange (MIX) market ranking-diamond four and five selected from
Karnataka. Out of which, MFI having highest number of active borrowers in
the year 2012 considered for the study. The comprehensive financial and
other information of carefully chosen MFI’s congregated from the Micro
finance Information Exchange (MIX) database. MIX is a platform of global
information about micro finance that presents a collection of financial and
social performances of micro finance institutions. (Hartarska, 2005;
Tchuigoua, 2010).
Shree Kshetra Dharmasthala Rural Development Project (SKDRDP)

selected from Karnataka state, India. Dakshina Kannada district selected for
conducting survey. The researcher consulted the MFI officials to collect the
list of beneficiaries who had completed the minimum of five years as a
member and had borrowed credit, three or more times from the micro
finance institution. As most of the respondents were illiterate or were able to
communicate in local language, a self-administered structured questionnaire
used to collect the data. Personal interview conducted at the members’ house,
in weekly meetings and in work places without interrupting their daily
affairs. A sample of 382 selected from Dakshina Kannada district.
Table 2: Profile of Micro finance Institution

Legal Year of
MFI State
Status Establishment
Shree Kshetra Dharmasthala Rural
Karnataka NGO 1982
Development Project (SKDRDP)
Source: Literature Survey
158
Sample selection
The members who have completed minimum five years as an active
member and who availed minimum three times of financial assistance from
the Microfinance Institution were selected for the interview. The list of such
beneficiaries collected from the head office of the microfinance institution.
Sampling Method
Judgmental sampling or Purposive sampling under Non-probability
sampling technique applied, where researchers chose the sample based on
whom they think would be appropriate for the study which is used primarily
when there is a limited number of people who have expertise in the area
being researched (Levin, 1984)
Sample Size
SS = Z2 * (p) * (1-p)
_____________
c2
Where: Z = Z value (e.g. 1.96 for 95% confidence level)
p = percentage picking a choice, expressed as decimal (0.5 used for
sample size needed)
c = confidence interval, expressed as decimal
Sample Size and Selection
Table 3: Sample Size and Selection
States MFI Sample size
Karnataka SKDRDP 382
Source: Survey data
Results and Analysis

Based on literature we used savings, borrowings, repayment and risk
management as variables to measure the financial inclusion as an impact of
microfinance intervention.
Savings and Banking Services

There is an increase in the access to bank account and its other services.
26.2 percent members had an access to bank account and about 40.9 percent
of educated members acquired basic knowledge on banking transactions
159
after joining microfinance activities. Very few members (0.8%) accessed basic
banking services through cheque book. The usage of ATM cards has been
increased to the magnitude of 21.5 percent and 16.2 percent of members are
accessing SMS alerts about their bank account transactions. No members had
an access to mobile banking and 0.3 percent of members had access to
Internet banking services. Other than the banks, for rural people, post offices
are the easiest way to access financial services. In this study, 26.4 percent of
additional members had an access of financial services through post offices.
Insurance Products
Microfinance institutions provided the facility of covering the future
risks by accessing the policy on life, health and assets held by the members.
There is an increase in accessing the life insurance policy and 99.7 percent of
members had an access for micro health insurance after joining MFI. As most
of the members are assetless, there is no change in accessing the general
insurance policy.
Access to Credit
Table 4: Access to credit
Source: Survey data

The above table shows that more number of members had access to
credit from 4 to7 times. Senior members accessed eight to ten times of credit
from MFI.
160
Purpose of Loans
Table 5: Purpose of Loans
Source: Survey data

The purpose of loan varies from place to place. Majority of the
members accessed credit for agriculture (29%), education and asset building
(20%), Income generating activities (17%) and consumption (6%).
Nature of Repayment
Table 6: Nature of Repayment
Source: Survey data

The figure shows that 99.7 percent of members were regular in
repayment of their loan and 0.03 percent was irregular.
Interpretation
The above discussed results indicate that there is a significant
enhancement in the financial activities of the members after joining MFI. An
awareness about their rights, training on entrepreneurial activities and
subsidized development programs of the central and state governments
161
instigated the members to engage themselves in income generating activities.

The financial and socioeconomic activities of the members up surged by
increased income for the reason that of consistency in employment through
IGA’s. As a result, an awareness program of the MFI has brought changes in
the social activities by enhancing living standard of the members and the
financial activities of the members initiated by economic activities member
and vice-versa. Regular savings instigated the members to have a bank
account, preferably in a nationalized bank, which prompted the members to
have an access for other services of the bank account. Recent developments in
the banking activities turned banking environment customer friendly and
attractive for the lower income group. Joint liability and regular repayment
of loan from groups reduced the amount of non-performing assets of the
banks and financing institutions and found that financing the poor is a risk
free profitable sector.
Table 4 shows that there is an increase in the savings bank account
after joining MFI. During the survey, it was observed that the members were
unemployed or the employment was irregular in nature. The philosophies of
members to enhance own sources of income neither failed nor encumber due
to lack of motivation, confidence and access to financial sources, which were
overwhelmed through the intrusion of MFI that generated steady
employment and increased income. This motivated the members to access
the banking services. The members, who have secondary education and have
a basic technical knowledge on operation of ATM, have been accessing
banking services through ATM cards and SMS services. Few members have
primary education and were accessing the banking services through ATM
cards with the assistance of their children or a trustable neighbor.
An access to banking services facilitated the members to acquire the
benefit of pension schemes, subsidy of government schemes, minimized the
interloping of mediators in accessing the above schemes. Access to SMS
service for their bank accounts provides daily updates on financial
transactions in their accounts. Educated members were able to read and
understand the information sent through SMS and other members pleasing
to the neighbors. Access to Cheque book is minimum but increased to some
extent after joining MFI. The members who have individual or group
enterprises accessed the cheque book for payment on supply of materials.
162
The Age group of the members was 22 to 65 years and was aware of
usage of mobile phones for their day today purposes. Few members were
familiar in attending incoming calls but not in dialing. Any communications
received in local language was understandable to the members. Mobile
phones used to send information by the bank to consult the branch and
decisions relating to the loans and financial matters concluded after the
personal interaction with member/s. Most of the aged members using basic
mobile phones and members below the age group of 35 years were using
mobile phones with latest applications. It was found that members were not
aware of mobile banking services; hence, no members accessed the mobile
banking service. The members who were working for online business centers
(online ticket booking and recharge center for mobile & DTH) were aware
and had an access for internet banking on their own account. A notable
finding is that they had basic knowledge on internet banking (log on to check
their bank balance) but not aware of fund transfers, e-payments etc.
Post office is the other form of financial service where savings and
transfer facilities are available locally. Post offices are more convenient to the
rural people where the bank branches are far away from their dwellings.
Many branches of the post offices have local employees, which offers a
feeling of homegrown and trust. However, it is convenient to the illiterate
members in filling payment or withdrawal slips or in few cases these services
supplied to their doorstep when the member was not physically fit to visit
the nearest post office. An increased income activated members to have small
savings and recurring deposit accounts in post office. The savings were with
the intension of future benefit and a definite purpose.
All members had an access for micro insurance through MFI except a
member who had an access for other medical insurance. Family members
covered under this micro insurance scheme. Limited members had an access
for general insurance due to lack of assets. Access for life insurance has
increased because of the awareness on the life protection, risk coverage and
increased income. It is another form of savings for the members. Members
accessed life insurance policy with minimum premium amount payable in
monthly or quarterly installments. The MFI had an association with the
leading insurance companies for offering cost effective micro health
insurance policies.
163
An astonishing variations found in accessing credit after joining MFI.

The number of access to credit varied between three to ten times. An easy,
quick and collateral free access for small amount of loans magnified the
economic activities. The number of access depends on the purpose of the
credit requirement. As most of the members were illiterates with rural
background, they depend more on agriculture. It was observed that the
existing agricultural activities accompanied and expanded through the credit
facilities provided by the MFI. Training from MFI driven members for
advanced applications in agriculture for an increased productivity. Educated
members engaged themselves in income generating activities by way of
subsidized government schemes. An awareness through training programs
motivated members to provide quality education to their children. Access to
credit made it easy to get into the recognized educational institutions. MFI
offered special education loans to member’ in addition to the existing loan.
Asset building like construction and renovation of house has increased on the
availability of credit. Programs on self-motivation and an awareness
increased the feeling of care, safety and security towards the family. Young
and new members accessed credit for the repayment of loans from the
moneylenders at higher rate of interests. Access to micro insurance policy
reduced the amount of loans and credits from neighbors for family
medication.
Irrespective of the purpose, the repayment was regular except the one whose
family was ill for a longer period. Regular employment, steady income and
small amount of weekly installments made easy for repayment in scheduled
time.
Recommendations
 Banks offering no frill accounts without features in limited number of
rural branches, which should be extended to all rural branches with
more features.
 Banks are charging for the SMS banking services, which should be
enabled for the no frill account holders at free of cost.
 Banks should employ user-friendly techniques to operate ATMs, SMS
banking and Mobile banking.
164
 In case of ATMs, Banks should enable biometric system and face

recognition software instead of Personal Identification Number for
easy access of bank account.
 In SMS banking, the subscriber has to send a SMS request to know the
balance amount in his/her bank account or to know the recent
transactions. Instead, a simple method like a missed call for balance
enquiry in his/her bank account. This application currently used in
Canara bank and members have a positive response towards it.
 Creating awareness and imparting knowledge about mobile banking is
necessary for minimizing the costs involved in maintaining the account
of the members. Members can access their bank account anytime and
anywhere.
 As internet banking involves infrastructure cost, it is advisable to the
banking institutions to impart knowledge to their employees to
promote mobile banking services in rural areas.
 Post office savings and recurring deposit accounts should provide SMS
facility to their account holders to know their account balance and to
receive a reminder on payment of installment.
 All State governments should provide subsidized loans like state
government of Andhra Pradesh. The rate of interest for MFI members
for direct credit access from nationalized banks is one percent. After
the repayment of principal with interest, almost 75 percent of the
interest amount reimbursed to the members that aids in evading
another microfinance crisis in other states of India.
 MFI should work as a facilitator than as a promoter of any banking or
insurance company products, thereby decreasing the financial stress on
the members.
Conclusion
The outcome of the study indicates that there is a positive impact of
micro financing on financial inclusion. The Ideology of creating an
employment opportunity by imparting knowledge and training had wider
impact and the present study looked into financial inclusion. An in-depth
study is advisable on legal status and location of MFIs. A comprehensive
165
study on impact is essential to generalize the impact of financial inclusion.

The institution has almost 100 percent recovery. Further study required to
identify the genuineness of the repayment performance on the members and
institution to understand the motivational factors involved in the repayment
without default. Findings of the same can be executed to the banks and other
financial institutions to minimize the non-performing assets.
References
 Brau J C, Hiatt S & Woodworth W (2009) Evaluating impacts of microfinance
institutions using Guatemalan data, Managerial Finance, Vol. 35, Iss:12 pp953-
974
 Galib A K (2009) Measuring the Impact of Microfinance Intervention: A
Conceptual framework of Social Impact Assessment, Impact Assessment Research
Centre (IARC) University of Manchester, IARC Working Paper Series No.
24/2009
 Gray B, Gash M, Revees S, & Crookston B (2011) Microfinance: A sustainable
platform for Non-financial services, Progress in economics research, Vol. 20, Nova
Science Publishers Inc., pp 163-182.
 Hartarska V (2005) Governance and performance of microfinance institutions in
Central and Eastern Europe and the Newly Independent States, World development,
vol. 33, No. 10, pp. 1627-1643
 Holcombe, S (1995) Managing to empower: the Grameen Bank’s experience of
poverty alleviation, London Zed Press.
 Hossain M K (2012) Assessment of social impact of microfinance operations-A
study on BARC, Interdisciplinary Journal of research in Business, Vol. 2 Issue 3,
pp 34-44
 Hulme D. (2000) Impact assessment methodologies for microfinance: Theory,
experience and better practice, world development, 28 (1), 79-98.
 Hulme D. (2009) Impact assessment methodologies for microfinance: Theory,
experience and better practice, microfinance: a reader, ISBN 0-415-37532-0 ISBN
978-0-415-37532-0.-London [u.a]: Routledge-2009, S 198-224.
 IMR (2007) Indian Microfinance Review, Micro-Credit Rating International
Limited, 602 Pacific Square, 32 nd Milestone, NH 8, Gurgaon, India.
 Khandker S R (1998) Impact of group based credit programs on poor households in
Bangladesh: Does the gender of the participants matter, World Bank Institute and
development research group, World Bank, Washigton DC.
 Kunt D A & Klapper L (2013) Measuring financial inclusion- explaining
variations across and within countries, Conference draft presented at Spring
2013 Brookings panel on economic activity March 21-22.
 Levin I R (1984) Sampling and sampling distributions, Statistics for Management,
Prentice –Hall, Inc., Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey, USA. Pp 300
166
12
Problems in Inclusive Growth in India
Sunita Acharya
Abstract
equitable distribution of wealth and prosperity. Achieving inclusive growth
is the biggest challenge in a country like India. In a democratic country like
India, bringing 600 million people living in rural India into the mainstream is
the biggest concern. The challenge is to take the levels of growth to all section
of the society and to all parts of the country. The best way to achieve
inclusive growth is through developing people’s skills. The Eleventh Five
Year Plan defines inclusive growth to be “a growth process which yields
broad-based benefits and ensures equality of opportunity for all”. The
Inclusive growth implies an equitable allocation of resources with benefits
accruing to every section of society, which is an Utopian concept. Inclusive
growth is broad- based. It is concerned with the Pro-poor growth, growth
with equity. Inclusive growth is aimed at poverty reduction, human
development, health and provides opportunity to work and be creative. The
allocation of resources must be focused on the indented short and long terms
benefits and economic linkages at large and not just equitable mathematically
167
on some regional and population criteria. This article related to the major
problems related to inclusive growth in India.
Introduction
"I have faith that the next generation of Indians, and the generation after that,
will eliminate the scourge of poverty and make India rich. Then, the poor country
would have deserved its inheritance” – P. Chidambaram,
Inclusive growth basically means, “Broad based growth, shared
growth, and pro-poor growth” It decreases the rapid growth rate
of poverty in a country and increases the involvement of people into the
growth process of the country. Inclusive growth by its very definition implies
an equitable allocation of resources with benefits incurred to every section of
the society. But the allocation of resources must be focused on the intended
short and long term benefits of the society such as availability of consumer
goods, people access, employment, standard of living etc. Reports says that
the top 1% of the population own 15.9% of India’s wealth, the top 5% own
38.3% and the top 10% have 52.9% of Indian’s wealth. What this really means
is that 90% of Indian, the urban and rural poor has a very small stake in the
pie. Growth must lead to the re-distribution of this ever growing pie to a
situation where the bulk of the population is middle class and a smaller
percentage of the population is either very rich or very poor. Inclusive
growth has been projected as the strategic pillar of 12th five year plan . The
policy designers are of the opinion that the ‘inclusive growth strategy for
the 12th five year plan should be based on the experience of inclusive
outcomes of the 11th five year plan’.
The approach to 12th five year plan titled “Faster, Sustainable and
More Inclusive Growth”, the progress towards inclusiveness is more
difficult to assess, because inclusiveness is a multidimensional concept.
Inclusive growth should result in
 Lower incidence of poverty.
 Broad-based and significant improvement in health outcomes.
 Universal access for children to school.
 Increased access to higher education and improved standards of
education, including skill development.
168
 Better opportunities for both wage employment and livelihood.

 Improvement in provision of basic amenities like water, electricity,
roads, sanitation and housing.
 Needs of the SC/ST and OBC population.
Women and children constitute a group which accounts for 70% of the
population and deserves special attention in terms of the reach of relevant
schemes in many sectors. Physically challenged / Minorities and other
excluded groups also need special programmes to bring them into the
mainstream. To achieve inclusiveness in all these dimensions requires
multiple interventions, and success depends not only on introducing new
policies and government programmes, but on institutional and attitudinal
changes. The Eleventh Plan gave a special impetus to several programmes
aimed at building rural and urban infrastructure and providing basic services
with the objective of increasing inclusiveness and reducing poverty.
India’ is the new global buzzword. The economy growing at a
phenomenal rate, combined with a flourishing democracy is making people
sit up and take notice across the world. Yet, it is at cross-roads today. It is far
from reaching its true potential. The country remains shackled in corruption,
red tape, age old social barriers and a puzzling lack of transparency. Growth
is not uniform across sectors; and large cross-sections of the populace remain
outside its purview. Several social, political and economic factors need to be
tackled for sustaining a high rate of growth, as well as to make this growth
inclusive. Elimination of child labour, women empowerment, removal of
caste barriers and an improvement in work culture are just a few of the
things the Indian society needs to introspect on. Tackling corruption in high
places, removing the ills of the electoral system, shunning politics of
agitations and keeping national interest above petty politics may not be too
much to ask of the country’s policy makers. Rapid growth in the rural
economy, well planned and targeted urban growth, infrastructure
development, reforms in education, ensuring future energy needs, a healthy
public-private partnership, intent to secure inclusivity, making all sections of
society equal stakeholders in growth, and above all good governance will
ensure that India achieves what it deserves.
169
Economic liberalization which began in the early 1990s has accelerated

India’s growth rate to an average of 7% per year since 1997, up from 3.5% in
the 1970s. During this period India transformed itself from an agricultural
economy to a service economy. Services now form 55% of the Indian
economy. The growth and development of the Information Technology and
Information Technology enabled Services have had a significant role in
changing the face of the economy. The good news does not end here. The
growth rate for India is expected to overtake China’s double digit growth
rate in the next few years.
This news however, hides some alarming trends. Growth continues to
bypass a large section of people. A large majority of Indians live in the
villages and they have been excluded from India’s growth story. Rural India
is facing economic problems – land holdings are shrinking, slow growth in
agricultural production and limited social and economic infrastructure.
Women, Children, backward castes & classes and other minorities often are
excluded from the growth story. The rise of grass root militant movements
which plague nearly one-tenth of India is a direct result of this economic
exclusion and the unfulfilled aspirations of the bottom billion. The task to
feed, house, cloth, educate and employ India’s growing population, which is
expected to reach nearly 1.5 billion by 2030, is enormous. This includes a net
increase of 270 million people which will be added to the work force.
Bringing them into the economic mainstream both as producers and
consumers of goods and services must be the basis of any inclusive strategy.
Today, economic power rests with a precious few. According to Credit
Suisse, the top 1% of the population own 15.9% of India’s wealth, the top 5%
own 38.3% and the top 10% have 52.9% of Indian’s wealth. What this really
means is that 90% of Indian, the urban and rural poor has a very small stake
in the pie. Growth must lead to the re-distribution of this ever growing pie to
a situation where the bulk of the population is middle class and a smaller
percentage of the population is either very rich or very poor.
The aspirations of the “bottom billion’ cannot be wished away. If India
is unable to address these aspirations, the “demographic dividend” that the
country can reap will become a demographic liability. This mammoth task
cannot be done by government alone. Industry and civil society must partner
with government to drive inclusive growth. Cognizant of income disparities
170
and growing aspirations of the people the government has been working to
address these through programs like NREGA and Aadhaar. Civil society has
contributed with design and governance oversight. But, in my view the
greatest lever for driving inclusion is jobs. The India’s economy is headed in
a new direction - striving to touch double – digit annual growth rates, and a
sustainable, equitable and inclusive growth, taking into account the needs of
all sections of society. India’s economic growth has passed through for major
phases over the past 60 Years and is emerging to a new phase with a broad
objective of “Inclusive Growth”.
The Eleventh Five Year Plan defines inclusive growth to be “a growth
process which yields broad-based benefits and ensures equality of
opportunity for all”. The Inclusive growth implies an equitable allocation of
resources with benefits accruing to every section of society, which is an
Utopian concept. Inclusive growth is broad- based. It is concerned with the
Pro-poor growth, growth with equity. An inclusive growth is aimed at
poverty reduction, human development, health and provides opportunity to
work and be creative. The allocation of resources must be focused on the
indented short and long terms benefits and economic linkages at large and
not just equitable mathematically on some regional and population criteria.
The inclusiveness involves four attributes. They are Opportunity,
capability, access and security. The Opportunity attribute focuses on
generating more and more opportunities to the people and focuses on
increasing their income. The Capability attribute concentrates on providing
the means for people to create or enhance their capabilities in order to exploit
available opportunities. The Access attributes focuses on providing the
means to bring opportunities and capabilities together. The Security attribute
provides the means for people to protect themselves against a temporary or
permanent loss of livelihood. Together Inclusive growth is a process in which
economic growth measured by a sustained expansion in GDP contributes to
an enlargement of the scale and scope of all four dimensions.
Need for Inclusive Growth in India
equitable distribution of wealth and prosperity. Achieving inclusive growth
is the biggest challenge in a country like India. In a democratic country like
India, bringing 600 million people living in rural India into the mainstream is
171
the biggest concern. The challenge is to take the levels of growth to all section
of the society and to all parts of the country. The best way to achieve
inclusive growth is through developing people’s skills.
Mr. Jeffrey, Chairman & CEO of Manpower Planning, USA, said that,
a multi faceted approach towards education and skills development is
necessary to achieve grow. He said the challenge of skills shortage can be
addressed through public private partnership. Since independence,
significant improvement in India’s economic and social development made
the nation to grow strongly in the 21st century. The following factors
encouraged the India to concentrate more on inclusive growth.
1. India is the 7th largest country by area and 2nd by population. It is
the 12th largest economy at market exchange rate. Yet, India is far
away from the development of the neighbourhood nation, i.e.,
China.
2. The exclusion in terms of low agriculture growth, low quality
employment growth, low human development, rural-urban
divides, gender and social inequalities, and regional disparities
etc. are the problems for the nation.
3. Reducing of poverty and other disparities and raising of economic
growth are the key objectives of the nation through inclusive
growth.
4. Political leadership in the country plays a vital role in the overall
development of the country. But, the study has found that
politicians in India have a very low level of scientific literacy.
5. Studies estimated that the cost of corruption in India amounts to
over 10% of GDP. Corruption is one of the ills that prevent
inclusive growth.
6. Although child labour has been banned by the law in India and
there are stringent provisions to deter this -inhuman practice. Still,
many children in India are unaware of education as they lives are
spoiled to labour work.
7. Literacy levels have to rise to provide the skilled workforce
required for higher growth.
172
8. Economic reforms in the country are overwhelmed by out dated

philosophies and allegations by the politicians and opposition
parties in India.
9. Achievement of 9% of GDP growth for country as a whole is one
of the boosting factor which gives the importance to the Inclusive
Growth in India.
10. Inclusiveness benchmarked against achievement of monitorable
targets related to (i). Income & Poverty, (ii) education, (iii) health,
(iv) women & children, (v) infrastructure, (vi) environment.
11. Even at international level also, there is a concern about
inequalities an exclusion and now they are also taking about
inclusive approach for development.
Problems before Inclusive Growth Strategies in India
For a developing country like India, the need of inclusive growth is
vital to achieve the overall progress of the country. Though it is positive for
macro-economic stability, 2008-09 resulted a relative growth slowdown,
mostly from the spill over effects of the weakening of the global economic
momentum and volatile financial markets. The following problems are the
major concerns for developing countries like India to achieve the inclusive
growth. They are:
1. Poverty:-Percent of population living under the poverty line, which is

356.35 rupees or around $7 a month in rural areas. The World Bank
estimates that 456 million Indians (42% of the total Indian population)
now live under the global poverty line of $1.25 per day (PPP). This means
that a third of the global poor now reside in India. However, this also
represents a significant decline in poverty from 60 percent in 1981 to 42
percent in 2005, although the rupee has decreased in value since then,
while the official standard of 538/356 rupees per month has remained the
same. Income inequality in India (Gini coefficient: 32.5 in year 1999- 2000)
is increasing. On the other hand, the Planning Commission of India uses
its own criteria and has estimated that 27.5% of the population was living
below the poverty line in 2004–2005, down from 51.3% in 1977–1978, and
36% in 1993-1994.
173
The source for this was the 61st round of the National Sample
Survey (NSS) and the criterion used was monthly per capita
consumption expenditure below Rs. 356.35 for rural areas and Rs. 538.60
for urban areas. 75% of the poor are in rural areas, most of them are
daily wagers, self-employed householders and landless labourers.
A proportionally large share of poor is lower castes. Many see the
caste system as a system of exploitation of poor low-ranking groups by
more prosperous high-ranking groups. In many parts of India, land is
largely held by high-ranking property owners of the dominant castes
that economically exploit low-ranking landless labourers and poor
artisans, all the while degrading them with ritual emphases on their so-
called god-given inferior status.
According to William A. Haviland, casteism is widespread in
rural areas, and continues to segregate Dalits. Others, however, have
noted the steady rise and empowerment of the Dalits through social
reforms and the implementation observations in employment and
benefits.
2. Employment: - Employment considered as one of the big problems for

inclusive growth in India. Raising population at a great speed after
independence showed its impact on employment. The unemployment
became the big worry to the development of the country. Since poverty
is much higher than unemployment, employment is the only source to
eradicate poverty. The quality and quantity of employment in India is
very low due to illiteracy and due to over dependency on agricultural
employment. The quality of employment is also a problem. Unorganized
employed people in India are around 85%. Workers in this sector do not
have social security. The generation of productive employment for
labour force in the economy, as employment is a key to inclusive growth
is the toughest task for the country. The country is also facing in
employment generation in all sectors, regions and for all socio economic
groups particularly for poorer sections of population, backward regions,
lagging sectors and SC/ST/OBC/women etc.
3. Agriculture: - Traditionally, India is considered as the agricultural based
country. As the majority of Indians are engaged in agriculture for
174
employment, the recent developments in the other sectors decreased this

major sector’s growth. Some of the problems in Indian agriculture are:
 Long term factors like steeper decline in per capita land availability,
shrinking of farm size,
 Slow reduction in share of employment,
 Low labour productivity in agriculture and the gap between agri and
non-agri is widening,
 Decline in yield growth due to land and water problems, vulnerability
to world commodity prices, farmer’s suicides.
 Disparities in growth across regions and crops, i.e., growth rate
declined more in rain fed areas.
 Thus these problems became the hurdles in the key area for the
economic development of the nation, i.e., agriculture.
4. Social Development: - Social development is also one of the key concerns
in inclusive growth. The social development became the hot criteria in
the recent past in India. Social development also facing some problems
which is making the path critical to inclusive growth in the country.
Some of the problems in social sector are:
 Significant regional, social and gender disparities,
 Low level and slow growth in public expenditures particularly on
health,
 Poor quality delivery systems,
 Achievement of 119th rank among 170 countries on Human
Development index.
 Social indicators are much lower for scheduled castes and
scheduled tribes.
 Malnutrition among children is one major problem.
 Social advancements in India is still at lower growth due to the
strong influence of culture and regional disparities
The vision of inclusiveness must go beyond the traditional
objective of poverty alleviation to encompass equality of opportunity,
as well as economic and social mobility for all sections of society, with
affirmative action for SCs, STs, OBCs, minorities and women. There
must be equality of opportunity to all with freedom and dignity, and
175
without social or political obstacles. This must be accompanied by an

improvement in the opportunities for economic and social
advancement. In particular, individuals belonging to disadvantaged
groups should be provided special opportunities to develop their skills
and participate in the growth process.
This outcome can only be ensured if there is a degree of
empowerment that creates a true feeling of participation so necessary
in a democratic polity. Empowerment of disadvantaged and hitherto
marginalized groups is therefore an essential part of any vision of
inclusive growth. India’s democratic polity, with the establishment of
the third layer of democracy at the Panchayati Raj Institution (PRI)
level, provides opportunities for empowerment and participation of all
groups with reservations for SCs, STs, and women. These institutions
should be made more effective through greater delegation of power
and responsibility to the local level.
5. Regional Disparities: - Regional disparities are also a major concern
for India due to different culture and traditions. Traditional cultures,
caste system and the rich & poor feelings favoured some specific
groups as a result, the regional disparities raised in India before and
after independence. And also, due to the development in agriculture
and industrial sector some regions in India developed fast and some
other places still are facing the scarcity. Some of the regional disparities
problems are:
 Per capita income is highest at Rs.16,679 in Punjab and lowest per
capita income is at Bihar with Rs.3557.
 Female infant mortality varies from 12 in Kerala to 88 in Madhya
Pradesh.
 Female literacy varies from 33.6% in Bihar to 88% in Kerala.
 Richer states grew faster than the poorer states
Conclusion
India has the potential of becoming a leading economy and has the
unique opportunity to make that growth inclusive, provided there is
willingness on the part of all sections of society to put in hard and disciplined
176
work, together with serious, sustained and purposeful planning. First, there
is much that needs to be done to build up India’s potential. Better
governance, more and better educational institutions, higher agricultural
productivity, controlled inflation and improvement in infrastructure are
some of the major and more important steps required in this direction.
References
 Dev, S. and Ravi, C. (2007) ‘Poverty and Inequality: All India and States, 1983-
2005.’ Economic &Political Weekly 42(6), 10-16 February.
 Eleventh Five Year Plan (2007-2012) Inclusive Growth, Vol. 1, Planning
Commission of India, Oxford University Press, and New Delhi.
 Kalirajan, K., Shand, R.T. and Bhide, S. (2010) Strategies for Achieving Sustained
High Economic Growth. New Delhi: Sage.
 Planning Commission (2006) ‘Report of the Steering Committee on Rapid
Poverty Reduction and Local Area Development for the Eleventh Five- Year
Plan (2007-2012).’ New Delhi: Planning Commission.
 Raabe, K. Birner, R. Sekher, M. Gayathridevi, K.G. Shilpi, A. and Schiffer, E.
(2010) ‘How To Overcome the Governance Challenges of Implementing
NREGA: Insights from Bihar Using Process-Influence Mapping.
 Towards Faster and More Inclusive Growth, An Approach To The 11TH
Five Year Plan, Planning Commission, Government of India as downloaded
from http://www.pci.com last accessed on 11 Sep 2011.
WEBSITE
1. http://ww.planningcommissionofindia.com
2. http://jstor.org.com
3. http://www.slideshare.com
4. http://www.pci.com
5. http://www.economictimes.com
6. http://www.hindu.co.in
177
13
Urban India And Environmental Degredation - Is
Inclusive Growth Attained Without Environmental
Sustainability?
Savitha K L
Abstract
India is on the move. Economic reform has already unleashed
investment and growth, offering its citizens rich opportunities. Although the
Indian economic has been resilient so far, the key issue now is how to sustain
this momentum. Turning around its cities and releasing their dynamism will
be critical to India’s future economic growth. The deterioration in
environmental quality is due to the resource intensive growth- oriented
development in these economies. Such a resource intensive growth-oriented
development has resulted increase in environmental degradation and
ecological stress. Such a growth-oriented development has resulted in global
problems such as Green House Emission, Acid rain, Tropical deforestation,
pollution, waste problem and this was against the concept of sustainable
development which was give birth since after 1972. In this background the
present paper attempt to study the environmental issues that hindering the
environmentally sustainable inclusive growth of India and some of the
178
important issues with regard are urbanization, generation of waste, pollution

and violation of the concept of sustainable development address.
Introduction
India is the world's largest democracy and second most populous
country and is emerging as a major power. Since 1991, India has seen a far-
reaching, rapid and successful transformation of its economic order, making
the country one of the most dynamic in the world. This process was driven
by high levels of productivity in services and manufacturing. According to
the commonly used development indicators, India is progressing at a rapid
pace, second only to China. The incidence rate of poverty has declined.
However, India is still tackling huge social, economic and environmental
problems.
The economic growth of man has exerted pressure on environment. The
so-called developed countries, in a bid to develop their economies, used
fossils and poured thousands of tones of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere.
The developing countries are slowly following the same path. Natural
resources are being continuously overused and degraded by man. Pollutants
arising from industrial activity, energy consumption, transportation,
agricultural activity, solid waste etc are contributing in environmental
degradation. Decrease in the forest cover, deterioration of river and lake
water due to human and industrial waste, contamination of ecosystems,
degradation of agricultural soil, and polluted industrial sites are aggravating
the environmental degradation induced problems. There is a growing
concern about the widespread presence of chemicals due to this degradation
in the environment in terms of their potential effects on both ecosystems and
human health (Vasudeva 2010).
With rapid expansion of urban population around the world there is an
increasing awareness about minimizing the environmental costs of
urbanization. Concerns are raised at environmental damages and depletion
of nonrenewable resources and rising levels of pollution in urban areas. In
recent times urban centres have become places of urban environmental
degradation and wasteful use of resources, which is proving to be costly to
generations present and future. Sustainable urban development is achieving
a fine balance between growth, development of the urban areas and
179
protection of the environment with an eye to equity in employment, shelter,

basic services, social infrastructure and transportation in the urban areas.
Economic Development and Environmental Issues
Till from the beginning of human civilization itself the utilization and
destruction of nature and environment has stated. But now it was in its peak.
The major portion of the waste problem now our country is faced by the over
usage and throwing away of plastic. The depthless of environmental
destruction has increased by industrialization and urbanization. Even though
the economists have become increasingly aware about the implication of
environmental issues faced during the path of development they did not take
any necessary action against it. The interlinkage between poverty and
environmental degradation can lead to a self-perpetuating process which
result economic necessity, communities may inadvertently destroy or over
exploit the resources on which they depend for survival. Increasing pressures
on environmental resources in developing countries can have severe
consequences for self-sufficiency, income distribution and future growth
potential in the developing world. As the financial status of the poor people
increases they over exploit the environment also when the consumption
pattern and the income of the poor people increases then there would be an
increase in environmental destruction. As the rural development take place
there will be an increase in agricultural production this in turn makes the
people to over exploit the land and also the introduction of new technology
and increase use of fertilizer for increase the agricultural production will
reduce the fertility of soil. As to increase agricultural production people will
cut down trees and increase the area for cultivation. These in turn create an
environmental degradation and the future generation cannot enjoy the
fruitfulness of nature and create a negative sustainable development. On the
other side as urbanization take place more people have migrated from rural
to urban area for getting better job. Consequences were congestion, vehicular
and industrial emission, increase in solid waste, due increase in
consumption, and poorly ventilated household stoves also inflate the
tremendously high environmental costs of urban crowding.
180
Urbanization trends in India

Urbanization is one of the indicators of development.
Developing economies strains itself to industrialize and urbanize their
economies. As per 2011 census, India has 6.41 lakh inhabitant villages. After
India embraced globalization as its new economic Dharma in 1991,
urbanization is gaining momentum. In 1901, only a mere 10.89% of India‟s
population lived in urban areas, it reached 17.6% by 1951, which rose to
25.8% in 1991; from there urbanization raised enormously adding 160 million
in 20 years, which increased to 31.16% by 2011. In another twenty years,
Urbanization is expected to add another 250 million to its existing 377
million, taking the urban population to over 627 million. Urbanization in
India has got a major boost from (1) Natural increase of population in towns
(2) Migration of people from Rural to Urban areas (3) Cities encroaching the
surrounding villages and growing bigger (4) Government Polices initiating
the industrialization in few designated places under the establishment and
development of industrial areas programme. The following table gives an
account of trends of urbanization in India.
Table 1: Trends of Urbanization in India.

Urban population Urban as a % of
Year No. of towns
(in Millions) total population
1901 26 11 1627
1951 62 17.6 2843
1961 79 18.3 2365
1971 109 20.2 2590
1981 160 23.7 3378
1991 217 25.8 3768
2001 285 27.8 5161
2011 377 31.16 7936
Sources: Compiled from various census reports.
Objective
The main objective of the study is to
 Analyze the present environmental issues and its impact on
sustainability
181
Methodology
For proving the above objectives secondary data were used. Since the
environmental issues are important part for sustainable development
information was collected from various secondary sources. That is Secondary
Data was collected from various publications related to this issues, such as
Indian economic journals, Official publication of Central Pollution Control
Board, Economic Review, various census reports, Internet etc. And the
collected dated was coded into tables and interpret it.
Urbanization and Environmental Problem
India, being a rapidly growing economy, has to resolve massive
environmental problems. The direct consequences of the process of
development and the range of issues categorized as environmental problems
include industrial pollution (i.e. pollution of air, water and soil) vehicular
emission, solid, hospital, electronic waste and domestic sewage disposal etc.
The one of the important problem the India is of growing urban area is
managing the solid waste management. Urban India generates over 188500
tons per day, which is 68.8 million tons per year. With every passing year, the
solid waste generation is also increasing by minimum of 7% annually. The
highly urbanized western countries generates high amount of waste. It varies
between 2.75 Kg to 4 Kg per day per Individual. The per capita generation of
waste in Urban India varies between 250 grams to 800 grams per day, i.e. on
an average 0.6 Kg of solid waste per day, per Individual is generated in
urban India. An urban local body, in India, on an average spends around
Rs.650 to Rs.2000 per ton of which 60 to 70 % goes on collection, rest on
transportation. Many of the urban areas are not spending any amount on
treatment and scientific disposal of waste. It has created many health and
environment in waste disposal sites. The general composition of the
municipal solid waste was clear from the following table
Table 2: General composition of the municipal solid wastes

Biodegradable matter 50%
Glass 4%
Plastics 3%
Paper 5%
182
Metals 1%
Leather and rubber 1%
Rags 5%
Household hazardous 1%
Inert materials 30%
Source: Central Pollution Control Board 2000
MSW is only a relatively small fraction of all the solid waste that is
generated in an advanced economy. But in the case of developing economy
the major portion of waste is from municipal waste and the management of
this waste is become a major problem for the country. If the waste will not
properly managed then their arise health and environmental issues. This was
similar in the case of E-Waste and biomedical waste. The quantity of this
waste in the country was also increasing at an alarm rate the waste
generation rate of E-Waste was more in Maharashtra ant it was about 20271
million tone. The selected state wise E-waste generation was depicts in the
table below.
Table 3: Selected State-wise Quantum of E-waste Generated in India

(2012)
E-waste Generation
States/UT
(In MT)
Maharashtra 20271
Tamil Nadu 13486
Andhra Pradesh 12780
Uttar Pradesh 10381
West Bengal 10059
Delhi 9729
Karnataka 9119
Gujarat 8994
Madhya Pradesh 7800
Punjab 6958
Source: Ministry of statistics and Government of India 2012
183
Urban India and Increased Pollution

Pollution is on rise in Indian urban areas. The mostly monitored
air pollutants are particulate matter (PM), Nitrogen dioxide,(NO2),
Sulphur Dioxide(SO2),and a limited scale Carbon Monoxide. 70 % of the
air pollution is caused by the emissions of the vehicles. The central
pollution control board has found that less than 2% of cities have low air
pollution on the basis of PM10 levels (Respirable particulates). In India,
the air pollution is believed to cause more than 5½ lakh fatalities a year.
The water pollution is also at alarming levels.
Water pollution is a serious problem in India as almost 70 per
cent of its surface water resources and a growing percentage of its
groundwater reserves are contaminated by biological, toxic, organic, and
inorganic pollutants. In many cases, these sources have been rendered
unsafe for human consumption as well as for other activities, such as
irrigation and industrial needs. This shows that degraded water quality
can contribute to water scarcity as it limits its availability for both human
use and for the ecosystem. In India, every year, approximately, 50,000
million litres of waste water both industrial and domestic, is generated in
urban areas. The govt. of India is spending millions of dollars every year
on water pollution control. According to rough estimates, Indian
government has spent nearly 4450 million USD till now on various
schemes in India, like the Ganga action plan and Jamuna action plan to
control water pollution in rivers. But the results are below satisfaction.
The table below shows highly polluting industries in India.
Table 4: Selected State-wise Status of 17 Categories of Highly Polluting

Industries in India
States/UTs Complying Not Closed Total
Complying
Andaman and 0 0 0 0
Nicobar Islands
Andhra Pradesh 357 78 31 466
Arunachal Pradesh 2 0 0 2
Assam 20 4 0 24
Bihar 19 2 2 23
Chandigarh 0 0 0 0
184
Chhattisgarh 13 3 1 17
Daman and Diu 2 0 1 3
Delhi 2 0 0 2
Goa 14 0 1 15
Gujarat 302 7 8 317
Haryana 112 20 13 145
Himachal Pradesh 16 2 3 21
Jammu and Kashmir 7 0 3 10
Jharkhand 19 7 3 29
Karnataka 123 22 16 161
Kerala 23 13 15 51
Lakshadweep 0 0 0 0
Madhya Pradesh 65 16 2 83
Maharashtra 325 206 59 590
Manipur 0 0 0 0
Meghalaya 13 1 0 14
Mizoram 1 0 0 1
Nagaland 0 0 0 0
Odisha 37 17 11 65
Puducherry 5 2 0 7
Punjab 50 18 18 86
Rajasthan 90 32 31 153
Sikkim 0 1 0 1
Tamil Nadu 210 10 11 231
Tripura 11 2 2 15
Uttar Pradesh 278 45 78 401
Uttarakhand 27 19 3 49
West Bengal 48 66 15 129
India 2249 596 327 3172
Source: Ministry of statistics and Government of India 2004- 2012
Not only this industries which pollute the water but the household sector
plays a major role in it. Household borne effluents contribute a substantial
proportion of water pollution in India. Untreated effluents from households
pollute surface and groundwater sources. Local governments (city
corporations, municipalities, and panchayats) have the responsibility of
water supply and sanitation and are supposed to treat the effluents as per
national water pollution standards or minimal national standards (MINAS)
185
However, about 70 per cent of the effl uents are not treated and disposed off
into the environmental media untreated. The combined effects of inadequate
sanitation, unsafe water supply and poor personal hygiene are responsible
for 88% of childhood deaths from diarrhea” (UNICEF). India still has the
largest number of persons who defecate in open. It is estimated that still 625
million do not have sanitation facilities. In that 67% belong to rural areas and
14% belong to urban areas. It is estimated that 20% of urban dwellings do not
have safe drinking water facility.
There has to be decoupling of environmental pressures from economic
growth. Some of the damage done to environment is irreversible. But, much
can be done to prevent it from further damage. In order to address
environmental externalities, market instruments like environmental taxes
and permits should be engaged more intensely. Industries and households
should be encouraged to switch from coal and heavy oils towards cleaner
fuels such as natural gas. Government should ensure increase in area under
forests. Water resource need to be managed more judiciously. Heavy
investments are required in sewage and industrial waste water treatment
facilities. The quality of river and water lakes needs to be improved.
Technologies are required to be developed to ensure waste decomposition
and recycling. Countries need to take action to decouple pressures on critical
ecosystems and biodiversity from economic growth.
It has been argued that proper mitigation in the cases of environmental
degradation will provide two fold benefits, reduction in Green house gas
(GHG) emissions in one fold and inclusive growth with better environmental
conditions in urban India. In Indian cities there is significant scope in
mitigation in both these environmental issues which was mention in the
present study. The proper planning in reduction of pollution will lead to
significant reduction in GHG. The later will provide a niche for urban poor in
mobility. Effective and efficient municipal solid waste management will
provide environmentally sustainable cities. The mean to achieve waste
management is active involvement of informal sectors and public
participation. The involvement of informal sectors will provide livelihood to
the urban poor. So in nutshell these environmental issues which are not
effective and efficient at the moment will offer mitigation and inclusive
186
growth as well as good environments in Indian cities provided that proper

action can be taken without any further delay.
Conclusion
In order to attain a sustainable inclusive development the country must
concentrated on the environmental issue which currently faced. Today
environmental protection has become just news for magazines and political
parties. They rise up the term environmental protection just to build up their
image. There was no deep knowledge among the new generation regarding
to this matter that is way they take it as simple. There must be a need of
entering environmental protection into each and every citizen genuinely. To
achieve the objective of inclusive growth with environmental sustainability it
is necessary to establish a solid action for managing these environmental
issues. Other wise we want to face the consequences which was give by the
nature which was still in front of us.
References
 Abul, Salam (2010): Environmental and Health Impact of Solid Waste
Disposal a Mangwaneni Dumpsite in Manzini: Swaziland. Journal of
Sustainable Development in Africa, Volume 12, No. 7, pp.64-78).
 Ajit Kumar Jain, I.A.S is Senior Advisor, Solid Waste Management Cell, All
India Institute of Local Self-Government (AIILSG), Sthanikraj Bhavan, C. D.
Barfiwala Marg, Andheri (West), Mumbai - 400 058 (India).
 Economic Survey 2011-12, (2012) Ministry of Finance, Department of
Economic Affairs, Government of India, oxford publication
 Hans Wiesmeth (2012) Environmental Economics, Theory and Policy in
Equilibrium
 Keshava S R (2006), “Urbanization and solid waste management in
Bangalore: growth option and challenges” ‟Environmental Issues of
Development” edited by Ganesh Kawadia and Kanhaiya Ahuja. Ambala
Cantt., the Associated Pub., New Delhi 2006, 470 p. ISBN 81-8429-038-1
 Kanchan Chopra and Vikram Dayal (2009) Hand Book of Environmental
Economics in India, Oxford University Press
 Mahendra Dev S. (2008), “Inclusive growth in India-agriculture, poverty and
human development”, New Delhi, oxford university press.
 Ministry of statistics and Government of India 2004- 2012
187
 Murty, M.N., James, A.J., Misra, Smita, 1999. Economics of Water Pollution:
The Indian Experience. Oxford University Press, New Delhi.
 Murty, M.N. and U.R. Prasad (1999) ‘Emissions Reduction and Infl uence of
Local Communities in India’, in M.N. Murty, A.J. James, and Smita Misra
(eds), Economics of Industrial Pollution Abatement: Theory and Empirical
Evidence from the Indian Experience, Oxford University Press, Delhi.
 Planning Commission, Govt of India (2001) : Approach to Tenth Five Year
Plan, 2002-7, Planning Commission, New Delhi.
 Roumasset, J., K. Burnett, and H. Wang. 2007. Environmental Resources and
Economic Growth, Chapter 8 in China’s Economic Transition: Origins,
Mechanism, and Consequences, Cambridge University Press.
 Rajaram, T. and A. Das (2008), ‘Water Pollution by Industrial Effluent in
India: Discharge Scenarios and Case for Participatory Ecosystem Specifi c
Local Regulation’, Futures, Vol. 40, pp. 56–69.
 Shankar, U. (2000), Environmental Economics, Reader in Economics, Oxford
University Press, Oxford India Paperback 4th impression 2004.
 Scott Callan, Janet Thomas (2010) Environmental Economics, Applications,
Policy, and Theory, International Edition
 Tandon B B and Vasudeva P K (2010) “Inclusive growth and Sustainable
development, Ideal for Indian Economy” pp 70-79
 Udai Prakash Sinha (2011) Sustainable resource Development policy,
Problems and Prescription pp 57-73
 Various Years census reports
 William P Cuminghan and Mary Ann . Cuminghan “Principle of
environmental science inquiry and application” published Tata McGraw
Hills. New Delhi, 2004.
 WHO (1992) “Report of the panel on urbanization of the WHO commission
on health and environment” Geneva, World Health Organization.
 www.indiastat.com
188
14
Gender Disparities in Karnataka: Need for an Effective
Inclusive Policy for Women Empowerment
Nagaraj M. Muggur
Abstract
Women are in a disadvantageous position when compared to men in
terms of access to education, resources and employment opportunities.
Despite several initiatives, gender disparities in social and economic domains
are still remained deep and persistent across India. Disparities between men
and women in population growth, literacy level, sex ratio, workforce and
political participation and economic status is very much evident when these
two genders are compared. This means that political and economic
leadership is not equally shared, which leads to gender disparities in the
enjoyment of benefits from economic and social development. In this paper,
an attempt is made to analyze the prevalence of gender disparities in
Karnataka using various indicators based on the secondary data. It was
observed that the gender based disparities have remained the most prevalent
189
across districts and the State with respect to sex ratio, literacy level,
enrollment in higher education, workforce, wage rate, political participation
etc,. Therefore, effective inclusive policies are essential for women to achieve
the goal of women’s empowerment.
I. Introduction:
Gender inequality continues to be a persistent phenomenon in India
and it excludes women from the development process. The available
secondary data clearly indicates that women are lagging behind men in work
participation, asset possessions, social statuses, employment opportunities
and resource accessibility. According to Census 2001 data, in urban areas
total population of workers was 92.28 million, of which only 16.10 million are
females. In rural areas, out of 310 million, 111 million are females. Around 43
per cent of the rural female working population is involved as wage
labourers in agricultural activities. In India, only 54 per cent women are
literate as compared to 76 per cent men. As per NSSO (2005-06) data, the
workforce participation rate of women in rural areas was 31 per cent while
that for men was 54.9. In urban sector, it is 14.3 for women and 54 per cent for
men. Women are also getting lower wages than men doing the same work in
agricultural activities. Average wage received per day by women was Rs. 54
and Rs. 71 for men in agricultural activities (GoI, 2010). This indicates clear
gender divide in labour force participation rate. Women are denied rights in
ownership and control of land and a few have direct access to land in their
own right. In India, landownership by women is not more than 2 per cent
(Agarwal, 1994). On the other hand, women are also victims of the crime in
the form of torture, molestation, rape etc. As per the data of National Crime
Records Bureau (2008), among the crimes committed against women, torture
by husband and relatives shares the highest percentage (41.5 per cent),
followed by molestation (20.6 per cent), 11.7 per cent of kidnapping and
abduction, 11 per cent cases are that of rape, 6.2 per cent cases are of sexual
harassment, 4.2 per cent of dowry deaths and around 5 per cent cases are
abduction, immoral trafficking etc,. Gender disparities in the form of adverse
sex ratio, wage differentials and various health and education dimensions are
still prevalent across the country. Therefore, promotion of gender equality
and women's empowerment assumes greater significance in the
190
contemporary society. In this background, the paper aims (i) to analyses the
trends in gender disparity in Karnataka over a period of time; (ii) to describe
the performance of programmes/schemes for the empowerment of women,
and (iii) suggest the inclusive policies for the empowerment of women. The
research paper is based on the secondary sources of information.
II. Many Faces of Gender Disparity:
Gender inequality exists in every country and has many distinct and
dissimilar faces. According to Nobel Laureate and noted economist Amartya
Sen (2001), gender inequality is not a homogenous phenomenon but a collection of
disparate and inter-linked problems. Amratya Sen in his work on ‘theory of the
household’ explains the seven types of inequalities faced by women.
Disparity between men and women is not everywhere the same. Sen’s ‘Many
faces of Gender Disparity’, as illustrated in the below clearly indicates that
family is the basic unit in the society and the first organization that human
beings belong, therefore whatever happens in it, it is automatically
transferred to the society. Prof Sen argues that the relationship between
members in the family is defined and determined according to their genders.
Many faces of Gender Disparity
Type of Nature
inequal
ity
Mortali High rates of death for women, subsequent higher numbers of
ty men. Mortality inequality has been observed extensively in North
1
inequal Africa and in Asia, including China and South Asia.
ity
Boy preference. Especially common with possibility of sex-
Natalit selective abortion, East Asia, China, S. Korea, also Singapore,
y Taiwan, India, S. Asia. Given a preference for boys over girls that
2
inequal many male-dominated societies have gender inequality can
ity manifest itself in the form of the parents wanting the newborn to
be a boy rather than a girl.
Separate but equal. Girls have inferior schools, less access to
Basic resources. Where girls have far less opportunity of schooling than
facility boys do. There are other deficiencies in basic facilities available to
3
inequal women, varying from encouragement to cultivate one's natural
ity talents to fair participation in rewarding social functions of the
community.
191
Special Reduced access for women to special opportunities like higher

opport education. Even when there is relatively little difference in basic
4 unity facilities including schooling, the opportunities of higher
inequal education may be far fewer for young women than for young
ity men.
In terms of employment as well as promotion in work and
Professi
occupation, women often face greater handicap than men.
onal
5 Employment and occupation seems to be much more problematic
inequal
for women than for men. Workplace barriers, low wages, old boys
ity
network, sexual harassment, working hours etc
In many societies, the ownership of property can also be very
Owners
unequal. Even basic assets such as homes and land may be very
hip
6 asymmetrically shared. property ownership differs for men and
inequal
women. Europe, U.S., India, women historically prohibited from
ity
owning property.
Househ Inequality within the household, differentiation of wage work and
old family work. Men will naturally work outside the home, women
7
inequal could do it if and only if they could combine it with various
ity inescapable and unequally shared household duties.
Source: Sen, Amartya (2001a) and Sen, Amartya (2001b).
III. Gender Disparity in Karnataka:

Gender disparities have remained widespread and persistent in India.
The female disadvantage is evident in India from the Census Reports with
respect to constantly declining sex ratio, lower literacy rate of females than
males and lower participation of women than men in the work force, e.g. the
sex ratio declined from 972 in 1901 to 968 in 2011. The male literacy rate for
2011 was 83 per cent compared with 68 per cent for females. In the same year
the work participation rates for males and females were 52 and 26 per cent,
respectively. On the other hand, India ranks 126 in the list of 177 countries with
the gender related development index (GDI) value of 0.591, showing that
women in the country suffer the double deprivation of gender disparity and
low achievement (UNDP, 2006). A GDI value of 1.00 indicates a maximum
achievement in basic capabilities without any gender bias. With respect to
Karnataka shows the inequalities between male and female in many indices.
Gender disparities in the form of adverse sex ratio, wage differentials and
various health and education dimensions are still prevalent in the State. Sex
192
Ratio is a sensitive indicator that displays the status of women. It can be

observed inequalities in both sex ratio and child sex ratio also. Child sex ratio
is the number of females per thousand males in human population between
age group 0–6 years. The sex ratio among children was found at 949 females
for 1000 males. Average daily wage for casual workers of females in both
urban and rural areas were low. Wages for men and women were around
Rs. 97 and Rs 63 in rural areas and Rs. 123 and Rs. 68 in urban areas. The
wage gap between men and women was Rs. 34 and Rs. 55 in rural and urban
areas, respectively. The women are lagging behind men in the political
participation also. According to 2008 the share of women in the assembly of
Karnataka is just one per cent in the total of 224 legislatures. It has been clear
in the table-1.
Table 1: Gender Inequality at a Glance in Karnataka

Karnataka
Indicators
Male Female
Population 2011 Census ( in 000s) 31058 30073
Sex Ratio (Census 2011) 1000 968
Literacy Rate (%) (2011 census) 82.85 68.13
Rural Literacy rate (2011 census) 77.92 59.6
Urban literacy rate (2011 census) 90.54 81.71
Total labour participation rate (2010) 61.4 30.4
Total work Participation rate (2010) 60.7 30.1
Unemployment rate Rural (2010) 3.9 4.1
Unemployment rate Urban (2010) 4.4 6
Average wage regular workers (2010) in Rs. 361.56 231.25
Average wage casual Rural labourers (2010) in Rs. 96.91 62.77
Average wage casual Urban labourers (2010) in Rs. 123.03 67.88
Incidence of Anemia (%) (2008) 19 15
Elected Representatives (GP) (%) (2008) 55.7 44.3
Elected Representatives (ZP) (%) (2008) 61.9 38.1
MLA’s (2008 elections) (nos) (2008) 221 3
Sources: Census of India & Govt. of Karnataka various reports
193
Disparity in Population Growth:

Measuring the gender disparity in population is also important
component as it shows various manifestation of the lower position of women
through various indices. The decennial census provides us with a lot of data
that throws light to the nature of gender disparity in the country. We are
examining the decade wise population of men and women over a period of
time from 1901 to 2011 as per census of India. Table-2 provides the
information about changes in the population across census periods. It is
evident from the table that growth of female percentages as decade wise in
Karnataka has slightly declined from 1901 to 2011, but it is crossed 50 percent
total population of Karnataka on 1971 and as same in GDI over a period. On
the other hand, the percentage of the gender wise population in India is
almost all restrained from beginning 1901 to 2011 and comedown very
significantly. It shows that gender disparity at national level in population is
higher than that Karnataka. Based on this we may concluded that gender
disparity is almost similar in the state as well as country.
Table 2: Changes in Composition of Population (%) in India and

Karnataka
Census Karnataka Gender India Gender
Years Male Female Gap Male Female Gap
1901 50.42 49.58 0.84 50.71 49.29 1.42
1911 50.48 49.52 0.96 50.93 49.07 1.86
1921 50.78 49.22 1.56 51.24 48.92 2.32
1931 50.88 49.12 1.76 51.29 48.71 2.58
1941 51.02 48.98 2.04 51.4 48.57 2.83
1951 50.86 49.14 1.72 51.4 48.6 2.8
1961 51.05 48.95 2.1 51.53 48.47 3.06
1971 49.73 50.27 -0.54 51.81 48.18 3.63
1981 50.94 49.06 1.88 51.7 48.3 3.4
1991 51.03 48.97 2.06 51.9 48.1 3.8
2001 50.93 49.07 1.86 51.74 48.26 3.48
2011 50.81 49.19 1.62 51.54 48.46 3.08
Source: Census of India (2001-11), GOK (2007) & Radhakrishna. R. (2008)
194
Disparity in Literacy Rate:

Literacy is one of the key socio-economic indicators which helps map
the development path of a country. A common thread in India is the wide
gender disparity in terms of literacy status. Generally, literacy rates are
substantially higher in urban areas than in rural areas in both Karnataka and
India. Gender disparity in literacy is a historical phenomenon and it persists
in all the census periods at Karnataka and all India level. India has recorded a
literacy rate of 74 percent in 2001. In Table-3, the gender wise segregation
reveals that 82.1 percent of the male population is literate whereas a lower
65.5 percent female literacy rate has been recorded and resulting in an
absolute difference of 16.6 percentage points. There is marked gender
disparities in literacy rates as shown by the census of 2001, in which 76.1 per
cent of males are literate as compared to 56.9 per cent of females in Karnataka
(Table-3).
Table 3: Literacy rate in India and Karnataka 1951-2011 (%)

Karnataka India
Year Gender Gender
Persons Male Female Persons Male Female
Gap Gap
1951 19.3 29.1 9.2 19.9 18.3 24.9 7.9 17
1961 29.8 36.1 14.2 21.9 28.3 34.4 12.9 21.5
1971 31.5 48.6 27.8 20.8 34.5 39.5 18.7 20.8
1981 46.2 58.7 33.2 25.5 43.6 56.4 29.8 26.6
1991 56 67.3 44.3 23 52.2 64.1 39.3 24.8
2001 66.6 76.1 56.9 19.2 64.8 75.3 53.7 21.6
2011 75.6 82.9 68.1 14.8 74 82.1 65.5 16.6
Source: Census of India various reports 1951-2011
The data shows that the percentages of literacy rate in Karnataka have
increased after the independence from 1951 to 2011 as 19.3 to 75.6 per cent
respectively. On the other hand at country level percentages has been 18.3 to
74 percent respectively as same during period. It shows that state level
percentages are higher than national percentages in total literacy rate. But
over a period of time the literacy rate was difference in-between male and
female has considerable both in the state and country. It shows that the
gender disparity in literacy rate existed from the beginning so far in the state
195
as well as country. Therefore the gender disparity in literacy affects

negatively on the women empowerment and it creates their low status in the
society.
Disparity in Sex Ratio:

There are more men than women in both India and Karnataka. It is
evident from the Figure-1 that the sex ratio (females per 1000 males) is lower
than 1000 throughout the period 1901 to 2001. The graph shows that female
ratio per 1000 males was quite better during 1901 for Karnataka (983) and
further it has been declined to 965 in 2001. Female mortality was higher than
male mortality is the reason for the sex ratio lower than 1000 in all the census
periods. Karnataka state is better positioned in sex ratio when compare to all
India data. It has been observed marginal improvements in sex ratio during
the periods of 1981 and 2001 in Karnataka.
Figure 1: Sex ratio in India and Karnataka 1901 -2011

Source: various reports of Census of India
Disparity in work participation:

Work Participation Rates (WPRs) provide an idea of the extent of
participation in economic activity by a specific population. The work
participation rate shows to a great extent women’s economic empowerment
in the modern society. Women’s status is intimately connected with their
economic position, which in turn depends on opportunities for participation
196
in various productive activities. Therefore, equal access to economic

participation and decision making capacity is an important aspect of
women’s empowerment. Work participation of females in economic
activities is lower than the males in Karnataka and also across the districts.
The work participation of male and female across the districts of Karnataka is
given in the Table-4. It is evident from the table that the female work
participation rate has increased from 29 per cent in 1991 to 31 per cent in
2001. According to 2001 census, about 56 per cent of the males in Karnataka
participate in the workforce while about 31 per cent of females do so. The
gender disparity gap in the work participation between male and female was
around 25 per cent.
Table 4: Sex wise Work Participation rate (%) of across districts in

Karnataka 1991-2001
1991 2001
G G G G GG
Districts Male Female Gap Rank Male Female Gap Rank
Belgaum 54.4 29.7 24.7 18 55.9 32.7 23.2 14
Bagalkot 52 32.2 19.8 10 53.7 33.3 20.4 9
Bijapur 49.9 31.9 18 5 50.9 28.5 22.4 13
Gulburga 51.2 34.6 16.6 3 51.1 34.9 16.2 2
Bidar 48.8 30.5 18.3 8 47.5 26.2 21.3 12
Raichur 53.3 32.6 20.7 12 52.9 34.7 18.2 4
Koppala 54.1 38.5 15.6 2 53.7 38.9 14.8 1
Gadag 53.1 36.3 16.8 4 56.2 37.7 18.5 5
Dharwad 52.2 25 27.2 23 56 28.6 27.4 22
Uttara kannada 53.3 23.7 29.6 24 57.6 27.8 29.8 24
Haveri 55 31.6 23.4 13 58.2 33.7 24.5 15
Bellary 53.6 35.5 18.1 7 54.6 35.9 18.7 6
Chitradurga 54.4 34.6 19.8 10 57 37.7 19.3 8
Davanagere 54 30.2 23.8 17 56.7 30.1 26.6 19
Shimoga 55.1 24.4 30.7 25 58.7 28 30.7 26
Udupi 49.4 31.3 18.1 6 55.1 33.9 21.2 11
Chikkamanagalur 57.5 32.1 25.4 20 59.4 30.9 28.5 23
Tumkur 56.9 38.1 18.8 9 60.2 41.3 18.9 7
Kolar 55 31.4 23.6 15 58.1 31 27.1 20
Bangalore Urban 53.3 13.2 40.1 28 58 18.7 39.3 28
197
Banagalore Rural 56.1 29.2 26.9 22 59.6 34.7 24.9 17

Mandya 57.5 31 26.5 21 61.2 33.9 27.3 21
Hasan 56.1 32.4 23.7 16 60.8 39.7 21.1 10
D Kannada 53.1 37.6 15.5 1 58.2 41.7 16.5 3
Kodagu 58.7 35.3 23.4 14 60.9 36.2 24.7 16
Mysore 55.9 20.8 35.1 27 58.2 25.3 32.9 27
Chamarajnagar 59.7 27.3 32.4 26 61.4 31.1 30.3 25
Karanataka 54.01 29.04 24.97 19 56.09 31.09 25 18
Source: Census of India 1991-2001, Karnataka Human development report-
2005
Note: G Gap - Gender Gap, GG Rank – Gender Gap Rank
The reason is that around 70 per cent of the population is living in rural India
and more than 65 per cent of them mainly depend upon the agriculture. Over
a period of time, the population dependence on agriculture has declined in
the country due to technology intervention in the agriculture. The modern
agriculture farming starts to reduce the manual labour, particularly female
workforce in the farming activities.
IV. Programmes for Women Empowerment in Karnataka:

After the independence the Government of India has made
Empowerment of Women as one of the principal objectives of the Ninth Five
Year Plan (1997-2002) and the year 2001 was celebrated as the ‘Year of
Women's Empowerment’. These issues of gender equality are discussed in
various academic forums and our Constitution has conferred and guaranteed
equality before law, universal adult franchise and equal opportunities for
men and women as fundamental rights. In order to give a boost to
empowerment of women and suitable institutional mechanisms and
interventions have been intentionally built into the development plan.
Separate institutions for women and child development, departments at the
Central and State levels, creation of the National Commission for Women
and also State Commission for Women in several States are some of the
important developments for the betterment and prosperity of women. The
launching of Rashtriya Mahila Kosh, Indira Mahila Yojana, Mahila Samridhi
Yojana, reserving of one third of the number of seats in Panchayats and the
198
local bodies are programmes launched with a view to improve and empower
women socially, economically and in political frontiers.
In the recent years, the empowerment of women has been recognized
as the central issue in determining the status of women and the Government
of Karnataka has implemented so many programmes/schemes for women
empowerment through various agencies as follows.
Formation of Stree Shakti Self Help Groups (SHGs):

Formation of SHGs and distribution of micro finance under Stree Shakti
(Women power) is launched by Government of Karnataka in 2000. The
scheme emphasizes women development and empowerment by forming
SHGs. The aim of the project is to empower women economically and
socially by organizing them in self help groups. According to Department of
Women and Child Development (2010), at present 1.40 lakh self help groups
have been formed in the state. Around 21 lakh women members have been
organized in these groups till January 2010, and the members have saved an
amount of Rs. 835.25 crores. A total of 1.24 lakh groups have availed bank
loans to the extent of Rs.1125.59 crores and internal loan of Rs. 1906.00
crores to take up various income generating activities. The details about on
the number of SHGs are functioning in Karnataka is shown in the Table-5
Table 5: SHGs-promoting institutions in Karnataka

No. of
Programme Sponsored by SHGs
promoted
Implemented by the Karnataka State Women’s
Swashakti Development Corporation with IFAD-World Bank 2139
assistance
Stree Shakti Implemented by the state government under the 100000
Department of Women and Child Development
Implemented by the Department of Watershed
SUJALA 1171
Development with World Bank assistance
Implemented by the Karnataka Watershed Development
KAWAD 1013
Society with DFID assistance
DPAP 4795
DDP Drought Prone Areas Programme (DPAP),Desert 3220
Development Programme (DDP),Integrated Watershed
IWDP 1290
199
WGDP Development Programme (IWDP),Western Ghats 1075

Development Programme(WGDP),National Wastelands
Development Programme (NWDP) (These programmes
NWDP are managed by the Watershed Development Department 2840
and implemented through the zilla panchayats. Funds are
provided by the state and Central Government.)
Karnataka Urban Development and Coastal Environment
Management Project (KUDCEMP) Implemented through
KUDCEMP 3200
Karnataka Urban Infrastructure Development and
Finance Corporation (KUIDFC) with Asian Development
Bank assistance.
Swarnajayanti Gram Swarozgar Yojana (SGSY) Bank
SGSY loans to SHGs accompanied by state and Central Govt. 6896
subsidy
NABARD SHGs promoted by Regional Rural Banks with
3044
(SHGs) NABARD support for capacity building
NABARD SHGs promoted by Commercial Banks with NABARD
21
(SHGs) support for capacity building
SHGs Promoted by DCC Banks and Co- Operatives 34881
Promoted by Non- Government Organizations
30000
SHGs (approximate number)
Total SHGs promoted 195585
Sources: Karnataka Human Development Report, 2005 pp-297-293
Today numbers of programmers were implemented by Indian government

as well as state government of Karnataka regarding the issue of
empowerment of women. It has been clear in the below table-6. As per the
said all schemes were identified and implement for onside of empowerment
as well as in other side promoting of gender equality. The scheme Shree
Shakti emphasizes women development and empowerment by forming
SHGs to empowering economically and socially by organizing them in self
help groups. The southern region SHGs bank linkage first began, with three
states (Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, and Karnataka) the top three in the
country. The south region accounts for 54% of SHGs 75% of bank credit.
Table 6: Progress of Women Empowerment Programmes
Programmes Objectives Achievement
Stree Shakti women 1.40 lakh SHGs formed in the state. 21 lakh women
200
(2000) development & members organized 2010, and saved Rs. 835.25 crores.
empowerment A total of 1,24,008 groups have availed bank loans to
form SHGs extent of Rs.1125.59 crores and internal loan of Rs.
1906.00 crores to take up various income generating
activities
Assist women 172 Santhwana Centres are functioning in the state.

victims of domestic The scheme is implemented in 30 district and also
Santhwana violence in 142 taluks. During the year 2012-13, budget of
(2000) Rs.700.00 lakhs has been allocated.
monitor the scheme
Karnataka allocation of funds In 2012-13, 25 departments identified 230 schemes.
Mahila for women namely Total outlay of Rs. 10221.21 crores, 1/3rd allocation
Abhivyudhi and to ensure for women is Rs.3789.98 crores, of which an amount
Yojane (2003) gender equality of Rs 2737.36 crores was incurred in December 2012
76 Working Women's Hostels have sanctioned, of
Safe and affordable
Working which 66 hostels functioning. An amount of Rs.
accommodation to
Women's 15.60 lakhs has been allocated for State end of January
working women
Hostels (2000) 2010
Financial During 2011-12 Rs.64.92 lakhs was allocated, out of
Financial assistance
Assistance to which Rs.29.28 lakhs have spent in 2012, against the
to women law
Women Law release of Rs.37.63 lakhs, benefiting 144 beneficiaries.
graduates
Graduates The scheme is closed 2012-13
awareness
Special Cell for regarding practice
Eradication of of various social Awareness programmes are conducted in the districts
Social Evils evils in co-ordination with NGOs
Effective March 2012, 7899 cases have been regeistered under

implementation, the Act. 31 Swadhar Centres, 30 Short Stay Homes
Protection of Protection Women and 93 Santhwana Centres are notified as Shelter
Women from from Domestic Homes in the state. In addition to this, 116 NGOs
Domestic Violence Rules notified tp Service Provide. Rs.553.00 lakhs allocated
Violence (2007) 2012-13.
Karnataka Rs. 10,000/- is given to widows for their remarriage
Avoid illegal
Marriage Act, and for marriage of devadasis, and families BPL.
marriages
1976 (2004)
SWADHAR –
providing holistic
A scheme for The scheme is implemented through voluntary
and integrated
women in organizations including Department of Women and
services to
difficult Child Development and Social Welfare, Boards, State
women in difficult
circumstances Women's Development Corporation, urban bodies
201
circumstances etc., The scheme supports helpline for women in

distress, counselling centre, training centre and
medical centre. 34 swadhar canters are functioning in
the State.
Scheme for Awareness camps 90% grants is sanctioned by the Government of India
Prevention of about the ill effects and 10% grants is borne by the organisation.
Alcoholism of drugs and Government of India has sanctioned 31 de-addiction
and Substance alcohol de- cum rehabilitation centres, out of which 30 are
(Drugs) Abuse addiction camps functioning in the state.
Promote birth of
girl children in
Bhagyalakshmi The scheme insurance-e covers 55,000 girl children
BPL families, to
Scheme(2006- born into below poverty line (BPL) families in the
raise the status of
07) State.
the girl child in
family and society
And the Santhwana Scheme has assisting women who are victims of
domestic violence, rape, sexual abuse and dowry harassment cases to
providing legal assistance, temporary shelter, financial relief and training to
enable them to be self-reliant and also to achieve social and economic
empowerment. Karnataka Mahila Abhivyudhi Yojane (KMAY) scheme
has monitoring for inter- sectoral allocation of funds for women namely, it
one of the main state government scheme to ensuring gender equality and
positive attempt was made to address gender issues. In the present days
education and work participation rate concerned women more participating
therefore the government has made an another step of introduced the
Working Women's Hostels Scheme, it has envisaged provision of safe and
affordable accommodation to working women, women being trained for
employment and girl students studying in professional courses. In the
meanwhile, the government has given Financial Assistance to Women Law
Graduates for further encouragement of women higher education. For
effective implementation of Protection of Women from Domestic Violence
Rules in 2006 came into force the Act implemented in the state June-2007.
Department of women and child development in co-ordination with Legal
Services Authority are conducting legal literacy camps at hoblis levels in all
the districts of Karnataka to create awareness among the public regarding
various acts like Child Marriage Prohibition Act, Dowry Prohibition Act,
202
Protection of Women from Domestic Violence Act, etc. The Karnataka

Marriage Act, 1976 was brought into force in state on 2004 and the state rules
were notified on 18.4.2006 to avoid illegal marriages and in the same scheme
where provided financial assistance of Rs. 10,000/- is given to widows
remarriage and also for marriage of devadasis, who belong to families living
BPL. SWADHAR for Women in Difficult Circumstances scheme
providing holistic and integrated services to women in difficult
circumstances such as destitute widows, women prisoners released from jail
and without family support, women survivors of natural disasters; trafficked
women/girls rescued from brothels or other places or victims of sexual
crime, mentally challenged women who are without any support etc. The
package of services made available include provision for food, clothing,
shelter, health care, counseling and legal support, social and economic
rehabilitation through education, awareness generation , skill up
gradation. The scheme is implemented through voluntary organizations
including Department of Women and Child Development and Social
Welfare, Boards, State Women's Development Corporation, urban bodies etc.,
provided they have the required experience and expertise in the
rehabilitation of such women. The scheme also supports a helpline for
women in distress, counseling centre, training centre and medical centre. The
Scheme for Prevention of Alcoholism and Substance (Drugs) Abuse
scheme creating awareness about the ill effects of drugs and alcohol de-
addiction camps, awareness camps are organised for the public were further
boosting of women victims. Recently introduced Bhagyalakshmi Scheme
has one of the main scheme to promoting the birth of girl children in BPL
raise the status of the girl child in the family in particular society in general.
This scheme has financial assistance has providing to the girl child through
her mother/father or natural guardian subject to the fulfillment of certain
conditions. Under the programme, girl child who born after March 31, 2006 is
eligible to get insurance bond of Rs.10,000 in her name and on completion of
18 years, the girl can draw the amount along with interest. Those annual
income of the family less than Rs 17,000 in urban and Rs 12,000 in rural areas
is eligible for to be enrolled under the scheme.
These are all are schemes were making inclusive growth of women
empowerment in the state, in regarding the issues of literacy, sex ratio,
203
higher education, employment, social and economic status improving

women empowerment day by day.
V. Conclusion and Policy Implications:

Prevalence of disparities across gender is a reality in contemporary
society despite many initiatives. The gender wise population growth, literacy
level, sex ratio, working participation and political reservation and economic
status is very low among women than men. To properly address these issues,
effective inclusive policies are required to reduce gender disparity gap
through active participation in economic, social and political spheres. To
achieve gender equality in child sex ratio, it requires awareness and understanding
among parents as female children are equal to male children. Concerted efforts are
needed to emphasize the value of girls and women and to promote equality among
sexes. There is a need to promote education, training and professional development
for women. To ensure the socio-economic development of women, need to
strengthen the systems and processes that facilitated women to take control and claim
ownership of their lives. In this direction, the government should introduce
Information and Communication Technologies (ICTs) for women to enhance their
skills. The ICTs such as radio, television, mobile telephony, computer and internet
can empower women and help them overcome gender inequality by raising
awareness of their social and political status and creating new economic
opportunities. Participatory institution building through self-help groups has been
found to be one of the most effective tools for the empowerment of women in India.
Therefore, there is a need to improve self-employed women’s access to credit under
financial inclusion through expanding micro-credit coverage. Finally, the parents,
society, educational institutions, media and NGOs need to play an important role in
promote gender equality and women empowerment.
References:
 Agarwal,B (1994): A Field of one’s Own Gender and Land Rights in South
Asia, Cambridge University Press UK/New Delhi
 GOI (1951-2001), ‘Census of India’ Directorate of Census Operations, Karnataka
Government of India.
 GOI (2008): Crime in India-2008, National Crime Records Bureau –NCRB Ministry
of Home Affairs (MHA), Government of India.
 GOI (2010): Wage Rates in Rural India-2008-09, Ministry of Labour and
Employment,
 GOK (2000) ‘State Election Commission and RD’ http://karsec.gov.in/#
204
 GOK (2003-04), ‘A Hand Book of Schemes of the

Department of Women and Child Development,’ Directorate of Women and Child
Development, Government of Karnataka.
 GOK (2005) Directorate of Census Operations, Karnataka, Table 3, Sex ratio for
state and districts, Karnataka Human development report 2005, pp-181
 GOK (2007) ‘Karnataka Development report’ Planning Commission Government of
India New Delhi, Published by Academic foundation New Delhi -2007
 GOK (2008): Karnataka-A Vision for Development, Karnataka State Planning
Board, Dec 2008, Bangalore.
 GOK (2009) ‘Department of Women and Child Development’ www.dwcd.kar.nic.in/
 GOK (Various years) ‘Economic Survey of Karnataka 1981-2002’, Planning and
Statistic Department, Government of Karnataka
 NSSO (2005-06): Household Consumer Expenditure, Employment and
Unemployment, Unorganised Manufacturing Enterprises, NSS 62nd Round (July
2005 - June 2006), Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation,
Government of India.
 Radhakrishna. R. (2008) ‘Indian development report 2008’ Indira Gandhi Institute of
development Research, Oxford university press pp – 271
 Sen, Amartya (2001a): The many Faces of Gender Inequality, The New Republic,
Sept 17, 2001, pp. 35-40.
 Sen, Amartya (2001b): Many faces of Gender inequality, Frontline (Magazine), Vol.
18, No. 22, Oct 27-Nov 09, 2001.
 Various issues of NABARD Annual Reports (2000-2006) www.nabard.org
205
15
Challenges of First Generation Students
A .Thiruvenkateswari
Introduction
Higher education in India is defined as education obtained after the
completion of 12 years of schooling. Billson and Terry (1982) defined First
generation college students as those whose parents did not attend college
(journal of college counseling, 2007). A first-generation college student is an
undergraduate whose parent has no college experience. There have always
been first-generation students, but, in the last few decades, this student
population has become a topic drawing the serious attention of faculty,
administrators, and staff within postsecondary education. Research on first-
generation students as they graduate and enroll in higher education
institutions (Ishitani, 2003 and et.al) indicates the following similarities: They
tend to be from low-income families. They are more likely to be female than
male. They tend to be less well prepared academically for college. They
perceive that they are lacking support from those at home, including family
and friends. These factors, alone or in combination with each other, put first-
generation students at a disadvantage before they ever step into campus.
Once their education is underway, these students take on an additional
set of characteristics. Research (Chen, 2005 and et.al) suggests that these
206
students develop the following traits: They have lower first-semester and
first-year grade point average (GPA) than their classmates. They are more
likely to drop out during the first year. They are more likely to attend classes
part-time and work full-time. They tend to experience cultural difficulties in
the transition; they often fell marginalized by both the culture they are
leaving behind and the one that they are joining. They encounter lower
faculty expectations and have lower self-esteem. They are more likely to
enroll in a two-year institution or community college. They are more likely to
leave without a degree.
Coupling these characteristics with those the students might bring
with them from high school and home puts these students at a distinct
disadvantage as they attempt to navigate our campuses and engage in
postsecondary learning.
Keeping the above factors in view, the researcher has made an attempt
to understand the first generation students in SNMV College of Arts and
Science, Coimbatore.
Need for the Education to the first generation students
Education is one of the powerful instruments for reducing poverty and
inequality and for laying the basis for sustained economic growth. Education
is crucial to development as it provides the individual with adequate skill for
participating in various economic activities. Education brings out
improvement in health, hygiene, demographic profile, productivity and
practically connected with the quality of life. Amartya Sen (1992) is of the
opinion that literacy should be seen as one of the basic capabilities which is
constitute of human well being that it is not merely an indicator of social and
economic condition but also the means whereby degrees of freedom can be
exerted over one’s own life, education is considered to be one of the most
sensitive indices of social development, prosperity, harmony and cooperation
in the society (pillai, 2002). In country like India, where caste system is
dominant and traditional occupations has strong root, the poor tend to
remain as poor, since there is no change in the occupational and educational
pattern. There will be transition and growth in economy only when the
children from poor background who are otherwise termed as first generation
students make an attempt to shine in higher education.
207
In this background the researcher selected SNMV College of Arts and

Science to conduct a survey on first generation students with the following
objectives:-
Objectives of the Study
 To understand the socio demographic characteristics of the
respondents
 To find the socio-economic status of the respondents
 To suggest suitable measures to improve the status of respondents
Methodology
In SNMV College of arts and science totally are 602 commerce stream
including B.Com, (Bachelor of Commerce) B.Com (Computer Application),
B.Com (Information Technology), and B.Com (Professional Accounting).
Universe of the study was 602 and among them 209 was found to the first
generation students and the entire population was covered for the present
study. Primary data was collected from the entire 209 first generation
students with the help of a questionnaire. Percentage analysis was applied
for interpreting the data.
Scope of the Study
The finding of the study will be very useful for the concerned
stakeholders of an educational institution to understand the challenges faced
by first generation students and tune-up their strategies for effective results.
This study may also help future researchers to find out the ways and means
to overcome the problems of first generation students at higher education
level. Descriptive design was applied for the present study.
Limitations of the Study
Due to constraint of time, the present study is limited to the students
belonging to bachelor courses in commerce Stream of SNMV College of arts
and science, Coimbatore. Hence the results may not be generalized.
Findings and Analysis:
Table: 1 Total First Generation Students in Commerce
Years First Generation Students Other Students Total
I 90 141 231
II 89 137 226
III 30 115 145
208
Total 209 393 602

Source: Field Survey
Out of 602 B.Com, (Bachelor of Commerce), B.Com (Computer
Application), B.Com (Information Technology) and B.Com (Professional
Accounting) students, majority 65% of them are the students from general
category and 35% are of the first generation students.
FIRST GEERATION STUDENTS
35%
Total students
First generation students
65%

Data was analyzed for age, community, type of family, total family
members, nature of housing, type of housing, education status, host
elite/day scholars, part time earnings, family income, educational loans and
expenditure the results discussed below.
Majority 41 percent of respondents belongs to the age group of 20-21
years. 33 Percent of the respondents are in the age group ranging between
19-20 years, 14 percent of the respondents belong to the age group of 21-22
years and only 12 percent are in the age group of 22-23 years. Highest 50
percent of the respondents belong to backward community, 24 percent
belong to Scheduled community/scheduled tribe and 14 percent belong to
most backward community whereas only 12 percent of the respondents are
from Forward community.
62 percent of the respondents are from nuclear family and only 38
percent of the respondent lives in joint families. More than half of the
respondents i.e. 56 percent come from a family size of five to seven
memmers and only 12 percent of the respondents’ family size is above 7
members.55 percent of the respondents are residing in pucca houses, 41
209
percent of the respondents live in thatched houses. Only 4 percent of the

students are residing in the katcha houses. Though majority of the students
(54 percent) living in own houses and only 46 percent of the students are
living are living in rented houses.
Highest number of students is doing their graduation in Bachelor
of Commerce, Bachelor of Commerce with Computer Application. Majority
are day’s scholars. Students are fully dependent on parents, 37 % earn
through par time jobs. Most of the respondents wish to go for jobs after
completing UG course.
Majority (47 percent) of the respondents family members have a
monthly income rage of rupees 5001 to 10,000, 32 percent of the
respondents family members have a monthly income rage of rupees 10,001
to 15,000 and only 10 percent of the respondent family members have a
monthly income in the rage of above 15,000 Rupees. The present study
highlights that 72 percent of the respondents did not have education debt
burden and Only 28 percent have educational loans.
For 50 percent of the respondents the amount of debt ranges
between rupees50001 and 10,000, for 29 percent of the respondents the debt
ranges between rupees above 10,001, Only for 21 percent the debt ranges up
to 5,000. For more than half of the respondents (57 percent) the main source
of loan is money lenders, for 34 percent the source of loan is chit fund with
friends and relatives, for 9 percent the sources is private bank. 40 percent of
the respondents are paying the rate of interest from 6 to 10 percent, 31
percent be paying above 10 percent and only above 29 percent are paying
up to 5 percent rate of interest for the loan that they availed for education.
Nearly half (47 percent) of the respondents total monthly
expenditure rage between Rs.4001 and 6000, for 22 percent the total
expenditure rages between rupees 2001 and 4000 and for only 12 percent
the total expenditure is above rupees 6001.
Information on reasons for selecting the college reveals that it is
due to good reputation and popularity. Few said it is due to the flexible
college time as it gives opportunity to take part time job. Few students
opined that they joined in SNMV CAS for better infrastructural facilities,
good education, low fees, extra courses like CS,CA, placement facility and
210
accessibility to home that are the main reasons for their motivation and
interest in selecting this college.
Conclusion
From the research investigation and observation it is understood that
the first generation students of SNMV CAS undergo, lack of parental
experiences in higher education, lack of ability to persist, lack of cultural
capital and lack of ability to accomplish academic programs, economic
demands as some of the challenges for first generation students in the
college. They can overcome this by developing self-confidence and taking
additional efforts. It is concluded that the stakeholders of the educational
institutions can extend their support whole heartedly bringing light to the
lives of first generation students by giving extra care and attention. Further,
these students may be referred to the Svastika student counseling cell that is
functional with professional social worker within the college campus for the
guidance and support of the students. Economic support should be rendered
to first generation students. Provision of motivational support to the student.
In order to create an enthusiastic environment, the members of the family
could avoid creating emotional stressors to the student by sharing their
family problems.
References
 Gretchenrae Callanta & Adam J (2009). The First-Generation Student Journey:
Dismantling Obstacles to Success. The Vermont Connection 2009 Volume 30 pp
73 to 85.
 Thayer. P (2000). Retention of students from first generation and low income back-
grounds. Washington D.C.: Department of Education. (ERIC Document Re-
production Service No. ED 446 633).
 Somers. P Woodhouse. S & Cofer.J(2004). Pushing the boulder uphill: The
persistence of first-generation college students. NASPA Journal, 41(3), pp418-
435.
 Terenzini, P., Springer, L., Yaeger, P., Pascarella, E., & Nora, A. (1996). First-
generationcollege students: Characteristics, experiences, and cognitive
development. Research in Higher Education, 37, pp1–22.
 Terenzini. P and et.al (1996). First-generationcollege students: Characteristics,
experiences, and cognitive development. Researchin Higher Education, 37,
pp1–22.
211
16
Career Opportunities in Agribusiness Management
H. M. Chandrashekar
Abstract
Agriculture plays a dominant role in the economy of a nation. Hence,
the growing need for professional manpower to execute various functions in
the agricultural sector has evoked the importance of agribusiness
development and management courses. Agribusiness encompasses complex
system of input sector, production sector, processing & manufacturing sector
and transport & marketing sector. It is dependent upon the harmonious
relationship with various segments of the society. The process of developing
this mutual relationship between agribusiness farms and various interest
groups begins by acknowledging the existence of the responsibilities of
managers. These responsibilities are towards consumers, suppliers,
distributors, workers, financiers, government and the society. In the era of
Globalization major structural reforms are taking place in the Agricultural
sector. India is on the threshold of Green revolution. Commercialization of
Agriculture, Animal husbandry, Dairying, Fisheries and allied sectors are
taking place at a faster pace in the country. National Agriculture Policy,
agricultural reforms like public private partnerships, market lead extension
programmes and agricultural technology management programmes envisage
market centered production programmes in agriculture and allied sectors to
attain sustainability.This article tries to make the aware about the importance
and potential in Agri-business management which could also be a best
212
option in career progress. Agribusiness Management surely helps in

developing trained personnel to cater to the agriculture industry and by
creating such dynamic workforce. India will certainly become the leader in
agribusiness sector. The purpose of this article is to make the farmers aware
about the importance of agribusiness education so as to sustain in today’s
competitive world.
Introduction:
India is an agrarian economy and agriculture is considered as the
backbone of our economy. In India, Agriculture has been practiced since
ancient times, when other developmental sectors were not even in existence
and farming was mostly treated as a life sustaining activity. India, the
country which was a net importer of food grains in early 60s, has become
an intermittent exporter of various agricultural commodities. Today,
agriculture field has achieved commercial importance and has tremendous
potential of being one of the powerful sectors contributing to nation’s GDP.
Due to the impact of globalization; production and marketing have become
the buzz words in agriculture sector; biotechnology, precision farming; and
various hi-tech and mechanized techniques have resulted in paradigm shift
in agriculture. Besides government’s special emphasis on privatization,
public private partnership, farmer organizations too have contributed to
the agricultural growth.
Over and above, education plays a prime role in achieving the
development in any sector. Currently, agribusiness education is one of the
promising qualifications helps to mould the personnel in to potent
managers having managerial expertise. To realize the real potential in
Indian agriculture and to grow it to the point of a prospective sector, it is
necessity to manage the sector like a professional enterprise. The same can
be expected by utilizing the agri-business managers having the qualities to
serve the agriculture sector efficiently.
Conventional education in agriculture:

In India, education system in agriculture started in early nineteenth
century and today its education, research & training sectors are globally
recognized for its quality. The agriculture degree course contains various
213
subjects related to technical as well as professional background like

extension, entomology, animal husbandry, engineering, statistics,
biotechnology, and many more which helps students in widening their
sectoral knowledge. Apart from these; governments as well as various
private bodies offer informative training programmes in diverse areas
which are specially designed for farmers as well as for entrepreneurs.
After graduation; students willing to go for post graduate degree can enroll
either for plain M. Sc. or for agri-business management course. The M. Sc.
Programme is designed to provide technical knowledge along with
analytical techniques, conducting research on interested area, applying
technical knowledge at primary level etc.
Agri-business education:
In Agriculture education system, management field is of very recent
origin and gaining rapid popularity among students. The ABM program is
planned to develop management workforce to cater agricultural Industry
which serves as a good option for the students willing to perform in
corporate sector.
Agribusiness management is a two years course having semester
pattern system. The course itself starts from basic fundamentals like
introduction to management, managerial effectiveness, business
communication, business economics, quantitative techniques, basic
accounting, information systems etc. These help students to be familiar
with fundamental concepts of any business. Along with all these subjects,
agri-business course also comprises of various technical subjects like
management in agricultural and allied food processing industries,
management of cooperatives, post harvest management, farm
mechanization etc. In the final year, program offers elective specializations
like marketing, human resource management, finance, international
business management, information systems which cover the overall
business activities. From these, students can opt for any single stream
which helps them while choosing their career path.
In addition to these many institutes arrange industry visits; organize
guest lectures, management games, business quizzes, CSR activities,
personality development workshops as a part of extra-curricular and co-
214
curricular activities. In addition to theoretical and practical knowledge, the

curriculums also help students in inculcating managerial skills, soft skills
and boosting confidence level which is considered as one of the most
crucial part in personality development, as the Industry always prefer such
type of qualities while recruitment.
Currently, some of the premier institutes providing post graduate
courses in agribusiness management programs are Institute of
Development Studies, University of Mysore, Mysore, MANAGE
(Hyderabad), NIAM (Jaipur), IRMA (Gujarat), IIM (Ahmedabad), besides
these there are several government, semi-government and private institutes
providing the course on full time and correspondence basis. Additionally
various private and government bodies offer entrepreneurship training
programs to undergraduate students through agri-clinics and agri-business
training centers which is a fruitful step for encouraging entrepreneurship in
India.
Need, importance and scope of agribusiness management education:

Agriculture has achieved satisfactory growth since last few decades,
but presently due to the various national and international factors the
agricultural growth is relatively stagnated. The reports from various
sources always reveals about the bottlenecks from the sector which put us
back in terms of its development. The up gradation is needed right from
harvesting the agricultural produce till it reaches at consumer level.
Majority of the farmers and small entrepreneurs are not well-versed about
standard practices required during pre-harvest as well as post-harvest
operations, which undoubtedly plays a vital role in overall productivity.
On other side, too many middlemen in the marketing channel are a major
cause of concern. As a result of this, the farmer, who is the key performer in
farming, is not getting passable returns to his produce. Consequently
overall distortion in marketing channels and high price of final produce
adversely affect on cost competitiveness. In addition to these, growing
global population has resulted into disparity between market demand and
supply side of agricultural produce. Thus special consideration is required
on following proper management practices, reducing raw material
wastages at farm and processing level, effective marketing strategies like
215
advertising, brand positioning at national and international level etc.

Finally, proper management of all the agribusiness activities right from
planting the seed to getting the actual reward at market place is required.
These issues are expected to be addressed by management education in
agricultural sector which certainly has hidden potential of creating second
wave of agricultural revolution.
After completing agribusiness management education, students
become well versed with various management applications required to
follow while running any type of business. The curriculum is the
combination of management and technical subjects which offer the
advantage of promptly making out any type of slip-ups in the business
operations. The specializations of marketing, human resource management,
finance, and international business management certainly help them in
growing in the industry successfully. The marketing stream deals with
following innovative selling and advertising strategies effectively and
efficiently so as to sustain, finance related to carry the business operations
economically by planning the income and expenditure in advance and
solving the financial problems as well , human resource management
educate them about how to retain and utilize the manpower effectively by
giving best services, while international business management helps in
growing the business globally which mainly involve in knowing about
various procedures required for the same. These can be just stated as
foretaste; in actual the content gives a deep knowledge about the subject.
While perusing the program students also study on solving various kinds
of case studies which surely give them experience of involving and solving
the various kinds of business matters. The students are also obliged to
undergo a summer project for two months in the respective industry which
gives them exposure of working practically in the industry and surely
helps in boosting their confidence level.
As a seqele to GATT and ASEAN agreement, in order to exploit the
potentials of market access like export, cutting edge technologies in the areas
of value addition, food safety, packaging, quality control, HACCP, etc are
needed. Moreover food security issues are emerging over the globe. For
achieving the above envisaged objectives, technocrats endowed with relevant
management skills and experience are essential. This paved the way for
216
starting the programmes like Agri Business Management for Agricultural

graduates. Critical management and entrepreneurial competencies enable
them to own and manage Agri-business enterprises of global standards.
Agribusiness management is one of the courses having more career potential
within the country and abroad. Commercialization of agriculture and allied
activities pave way for experts in Agri Business Management to acquire
better jobs in this sector. Supply chain management and logistics
management are some of career oriented courses. Institute of Development
Studies, University of Mysore, Mysore is one of premier institutes offering
MBA in Agribusiness.
Recently Prime Minister Manmohan Singh emphasized the need for
greater attention to local needs by citing an important modern management
principle of ‘think global and act local’. Logistics could play a key role in
integrating rural and urban divide. A logistics model can provide cost
effective access for rural produce to urban markets. Moreover public private
partnerships will help to address some of the rural development issues. This
further emphasizes the importance of Agri business, supply chain and
logistics management.
Agri business management professionals will have very good
employment potential in Agribusiness industries like food processing,
banking and financial institutions, commodities exchange bureaus, dairy and
animal husbandry sector, meat and meat products, agrochemical sectors,
organic farms, sugar industry, agri informatics, cattle feed industry, export
promotion councils, fruits and vegetable industries, poultry industry, sea
food industry , biotech firms, plantation sector, forestry, ayurvedic industry,
coir industry, horticulture, floriculture, teaching and research.
Commercialization of agriculture calls for specialized production, post-
harvest management, expansion of processing, transportation and packaging
activities and positioning of products both in domestic and international
markets. The need for agri-business management (ABM) programmes both at
under-graduate and post-graduate levels has become important. Now, agri-
business is taught as a separate course in most of the SAUs at the under-
graduate level in various degree programmes.
217
Agri-Business Management
The concept of agribusiness denotes the activities of agricultural sector
integrated in terms of production, processing, marketing and shipments
(exports/imports) under different organisational networks. Agri-business
thus explores production, marketing and trading of products related to
agriculture. It also covers improved growing techniques, agricultural
machinery, fertilizer, pesticides pre- and post- harvest handling, storage,
transportation, packaging and labelling. Critical management issues as
financing and technical assistance, preparation of products for exports,
overseas marketing issues and government policy will also receive attention
in agri-business management.
Scope
There is no doubt that the agri-business activities are on the increase.
The liberalisation policies of the Government and the establishment of WTO
have created more opportunities for globalising our agriculture.
There are clear indications that certain sectors such as floriculture,
aquaculture, poultry, processing of fruits and vegetables are reaping the
benefits of advanced technology. The entrepreneurs or organisation engaged
in such ventures are on the look for competent and trained agribusiness
managers. But, who can provide them the required manpower? Obviously,
the SAUs should take a lead in this direction. The Indian Institutes of
Management (MM) no doubt have the competency and facilities to turnout
such trained personnel. However, their priorities and mandates are different.
Moreover, those trained by IIM rarely go into the agri-business sector. The
time is thus ripe for SAUs to start postgraduate programmes in agri-business
management.
Potential in Agri-business education:
Agribusiness is applicable to industry, commerce as well as trade.
Industry is merely manufacturing of goods, while commerce and trade
involved in distribution activities.
Agriculture is the foundation of Indian economy; it provides food for
the mankind and raw material for the industry. India has suitable climatic
and geographic conditions favorable to agricultural growth and
undoubtedly agriculture will always be an indispensable sector of the
218
economy. In India about 60% population is directly or indirectly dependent

on agriculture. But after analyzing the employment scenario of the sector, it
is observed that most of the students after completing the education in
agriculture ignore their own farming land and join private companies or any
other institutions so as to progress in the career. There is a need to divert the
knowledgeable, expert and dynamic manpower to the rural area to manage
the agricultural land effectively.
The agribusiness education gives an option of joining the agricultural
corporate sector as one of the good career alternatives. The corporate sectors
involved in production and distribution of pesticides, fertilizers, seeds, farm
equipments are some of the usual options available. Now a day there is
excellent job potential in food processing sector; this is a wide area involving
fruits, vegetables, fishery, meat & poultry, dairy, apiculture, sericulture
sector etc. The other blooming sectors which have tremendous growth
opportunities are organic farming, biofertiliser industry, retail sector, Agri-
Banking, Biofuel sector, FMCGs etc. All these sectors are excellent for the
scholars who want to be distinctive in terms of their profession. Another
best option can be developing their own farming land in to profitable
venture by applying the managerial skill plus knowledge and agribusiness
managers can perform well in the same due to their suitable educational
background. To shape the Indian agriculture into a commercially viable
entity, there is vital need to inculcate the spirit of entrepreneurship, and
then only Agriculture can become a major contributor to the nation’s gross
production.
By the involvement of corporate sector, agriculture field can shift
from merely the stage of self sufficiency to profit gaining enterprise which
will result in overall development of the Indian economy. Agri-business
management has wide scope in developing the trained manpower in
different area of operations viz. management personnel to cater cooperatives
and agriculture industry, policy makers for overall financial sector, trained
teaching staff to cater academic field, technically sound team to serve
research area etc. Apart from this agriculture consultancy, journalism, agri-
banking, hi-tech farming, agriculture conservation, agriculture engineering
are also some potential areas of the career.
Career in Agribusiness Management
219
Agriculture is considered as the backbone of our economy. Indian

agriculture contributes approximately 17.50 per cent of the country’s GDP,
provides large scale employment and fulfills the food and nutritional
requirements of the nation. It provides important raw materials for some
major industries. Indian agriculture faces numerous challenges with a
rapidly changing business environment, pace of technological change,
globalization, competitive environment and changing role of government.
Today, agriculture has achieved commercial importance and has changed
from subsistence farming to commercial farming, import oriented to export
oriented, supply driven technology to demand driven technology etc. New
inputs and new technologies are hitting market every day. The market for
processed and packaged food products is increasing day by day and
therefore there is a vital need of trained manpower in this business. Only 14
per cent of total food products are being processed in India, whereas 35 per
cent food is wasted during packaging and transportation. Many businesses
started building up in and around agriculture. This resulted in growth of
Agri – business. Agri – business management is becoming a popular career
choice for agriculture students and there is great need to develop the
professional agribusiness managers who cannot only fill the management
requirements of the changing agriculture scenario but also prove to be a great
support to the farmers. Agri – business education is a qualification that helps
mould the personnel into good managers having managerial expertise
Agribusiness Definition
Agri – business includes all business enterprises that buy from or sell to
farmers. The transaction may involve a product, a commodity or a service
and encompasses items such as:
1. Productive resources e.g. feed, seed, fertilizers equipment, energy,
machinery etc.
2. Agricultural commodities e.g. food and fibre etc.
3. Facilitative services e.g. credit, insurance marketing, storage,
processing, transportation, packing, distribution etc.
Agri – business can also be defined as science and practice of activities
with backward and forward linkage related to production, processing,
marketing and trade, distribution of raw and processed food, feed, fiber
220
including supply of inputs and service for these activities. In a developing

country like India, agri – business system with forward and backward
linkages consists of following four major sectors such as agricultural input,
agricultural production, agricultural processing – manufacturing or agro
processing, and agricultural marketing – distribution sector. These four
sectors act as interrelated parts of a system in which the success of each sector
depends, to a large extent, on the proper functioning of the other sectors.
Thus, agribusiness is all about how to conduct successful business in the food
and agriculture related sectors. Agribusiness management is nothing but the
application of management principles for agriculture.
Need for Agribusiness Education

Commercialization of agriculture calls for specialized production, post –
harvest management, expansion of processing, transportation, packaging
activities and positioning of products both in the domestic as well as
international markets. Every year about 20 – 30 per cent of crop is wasted at
farm level in India due to improper handling, spoilage, floods, droughts,
pests and diseases and lack of knowledge of post – harvest technologies. In
the case of fruits and vegetables, this wastage is around 30 per cent. The
policy of liberalization and the establishment of WTO have created more
opportunities for globalizing agriculture. Certain sectors in India such as
floriculture, aquaculture, poultry, processing of fruits and vegetables are
reaping the benefits of advanced technology. The agribusiness sector
encompasses the many activities of agricultural sector under one umbrella
like integration of agricultural inputs, agricultural productions, agro –
processing and agricultural marketing and trade which add value to the
agriculture produce. Nowadays, agri – business has become one of the most
important fields in the developing country like India to boost up its economy
and taking care of globalization opportunities and challenges. The public,
private and cooperative organizations are looking for professionally
competent and trained agribusiness managers. The State Agricultural
Universities (SAUs) can take a lead in this direction to provide them the
desired manpower. The managerial skills of meritorious agricultural
graduates can be developed by SAUs. So that they can prove as effective
agribusiness managers. There is greater need of agri – business education,
221
research and capacity buildings now, most of the State Agricultural

Universities (SAUs) and other Universities such as University of Mysore are
offering post-graduate programs in agri – business management. Currently,
some of the premier institutes providing post graduate courses in agri –
business management programs areas follows :
 Institute of Development Studies, University of Mysore, Mysore
(Karnataka), www.uni-mysore.ac.in
 National Institute of Agricultural Extension Management (MANAGE),
Rajendranagar (Hyderabad) www.manage.gov.in.
 National Institute of Agricultural – Marketing (NIAM), Jaipur
(Rajasthan) – www.niam.gov.in.
 Institute of Rural Management Anand (IRMA) (Gujarat) –
www.irrha.ac.in.
 Indian Institute of Management (IIM), Vastrapur (Ahmedabad) –
www.iimahd.ernet.in.
 Indian Institute of Management (IIM), Prabandh Nagar (Lucknow) –
www.iiml.ac.in.
Eligibility
A background in agriculture and allied sectors (dairying, food,
agriculture engineering, forestry etc.) is the first step towards entering agri –
business management course. Students who have Bachelor’s degree in
agriculture or allied sectors from any recognized institutes or a university are
preferred. And Bachelor’s degree in Agricultural Sciences, Commerce,
Business management and Economics.
Agri – Business Curriculum

In the present time, many management institutes and agricultural
universities in India have been conducting courses in agri – business
management.
The curricula are definitely different in different institutions. However,
the following are some of the courses that are usually studied in agribusiness
education.
The subjects like Agri – business environment & policy, Business laws
and ethics, Basic Computer Skills, Communication for Management &
222
Business, Human Resource Management, Financial Management,

Management Information System, Managerial Economics, Managerial
Accounting and Control, Marketing Management, Operations Research,
Organizational Behaviour, Production and Operations Management, Project
Management, Research Methodology etc. along with electives subjects like :
Agri – business Financial Management, Agricultural Marketing
Management, Agri – Supply Chain Management, Farm Business
Management, Farm Power & Machinery Management, Feed Business
Management, Fertilizer Technology & Management, Food Retail
Management, Food Technology & Processing Management, Fruit Production
& Post Harvest Management, International Trade & Sustainability
Governance, Management of Agribusiness Co – operatives, Management of
Agri – Input Industry, Management of Agro – Chemical Industry,
Management of Floriculture and Landscaping, Management of Veterinary –
Pharmaceutical Industry, Management of Dairy Industry, Management of
Fisheries, Poultry and Hatchery Management, Rural Marketing, Seed
Production Technology Management etc. are among the many key areas
which are focused on in the course.
Agribusiness Job Opportunities

Almost all the institutes get good placements. Today agribusiness job
opportunities are available in sectors like warehousing, retail sector, seed
companies, pesticide companies, fertilizer companies, finance services, banks,
insurance sector etc. Agri – business management has wide scope in
developing the trained manpower in different areas of operation viz.,
management personnel to cater to cooperatives and agriculture industry,
policy makers for financial sector, trained teaching staff to cater the academic
field, technically sound team to serve research area etc. Apart from this,
agriculture consultancy, journalism, agri – banking, hi – tech farming,
agriculture conservation, agriculture engineering are also some potential
areas for a career.
Career prospect in agri – business are varied from Farming to
Commodity Broker, Commodity Buyer, Food Broker, Supply Planner,
Supplier Manager, Purchase Executive, Procurement officer, loan officer,
marketing researcher / specialist, product analyst, purchase agent,
223
statistician, and wholesaler. Agri – business management as a career is

promising as well as challenging. Agri – business management is now
becoming a popular profession.
Agri business management professionals will have very good
employment potential in Agribusiness industries like food processing,
banking and financial institutions, commodities exchange bureaus, dairy and
animal husbandry sector, meat and meat products, agrochemical sectors,
organic farms, sugar industry, agri informatics, cattle feed industry, export
promotion councils, fruits and vegetable industries, poultry industry, sea
food industry , biotech firms, plantation sector, forestry, ayurvedic industry,
coir industry, horticulture, floriculture, teaching and research.
In the age of liberalization and globalization, after completing
agribusiness education, students can work in public or private or cooperative
sector and can earn good salary. The salary in agri – business sector depends
on various factors, such as student’s qualification, experience, expertise in a
particular field etc. Remuneration in these sectors is getting more attractive
with the passage of time.
Conclusion
It has been already indicated that agribusiness is a complex, system of
input sector, production sector, processing manufacturing sector and
transport and marketing sector. Therefore, it is directly related to industry,
commence and trade, Industry is concerned with the production of
commodities and materials while commerce and trade are concerned with
their distribution.
References
 Cramer. G.L. and Jenson. C.W.1979. Agricultural Economics and
Agribusiness. John Wiley & Sons, New York.
 Harsh, S.B. Conner, U.J. and Schwab G.D. 1981 Management of the farm
Business. Prentice Hall Inc., New Jersey
 Omri Rawlins, N, 1980. Introduction to Agribusiness. Prentice Hall of India
Pvt. Ltd.,New Delhi
224
17
Dalit Identity and Liberation: A Study of Bama’s

Karukku
Vanamala. S.M.
Abstract
Of the many prime group identities belonging to community of
descent, caste identity is the principal in India. Of all the castes, Dalits are the
worst affected by the exclusionary practices of the society. Even after seventy
years of existence as independent Democratic nation complete emancipation
of Dalits has not been attained. The reasons for the same are many and the
study aims to discuss the causatives of this failure to attain complete social
inclusiveness by Dalits.
Modern day radicalists or liberals do argue that if only individuals
don’t abide by identification norms enforced by the society and do
voluntarily identify themselves not with groups but with subjective aspects
of selfhood, traditional group affiliations stand threatened. The individualist
philosophy of the Western Liberalism too has been encouraging of
subjectivity of identification. The liberal democratic setup of India which
presumes its citizens as rational, autonomous, self-directing individual in a
225
nation state encourages individual choice amongst copious identities. Further

the tradition of liberal thinking of modern times encourages people to dawn
on an attitude of neutrality instead of allegiance to many culturally inherited
identities. Even psychologists believe group affiliations as incidental rather
than definitional thus encouraging individuals to suppress the derogatory
identities and thereby attain positive self-image essential to lead socially
inclusive life. Against the background of all these modern day identity
debates the paper mainly aims to discuss the future prospective of liberation
for Dalits in India where caste identity is treated as an essential identity for
every individual. The latest developments have been the growing ethnic
consciousness in people and a desire to respect and promote their respective
ethnicity. Against the background of these modern discourses and difficulties
India as a traditional society poses for voluntary identification the paper aims
to discuss the intricacies of Dalit liberation and social inclusivity. The study
as a paradigm of such discussion also studies Faustina Bama’s autobiography
Karukku (1992). Bama is a Dalit woman writer who tries to come to terms
with her Dalit identity as per the modern debates of liberation and
emancipation. The writer becomes the chief motivator for others, less
ignorant members of Dalit community to identify Dalit community as an
ethnic community co-existing as one amongst the plurality of cultural
communities in India and of the world on equality terms.
Key words- Dalit liberation, liberal and radical thinking, voluntary
identification, collective identity, self-hood identity, positive self-image,
ethnic consciousness.
Of the many prime group identities belonging to community of descent, caste
identity is the principal in India. Caste conception coupled with notions of
prejudice has a long history of existence. Further of all the subaltern identities
of India, Dalits are the worst affected by the exclusionary practices of the
society and hence Berreman calls them as carriers of “stigmatized ethnic
identity”. In modern day India caste identity has become the discursive site
where reactive gestures of acceptance, resistance and liberation are enacted to
attain freedom from humiliation and shame. Cent percent emancipation is
nowhere at hand even after seventy years of India’s existence as a Sovereign
Democratic Nation and reasons for the same are many.
226
The primacy of traditional identities in India is such that a strict

confirmation by individuals to the norms and conventions related to them is
expected all the time. Further identities belonging to ‘group affiliation’ is
considered more important than individual centered identities and thus
group affiliations of varied kinds; state, caste, religion, language, culture,
gender, age, region etc., are frequently invoked in public discourses in the
country. After independence the identity- ‘Indian’ and ‘national-we’ was
strived after mainly to evolve as a homogenous society with a single destiny.
But the identity of ‘national we’ has failed to replace or minimize the
importance of identities belonging to the domain of cultural heritage and
especially the primacy of social identities of caste, religion and linguistic
group identities has continues undeterred. Group formations of
contemporary times like sexual orientation, occupation and political
commitments etc. occupy only secondary position. Or in other words
tradition ordained group affiliations continue to exist as primary sub-
national affiliations in post-independent India. Multiple identities though
indeed are copious in India yet there is very little freedom to take on
identities as per personal preference because of the practice of “identity –
ascription”; the ascribing of identity upon individuals by the society.
Modern day radicalists do argue that if only individuals don’t abide by
identification norms enforced by the society and do voluntarily identify
themselves not with groups but with subjective aspects of selfhood,
traditional group affiliations stand threatened. Such subjectivity or self-hood
identification according to professional psychologists is progressive as it
signifies “a mental and emotional condition entailing confident individuality
and an ability to act effectively in society on behalf of one’s personal
interest”. The individualist philosophy of the Western Liberalism
(introduced as part of the colonial rule) too has been encouraging of
subjectivity of identification. Further the liberal democratic setup of India
always presumes its citizens as rational, autonomous, self-directing
individual or as an atomised unit in a nation state and such conception
encourages individual choice amongst identities. Further the tradition of
liberal thinking of modern times encourages people to dawn on an attitude of
neutrality instead of allegiance to many culturally inherited identities. Wang
Bin, a cultural critic speaks of its advantage thus:
227
In this era of globalisation and overlapping of cultures, this neutrality

with regard to cultures and their basic values could be seen to be an
essential requirement, and it might appear as the only way to ensure
consensus and social cohesion.
Liberal thinkers like Fred Dalmayer and Charles Taylor have described
“individual freedom” in matters of identity formation as highly beneficial
and following the same will help subaltern identities to repress many social
stigmas associated with them. It will also in the long run help challenge the
oppressive social conventions by not identifying with them. But the irony is
that independent identification is always discouraged and derecognized in
India and thus individuals are forever destined to carry the tag of the
traditional collective community identities, whatsoever. Traditionalism and
the fact of social ascription and the primacy of group identity or collective
identity over individualism and incapacity for liberal thinking are some
reasons for traditional identities to continue even in times of globalization
and the same hold true with Dalit caste identity, the intricacies of which the
paper mainly aims to study.
Caste affiliation of India is a socio-culturally ascribed identity
characterized by rigid practices of hierarchy and Dalits occupy the lowest
rung of the social scale. Social control in India over caste identity of
individuals is very rigid and rigourous curtailing all independent action in
the matter. Hence all acts of deliverance or liberation from caste identity ends
up as futile exercises. An individual’s attempt to negate his/her caste identity
is thwarted by other/s who consign him/her to it (to the caste inherited).
Thus the choice of the ‘self’ (self-identification) stands thwarted by
‘other/s’(other identification) and caste inevitably sticks. The singularity of
caste identity is so vehemently asserted that all other ways by which
individual/s see the self/themselves is completely neglected reminding us of
Amartya Sen’s “Solitarist Approach”- ‘a tendency of seeing human beings
mainly as members of exactly one group only, derecognizing all other
identities’. The essentiality of caste identity for every individual is so strongly
asserted that J.Rawl’s saying as quoted by Emmanuel Renault that “all
collective Identities have begun to decline due to globalization” in the face of
constantly changing world, fraught with contradictions and changing world-
views, is proved false in India. Bauman’s suggestion “It would be better… to
228
bury our definitions of ourselves with the notion of collective identities ; to

face today’s existing psychological, sociological, and political problems in
relevant manner” goes unheeded in India in matters of caste identity. Stuart
Hall’s rationale “Perhaps instead of thinking of identity as an already
accomplished fact …we should think, instead, Identity as a ‘production’ as
never complete, always in process.” though critiques essentialism or Identity
fixation, whatsoever, the same is little followed in matters of caste. Socio-
ethical identities of caste and religion have become literally impossible to
erase and all modern radical notions thus stand failed. Even psychologists
believe group affiliations as incidental rather than definitional thus
encouraging individuals to suppress the derogatory identities and to attain
positive self-image essential for socially inclusive life.
For the upper caste since their caste identity assures privilege and
power position they express no qualms but the Dalits who have to partake
their caste identity along with all its taboos do express lots of disquiet.
Protest struggles of all kinds to counter oppression in the name of caste have
been consistently carried on. Dalit Identity has become a veritable discursive
site where reactions of acceptance, resistance and liberation are enacted to
attain freedom from humiliation and shame. The latest enlightened stance
has been to replace the sense of shame about one’s caste identity with self-
respect; a feeling of pride at one’s caste identity and any feeling of dislike for
the ‘self’ is condemned and considered morally susceptible. While retaining
their respective identity intact, demands are made to treat all caste
communities equally. Rebellion against one’s identity of heritage or descent
is also accused of as desiring to be like the other, refusing kinship with one’s
own kind. All these developments signify the growing ethnic consciousness
in people and a desire to respect their respective ethnicity. Attempts to attain
upward social mobility by sociocultural relocation; emulating the norms and
ways of the higher social order, described by sociologists as
“Sanskritization”, is no longer appreciated.
Whatsoever difficulties might be there in India for voluntary
identification or flouting of identity rules regarding ethnic identities there are
individuals who attempt the same becoming exemplars for others to follow
and Faustina Bama is one such Dalit women writer. She is a Tamil woman
writer and her Tamil work Karukku (1992) was translated into English by
229
Laxmi Holmtrom and did win the Crossword Translation award in 2000.
Hitherto discussed modern dynamics thought of by liberal radicalists is not
unfeasible is proved in Bama’s autobiography Karukku. She becomes one
among few who through enlightened stance subject her Dalit identity to a
radical interpretation thereby achieve the twin benefits of countering social
stigmas and sustaining Dalit identity on the foundation of pride and respect.
Faustina Bama’s narrative Karukku is a seminal work that subjects nature of
caste oppression to fresh analysis equipped by greater awareness induced by
education and liberal thought processes of contemporary times. It also
explores better modus operandi to attain emancipation for Dalits. Since Karukku
is an autobiography the writer becomes the live exemplar for others, less
ignorant members of Dalit community to follow. She recognizes the identity
of Dalits as a parallel ethnic community striving to co-exist as one amongst
the plurality of cultural communities in India and the world on the scale of
equality.
The writer starting from the position of an innocent child victim of
caste oppression gradually grows adapting all modern rationale and
employing them to better understanding of the nature of both Dalit
oppression and their liberation. The causatives of oppression, shame and
denial are traced inwards in the vulnerabilities of the ‘Dalit self’ and the
therefore source of emancipation is sought with in the ‘self’. Bama’s Karukku
document the myriad forms of atrocities that a Dalit suffer; social, economical
and existential and the causatives for them with fresh impetus. The narrative
also delineates Bama’s attempts to sustain her Dalit identity with in the folds
of respect and pride countering the disgraces associated by upper-castes. Her
liberal self-hood perceives the intricacies of Dalit identity in a highly personal
way. She avoids perceiving trials and tribulations suffered by Dalits in self-
pity but in terms of their vulnerabilities; ignorance, illiteracy, traditionality
and incapacity for liberal outlook. Her new found sense of pride stands in
stark contrast with the famished impression, many fellow Dalits feel, having
interiorized the myth of inferiority as real, propagated by the upper castes.
She comprehends Dalit identity in all its strengths and thus avoids
self-denials and glories in positive self-image. Even while condemning the
passivity of her people in the face of violence she is quick to redeem them by
recognizing their resilience and capacity for cheerfulness in the face of
230
suffering. Her assertion of strengths and her sense of pride towards her
communal self becomes a gesture that defeats or dampens the energy of the
perpetrators of caste atrocities. Bama reclaims her Dalit identity, which she
had disclaimed through conversion to Christianity by realizing that her
problems need to be solved from within as a member of Dalit community as
it existed in Hindu society’s cultural fold. With the newly awakened self-
pride she successfully suppresses her sense of embarrassment about her
Dalit identity. She concentrates her energy less on complaining but more on
exploring the ethnographic grandeurs of her community. The natural beauty
of her village, the myths and superstitions of her people are elaborated with
pride and without any inhibition for the perusal of the ignorant and biased
selves and for the appreciation of the world. This attempt also signifies her
commitment to document in writing the ethnic practices of the community
hitherto existing in oral form; and therefore ephemeral, for the referral to the
posterity. Such attempts indeed would put the ethnicity of the Paraya
community to co-exist in equality with other ethnic communities denying the
centre-periphery relationship between them. The effort signifies an attempt
to break the hierarchical placement and demands the need to look at Dalit
identity as one amongst the plurality of ethnic identities. Lakshmi
Holmstrom the translator of the autobiography commends Bama’s use of
“Dalit style of Language” as narrative medium as an act of derecognizing the
monopoly of the standard language of the upper caste. The unique narrative
style is as much symbolic of Dalits capacity for creativity.
Bama’s self- assertion and self-esteem contrasts with her fellow Dalit’s
self-denial and the feeling of lack of self-worth. Bama recognizes that it is her
education that had promoted her capacity for radicalizing and had
contributed to the moulding of her ‘positive self-hood’. Even as a child she is
angered at the timidity with which her kith and kin bore the disgrace. When
her mother advices her to keep concealed her Dalit identity to avoid
suffering discrimination she rebels against the idea for the suggestion denied
her new found sense of self-respect. Self-confidence born out of self-respect
gives her abundance confidence to excel in education as well. She expresses
her victory thus “I didn’t care a toss about caste. . . because of education I
managed to survive among those who spoke the language of difference and
discrimination”. She is able to comprehend that it is neither destiny nor
231
religion that predetermined the famished condition of Dalit identity but lack
of land ownership and the relative position as labourers since time
immemorial that made them ‘the powerless’. Education and economic
sustenance thus become the essentials for asserting equality and acquiring
power position. Her derecognising the role of religion in framing the
culturally constructed caste identity retraces its origin in general human
culpability for abusing the weak and religion has been taken as support. She
even recognizes and condemns the complicity of the state and the law in
perpetrating injustice towards the Dalits. She is not just interested in
articulating the grievences of her community instead writes to subvert the
power structures of state apparatus ; police, state, law and upper caste
community.
Bama disagree her fellow Dalits’ tendency to escape the shame of their
communal identity through conversion to noncaste communities like
Christianity. Through her own experience she realizes that practices of
discrimination survived in institutionalized Christianity towards Dalit
Christians. Or in other words she realises that caste survived conversion and
that proselytism as a strategy little helped to mitigate the disabilities of low
caste status. The need to fight from within (the Hindu social order) instead of
choosing to run away, is the strategy Bama follows and also advocates for
her fellow Dalits. Her action plan towards liberation is sorted out within the
indigenous social setting of her country and she fights injustices equipped
with greater awareness her education had endowed her with. She says, “
because I had education, because I had ability, I dared to speak for myself”.
She metaphorically compares herself to a Karakku leaf-a Palmyra leaf with
serrated margin all over its margin; to handle it only meant to end up with
wounds formed from its sharp edges.The logic of her metaphor she explains
in the preface to her autobiography thus; “ Dalits seeking to create a new
world based on justice, equality and love are themselves as Karakku
challenging the oppression on all sides”. The need of the hour for Dalits is to
be like Karakku leaf and its serrated margins are the capacities needed for
resisting the denying forces within (self) and without( social others). Bama in
her personal life as narrated in her autobiography stand a living proof of
having executed what Renault has said:
232
Identity is to mean what we are individually, as well as what we

aspire to be , what determines or specifies us, as well as how we present our
particularities to ourselves, how we refer to ourselves individually and how
we identify with groups….
Bama by practically living as per the guidelines of Renault attains both self -
esteem and self-worth; essentials needed to become socially inclusive and to resist
any threats of social exclusion in the name of Dalit caste identity.
Reference
 Bama, Faustina. Karukku.Trans. Lakshmi Holmstrom, New Delhi:
Macmillan, 1999.
 Jayaram, N. “Identity; a Semantic Exploration in India’s Society and
Culture”. Keywords/Identity. Ed. Nadia Tazi. New Delhi: Vistaar
Publications, 2004. Print.
 Lobo, Lancy. Globalization, Hindu Nationalism and Christians in India.
Jaipur: Rawat Publications, 2002. Print.
 Sen Amartya. Identity and Violence: The Illusion of Identity. London:
Penguin Books, 2006.Print.
 Devy, G.N. and Fred Dallmayer. Between tradition and modernity: India’s
search for identity. New Delhi: Sage Publications. 1998. Print.
 Illaiah, Kancha. Why I am Not a Hindu. Kolkata: Samya. 2009. Print.
233
18
Economic Empowerment of Women: A Measure towards
Inclusive Growth
Shilpa S. Byadagi
Abstract
Empowerment as a strongly articulated goal of development
interventions has become very attractive in recent years, in the developing
countries of the world. Empowerment of women and issues linked with
advocacy are now in the foreground, as development studies move towards
a more integrally gendered approach. Governmental agencies now realize
that the key to long-term poverty alleviation in developing countries is
Economic empowerment, in its broadest sense of increasing self-reliance of
underprivileged people, and especially women. Women empowerment is
important dimension of inclusive growth. The present paper examines
Economic empowerment of women in the view of inclusive growth in India.
The study also highlights central role of economic status of women in
relation to achieving inclusive growth of women in India.
Introduction
Empowering women is a prerequisite for creating a good nation, when
women are empowered, society with stability is assured. Empowerment of
women is essential as their thoughts and their value systems lead to the
development of a good family, society and ultimately a good nation.
A.P.J.Abdul Kalam
234
WOMEN, play a pivotal role in the overall progress of a country as

they constitute half the human resources of the Nation. UN World Women
Development Report, states that, “Women perform two-third of total labour
of the World, they earn one-tenth of wages and own one-hundredth of
wealth.” The economic wealth and development of a country is seriously
depleted if about half of the nation’s human resource is neglected. The Global
Conference on Women Empowerment, 1988 highlighted empowerment as
surest way of making women “partner in development”. There has be
increasing realization and recognition that empowerment of women is
absolutely essential for societal, national global development, since it will
enhance both the quality and quantity of human resources available for
development. Recognising the need for involving women in various
development activities, the Government of India has initiated several
affirmative measures by way of plans and schemes, programmes to bring
them into the mainstream of development. The Eleventh and Twelfth five
year plans emphases were given on inclusive growth. Inclusive growth is
multidimensional progress, it means inclusion of all socio-economic factors in
growth and development. Inclusive growth is necessary for sustainable
development and equitable distribution of wealth and prosperity. Women
empowerment is important dimension of inclusive growth as it uplifts socio-
economic status of women in society.
Conceptual Meaning Of Empowerment Of Women

Empowerment is basically infusing of competence into a category that
does not presently possess it. This enables the category to overcome the
prevalent disability and compete with other groups in access to good things
of life and human rights. According to Yogendra Singh, “it (Empowerment)
implies processes by which women’s power of self organization is promoted
and reinforced, they develop the capacity for self-reliance outcrossing the
relationship of subordination on account of gender, social and economic
status and the role in family and society. It encompasses their ability to make
choices, control resources and enjoy participatory relationship within family
and community. Thus Empowering Women ensures their social upliftment,
economic viability, political participation and strength to fight injustice.
235
Need For Women’s Economic Empowerment

Empowering women has become the key element in the development
of an economy. With women moving forward, the family moves, the village
moves and the nation moves. Hence, improving the status of women by way
of their empowerment is highly called for. Women cannot be truly
empowered without sound economic backing. Economic independence is
indispensable for their elevated status in the society and self-support.
Economic empowerment increases women’s access to economic resources
and opportunities, including jobs, financial services, property and other
productive assets, skills development and market information. Women’s
economic participation and empowerment are fundamental to strengthening
women’s rights and enabling women to have control over their lives and
exert influence in society. It is also contributes to poverty reduction,
economic growth and human development and reduced violence, creating
just and equitable societies. The economic empowerment of women is a
prerequisite for sustainable development, pro-poor growth and the
achievement of all the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs). Gender
equality and empowered women are catalysts for multiplying development
efforts. Investments in gender equality yield the highest returns of all
development investments. Women usually invest a higher proportion of their
earnings in their families and communities than men. Empowerment of
women leads to benefit not only to the individual woman and to women
groups, but also to the families and community as a whole through collective
action for development. The Human Development Report of 1995 points out,
“Investing in women’s capabilities and empowering them to exercise their
choices is not only valuable in itself but it is also the surest way to contribute
to economic growth and overall development.”
Participation Of Women In Economic Activities

The status of women is intimately connected with their economic
position, which in turn depends upon right, roles and opportunities for their
participation in economic activities. The scope of women’s career expanded
during the advent of industrialization and modernization, women have
assumed greater responsibility, both at home and in the world of work. It is
no longer limited only to household chores but they are employed in
236
different economic activities and services. The economic status of women is

now accepted as indicator of a society’s stage of development. An analysis of
the Human Development Report 1995 came to two broad conclusions are that
men’s work in the market place is often the result of “Joint production, and
not solo efforts”, as much of it might not be possible if women did not stay at
home looking after the children and house hold. Secondly, if women’s
unpaid work were properly valued, it is quite possible that women would
emerge in most societies as the major bread winners or at least equal bread
winner, since they put in longer hours to work then men.
Women form an integral part of the Indian workforce. The World Bank
(2004) states that, Women Contribute 60% of working hours and they are the
biggest contributors to the nation’s Gross Domestic Product (GDP).
According to the Census 2001, the work participation rate for women was
25.63 per cent in 2001. This is an improvement from 22.27 per cent in 1991
and 19.67 per cent in 1981. The two important aspects that require mention
are that while there has been an improvement in the work participation rate
of women, it continues to be substantially less in comparison to the work
participation rate of men. In 2001, the work participation rate for women in
rural areas was 30.79 per cent as compared to 11.88 per cent in the urban
areas. In the rural areas, women are mainly involved as cultivators and
agricultural labourers. In the urban areas, almost 80 per cent of the women
workers are working in the unorganized sectors such as household
industries, petty trades and services, buildings and construction. According
to 68th round NSS 2011-12, the Work Participation Rate (WPR) as per usual
status (principal and subsidiary) for a woman of all ages in the rural area was
24.8% and it was 14.7% in the urban area and 21.9% at the national level. In
the organized sector, women workers constituted 20.4 percent of the total
organized sector employment in the country in 2010 comprising 17.9% in the
public sector and 24.5% in the private sector. As on 31st March 2010, there
were 58.59 lakh women workers employed in the organised sector
comprising 31.96 lakh in public sector and 26.63 lakh in private sector. But
the opportunities open to women have remained limited despite higher
women involvement in economic activities in developing countries and
rising women’s paid employment in Industrial countries. According to the
International Labour Organization’s Global Employment Trends 2013 report,
237
India is placed at 120th of 131 countries in women’s labour force

participation.
Government Intiatives: Policies, Plans And Schemes, Programme

After attaining independence, the Government of India, initially
decided to pave a path to bring about social change based on three major
areas, constitutional and legal reforms, planned development based on
mixed economy and state support to social welfare activities. All these three
policies are expected to create a democratic, just and prosperous society. All
these three steps have their impact on the status of women.
Constitutional Provisions
The Constitution of India preserved gender equality in its Preamble,
Fundamental Rights, Fundamental Duties and Directive Principles of State
Policy. The Constitution guarantees equal rights to both sexes and entitles
women to enjoy economic, social, cultural and political rights on an equal
footing with men (Article 325). Under Article 15 (3) of the Constitution, the
State is empowered to make “special provisions”, “legislative” or otherwise,
to secure women’s socio-political advancement. This ensures dignity and
equal opportunities for the women and their active participation in all walks
of life including education, politics, sports etc. Considering the women’s role
in the nation-building activities, the Government had declared the year 2001
as the year of Women’s Empowerment by adopting a national policy to offer
“Swashakti” to women. The goals of the National Policy is to bring about
development and empowerment of women through creating an positive
economic and social environment and to enable them to realize their full
potential by having access to health care, quality education, employment,
equal remuneration and social security, so that all sorts of discriminations
and violence against women can be eliminated. The National Commission for
Women was set up by an Act of the Parliament in 1990 to safeguard the
rights and legal entitlements of women. The 73rd and 74th Amendments to
the Constitution in 1993 have provided for reservation of seats in the Local
Bodies of Panchayats and Municipalities for women, laying a strong
foundation for their participation in decision-making at the local levels.
Besides, several laws have been legislated and implemented in social,
238
economic, legal and political sectors including active participation of women

in State Assembly and Parliament.
Planned development
Planned development has been considered to be the most effective way
of solving the numerous problems comes in the way of eradicating poverty,
reducing imbalances and preventing discriminations among vast number of
poor people living in rural areas, especially of rural poor women folk. Since
the Fifth Five Year Plan (1974-78), the approach towards women’s welfare for
development has seen a paradigm shift in India with greater focus on
women’s empowerment as the central goal. In this process various policies
and programmes intended for empowerment of women have been
implemented for which special budget allocations are made in Five Year
Plans. Besides, various schemes are being implemented to uplift socio-
economic status of women and paving a path for their empowerment. Thus
the government has been making sincere efforts to empower women in socio-
economic and politico-cultural aspects, so that a welfare state and a
prosperous nation can be built.
Schemes/Programmes for Women Empowerment

The Ministry of women and child development, as the nodal agency for all
matters pertaining to welfare, development and empowerment of women,
has evolved schemes and programmes for their benefit. These schemes are
spread across a broader spectrum such as women’s need for shelter, security,
safety, legal aid, justice, information, maternal health, food, nutrition etc., as
well as their need for economic sustenance through skill development,
education and access to credit and marketing.
The Government of India has launched a number of programmes for
Economic Empowerment of Women and to uplift status of Women. Some of
these Programmes are:
Mahila Samriddhi Yojana (MSY) is a centrally sponsored scheme, which was
launched on 2-10-1993. Through MSY, every rural woman aged 18 and above
can open an MSY account of money she can save. The government would
contribute incentive money of 25% of her savings. For an amount upto Rs.
300/- kept in the account for a lock in period of one year, that is, the deposits
239
have to remain in account for a period of 12 months and the maximum

participation of government is limited to Rs. 75/- per year.
Indira Mahila Yojana (IMY) launched in 1995-96 and re-titled as

“swayamsiddha” in 2001 to empower women through awareness generation,
achievement of economic strength through micro-level income-generating
activities and establish convergence of various services such as literacy,
health, rural development. This is a Centrally Sponsored Scheme. The
programme was implemented in 650 blocks of the country and 67971 women
Self Help Groups (SHGs) have been formed benefiting 9, 89,485 beneficiaries.
The Rural Women’s Development and Empowerment Project (RWDEP), this

project jointly founded by IFAD, World Bank and the Government of India
was launched in October, 1999 and culminated on 30th June, 2005, now called
“Swa-Shakti” The objective of the program was to bring out socio-economic
development and empowerment of women through promotion of women
SHGs, micro credit and income generating activities. The project was
conceived as a Pilot Project implemented in 335 blocks of 57 districts in 9
states. The project established 17,647 SHGs covering about 2, 44,000 women.
This was a Centrally Sponsored Project.
Swawlamban Programme, was previously known as NORAD/Women’s

Economic Programme, was launched in 1982-83 with assistance from the
Norwegian Agency for Development Corporation (NORAD). NORAD
assistance was availed till 1996-97 after which the programme is being run
with Government of India funds. The objective of the programme is to
provide training and skills to women to facilitate them to obtain employment
or self employment on sustained basis. The target groups under the scheme
are the poor and needy women, women from weaker sections of the society
such as Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes etc. In order to ensure more
effective implementation and for better monitoring/evaluation of the
scheme, it has been transferred to the State governments from 1st April 2006
with the approval of Planning Commission.
240
Support to Training and Employment Programme (STEP) this programme

seeks to provide skills and new knowledge to poor and assetless women in
the traditional sectors. Under this project, women beneficiaries are organized
into viable and cohesive groups or cooperatives. A comprehensive package
of services such as health care, elementary education, crèche facility, market
linkages, etc. are provided besides access to credit. Skill development is
provided in ten traditional skills amongst women. This is a Central Scheme
launched in 1987. The Ministry is at present getting the programme
evaluated. Based on the results of the evaluation, the scheme is proposed to
be revamped. Further, the possibilities of providing training and skills to
women both in traditional and non-traditional sectors and integrating with
Rashtriya Mahila Kosh for credit linkages are being considered. A sum of Rs.
240, crore is proposed for the scheme in the XI five year plan.
Rashtriya Mahila Kosh (RMK) was established for the purpose of delivery of
credit through women’s development corporations/non-governmental
organisations and self-help groups to 2 lakh poor women from both rural
and urban areas whose family income does not exceed Rs. 11,000/- per
annum in rural areas and Rs. 11,800/- per annum in urban areas. The interest
charged is 12% per annum to the ultimate borrower women and 8% to the
NGOs and the corporations. The woman development corporation has been
sanctioned a loan of Rs. 20 lakh from RMK to lend through SHGs, Mahila
Mandals for covering 1000 women.
Swarnajayanthi Gram Swarozgar Yojana (SGSY) was launched in April

1999 after restructuring the Integrated Rural Development Programme
(IRDP) and allied programmes. It is the only Self Employment Programme
currently being implemented for the rural poor. The objective of the SGSY is
to bring the assisted swarozgaris above the poverty line by providing them
income generating assets through bank credit and government subsidy. The
scheme is being implemented on cost sharing basis of 75:25 between the
Centre and States. Upto December 2007, 27.37 lakh SHGs have been formed
and 93.21 lakh swarozgaris have been assisted with a total outlay of Rs.
19,340.32 crore.
241
Integrated Rural Development Programmes (IRDP) is a beneficiary oriented

programme with the objective of assisting the families below the income level
of Rs. 11,000/- per year and 30% benefits are allocated for women. Under the
programme, income generating assets are being provided to the beneficiaries
with a package of assistance consisting of subsidy from the District Rural
Development Agencies besides term loan from the bank.
Training for Rural Youth Self-Employment (TRYSEM) programme is to train
rural youth in the age group of 18 to 35 years for the provision of self/wage
employment. Under this programme the youth are imparted training in more
than 25 trades and 40 percent of funds allocated under this scheme is meant
for women. The expenditure to implement this programme is shared equally
by the Central and State Governments.
Conclusion
Women participation in the economic activities is utmost important to
achieve inclusive growth. Women play a strategic role in the society and in
the economy of the country and in all the fields of development. To expedite
the process of inclusiveness, a number of financial inclusion activities and
programmes have already been started in India through increasing number
of banks and financial schemes and significant economic and social
empowerment of women through SHGs. However, a lot needs to be
recognized in a broader dimension to reduce the gap between rich and poor.
In so far as attaining aims of both empowerment and sustainability of women
is concerned, it is a long-term aspect and cohesive efforts need to be
spontaneously drifted out from each corner of the society. Governments
effort through designing and implementing policies for generating and
providing financial supports may be well behind attaining the millennium
development goals until and unless strong willingness, efforts and utilization
power is developed by the women and their families. The dream of
eradicating poverty and hunger from society can only be achieved when the
beneficiaries can dig out the multiplier effect of the funds and services
supported by the Government/ financial institutions. So, the innovative steps
taken through the SHGs must be welcomed and be extended to many poor
women for their empowerment to build a new, healthy and violence free
women empowered. This can fulfill the aim of inclusive growth in India.
242
Reference
 Ajit Kumar Sinha, New Dimension of women Empowerment, (Deep and Deep
Publication Pvt .Ltd, New Delhi, 2008)
 Dr. Ravi N. Kadam, “Empowerment of women in India- An Attempt to fill the
gender gap”, Volume 2, Issue 6, International Journal of Scientific and Research
Publications, June 2012
 Hirway I & D Mahadevis. “Critique of Gender Development Index towards an
Alternative,” Economic and Political Weekly, 26 October, 1996
 M. Lakshmipathi Raju, Women Empowerment Challenges and Strategies, (Regal
Publication New Delhi, 2007)
 Mahendra P. Singh, V N Shukla’s Constitution of India, (Eastern Book Company,
Lucknow, 2008)
 Neera Desai & Mathreyi Krishnaraj, Women & Society in India, (Ajanta book
International, Delhi 1990)
 Neera Desai, Changing Status of Women, Policies and Programmes’ in Amit Kumar
Gupta (ed) Women and Society, Development Perspective, (Quiterion
Publishers, New Delhi. 1986)
 P. Ishwara Bhat, Law and Social Transformation, (Eastern Book Company,
Lucknow, 2009)
 Ruddar Dutt & K.P.M. Sundaram, Indian Economy, (Chand& Company Ltd.
7361, Ram Nagar, New Delhi, 2006)
 Yogendra singh, Culture change in India (Rawat Publications, Jaipur, 2000)
 Human Development Report UNDP, sources:
www.undp.org/context/undp/en/...../human-developmentreport, accessed on:
02.08.2014
 India Country Report 2013, Statistical Appraisal, Central Statistics Office,
National Statistical Organisation Ministry of Statistics and Programme
Implementation, Government of India New Delhi, sources:
mospi.nic.in/…..SAARC-Development-Goals../20Indiacountry-Report, accessed on:
01.08.2014
 Statistics of women in India 2010, sources: nipccd.nic.in/reports/ehndbk.pdf,
accessed on: 01.08.2014
 The Millennium Development Goal Report 2013, sources:
www.un.org/millenniumgoal/pdf/Report, accessed on: 02.08.2014
 The steering committee on women’s agency and child rights for the twelfth five
year plan (2012-2017) planning commission government of India, sources:
planningcommission.nic.in, accessed on: 01.08.2014
 The World Bank Development Report, sources: asiafoundation.org/……/2004-
world-bank-development.report-gender.egu, accessed on: 02.08.2014
243
19
Women Empowerment through Skills Development:
T. Ramesh
.
Introduction:
Women constitute almost 50% of the world’s population but India has
shown disproportionate sex ratio whereby female’s population has been
comparatively lower than males. As far as their social status is concerned,
they are not treated as equal to men in all the places. In the Western societies,
the women have got equal right and status with men in all walks of life. But
gender disabilities and discriminations are found in India even today. The
paradoxical situation has such that she was sometimes concerned Goddess
and at other times merely a slave.
Economic empowerment is the capacity of women and men to
participate in, contribute to and benefit from growth processes in ways which
recognise the value of their contributions, respect their dignity and make it
possible to negotiate a fairer distribution of the benefits of growth. Economic
empowerment increases women’s access to economic resources and
opportunities including jobs, financial services, property and other
productive assets, skills development and market information.
Education and training are essential components of any strategy to
improve farm and non-farm productivity and rural incomes. Learning about
244
business skills, as well as life skills such as health management, decision-

making, self-confidence, or conflict management among various other things
like new products and markets, can make a big difference for many of the
rural poor, particularly the women folk. Women often have different training
needs than men since they are more likely to work as contributing family
workers, subsistence farmers, home-based micro-entrepreneurs, or low-paid
seasonal labourers, in addition to handling their domestic work and care
responsibilities. Skills development is a key to improving household
productivity, employability and income-earning opportunities for women
and also for enhancing food security and promoting environmentally
sustainable rural development and livelihoods.
Skill and knowledge are the driving forces of economic growth and
social development for any country. Countries with higher and better levels
of skills adjust more effectively to the challenges and opportunities of world
of work. Potentially, the target of group of skill development comprises all
those in the labour force, including those employed in unorganized sector.
India has set a target of skilling 500 million people by 2022. The current
scenario of women workforce in India; one can observe the huge
concentration of female workforce in favour of the informal sector. Both,
women and men, weather urban or rural, are mainly unskilled compared to
having some skills. There are higher number unskilled workers in rural than
in urban areas, and more number of women do not have any skills,
compared to men with no skills. It has been recognized that the status of the
women and their contribution is not only managing their families, but also to
the economic and social development. Hence it is important that women
become part of skill development.
In India creation of awareness among men could enlist greater support
for women participation in the various development programmes. In many
regions, the men have taken a path contrary to tradition, to empower the
women. Sensitize more men about the benefits of women empowerment
particularly, with respect to development of children and enhancement of
skills for income generation. Recognition of their services to the family and
society could empower them further and provide equal status in the society.
Integrated learning programmes for women are recommended which will
not only lay emphasis on literacy but on empowering women through
245
awareness building on social issues, bringing about attitudinal change,

promoting skill training for employment, providing information on health
care, nutrition and hygiene as well as on legal rights. Such programmes are
beginning and must continue to be designed and structured so as to be
relevant for the vast majority of women.
In India there is an urgent need for skill development as demographic
dividend arises as an asset for India due to expected decline in dependency
ratio in the country. The dependency ratio (ration of dependent to working
age population) of India has declined from 0.8 in 1991 to 0.73 in 2001, and is
expected to further decline. Low dependency ratio gives India cost advantage
and helps in improving India’s competitiveness. The demographic dividend
is expected to last until around 2035. Hence, India has to act now and get the
training and skill development dividend, to create a global pool of skilled
persons. If the demographic dividend in about 25 Years may actually become
a handicap. Besides the demographic dividend, another factor, that adds the
urgency for improved skill development is the increasing number of newly
educated youth, especially women, who would like to seek employment in
the service sector. The education and skill development sector has not
adequately responded to this emerging need, making it imperative to
provide skill development and training in marketable skill and services. It is
also observed, that the concept of training and skill development needs to
move beyond the conventional goal of imparting technical and managerial
competencies, to playing a broader role of even including basic literacy,
numeracy, critical social and political awareness, awareness about gender,
and enhancing life skills. Such interventions by their nature will encourage
higher self-esteem among women and overall personality development. For
the success of skill development, training needs to be towards developing the
kind of skill women and men already know.
Empowering women and girls is not only right thing to do. It is also
economics and vital to ending poverty and boosting shared prosperity-the
World Banks Groups twin corporate goals. Evidence shows that resources in
the hands of women boast household spending in areas that benefit children.
The World Banks group has made strong commitments on genders. Gender
equality is also a key priority for IDA. According to World Bank gender
equality can be achieved by
246
 Educating girls
 Increasing literacy rate among women.
 Increasing early childhood development interventions.
 Increasing women’s labour force participation and strengthening labour
policies affecting women.
 Improving women’s access to credit, land and other resources.
 Promoting women’s political right and participation.
 Expanding reproductive health program and family support policies.
Conclusions: Rich knowledge base and the skills, which act as the driving
forces for the economic growth and social development of a country, are
essential for translating a country’s vision of inclusive growth into a reality.
Creation of job opportunities and development of entrepreneurship in the
rural areas is the priority of the country to ensure development of the rural
economy. Looking at the importance of the role women play in the
development of a nation and the current progress the country is witnessing
under the said women play in the development of a nation and the current
progress the country is witnessing under the said women empowerment
process, one can sense that there is a long way to go in that direction.
Everyone needs to understand the essence of what Swami Vivekananda said
about women – “There is no chance for the welfare of the world unless the condition
of women is improved. It is not possible for a bird to fly on one wing.” It is therefore
the responsibility of every citizen of the nation. Financial institutions, the
corporate sector of the society to lend their supporting hand in developing
gender-responsive strategies for training and entrepreneurship development
that respond to rural youth especially women who are no less men in many
spheres of life and have all the credentials to become a desirable
demographic dividend in the days to come when treated with respect, purity,
dignity and equal rights.
References:
 Chandni Sinha, “Education and Empowerment of Women”, Third Concept,
Vo..21, may 2007, p.49.
 Statistical handbook, Bargarh District.
247
 Venessa Griffen, (ed.), “Women Development and Empowerement: A Pacific

Feminist Perspective”, Asian and Pacific- Development Centre,
Kualalumpur, pp.117-118.
 Data collected from Field survey from the sample.
 Tiyas Biswas, “Women Empowerment Through Micro Finance: A Boon for
Development” Web page collection.
 Prabhat Datta, “India’s Democracy New Challenges”, Kanishka publishers,
New Delhi, 1997. p.l.
 Esther Duflo (2011), “Women’s Empowerment and Economic Development”,
NBER WORKING PAPER SERIES - Working paper 17702,
http://www.nber.org/ papers/w17702.
 MamtaMokta (2014), “Empowerment of women in India: A critical analysis”,
Indian Journal of Public Administration, 474/Vol.Lx, no. 3, July-September
2014, Page Nos., 473-3177.
 Nitin Huria (2013), “Women Empowerment through Entrepreneurship: A
Way For Economic Development”, International Global Research Analysis,
Volume 2, Issue 12, Dec 2013, ISSN No 2277-8160.
 Prasanna Kumar (2014), “Rural Women Empowerment in India”, Asian
Journal of Multidisciplinary Studies, Volume 2, Issue 1, January 2014 ISSN:
2321-8819.
 Sathiabama (2010), “Rural Women Empowerment and Entrepreneurship
Development”, eSS Student papers.
248
20
A Bird Eye on the Health Status and the Health
Infrastructure in Mysuru District-India
D.C. Nanjunda
Health is an important requirement of every individual and it is the

obligation of the government to implement health care to all people with
equal dimensions. It is an important input in the developmental process.
Since India's independence in 1947, different national health schemes and
programs have been started with the view to promote the health status of
people living in rural areas. The National Rural Health Mission (NRHM)
was launched in 2005 as a direct, focused response to strengthen primary
health care, with a specific focus on reproductive and child health. The target
of the NRHM is to hold concerning improvement in the health system and
the health status of the people, especially those who are in rural areas of the
country. The Mission attempts to provide universal access to equitable,
affordable and quality health care, as well as to make concerning
improvement in the health status of the underprivileged sections of the
society, especially women and children.
In Karnataka, the implementation plan for NRHM has been industrialised by
incorporating different strategies suggested by the state health policy as well
as core strategies of NRHM. The district health development programs from
all the districts of the state are combined to form the state Program
Implementation Plan (PIP) with a centre on the backwards districts and
249
highly focused districts. The strategy implementation program mainly

provides an overview of the present health status, the situational plan of the
infrastructural facilities of the state and the plan of implementation for the
current year. It highlights the strategies and activities to be undertaken by
different components of the program in detail so as to meet the goals and
objectives of the program.
Plan of good health care to the people is a primary element of the growth
strategy used by the State to manage overall socio-economic development.
Karnataka holds a significant progress in developing the health status of its
people in the last few decades. Though, even though the progress, the State
has a long way to go in achieving the desired health goals. The State has
made satisfactory progress in building health infrastructure at different
plans. The area of public expenditure on health is concerning 0.9% of GSDP
during the Eleventh Five Year Plan period. The state has a wide institutional
network implementing health services both in urban and rural areas. There
are 18 District Hospitals, 10 other hospitals and 28 autonomous and teaching
hospitals in the state. The primary health infrastructure within rural areas
has performed the norms needed below the “minimum needs programme” at
the aggregate level. There are 8871Sub-centers, 2346 primary health centres
(PHC), 186 community health centres (CHC) and 176 taluk hospitals catering
to the health needs of the rural population.
Objectives
The present study is undertake to study on the health infrastructure in
Mysore district.
Methodology
The study is based on secondary data collected from various issues of
government Publications like NRHM annual Report, Human Development
Report 2005, Mysuru Districts Human Development Report 2014, Economic
Survey of Karnataka (2011, 2012). The literature has also been gathered from
published articles, books and Govt reports. The study uses statistical tools
such as tables, graphs and also mainly focused on the health status of
Mysuru district through IMR, CMR, MMR and availability of health
infrastructure.
250
Table 1: Health status and Infrastructure in Karnataka

Infrastructure India Karnataka
and human 2005 2011 2005 2011
resources
Require In Required In Required In Required In
d position position position position
Sub-centers 146026 148124 8143 8870
CHCs 23236 23887 1681 2310
PHCs 3346 4809 254 180
ANMs 169262 133194 172011 207868 9824 8544 11180 11433
Doctors at 23236 20308 23887 26329 1681 2041 2310 2089

PHCs
Staff Nurses 46658 28930 57550 65344 3459 3100 3570 4722
at PHCs and
CHCs
Table – 2: IMR in Mysuru District

Year IMR
1991-92 79
2001-02 56
2005-06 48
2011-12 41
Source: Mysuru District Human development Report 2014
Tables 2 illustrate the IMR in Mysuru district has declined slowly from 79 per
thousand in 1991 to 41 per thousand live births in 2011. Many factors have
lead to infant mortality such as the mother's level of education,
environmental conditions, and socio-economic conditions medical
infrastructure.
Table -3: Taluk-wise Infant Mortality Rate
Taluk 2005-06 2011-12
Periyapatna 48 47
Hunsur 47 25
251
K R Nagara 49 40
Mysuru 44 25
H D Kote 50 60
Nanjangud 49 37
T Narasipura 49 50
District Average 48 41
Karnataka State 48 31
India 57 42 (2013)
Source:
Mysuru District Human development Report 2014
Figure-1: Taluk-wise Infant Mortality Rate in Mysuru District
Table 3 and figure 1 shows that, the infant mortality rates per thousand live
births in Mysuru district. In all the Taluks there is a decline in IMR except H
D Kote taluk. In 2005-06, in Mysuru taluk the IMR was the least (44) and it
was the highest in H D Kote (50). In 2011-12 also there is no change in the
relative positions of the Taluks. Further, there is a decline in IMR in all the
Taluks except H D Kote. It is shocking to note that in H D Kote taluk, IMR
has increased from 50 to 60 per thousand live births.
Table - 4: CMR in Mysuru District and Karnataka 2011-12

Taluk 2011-12
Periyapatna 56
252
Hunsur 30
K R Nagara 51
Mysuru 31
H D Kote 75
Nanjangud 45
T Narasipura 62
District Average 50
Karnataka 54.7
Source: Mysuru District Human Development Report 2014
Table 4 shows that the CMR in Mysuru district is much greater than the
State average. This is mainly because of poor health status in some of the
Taluks like H D Kote (75), T Narasipura (62) and Periyapatna (56)
Table – 5: Taluk-wise MMR in Mysuru District and Karnataka – 2011-12

Taluk MMR
Periyapatna 114
Hunsur 155
K R Nagara 234
Mysuru 85
H D Kote 103
Nanjangud 375
253
T Narasipura 297
District Average 195
Karnataka Sate 144
Source: Mysuru District Human Development Report 2014
Table 5 observed that in the district average the MMR is 195 according to
2011-12 data. A glance at the table makes it clear that the MMR is highest in
Nanjangud (375) and the lowest in Mysuru taluk (85). Though IMR and CMR
are the highest in H D Kote taluk, the taluk is having the second lowest MMR
in the district (103). The reasons for the high MMR are early marriage, high
fertility rate, anemia and malnutrition, lack of awareness, reluctance to utilise
institutional facilities, poor socio-economic conditions, delays in utilisation
the services during crucial stages and so on.
Table – 6: Number of Government Hospitals in the District 2011-12

Taluks Taluk Other Primary Community
Hospitals Hospitals Health Health
Centers Centers
Nos Beds Nos Beds Nos Beds Nos Beds
Periyapatna 1 100 0 0 19 128 0 0
Hunsur 1 100 0 0 22 132 0 0
Krishnarajanagara 1 100 0 0 14 84 1 30
Mysuru 1 400 3 671 33 198 2 60
Heggadadevanakote 1 100 0 0 18 108 0 0
Nanjangud 1 100 0 0 18 128 1 30
T Narasipura 1 100 0 0 14 76 3 90
Mysuru district 7 1000 3 671 138 854 7 210
Source: Mysuru district at a Glace2013-14
Table 6 depict that there are 7 taluk hospitals, 138 Primary Health Centers,
and 7 community health centers in Mysuru district. A number of Primary
Health Centers are functioning in Mysuru taluk. However, from the point of
view of functionality much leaves to be desired. In most of the government
hospitals and PHCs, the required facilities are not available. Quite often
254
doctors and paramedical staff are also not available. As a result, public
generally, do not rely on government hospitals and prefer private clinics and
hospitals. Therefore it is not just the number of hospitals but the availability
of the facilities, effectiveness, efficiency, quality, adequacy and reliability of
services are also important. This should become an integral component of
rural health care system.
The World Health Organization in its program has specifically
advised developing countries to focus more on sustainable development
including the regeneration of agricultural activities, natural resources, and
quality health care. In this way, health is an important requirement of every
individual and it is the obligation of the government to implement health
care to all people with equal dimensions. It is an important input in the
developmental process. The reasons for the high MMR are early marriage,
high fertility rate, anemia and malnutrition, lack of awareness, reluctance to
utilise institutional facilities, poor socio-economic conditions, delays in
utilization the services during crucial stages and so on.
Conclusion
Today the health scenario in the country is a combination of
achievements and challenges. Significant advances should take place in
health and healthcare services over the past decade. It is an essential human
development indicator and has a large signification for the overall
development of the State. Obtaining and managing health is an essential
and ongoing process. The Government of Karnataka has given importance to
the health sector over the last few years. The ability of good health care to the
people is an essential component of the health strategy adopted by the State.
The focus on health intervention is to prevent and manage diseases, injuries
and other health conditions for monitoring of cases and the promotion of
health behaviours, communities and environments.
References
 Health Infrastructure in Rural India285Banerjee A., Esther C. Duflo,
and Angus Deaton (2004). ‘Health-care Delivery in Rural Rajasthan’,
Economic and Political Weekly,39(9), pp. 944–949, Mumbai.
255
 Chaudhury N., J. Hammer, M Knemer, K. Muralidharan, and

F.H.Rogers (2006). ‘Missing in Action: Teacher and Health Worker
Absence in Developing Countries’, Volume 20, November 1, Journal of
Economic Perspectives, Pittsburg.
 MHFW (2005). Rural Health Care System in India, Ministry ofHealth
and Family Welfare, Government of India, New Delhi.
 NSSO (2004). Morbidity,Health Care and the Condition of the Aged
256
21
Agriculture Credit Reform and Financial Inclusion in
India
Ramakrishna
Introduction:
Rapid growth of Agriculture will not only ensure continued food security but
also aid in growth in industry and the GDP. To sustain the growth in agriculture, it is
imperative that required capital must be invested because capital is one of the vital
inputs contributing to the success of all agricultural development programmes.
Therefore, financing for agriculture is an important task to fulfill the capital demand
in Indian agriculture and credit plays the catalyst role in the process to accelerate the
agriculture including industries, business and service sector of the economy.
Simultaneously agricultural credit becomes a strong force to enhance productivity,
production and profitability of farming, which play an important role to alleviate
rural poverty. Agriculture provided employment opportunities and supplementing of
small, marginal farmers and land less labours especially in rain fed and drought prone
areas. Dynamic and vibrant agriculture alone will effectively address the problems of
rural poverty (RBI 2004). Therefore agriculture is not just a question of economics
and trade but of dignity and survival (Swaminathan 2004). So agriculture is the root
of prosperity in rural India. Credit is often a key element in modernization of
agriculture and accelerates the adoption of new technology. It is also an integral part
of the process of commercialization of the rural economy. Financial Inclusion is a
flagship programme started by the RBI to bring people under the ambit of formal
257
financial inclusion. It is now an established fact that without access to formal finance
at an affordable cost, inclusive growth is not possible. In order to provide credit to
the agriculture sector, which has the potential for employment generation in rural
area, the RBI has initiated several programme including revising priority sector
lending guidelines. Under this scheme RBI has adopt a policy of providing credit
through multiple channels and simplifying procedure for small and marginal farmers.
Need of the Study:
 Agricultural credit becomes a strong force to enhance the production level,

productivity and income of the farmers, which play important role to alleviate
rural poverty.
 *The need of agriculture credit arises because capital is one of the vital inputs
for the development of agriculture.
 As we know that Indian economy is based on agriculture, so financial
inclusion in agriculture may be a better way to empower the Indian farmer.
1. To examine the flow of Institutional credit to agriculture and allied activities.
2. To examine the role of agriculture sector in GDP.
Research Methodology:
This a descriptive research paper based on secondary data. Data have been found out
from R.B.I, NABARD, Commercial Bank, Cooperative Banks and RRBs on different
view point.
Sources of Agriculture Credit: There are mainly two source of credit to agriculture
(a) Non-Institutional/informal sources.
(b) Institutional/ Formal sources
Non-Institutional:- They include money lends traders, commission agents, relatives

and land lords. There are rich farmers or land lords, who combine farming with
money lending, freely supply credit to farmers for productive and non-productive
purpose. Traders and commission agents supply funds to farmers for productive
purpose especially for crop production. These types of sources of finance are
important in the case of cash crops. Farmer often borrows from their own relatives in
cash or kind for various purposes.
Institutional: - Earlier agriculture credit requirement was depends upon private
money lender and they charged high interest rate and land or other assets were kept
258
as collateral. This arise the need for institutional credit arrangement for agriculture.
The institutional arrangement for agriculture credit comprises cooperatives,
commercial banks, RRBs, NABARD and micro Finance Institution in India.
Table.1 Flow of Institutional Credit to Agriculture and allied activities
Year Cooperative Schedule Regional Total Credit to
Bank Commercial Rural Banks Agriculture (Rs.
banks Crore)
1971-71 100% --- -- 744
1980-81 62 38 --- 3,292
1990-91 49 48 3 9,830
2000-01 39 53 8 52,827
2001-02 38 54 8 62,045
2002-03 34 57 9 69,560
2003-04 31 60 9 86,981
2004-05 25 65 10 1,25,309
2005-06 22 70 9 1,80,486
2006-07 19 73 9 2,29,401
2007-08 19 71 10 2,54,658
2008-09 15 76 9 3,01,908
2009-10 17 74 9 3,84,514
2010-11 17 74 10 4,68,291
2011-12 17 72 11 5,11,029
2012-13 27 60 13 2,39,629
Source: Govt. of India, Economic Survey 2009-10,2012-13
Cooperative credit Societies –Commonly known as the primary agricultural credit

society, is the gross root arm of the short term credit structure, dealing directly with
farmer borrowers and also undertaking farm input marketing and distribution
function.
Commercial Banks – They are providing direct and indirect finance to the farmers
and distribution firms or agencies and cooperative engaged in supply of farm
implements and machinery on a hire purchase basis. They finance the operations of
state and central government for procurement and storage of food grains.
Co-operative Agriculture and Rural Development Banks – They grant loans on
the basis of agricultural properties. They provide credit for a variety of purpose such
as redemption of old debts, land improvement, to purchase expensive agricultural
machinery and construction of wells.
259
Regional Rural Banks (RRBs) – RRBs were setup under the recommendation of the
working group on rural banks headed by M.Narsimham in 1975 to provide banking
facilities in rural and backward areas. The main objective of RRBs is to provide
credit and other banking facilities particularly small and marginal farmers,
agricultural labourers and rural artisan.
National Bank for Agricultural and Rural Development (NABARD) –
Recommendation of the committee to review arrangements for institutional credit for
agricultural and rural development, The NABARD was set up in 1982 as the apex of
rural institutional credit network.
Agricultural Credit: A Review
As we see today, the rural credit system has evolved over the last six decade. During
this course, the system witnessed many reforms as recommended and suggested by
various committees and expert group appointed by government of India and R.B.I.
from time to time. Multipurpose credit societies and extending banking services in
rural areas. The emergence of green revolution in the mid 1960 demonstrated the
need for effective credit support to farmers and also explored the inability of credit
cooperatives to meet the challenge. Consequently, the Government of India
intervened to encourage commercial banks to play a major role in providing
agriculture credit by nationalization of commercial banks in 1969 and 1980.The other
major development in agriculture credit from the supply side were establishment of
RRBs in 1975 and Establishment of NABARD in 1982.All these institutional
development of the rural credit structure and initiative brought out significant
changes in agriculture credit delivery.
Financial Inclusion and Reforms in Agriculture Credit:
At the time of the 1991 reform, the rural credit delivery system was again found to be
in poor shape. The agriculture credit review committee (ACRC) examined the
existing rural credit system and pointed out the wide gap between income generated
and cost incurred by rural credit institution. The Narshimham committee 1991 on
financial sector reform recommended a redefinition of a priority sector, gradual
phasing out of directed credit to 10 percent from 40 percent and deregulation of
interest rate. However, weakness in the performance of credit supply, the Govt. and
R.B.I setting up of various committees/ working groups/ task force to look into the
supply of agricultural credit. These committees/ working groups/ task force made
recommendation and suggestions for enhancement of cost effective institutional
agriculture credit supply.
260
Jagdish Kapoor task force (1999) on co-operative credit system, recommended

setting up of a co-operative rehabilitation and development fund at NABARD. The
Vyas expert committee on rural credit (2001) suggested restoration of the health of
primary agricultural credit societies (PACs). The process of globalization and
deregulation of financial have thrown open new challenge and opportunities. In an
emerging situation, agriculture sector require higher credit to strengthen primary
production base, investment in farm machinery and current inputs, in order to enable
it to high value addition and export orientation. Continuing its endeavor to enhance
the flow of credit to agriculture by removing delivery bottlenecks, the RBI and Govt.
of India implemented on the basis of several committees suggestion and
recommendation on flow of agriculture credit, in 1998-99 an innovative credit
delivery mechanism to facilitate farmers easy and timely access to short term credit
for agricultural operations. For this purpose Govt. of India started “Kishan Credit
Card” in 1998 so as to provide timely and adequate credit from commercial bank
and RRBs.About 970.64 lakh KCC have been issued up to September 2010. Another
revolutionary step making the credit access by NABARD started in 1992.NABARD
has been making continuous efforts through Bank Linkage Programme for improving
credit access of the rural poor. The Self-Help-Group (SHG) was introduced as a
mechanism to provide cost effective, easy and self managed institutional financial
services on a sustainable basis in rural areas.
Status of Institutional Credit to Agriculture and Allied Sector:

As a result of the institutional expansion policy thousands of bank branches
were opened in rural and semi urban areas and government established a new
network of RRBs in 1975 for strengthening the rural credit delivery mechanism.
Consequently, RBI in 1982 transformed its agricultural credit department with a new
bank-NABARD. The opening up of rural bank branches was not only the supply side
push of credit but increase in demand side due to population increase and
diversification of agriculture in the post-Green Revolution era. In order .to expand
the credit and financial services to the wider sections of the population, a wide
network of financial institutions has been established over the years. The initiatives
taken by the Reserve Bank and the Government of India towards promoting financial
inclusion since the late 1960s have considerably improved the access to the formal
financial institutions. Banking sector plays considerable role in bringing financially
excluded people in to formal financial sector as policies of the government and
Reserve Bank towards financial inclusion are implemented through banking sector.
261
Distribution of banking system is another indicator of level of financial inclusion in a

country. The expansion of rural bank branches presented in table-1.
Table-1 Distribution of Bank Branches in Rural Area

Year % of Rural Bank office % of Rural
Population to banks to Total
Total Rural Total Banks
Population
1971 75.1 4817 13622 35.4
1991 65.4 35206 60220 58.5
2001 72.2 32562 65919 49.4
2005 71.3 32082 68355 46.9
2009 70.4 31829 80514 39.5
2011 70.2 33779 90775 37.2
2012 71.0 36334 98536 36.9
Source: Reserve Bank of India (www.rbi.org.in)
The data presented in table-1and figure shows that after nationalization of private
banks there were 4817 rural bank office in 1971 for 75 percent population. The
corresponding figures for 2012 were 36334 and 71 percent respectively. While the
rural bank office to total bank office in percent was the highest (58.5) in 1991, it
gradually reduced to 36.9 percent in 2012 post banking reform era. It is a concern for
financial inclusion.
Co-Operatives and Micro-Finance:
The cooperatives have a great potential in enhancing credit facilities to the farmer
and distributing effectively agricultural inputs and essential items at village level.
Primary Agricultural Cooperative societies (PACs) are the grass root level arms of
the cooperative credit delivery system in India. The selected indicators of PACs
presented in table-2
Table.2 Present Status of PACs in 2012
Sl.No. Description Figure
1 No. of PACs 93413
2 No. of village covered 727911
3 Village/ PACs Ratio 8:1
4 No. of profit making PACs 44554
5 No. of loss making PACs 38065
6 Profit Making PACs to Total in % 47.69
262
7 Loss Making PACs to Total in % 40.74

Soruce: Trend and progress of Banking in Inida, RBI 2012
As on 31 March 2012, as many as 7.27 lakh villages in India are covered with 93413
PACs shows in table-2.Out of 93413 PACs, 40.74 were loss making in March
2012.This clearly indicates that PACs was unable to provide adequate support to the
farmers and rural entrepreneurs for increasing demand as credit for agricultural
inputs, seeds and fertilizer, farm equipment and other allied activities. The increasing
NPAs of loans indicate a weak financial health of the cooperative institutions and this
has impacted the financial and operational sustainability of the cooperative
institutions.
In view of the failure of rural credit system to reach the rural poor NABARD found
that micro-finance programme through SHG-Bank Linkage would be highly suitable
for poor and women particularly marginalized. On the basis of its own studies and
also inspired by the linkage experience under APRACA,NABARD argued for a
different approach with the following elements (a) using the existing infrastructure of
banks and social organization, (b) it should be savings-rather than credit-led (c) and
using bank rather than donor resources in the provision of credit. India has adopted
the micro-finance scheme through SHG-Bank Linkage model and started in 1992
with a modest 250 groups. Progress of SHG presented in table-3
Table-3 Progress of Self Help Groups in India

Year Selp Help Group Financed by Bnak
No. of SHG in Amount in Rs. Growth %
Lakh crore
2007-08 12.28 8849.26 -
2008-09 16.09 12256.51 38.50
2009-10 15.87 14453.30 17.90
2010-11 11.96 14547.73 0.65
2011-12 11.48 16534.77 13.66
Source: Status of Micro Finance India- NABARD
Under the SHG-Bank Linkage programme as on 31March 2012, 79.60 lakh SHG
held savings bank accounts were in operation. However, the development of SHG is
not states. Its progress in North Indian states is slow because of illiteracy, rigidity of
cast system, dominance of money lender and lack of awareness.
263
Share of Agriculture sector in GDP

Giving focus on the slow growth of agriculture credit, the government
announced a credit packages for the agriculture sector, which made doubling of
agriculture credit over a period three years. Government sets the target every year for
agriculture credit but for the flow of credit far exceed from the target. Government is
providing crop loan at lower rate of interest to farmers from 2006-07. Government
provided 3% interest subsidy on crop loans to the farmers who paid their loan at time
for the year 2011-12. Government is providing resources almost 80% in the form of
subsidy on fertilizer and PDS while only 20% is investing in agriculture.
Table.4 Share of Agriculture sector in GDP

Year Share in
GDP (%)
1950-51 55.4
160-61 48.7
1970-71 42.3
1980-81 36.1
1990-91 29.6
2001-02 26.3
2005-06 18.5
2007-08 17.8
2008-09 17.0
2010-11 14.5
2011-12 14.4
2012-13 13.9
2013-14 13.9
Source: Secondary Data
In this table the share of agriculture sector is continuously decreasing from 1950-
51 to 2013-14. The share of agriculture sector in GDP was 55.42% in 1950-51,
29.6% was in 1990-91, 14.4% in 2011-12 and estimated that it will be 13.9% in
2012-13 and the debt waiver and debt relief scheme (2008) the loans that were over
dues on December 2007 and which remained unpaid until Feb. 29, 2008, under the
one time settlements (OTS), a rebate of 25% was given against payment of the
balance of 75% present. Signing an agreement for debt relief under the OTS, the
farmers were entitled to fresh agriculture loans from the banks in accordance with
normal rules. In this plan the target of the government was for loan borrowed
264
approximately Rs.71, 680 crore of 4.29 crore farmers. Government estimated that
about 3 crore small and marginal farmers and about 1 crore other farmers would
benefit from this scheme. The total value of over dues borrowed was estimated at
Rs.50, 000 crore and the OTS relief on the over dues loans at Rs.10,000 crore.
According to the plan approximately the loan of Rs. 7,000 crore of 25 lakh farmers
only borrowed by SBI.The SBI played a greater role in loan borrowing.
Conclusion:
It is now an established fact that without access to formal finance at an affordable
cost, inclusive growth is not possible. In order to provide credit to the productive
sector, which has the potential for employment generation, government should adopt
multi channel credit policy involving SHGs and Micro-Finance institution. Since
2004, there has been a spurt in agricultural credit due to Govt. of India initiatives
such as Doubling of Agriculture Credit in 2004-06, Debt Waiver Scheme and
Strengthening of Co-operative. Thus, agricultural credit scenario has been good in
past years but the average agriculture GDP growth declined to around 2 percent.
Although agricultural credit flow data is impressive but the small and marginal
farmers are unable to get credit easily. While the overall credit to agriculture has
been growing and the interest rates for farmers have also been reduced to 7 percent (4
percent after taking in to the 3 percent interest subvention for timely repayment of
crop loans) yet the biggest challenge remains in terms of increasing access to credit,
particularly for the marginal and lease based farmers. While defining a credit policy,
there cannot be a uniform policy across the country. It should be flexible and
decentralized, based on the local socio-economic condition. Therefore more
innovative models are needed to reach small and marginal farmers in rural areas for
the success of financial inclusion programme.
References:
 Biradar, R.R (2006) “Rural Non-Farm Activities in India: Emrging Issues” in
Sabana Talwar(edi) Agriculture and Globalization, Serial Publication. New
Delhi.
 Bhaumik, Sasank Sekhar (2009) “Agricultural Credit in India: A Review of
Performance and Policies” in Changing Face of Rural Credit in India
(edi).Serial Publication, New Delhi .
 Chadha, G.K (1986) “Agricultural Growth and Rural Non-Farm Activities: An
Analysis of Indian Experience” in Yang Boo Choe and Fu-Chen Lo (edit),
Rural Industrialization and Non-Farm Activities of Asian Farmer. Rural
Economics Institute, Asia and Pacific
265
 Economic Survey 2010-11 Government of India.

 Hazra, Anupam (2011) “Ensuring Better Access to Credit in Rural India”
Kurukshetra Vol.59 No.8
 Hooda, Vijay Singh (2011) “Kisan Credit Card Scheme: A Success Story”
Kurukshetra Vol.59 No.8.
 Jay Sheela and Shoukat Ali. M (2010) “Rural Credit and Agricultural
Development in India: An Analysis of its Structure, Need and Growth” in
Rural Credit in the Era of Globalization (edi) Madhav Books Gurgaon (HR).
 Kumar, Dushyant et.al. (2011) “Trends and Issues of Indian Agriculture in
Post Reform period” in Economic Reform and Agriculture Development (edi.)
Deep & Deep Publication, New Delhi.
 Kellic, T (1985) “Economic Environment and Agricultural Development: The
Importance of Macro Economic policy, Food Policy Vol.10 No.1.
 Lipton (1977) “Why Poor People Stay Poor: A study of Urban bias in word
development, London Temple Smith.
 Mishra, Naveen Kumar (2009) “Rural Credit by Formal Agencies: An
Overview” in Changing Face of Rural Credit in India (edi) Serial Publication,
New Delhi.
 Patel,Amrit (2013) “Agricultural Credit By Banks” ” Kurukshetra Vol.62
No.2
 Sharma, Praveen (2010) “Rural Agriculture Credit in The Post Reform Period
Some Concerns” in Rural Credit in The Era of Globalization (edi) Madhav
Books Gurgaon (HR).
 Siddiqi, Nahid, Akhtar and MH. Asif (2011) “Flow of Institutional Credit to
Agriculture in India: An Overview” in Economic Reforms and Agriculture
Development (edi) Deep & Deep Publication, New Delhi.
 Swaminathan, M.S (2004) “Agriculture in Back Bone of Livelihood Security
System” Business line Jan 28.
266
22
Empowering Rural Women: An Impact Assessment of
Selp Help Groups
Kiran Kumar P
Introduction
Agriculture continues to be the mainstay of the Indian economy as it is

a major source of livelihood for more than two-thirds of population.
Agriculture provides the bulk of wage goods required by the non-
agricultural sector as well as the raw materials for the industrial sector (Kiran
et al 2009: 106). Although more than five decades have passed since India’s
independence and agriculture production in the country has increased
several folds largely due to the green revolution technologies, certain features
of Indian agriculture have hampered balanced growth and development. It
still exhibits feudal relations of production, mainly because the land reforms
have not been properly enforced (Kiran et al 2008: 29).
In recent years, a few large business houses have entered into
floriculture for the production of cut flower for home consumption as also for
export. However, the production and trade of floriculture for traditional and
industrial purpose is mainly in hands of small family enterprises, where
women folk is prominent worker, the poorer the family, the more it depends
267
on economic productivity of its women. They have invisible hand, 90 per

cent of rural women are unskilled and 88 per cent are illiterate which makes
them vulnerable to exploit and economically dependent on men. No serious
efforts have been made to improve the condition of women in our country. It
is possible through empowerment of women. There is need to train women
for the floriculture oriented entrepreneurship through which women of rural
areas can easily earn money in short run by this occupation. Till now no
training is given on floriculture even to men folk then what will be place of
women. If women would be trained for the job related to flower cultivation,
future prospect of floriculture would be brighter and so will be national
development (Meenakshi and Mehta 2006).
Against this background, the present study is designed with a set of
objectives. An attempt in examining the impact of floriculture as an
agribusiness and Government will certainly provide key policy inputs to the
policy makers, development practitioners and researchers to checkout policy
package to address the problems incorporated with floriculture and other
related activities and thereby ensuring faster and more appropriate place for
blooming floriculture activity in the days to come.
Objectives of the Study
1. To study the flower cultivation technology which is already existed
2. To explore the technical knowledge of rural women on flower
cultivation
3. To study the level of acceptability of flower cultivation enterprise by
rural farm women
4. To understand the constraints faced by the rural women in flower
cultivation.
Materials and Methods
The study was carried out in Dakshina Kannada and Udupi districts of
Karnataka State because both the districts are climatically best suited for
flower cultivation and also most of the farm women population is engaged in
flower cultivation enterprise. Secondary sources like District Horticulture
office, flower markets of both the district were visited and collected the
information regarding the existing flower cultivating technology. From the
selected districts, two blocks and from each block one village were selected
by random sampling procedure. A list of total self help groups (SHGs)
268
formed by women in the selected villages was procured from the District
project Manager. Out of the provided list 2 SHGs per village (10 women in
each group) were randomly selected, so as to have a sample of 80 rural farm
women in 8 SHGs. The qualitative data were quantified according to the
standards laid down and tabulated to draw inferences. Statistical tool like
simple percentage was model used wherever appropriate. On the basis of the
statistical test, interpretations of results was done, inferences and conclusions
were drawn.
Rural Women in Farm Activities: Review of Empirical Evidences

Review of earlier studies on women participation in agriculture will
help to resolve the problem encountered in the earlier studies and to
concentrate on the aspects which need more systematic examination. Hence,
an attempt is made to synthesize the conclusions of the earlier studies on
women role in agriculture. Emphasis will be on access to and control of
productive resources and benefits from agricultural production and relevant
services.
Gandhi (2005) emphasized that owing to the continuous increase in
demand for flowers in recent years both in the domestic and international
market, floriculture has emerged as a leading industry in terms of trade.
Kiran et al (2008) emphasized that with the global boom in floriculture trade,
hi-tech floriculture especially cut flower segment, has been identified by the
government as a thrust area for exports. At present, about 150 hectares of
land is under hi-tech floriculture. Sharma and Singh (1970) found that
important agricultural operations were identified in which women actively
participated includes, seed storage, winnowing, care of animals, harvesting,
weeding, soak pit, sowing, applying manure in the field, using implements,
respectively. Study by Joshi and Alshi (1985) revealed that per hectare female
labor used on High Yielding Variety (HYV) Cotton and Jowar farms was
more as compared to the local variety farm. Pandey and Pareek (1988)
indicated that in fruit, vegetable and flower gardens women help to a great
extent in operations like weeding, hoeing, application of manures and
fertilizers, harvesting and processing of the produce. Further, noted that
farm women should be trained in modern production techniques of fruits,
vegetables and flowers. Uberoy (1995) reported that in India, among 70 per
269
cent of the total working population, 84 per cent of all economically active
women are involved in agriculture. However, women are facing so many
problems in agriculture like mechanization has affected women by reducing
the demand for employment in peak season. Allendorf (2007) noted that
access to and control over land continues to be a major setback for women
farmers which limit their ability to effectively practice sustainable
agricultural development. Singh et al (2005) revealed that the wages disparity
was found to be higher among men and women in agriculture where men
enjoyed with higher wages than women while in case of on farm activities.
Bala (2000) reported that in Moga district of Punjab, participation of farm
women was higher in uprooting of seedlings, transplantation as regards pre-
harvest agricultural activities. An opportunity to improve women’s access to
inputs is through provision of credit to women. Credit gives women the
ability to expand their life choices especially where control over it is exercised
hence empowering (Mehira, 1997). Saraswathi Raju Iyer (2004) studied that
women in rural areas are depending on agriculture which is the major
unorganized sector in India. Women face a lot of problems in agriculture like
women labour displaced by technology, physical strenuous labour, illiteracy
etc. Latha and Brindha (1997) revealed that women were consulted at each
and every step of seed production. They decide which company to work
with. They also choose the seeds to be produced and allocate the land area
for seed production.
Above literature indicate that studies have been conducted on
importance of floriculture, its economics and constraints related to its
adoption and one or other aspects of acceptability of flower cultivation
technology in a fragmented manner. Whereas acceptability of any technology
comprised of various stages like exposure, knowledge gain, attitude change,
decision making for adoption, implementation on small scale and
confirmation. No study measure the potentiality of floriculture in terms of
physical compatibility, cultural compatibility, profitability as an agribusiness,
so this study is step forward in this direction. A perusal of literature unfolds
the fact that none of the study has given any attention to the acceptability of
flower cultivation technology as a whole. The present study had made an
attempt to incorporate all these parameters combined in the broader
framework of acceptability along with constraints and factors affecting
270
adoption and non-adoption by farm women. Therefore, in the present study

all these components have been kept at appropriate place for exploration.
Result and Discussion
Women are a critical component of agriculture in developing countries,
contributing to ensuring food security and nutrition. They are farmers,
unpaid workers on family farms, paid or unpaid agricultural labourers on
other farms and agricultural enterprises, food processors and vendors, home
gardeners, cooks, and carers for children and the elderly. Moreover, due to
their specific roles in food production, many women are the repositories of
knowledge about cultivation, processing, and preservation of nutritious and
locally adapted crop varieties. Given the right possibilities, such knowledge
can allow women to be innovation leaders in sustainable agriculture. Social
norms can impose even more restrictions on women’s mobility, decision-
making power and control over family income, limiting their ability to
develop small businesses.
Pattern of Flower Cultivation Technology in the Study Area

The information about the existing pattern of flower cultivation
technology was collected from the secondary sources like District
Horticulture office, State Horticulture Database, National Horticulture
Database, progressive farmers and also from other relevant literature.
Table 1: Area under Flower Cultivation (area in hectare)

Districts Villages
Dakshina Udupi Konaje Kotekar Shankarpura Shirva
Kannada
Area under 110 453 19 22 71 83
floriculture
Jasmine 71 326 12 13 65 80
Chrysanthemum 4 72 1 1 10 9
Marigold Nil 6 Nil Nil 1 Nil
Crossandra 11 16 3 1 2 5
Source: Field study
271
The flower cultivating area was higher in Udupi district as compared

to Dakshina Kannada district. The Jasmine cultivation area was higher
covering 376 and 71 ha followed by chrysanthemum cultivation with 72 and
4 ha both in Udupi and Dakshina Kannada district respectively. Cultivation
of Crossandra flower with 16 and 11 ha in the district. There is no record for
the cultivation of Marigold in Dakshina Kannada and 6 ha of area covered in
Udupi district. Regarding villages, in Shirva and Shankarpura of Udupi
district, Jasmine was grown on 83 ha in Shirva and 71 ha in Shankarpura
village followed by Chrysanthemum with 10 and 9 ha respectively. In Konaje
and Kotekar villages of Dakshina Kannada, there was no area under
Marigold cultivation was recorded. The District Horticulture office provided
technical guidance from time to time. The farm women got the knowledge
from the progressive farmers regarding the flower cultivation.
Table 2: Profile of the Respondents in the Study Area

Variables Districts Total
Dakshina Kannada Udupi
Konaje Kotekar Shankarapura Shirva N=80
n=20 n=20 n=20 n=20
Age
18-29 8(40) 7(35) 6(30) 5(25) 26(32.5)
30-39 8(40) 11(55) 10(50) 12(60) 41(51.25)
40-49 4(20) 1(5) 3(15) 3(15) 11(13.75)
50 above 0(0) 1(5) 1(5) 0(0) 2(2.5)
Caste
Low 2(10) 4(20) 1(5) 2(10) 9(11.25)
Middle 6(30) 8(40) 15(75) 14(70) 43(53.75)
High 12(60) 8(40) 4(20) 4(20) 28(35)
Family Size
Small (upto 4) 7(35) 5(25) 5(25) 6(30) 23(28.75)
Medium (5-8) 11(55) 8(40) 11(55) 14(70) 44(55)
Large (above 8) 2(10) 7(35) 4(20) 0(0) 13(16.25)
Land Holdings
Upto 1 acre 12(60) 13(65) 8(40) 9(45) 42(52.5)
2-4 acres 5(25) 7(35) 10(50) 6(30) 28(35)
Above 4 acres 3(15) 0(0) 2(10) 5(25) 10(12.5)
Occupation
Agriculture 12(60) 13(65) 7(35) 14(70) 46(57.5)
Business 2(10) 0(0) 3(15) 4(20) 9(11.25)
Wage Labour 0(0) 1(5) 2(10) 0(0) 3(3.75)
272
Service 0(0) 1(5) 1(5) 0(0) 2(2.5)

Farming/Labour 6(30) 5(25) 7(35) 2(10) 20(25)
Education
Illiterate 7(35) 13(65) 6(30) 5(25) 31((38.75)
Primary 6(30) 5(25) 4(20) 3(15) 18(22.5)
Middle 0(0) 0(0) 1(5) 7(35) 8(10)
High School 7(35) 1(5) 8(40) 5(25) 21(26.25)
Graduate and above 0(0) 1(5) 1(5) 0(0) 2(2.5)
Income
Low (Upto 2000) 1(5) 9(45) 12(60) 10(50) 32(40)
Middle ( 2001-5000) 13(65) 5(25) 5(25) 6(30) 29(36.25)
High (above 5001) 6(30) 6(30) 3(15) 4(20) 19(23.75)
Material possession
Low 12(60) 14(70) 14(70) 5(25) 45(56.25)
Medium 5(25) 6(30) 3(15) 11(55) 25(31.25)
High 3(15) 0(0) 3(15) 4(20) 10(12.5)
Socio-economic status
Low 1(5) 3(15) 6(30) 8(40) 18(22.5)
Medium 15(75) 14(70) 11(55) 10(50) 50(62.5)
High 4(20) 3(15) 3(15) 2(10) 12(15)
Note: Figures in parentheses indicate percentages
The above table 2 depicted that majority (51.25 %) of the rural women
were in middle age group of 30-39 years, which is followed by group of
young women folk with 32.5 per cent, there were also women with age group
of above 50 years but they were found in only 2.5%. Caste wise distribution
of the respondents shows that 54 per cent rural women belonged to middle
caste as the population of Christian community dominant in flower
cultivation in the study area which is followed by high caste (35%) and low
caste with 11.25%. Data related to size of the family is concerned it is found
that majority of the women had the medium family (55%) followed by small
family with 28.75 per cent and large family recorded was only with 16.25 per
cent. Agriculture was the main occupation of all the respondents which is
followed by business and labour. Majority of the women farmers had the
land holding upto 1 acre with 52.5 per cent, 2 to 4 acres with 35 per cent and
above 4 acres with as low as 12.5 per cent. As far as education is concerned
majority of the farmers are illiterates in the area of study (38.75%), which is
followed by high school with 26.25 per cent as the Christian women folks in
the study do have some education. There were also the women farmers who
273
had the education of graduation and above but only with a 2.5 per cent. It is
found that 40 per cent respondents belonged to low income group followed
by middle (36.25 %) and high income with 23.75 per cent recorded in the
study area. Data on socio-economic condition revealed that 62.5 per cent
respondents had medium socio-economic status, which is followed by low
and high socio-economic status.
Table 3: Level of Knowledge Gained by the Respondents about the Flower

Cultivation in the Study Area
Categories Villagewise respondents Total
Dakshina Kannada Udupi N=80
Konaje Kotekar Shankarapura Shirva
n=20 n=20 n=20 n=20
Concept and importance
Low 2(10) 6(30) 0(0) 2(10) 10(12.5)
Medium 9(45) 10(50) 14(70) 12(60) 45(56.25)
High 9(45) 4(20) 6(30) 6(30) 25(31.25)
Knowledge of flower varieties
Low 5(25) 2(10) 3(15) 0(0) 10(12.5)
Medium 7(35) 8(40) 10(50) 8(40) 33(41.25)
High 8(40) 10(50) 7(35) 12(60) 37(46.25)
Field preparation, sowing and planting
Low 4(20) 7(35) 12(60) 6(30) 29(36.25)
Medium 8(40) 10(50) 5(25) 12(60) 35(43.75)
High 8(40) 3(15) 3(15) 2(10) 16(20)
Transplantation
Low 13(65) 18(90) 10(50) 12(60) 53(66.25)
High 7(35) 2(10) 10(50) 8(40) 27(33.75)
Plant protection
Low 15(75) 12(60) 11(55) 7(35) 45(56.25)
High 5(25) 8(40) 9(45) 13(65) 35(43.75)
Sowing and application of fertilizers
Low 7(35) 10(50) 6(30) 7(35) 30(37.5)
High 13(65) 10(50) 14(70) 13(65) 50(62.5)
Harvesting
Low 8(40) 6(30) 18(90) 5(25) 37(46.25)
High 12(60) 14(70) 2(10) 15(75) 43(53.75)
Packing and Marketing
Low 5(25) 4(20) 3(15) 6(30) 18(22.5)
Medium 12(60) 16(80) 14(70) 8(40) 50(62.5)
High 3(15) 0(0) 3(15) 6(30) 12(15)
274
Availing of Loan
Low 12(60) 6(30) 5(25) 8(40) 31(38.75)
Medium 7(35) 14(70) 12(60) 8(40) 41(51.25)
High 1(5) 0(0) 3(15) 4(20) 8(10)
Figures in parentheses indicate percentages
The above table clearly shows that high knowledge gain in the
categories like aware of varieties of the flower (46.25 %) sowing season and
application of the fertilizer is also high with 62.5 per cent which is followed
by harvesting with 53.75 per cent. Medium knowledge gain in concept and
importance of floriculture is about 56.25 per cent and knowledge about the
preparation of the field and planting time with 43.75 per cent which is
followed by both knowledge of packing and marketing (62.5 %) and
knowledge of availing of the loan with 51.25 per cent. In the categories like
transplantation (66.25%) plant protection (56.25%) the low knowledge gain
was recorded. It can be found that training on flower cultivation technology
has helped the respondents to gain different knowledge.
Acceptability of Flower Cultivation Technology

Acceptability of flower cultivation technology is depended on decision.
Decision relates to the mental readiness of the respondents to go for
floriculture cultivation. Decision to adopt the technology may vary village to
village. The analysis had been done statement wise separately in selected
villages.
Table 4: Statement Showing the Willingness to Accept the

Floriculture Activity
Statements Konaje Kotekar Shankarapura Shirva Total
n=20 n=20 n=20 n=20 N=80
I received the knowledge of flower cultivation. So I am 6(30) 15(75) 18(90) 12(60) 51(63.75)
cultivating flower
To improve the economic condition of the family 15(75) 12(60) 16(80) 12(60) 55(68.75)
I am more confident for flower cultivation, after getting 17(85) 14(70) 16(80) 11(55) 58(72.5)
the training
It easy to harvest, pack and marketing of flowers 10(50) 7(35) 12(60) 9(45) 38(47.5)
Inspite of social restrictions, I will go for flower 5(25) 10(50) 0(0) 6(30) 21(26.25)
cultivation
I am fully convinced about the flower cultivation 6(30) 14(70) 13(65) 15(75) 48(60)
275
I will implement floriculture when all the trainees have 15(75) 7(35) 12(60) 11(55) 45(56.25)
implemented it
I need good quality seed/stem to cultivate floriculture 16(80) 15(75) 7(35) 11(55) 49(61.25)
I am not ready to implement floriculture 8(40) 5(25) 2(10) 5(25) 20(25)
It is very difficult to avail loan so I quit floriculture 0(0) 2(10) 4(20) 0(0) 6(7.5)
Cultivation of flowers will have more problems than 6(30) 2(10) 1(5) 0(0) 9(11.25)
benefits so I am not cultivating
Figures in parentheses indicate percentages
The above table clearly shows that more than half of the respondents
were of the positive opinion about the flower cultivation. More than 70 per
cent of the respondents were more confident in accepting floriculture activity
due to knowledge received through training, many of the respondents
(68.75%) were adopted this flower cultivation activity to improve their
economic condition. 60 per cent of the respondents were fully convinced
about the importance of floriculture. 61.25 per cent of the respondents
cultivating floriculture if they get good quality seed or planting material. It
was easy to harvest and pack and also to market for about 48 per cent of the
respondents. 25 per cent of the respondents were not ready to take
floriculture activity, it is difficult to avail the loan for 7 per cent and again
11.25 per cent have of the opinion that floriculture business has more
problem than benefit.
Constraints Faced by the Respondents in Implementing the Floriculture
Technology
An effort has made to explore the problems of women cultivators from
the study areas. There are several constraints such as Social, Economic and
Technical which reported in these study areas. Lack of awareness about the
new diseases due to climate change, loss of agriculture products while
assembling and marketing, lower price and the like.
Table 5: Distribution of the Women Farmers with Social, Economic and
Technical Constraints
Constraints Respondents N=80
Social Constraints
Male dominance 15(18.75)
Social Customs and Taboos 10(12.5)
Availability of Time 36(45)
Family norms 18(22.5)
Other 5(6.25)
276
Economic Constraints
Mobility 44(55)
Access to credit 38(47.5)
Loss of Agriculture Products 21(26.25)
Lower Price 42(52.5)
Technical Constraints
Literacy 12(15)
Technical Skills 7(8.75)
Lack of Inputs 16(20)
Lack of Awareness 4(5)
Lack of female farm extension workers 25(31.25)
Low Quality of Planting Materials 13(16.25)
Table 5 provides the data related to problems faced by women farmers.

It has been observed that, cultural norms, male dominance, less availability
of time and resistance from family members were the constraints, which are
being faced by rural women. After cultural norms in our society is male
dominated and women are not allowed to go freely for participating in
agricultural activities. Majority of the women respondents (55 per cent) of the
respondents indicated lack of mobility as the major constraints in
approaching agricultural services. There may be less availability of vehicles
especially for rural women to access these agricultural services. Moreover a
large majority 47.5 per cent of the respondents indicated lack of access to
credit as the core constraint in approaching agricultural services for rural
women. Loss of agricultural products while assembling, packing or
transporting which accounts for 26.25 per cent was also another economic
constraint. Low price was also another economic constraint in the study area
which accounts for 52.5 per cent.
The data shows that a great majority of women farmers have reported
the lack of women farm extension workers which accounts for 31.25 per cent,
the proportion of famers facing the problem of availability of good quality of
plants was estimated to be at 16.25 per cent, followed by literacy with 15 per
cent. The lack of awareness relating to the new practice of cultivation, new
diseases, insecticides, pesticides, harvesting, and packaging is also major
problem faced by most of the rural women farmers cultivating in the area of
the study. Kundu et al (1997) reported that India’s poor performance in global
market is because of inadequate infrastructure, lack of appropriate planting
277
materials, production technology, basic inputs like standard containers,

quality packing materials etc, and are critical bottlenecks. Suitable market
surveys and pricing information were not available (Sundaram 2003 and
Chattopadyay 2000). Absence of control mechanism and coordination
between government and firms, absence of cold chains and domestic market
was unorganized and there was no established marketing channel.
Conclusion And Recommendations

Women play an indispensable role in farming and in improving the
quality of life in rural areas. However, their contributions often remain
concealed due to some social barriers and gender bias. Even government
programmes often fail to focus on women in agriculture. In spite of social,
political and economic constraints, women farmers have proved extremely
resourceful and hardworking in their attempt to ensure household food
security. Social constraints place barriers around their access to scientific and
technological information. Agricultural extension services and other
infrastructural support for women farmers should be made available to
women farmers. Policies should be designed to ensure women’s control over
complementary resources including irrigation, credit, water, forest, fuel,
fodder, information and training. Technologies must be used that are safe for
workers i.e. reduced use of pesticides, ensure that occupational safety and
health measures are in place. Measures should be taken to remove
middlemen in the sale of non-timber forest products and women’s
cooperatives for directly marketing these products should be formed. The
contribution of women to agricultural and rural development should be
maximized by implementing solutions to the specific problems they face as
economic, social and technical aspects. Credit facilities and input should be
made available through farmers’ cooperative societies. The existing women’s
group in the village should be organized and strengthened to increase
women’s access to extension services, credit facilities, agricultural inputs and
even marketing services. More female extension workers should be trained
and sent to help female farmers. It is necessary to particularly identify
women as an integral part of the agriculture.
278
References
 Allendorf, K. (2007). Do Women's Land Rights Promote Empowerment and
Child Health in Nepal? World Development 35 (11) , 1975-1988.
 Bala, R. (2000): “Farm Women Participation in Selected Agricultural and
Subsidiary Occupational Activities in Moga District of Punjab”, PhD thesis
PAU Ludhiana.
 Gandhi, G.P. (2005): “Opportunities Galore for Floricultural Exports”, Facts
for You, Vol. 25(8), pp11-15.
 Joshi, C. K. and Alshi, M. R. (1985): “Impact on High Yielding Varieties on
Employment Potential of Female Labour in Akola District of Maharastra”,
Indian Journal of Agricultural Economics, Vol. 40(2), pp 230-235.
 Kiran Kumar P, V.B Hans and Jayasheela (2009) “Indian Agriculture: Crisis
and Challenges under Globalization”, Social Action, Vol 59(1), Jan-March
2009. ISSN-0037-7627
 Kiran, P., Jayasheela and Hans (2008): “Indian Agriculture in the Post-
Economic Reform Period”, Journal of Development Research, Vol. 1(1), pp 29-
42.
 Latha, B. and Brindha, N (1997): “Participation of Women in Seed Industry”,
Indian Farmer Times, Vol.12 (5), pp17-26
 Mehira, R. (1997). The role of Non Governmental Organisations: Charity and
Empowerment. Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social
Science 554.
 Pandey, R.M. and Pareek, O.P. (1988): “Appropriate Horticulture Production
Technologies for Farm Women”, International Conference of Farm Women,
Indian Council of Agricultural Research, New Delhi.
 Sarawathi Raju Iyer, (2004), “Women and Rural Economy”, Social Welfare,
March, pp.4-7.
 Sharma and Singh, T. (1970): “Participation of Rural Women in Decision
Making Process Related to Farm Business”, Indian Journal of Extension
Education, Section 6, pp43-50.
 Singh S.N., Anil Kumar B., Singh S.R., (2005), “Labour Wages
Discrimination in Agriculture: Gender Bias and Policy Implications”,
Agricultural Situation in India, Vol. LXI, No. 12, March pp. 869-874.
 Uberoy, A. (1995): “New Technologies for Women in Agriculture”, Yojana,
Vol. 39(11), pp 17-20
279
23
Social Exclusion a Study on Child Labour
M.D.Umesha
Introduction
Child labour is. generally speaking, work (or children that harms them
or exploits them in some way (physically, mentally, morally, or by blocking
access to education). Child labour is not child work. Child work can be
beneficial and can enhance a child's physical, mental, spiritual, moral or
social development without interfering with schooling, recreation and rest.
Helping parents in their household activities and business after school in
their free time also contributes positively to the development of the child.
When such work is truly part of the socialization process and a means of
transmitting skills from parents to child, it is not child labour. Through such
work children can increase their status as family members and citizens and
gain confidence and self-esteem As UNICEF State of the World's Children
Report puts it. "Children's work needs to be seen as.happening along a
continuum, with destructive or exploitative work at one end and beneficial
work—promoting or enhancing children's development without interfering
with their schooling, recreation and rest — at the other. And between these
two poles, are vast areas of work that need not negatively affect a child's
280
development." Other social scientists have slightly different ways of drawing

the line between acceptable and unacceptable work.UNICEF classifies the
hazards of child labour into three categories, namely (i) physical; (ii)
cognitive: (iii) emotional, social and moral,
Physical hazards:There are jobs that are hazardous in them and affect child
laborer immediately/They affect the overall health, coordination, strength,
vision and hearing of children. Working in mines, quarries, construction
sites, and carrying heavy loads are some of the activities that put children
directly at risk physically. Jobs in the glass and brassware industry in.India,
where children are exposed to high temperatures while rotating the.wheel
.furnace and use heavy and sharp tools, are clearly physically hazardous to
them.
Cognitive hazards:Education helps a child to develop cognitively.
emotionally and socially, and needless to say, education is often gravely
reduced by child - labour. Cognitive development includes literacy, numeric
and die acquisition of knowledge necessary to normal life. Work may take so
much of a child's time that it becomes impossible for them to attend school;
even if they do attend, they may be ' too tired to be attentive and follow the
lessons.
Emotional, social and moral hazards:There are jobs that may
jeopardize a child's psychological and social growth more than physical
growth. However, long hours of work, and the physical, psychological and
sexual abuse to 'which the child domestic drudges are exposed make the
work hazardous. According to a UNICEF survey, about 90 percent of
employers of domestic workers, in India preferred children of 12 to. 1.5 years
of age. This is mostly because they can be easily dominated and obliged to
work for long hours and can be paid less than what would have to be paid to
an adult worker. Moral hazards generally refer dangers arising for children
in activities in which they are used for illegal activities, such as trafficking of
drugs, the sex trade, and for the production of pornographic materials.
Types of Child Labour

Participation in activities as a member of the Family.
281
Children are engaged without pay in domestic household tasks,

agricultural pastoral work, handicraft/cottage industries etc.
Children do agricultural/pastoral work which consists of (seasonal/
full-time) migrant labour, local agricultural work, domestic service,
construction work and informal occupation e.g. recycling of waste- employed
by others and self employed.
Participation in activities of other family /trade/ business/ service
sector.
Causes of Child Labour

Over. Population:Due to limited recourses and more mouths to feed.
Children areemployed in various forms of work.
Parental illiteracy:Illiterate parents do not realize the need for proper
physical.emotional and cognitive development of a child. As they are
uneducated, they do notrealize the importance of education for their
children.
Poverty: Many a time poverty forces, parents.to send their children to
hazardous jobs.Although they know it is wrong, they nave no other
alternative as they need themoney. The most imperative cause of child labour
is the rife poverty. Poverty coerce the parents to send their brood to seek
employment syndrome and other contingencies may need extra money and
the employment of children is resorted to as easily hand methods to fetch in
that money. The institute of public opinion conducted a survey Inl'969, which
showed "41.2% of Indian population was under poverty line. Half of these
belonged to the scheduled castes and tribes .in village a vast majority of
agricultural labour belongs to these communities Urbanization: The
Industrial Revolution has its own negative side. Many a time MNC's and
export industries in the developing world employ child workers.
particularly in the garment industry.
Unemployment of Elders:Elders often find it difficult to get jobs. The
industrialists and factory owners find it profitable to employ children. This is
so because they can pay less and extract more work. They will also not create
union problem.
282
Orphans: Children born out of wedlock, children with no parents

and.relatives, often do not find anyone to support them. Thus the are forced
.to work for their own living.
Some Solutions to Child Labor
Parents & other adults in the family ensuring a sufficient income from
theirwork & not dependent on their children's income.
Education that helps children learn skills that will help them earn a
living.To provide opportunities for education and training which allow them
to moveon from domestic work;
Social services that help children and families survive crisis, such as
disease, or loss of home and shelter.
To assist them in seeking redress from abusive and/or exploitative
employers:
Not to alienate employers., but to make them part of the solution to
their problems;
To develop longer-term interventions, i.e. not to develop services for
them and then pull-out after just one or two years;
More awareness raising about their situation, and to ensure the this
awareness raising goes hand-in-hand with concrete services for child
domestic workers:
Assistance in accessing government and state infrastructure that can
help them; for example, in obtaining birth certificates, enrolling in school, in
accessing health care, in locating families and returning home.
Perhaps the strongest message to emerge from the consultations was
the importance.of those providing assistance to talk to the children
themselves about what they need.The NGOs working, towards rehabilitation
of child labourers could be assisted bycommunity members in minimizing &
later eradicating child labour.
Conclusion
Often, child labour is considered to be a "necessary evil" in poor
countries such asIndia for the maintenance of the family. In that context,
some consider it virtuous to give a job to a child. In fact, some academicians
and activists campaign not for the reduction of child labour but only.for a
reductionin the exploitation of children The use of child labour is also
responsible for the moral degeneration of the children. Due to extremely poor
283
working conditions, monotonous jobs, low pay, illiteracy and the general ill
treatment at the hand of the masters, the child workers, generally develop
bad habits and breed moral corruption, like cigarette smoking,gambling,
theft, etc. This is an unfortunate situation and needs suitable checks before it
takes epidemic form.
References
 UNICEF, The State of the World's Children 1997, p.25
 ILO, Child labour: Targeting the intolerable. International Labour Office.
Geneva, 1996, p. 7.
 Debi S.Saini, "Children of a Lesser God, Child Labour Law and Compulsory
Primary Education", Social Action, July-September 1994. Vol.44. No.3. p. 2.
 Dr. Narendra Prasad, "Child Labour in India". Yojana; Vol.34. No.8. May 1-
15, 1990, p.1,2-13, 19.p. 12
284
24
Green Schools for Green Economy and Inclusive Growth
G.H.Nagaraja
Introduction
Man's dependence on the environment has been traced back to long
history, from the days of evolution of mankind. In the modern era, the
development is more oriented towards industrialization and technology. The
environment and development has not been keeping pace with each other.
Economic growth increases both the extraction of environmental resources
and the volume of waste generated in to the environment. Economic growth
is accompanied by industrialization, technological advancement, population
increase urbanization and environmental deterioration. This calls for two
important notions namely Environmental sustainability and Economic
sustainability. Sustainable Development is a model of economic development
in which resource must be diverted to human needs while preserving the
environment while considering present and generations to come.
285
The green economy means the economy that aims at minimizing

environmental risks and ecological scarcities which snds in sustainable
development without degrading the environment. The 2011UNEP Green
Economy Report argues we need an economy efficient and fair by
recognizing world and national level equity dimensions, in the conversion to
an economy that is low-carbon, resource efficient, and socially inclusive."
A characteristic distinctive it from previous economic regimes is the direct

valuation of natural capita! and ecological services as having economic value
and a full cost accounting regime in which costs externalized onto society via
3cosystems are reliably traced back to, and accounted for as liabilities of, the
entity that does the harm or neglects an asset. Education is a tool to
encourage sustainable development and improving the ability of people to
address environment and development issues. Here lies the significance for
the Green Schools Movement for a Green Economy
"The green schools movement is the chief thing to happen to education since
the introduction of technology in the classroom". The words of Glenn Cook
remind us that in order to make our students imaginative and critical
thinkers and make them understand that we are part of beautiful web of life
we must think and act green. The concept of green schoolis glorious one which
calls for a green school design, a green organisational culture aligned with
green practices methodologies and prepare the stage for the green schools to
become teaching schools. As defined by 'The Centre f Green Schools' a green
school is a school building or facility that creates a healthy environment conducive to
learnin while saving energy resources and money. Green schools are supportive
and efficient spaces, which inspire the next generation of leaders to value
their environment. Green schools helps lower operational cost and reduce
waste, while also encouraging the active involvement of these occupants in
these conservation efforts, teaching them to be responsible stewards.
Green School is an international environment education programme,
offering a framework for schools to take environmental issues from the
curriculum and apply them to the functioning of the school education
system. The Green school programmme is run by FEE (Foundation for
Environmental Education) and is known as Eco schools. The Green school
286
concept is adopted in all European Union Member States, and various

countries in Central and Eastern Europe, South America and Asia.
As Indians we are not unfamiliar with the concept of green schools.

Our ancient education system urges the students to be in harmony with the
nature. RabindranathaTagore's Shanthinikethan is a typical example of this
concept. The major educational philosophies supportive of green school
design include education for sustainability Environmental Education (EE),
and experiential learning. Environmental Education: A tool to sustainable
development.
Environment has been defined as the sum total of all the external
conditions and influences affecting theorganism. The environment may be
divided in to man made and natural environment. Social, cultural and
religious components constitute man made environment. Natural
environment is divided in to biotic (living) and abiotic (non living)
components.Environment education is a procedure of providing learning
experiences to obtain knowledge, understanding skills and awareness with
desirable attitudinal changes to conserve nature which results in sustainable
development which includes the relation of population pollution resource
allocation, urban and rural planning to the total environment. It should be a
continuous life long process.
Objectives of Environment education

• To improve the quality of environment
• To create an awareness among people on environmental protection.
• To develop the capability of decision making.
Tri formula for realization -Teacher, Curricula & StrategiesThe great thought
reveals the importance of education in refining the generation in the
classroom. The combined role of the teacher along with use of appropriate
strategies could only realize the target. Teacher should be a real model in
promoting them the spirit of eco friendliness. Teachers play a crucial role in
forming, changing and establishing attitudesand values that are important
for environmentally responsible behavior. The classroom should act as the
platform forcreating proper attitude towards the conservation of
287
environment. Teachers should sow the seeds of green environment in the

minds of children. Curriculum should be formulated giving provision for
both scholastic and non scholastic attainment of green economics. Students
should be trained in
 Proper utilization of available resources.
 Suggesting alternative ways of utilization.
 Promoting balanced growth model equating demand & supply.
 Encouraging attainment of self sufficiency
 Awareness about the conservation of nature
 Awareness about population explosion and control of population.
 Promoting the 3R's- Recycle, Reuse and Reduce waste.
With this view mind appropriate instructional strategies should be

adopted .The subject can be taught either as separate subjects or in an
interdisciplinary approach the later will be more fruitful.
• Practical hands on observation and discovery in the

environment
• Inquiry based projects
• cooperative learning/group projects
• Service learning in collaboration with NCC, NSS and other
extension activities.
• Simulations and Models/ activities of role play, social
physiological dramas
• Case studies
• Problem- based learning from society.
• Green Gym Sessions
• Eco tour activity
• Campus cleaning campaign
• Eco Clubs
• Telecast of Documentaries
Conclusion
288
It is obvious that a Green Economy is both possible and feasible. What

we require is certain degree of with power and integrity from the point of
administrators. This can be made a total way of life, not bypassing laws but
bringing about a change in attitude and value systems of people. This can be
done only by education. All of us have to change our mindset and way of
thinking, so as to attune our action and our living styles to the promotion of a
clean and safe environment and contribute towards conservation of
environment.
References; -
 Jones Van (2008) The Green Collar Economy: How one solution can fix our
two biggest problems, Harper CollinsPublishers.
 United Nations Environment Programme (2012) Green Economy: Does it
includes you
 DrSukkuBhavya. School Curriculum for Environmental Education
EduTracks Vol. lONo. 11. July 2011
289
25
Inclusive Development of Scheduled Caste and

Scheduled Tribes through MGNREFGA in Karnataka
Dr. Siddaraju V.G and Dr. Manjuprasad C
Introduction
The National Rural Employment Guarantee Act (NREGA) is one of the
most progressive legislations enacted since independence. Its significance is
evident from a verity of perspectives. First, it is a bold and unique
experiment in the provision of rural employment in India and indeed in the
World at large. Second, it is the first expression of the right to work as an
enforceable legal entitlement. In a country where labour is the only economic
asset for millions of people, gainful employment is a prerequisite for the
fulfillment of other basic rights the right to life, the right to food, and the
right to education.
The Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act,
2005 (Mahatma Gandhi NREGA) was notified on September 7, 2005. The Act
was notified in 200 districts in the first phase with effect from February 2nd
290
2006 and then extended to an additional 130 districts in the financial year
2007-2008 (113 districts were notified with effect from April 1st 2007, and 17
districts in UP were notified with effect from May 15 th 2007). The remaining
districts have been notified under Mahatma Gandhi NREGA with effect from
April 1st 2008. Thus, the Mahatma Gandhi NREGA covers the entire country
with the exception of districts that have a hundred percent urban population.
The development of rural India is an imperative for inclusive and equitable
growth and to unlock the huge potential of the population that is presently
trapped in poverty with its associated deprivations. MGNREGA is a flagship
programme of Govt. of India which forms the second strand for development
of rural areas, the first being the Bharat Nirman Programmes have been
important programme interventions in India and elsewhere in developing
countries since long.
Objectives of MGNREGA
MGNREGA is a powerful instrument for ensuring inclusive growth in
rural India through its impact on social protection, livelihood security and
democratic empowerment. It’s important objectives are:
1. Social protection for the most vulnerable people living in rural India
through providing employment opportunities;
2. Livelihood security for the poor through creation of durable assets,
improved water security, soil conservation and higher land productivity;
3. Drought-proofing and flood management in rural India;
4. Empowerment of the socially disadvantaged, especially women, Scheduled
Castes (SCs) and Schedules Tribes (STs), through the processes of a rights-
based legislation;
5. Strengthening decentralized, participatory planning through convergence
of various anti-poverty and livelihoods initiatives;
6. Deepening democracy at the grass-roots by strengthening Panchayati Raj
Institutions;
7. Effecting greater transparency and accountability in governance;
Review of literature
Reddy and Aswath (2016), studied on “Performance of Mahatma
Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act in Karnataka, India”,
291
concluded that MGNREGA is the largest employment providing programme

in the world. It has provided work to 5 crore rural households or 10 crore
workers in India. It addressed 41% of the problem of under employment in
rural areas. Since its inception in Karnataka 67.83 crore person days of
employment has been generated.
Manjula and Rajasekhar (2015), studied on “Participation of
Scheduled Caste Households in MGNREGS: Evidence from Karnataka”, and
they analysed the extent to which Scheduled Caste (SC) households have
participated and benefited from the Mahatma Gandhi National Rural
Employment Guarantee Scheme (MGNREGS) in Karnataka, the number of
days of employment obtained by SC households was relatively low. This
suggests that SC households were discriminated in the provision of
MGNREGS work in Karnataka. The paper discusses factors that constrained
the participation of SC households in MGNREGS.
Asha (2013), in her study “Mahatma Gandhi National Rural
Employment Guarantee Act : A Tool for inclusive growth in Rural India”,
founded that the Ministry of Rural Development is one of the important
ministries in India involved in development of rural areas of the country. The
mission and vision of ministry exhibits a sustainable and inclusive growth of
rural India. The ministry is striving hard to increase livelihood opportunities
and improved quality of life of rural poor people.
Ananda (2013), studied on “MGNREGA- A Programme for Inclusive
Growth Among Rural Poor in India”, and he found that after Independence,
The central and state governments have adopted number of poverty
eradication programmes especially in rural areas. Among these The
MGNREGP is pioneer one playing a vital role in providing employment in
rural areas. The National Rural Employment Guarantee Act, (NREGA) was
notified on September 7, 2005 and came into force on February 2. 2006.
Sharma (2012), studied on SC/ST employment guarantee: women’s
empowerment in rural India by MGNREGA, the purpose of the paper is to
highlight the difference in employment and empowerment attainment
among the SC/ST women in rural India.
Rahmatullah, studied on “MGNREGA: The Role in Inclusive Growth”,
and he stated that MGNREGA is one of the important act for the rural people
to include in the growth process. It is helpful in reducing poverty in rural
292
areas by providing 100 days guaranteed wage employment. In the villages,

the infrastructures are created, which is of prime importance for the
development of the rural as well as the urban areas. MGNREGA is also
helpful in raising the standard of living of the rural people.

The present study was carried out with the below objectives:
1. To study about the growth of MGNREGA in karnataka.
2. To analyze the financial progress of MGNREGA in Karnataka.
3. To study the Employment provided to different categories of
MGNREGA in Karnataka.
4. To study the person days generated of MGNREGA from 2006-07 to
2014-15.
Methodology
The study is based on secondary source of data such as Government
documents, journals, magazines and official records of Ministry of Rural
Development and Panchayat Raj, Government of Karnataka and Government
of India, websites.
Analysis and Discussion
Inclusive Growth
Independent India has to acknowledge the critical role the NREGA has
played in providing a measure of inclusive growth. It has given people a
right to work, to reestablish the dignity of labour, to ensure people’s
economic and democratic rights and entitlements, to create labour intensive
infrastructure and assets, and to build the human resource base of our
country. For the first time, the power elite recognize the people’s right to
fight endemic hunger and poverty with dignity, accepting that their labour
will be the foundation for infrastructure and economic growth. The
entitlements paradigm is still to be established in many States in the country.
Second generation issues like the expansion of the categories of permissible
works needs to be taken up with labour and the deprived continuing to be
the central focus. The improvements must be to strengthen, not divert from
these basic tenets. In the midst of the current economic slowdown, there is
293
enough evidence that this kind of commitment can work to help reduce the
slowdown.
The political class would do well to understand that the most
important solution is an assertion of its will to respond to people’s voices.
The many wise, creative, and innovative initiatives emerging from theory
and practice have a future only if they are owned by the people and
implemented with justice. The NREGA can give people an opportunity to
make the entire system truly transparent and accountable. Properly
supported, people’s struggles for basic entitlements can, in turn, become the
strongest political initiative to strengthen our democratic fabric.
Within five years of time span, as per the government data more than
4.65 crores households are provided with employment throughout the
country. This also states that around 200.7 crore person clays are created.
88.32 lakh works taken up under this Flagship programme. The national
bulletin of NREGA also puts on view that out of the total person days created
48.8% are the person days by the women laborers. Similarly, 29.9% are
created by the laborers from SC community and 21.8% by the ST community
laborers. However a swift look at these figures, giving a kind of contentment
in terms of that the socially backward groups like scheduled tribes,
scheduled castes as well as women participated in the programme but when
it comes to social inclusion of these groups in a flagship programme like
NREGA, it needs to be viewed critically.
MGNREGA in Karnataka:
To tackle the problem of unemployment, under employment and
poverty among the rural population in Karnataka, MGNREGA has been
introduced on 2nd February 2006. The programme was implemented first in
Bidar, Gulbarga, Raichur, Davanagere and Chitradurga districts of the state
in 2006 and extended to Belgaum, Bellary, Chikmagalur, Hasan, Shimoga
and Kodagu districts in 2007. In 2008 MGNREGA universalized by covering
all the remaining districts of the State. The main aim of this programme is to
ensure livelihood and food security to the rural poor through creating
sustainable assets.
294
Table 1: MGNREGA Financial Progress as on 31-12-2015

(Rs in Lakhs)
Financial Year Total Total Expenditure
Releases Available
funds
2006-07 (5 districts) 26430.91 33900.04 22491.53
2007-08 (11 districts) 28970.55 41772.39 19959.17
2008-09 45428.95 72733.10 37360.78
2009-10 266079.71 303880.18 221693.18
2010-11 208507.75 295640.38 186047.28
2011-12 82193.09 195567.78 164099.39
2012-13 143792.63 179691.31 147648.54
2013-14 186110.30 220185.09 208442.06
2014-15 170761.50 182929.28 168365.37
2015-16 (Dec 215) 104899.31 116196.10 91650.75
Source: Rural Development & Panchayath Raj Department,
Government of Karnataka
It is observed table 1 the MGNREGA Financial Progress as on 31-12-
2015. The total released amount during the year 2006-07 was Rs.
26430.91lakhs and in the year 2015-16 it is increased Rs.104899.31 lakhs.
Similarly the availability of fund has increased from Rs. 33900.04 lakhs in
2006-07 to Rs. 116196.10 lakhs in 2015-15. And mainly utilization of the fund
Rs. 22491.53 lakhs in the year 2006-07 it is also highly expenditure of Rs
91650.75 lakhs in 2015-16.
Table 2: Employment provided to different categories of MGNREGA in

Karnataka
(Rs. in lakhs)
Year SC ST Others Women Total
2006-07 73.7 45.18 319.25 112.2 550
2007-08 59.79 37.94 352.87 99.4 550
2008-09 79.89 39.88 167.84 145.03 432.64
295
2009-10 334.64 171.77 1497.02 737.07 2740.5

2010-11 177.4 102.72 817.75 505.08 1602.95
2011-12 109.84 58.02 531.68 321.32 1020.86
2012-13 104.89 55.63 461.4 287.59 909.51
2013-14 16.41 9.12 74.34 46.81 146.68
2014-15 114.15 56.97 547.3 334.71 144.96
Total 1070.71 577.23 4769.45 2589.21 8098.1
. Source: www.mgnrega.nic.in
It is observed table 2 the employment provided to different categories
from 2006-07 to 2014-15. The overall employment provided is 8098.1 lakhs. In
the year 2009-10 maximum numbers of people got employed and the total
number stood at 2740.50 lakhs. The minimum number of members got
employed in the year 2014- 15 and the number stood at 144.96 lakhs. Among
the total, 1070.71 lakh were SC category, 577.23 lakh were under ST category,
4769.45 were other category and remaining 2589.21 lakh were women got
employed under MGNREGA.
Table 3: Person days generated of MGNREGA in Karnataka from 2006-07

to 2014-15
Total person days
Year generated Women (in crores) SC/ST(in crores)
(In crores)
2006-07 2.22 1.12 1.08
2007-08 1.97 0.99 0.97
2008-09 2.88 1.45 1.19
2009-10 20.04 6.85 5.07
2010-11 10.98 4.91 2.8
2011-12 7.01 3.23 1.68
2012-13 6.21 2.87 1.6
2013-14 7.18 3.34 1.71
2014-15 9.34 4.68 1.2
Total 67.83 29.44 17.3
Source: www.mgnrega.nic.in
296
It is observed table 4 the details of person days generated from 2006- 07

to 2014-15. In total person days of 67.83 crore the share of SC/ST category is
17.30 crore person days and women has generated 29.44 crore person days.
During the year 2006-07 total person days generated was 2.22 crore and it has
gone up to 20.04 crore person days in 2009-10. This is due to the introduction
of scheme in all the districts of the State.
Summary and Conclusion

The study shows that the MGNREGA is the largest employment
providing programme in the world and this programmes introduced in India
by the central government and it is being implemented by the respective state
government. The twin objectives of this programme are employment
generation and promotion of infrastructure. MGNREGA has helped in
enhancing the livelihood in rural areas by providing 100 days of guaranteed
wage employment in each financial year to every household who volunteers
to do unskilled manual work. The total person days created women laborers,
SC community and the ST community laborers were inclusive growth of
during the period 2006-15. National Rural Employment Guarantee Act
(NREGA) is the flagship programme of the Government that directly touches
lives of the poor and promotes inclusive growth of rural India. MGNREGA is
designed to be largely implemented through PRIs and at least 50% of all
sanctioned works are to be implemented by the Gram Panchayats. The Gram
Sabha too plays a crucial role in the selection of works and the conduct of
social audits.
References:
 Ananda Reddy B. (2013). MGNREGA- A Programme for Inclusive Growth
among Rural Poor in India. IJSR - International Journal of Scientific Research,
Volume: 2 Issue : 11 November 2013, ISSN No 2277 - 8179
 Asha Sharma. (2012). SC/ST Employment Guarantee: Women’s
Empowerment in Rural India by MGNREGA, International Journal of Human
Development and Management Sciences, Vol. 1 No. 1 (January-December, 2012)
ISSN: 2250-8714. www.journalshub.com
 Asha Sharma. (2013). Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment
Guarantee Act : A Tool for inclusive growth in Rural India. International
297
Journal of Research and Development, ISSN (Print): 2319–5479, Volume-2, Issue

– 2, 2013
 Gangadhara Reddy Y and Aswath G.R. (2016). Performance of Mahatma
Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act in Karnataka.
International Research Journal of Social Sciences, ISSN 2319–3565 Vol. 5(1), 15-
19, January (2016)
 Manjula R and Rajasekhar D. (2015). Participation of Scheduled Caste
Households in MGNREGS: Evidence from Karnataka. Working paper 339, The
Institute for Social and Economic Change, Bangalore, ISBN 978-81-7791-195-4,
2015
 Prasad K. V. S. (2012). Performance of Mahatma Gandhi National Rural
Employment Guarantee Act (MGNREGA): An Overview. International
Journal of Management & Business Studies, ISSN: 2230-9519 (Online) ISSN:
2231-2463 (Print), IJMBS Vol. 2, Issue 4, Oct - Dec 2012
 Rahmatullah M D. MGNREGA: The Role in Inclusive Growth
 Shashikumar T. P. (2013). Origin and Performance of MGNREGA in India –
A Special Reference to Karnataka. Arth Prabhand: A Journal of Economics and
Management, Vol.2 Issue 8 August 2013, ISSN 2278-0629.
http://www.prj.co.in
 Xavier G, and G. Mari. (2014). Impact of MGNREGA on Women
Empowerment with Special Reference to Kalakkanmoi Panchayat in
Sivgangai District, Tamil Nadu. SSRG International Journal of Economics and
Management Studies (SSRG-IJEMS) – volume 1 issue 1 August 2014, ISSN:
2393 - 9125 www.internationaljournalssrg.org Page 1
298
26
Discourse On Sustainable Development in India
Ramesh.M.N
Abstract:
The resource supplies of Earth are dwindling, and our numbers are
continuing to explode. We are already exceeding the "carrying capacity" of
the planet, and further growth will do nothing but continue to destroy our
host, the Earth. The main reason why we are exceeding our carrying
capacity is the environmental growth in our population- Our global
resources of water and food are already stretched to the breaking point.
What will our world be like with twice as many of us, a mere 50 years from
now? Scarcities of renewable resources are contributing to violent conflicts
in many parts of the developing world. - For- instance, the World watch
Institute and other perceptive watchers are quick to point out that a grave -
concern lies in the increasing need for freshwater. Water tables have been
dropping steadily worldwide, with no plan for restoration, while demand
continues to climb. Some have dismally predicted certain wars in the
Middle East over water within a decade.
Sustainability is a dynamic concept born out of the environmental
debate of the last quarter century. There is growing concern nationally and
299
internationally about biodiversity and protection of plants and animals and

community based activity. It is important to view sustainable efforts from
global perspective that addresses socio-economic and environmental
issues. The Rio Summit emphasized on economic growth and poverty
alleviation for sustainable development. The basic prerequisite of
sustainable development is the evolution of a development process with
focus on the enhancement of the living conditions of population as a whole
with emphasis on raising the standard of living of the poor. The Agenda 21
called all countries to develop national strategies for sustainable
development to translate the words and commitments of Earth summit into
concrete policies and actions. The important issue in the 21st century is to
create greater economic and societal well-being without deterioration of the
environment and depletion of the resources.
Introduction:
"There's enough in the world to meet the needs of everyone but there's not
enough to meet the greed of everyone". -Mahatma Gandhi
Over the past 20 years total population in the industrialized countries
has increased by 28%. These countries are facing many problems such as
environmental degradation, over dependence on non-renewal sources of
energy, declining standards of living. These problems are more acute in
developing countries. These countries have formed their economic systems
on western models ignoring their indigenous requirements. A great deal of
harm has been done to agriculture sector. The percentage of cultivable land
has been decreasing over the years due to increase in population and non-
judicial use of resources. This has given rise to man induced degradation.
Forests are being destroyed and concrete jungles are taking their place. It is
within the cities that most of the world's resources are consumed. As most
of these resources originate in rural areas, production decisions taken by
urban enterprises bear a powerful influence on their existence. Rapid
ecological changes are taking place in the fringes and rural areas
surrounding cities. History has led to vast inequalities, leaving almost
three-fourths of the world's people living in less-developed countries and
one-fifth below the poverty line.
300
The term ‘Sustainable Development’ is a broad concept and there are a

number of definitions available. The World Commission on Environment
and Development (the Brundtland Commission, 1987) defines it as
“development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the
ability of future generations to meet their own needs”. This definition is
perhaps the easiest and most acceptable one. Sustainable development
recognizes the interdependence of environmental, social and economic
systems. It promotes equality and justice through people empowerment. In
the political aspect it demands broad based participation and democratic
processes. The answer to the question that why sustainable development is
important lies in the fact that by providing a new framework for decision -
making, issues are considered from a multi-dimensional point of view.
Success is measured not simply by the profit generated, but by the triple
bottom line of economic prosperity, environmental stewardship and
corporate social responsibility. Besides simply making good common sense,
adhering to the principles of sustainable development fulfills compelling
business needs as well, including reducing costs and liabilities, enhancing
brand image and reputation, increasing customer loyalty, encouraging
innovation and stimulating growth and strengthening with our communities
(www.dow.com 1995 -2004). The principles of sustainable development
include fulfillment of human needs for peace, clean air and water, food,
shelter, education and useful and satisfying employment. Environmental
issues are important, such as ecological integrity through careful
stewardship, reduction of wastes, and protection of diverse species and
ecological systems. Sustainable development focuses on local people through
public involvement in the definition and development of local solutions to
environmental and development problems. Achievement of equity is
attained through the fairest possible sharing of limited resources among
contemporaries and between our generation and that of our descendants
Three critical components in promoting sustainable development are
economic growth, social equity and environmental sustainability. The
question often asked is, should be current economic growth be sacrificed for
long term environmental conservation. Policy makers in developing
countries often perceive a trade off between economic growth and
environmental sustainability. However, there is a growing evidence to show
301
that environmental conservation for sustainability of natural resources is not

a luxury but a necessity when considering long term economic growth and
dev elopement. Particularly in the least developed countries. The decline
and degradation of natural resources such as land, soil, forests, biodiversity
and groundwater, resulting from current unsustainable use patterns are
likely to be aggravated due to climate change in the next 25 to 50 years.
Africa, South Asia and some regions of Latin America are already
experiencing server land degradation and freshwater scarcity problems.
There are many ways to purse sustainable development strategies that
contribute to mitigation of climate change.
Notwithstanding the debate, efforts have been made to define the
sustainability of agriculture especially in the light of the contemporary
discourse on growth (and trade), environmental damages, and livelihood
(poverty reduction). For instance, OECD (2001) has defined sustainable
development as a ‘dynamic process, which focuses on the ability of an
economy to improve human welfare in cost-effective ways through
developing, combining and substituting resources in the production
process. It is also a global concept, which recognizes that allowing flows
of resources between sectors and economies through international trade
can maximize production while reducing the pressure on fragile
resources. What is also important is that the concept is multidimensional,
encompassing economic, environmental and social aspects that could
apply to a large extent, to the specific activities in agricultural sector.
Issues for Sustainable Development:
Energy Sustainability:
The demand for energy is growing very fast. Dependence on
imported petroleum is also very high. To meet the increasing energy
demand and to ensure energy security the government, in 2005, formed a
high level Energy Co-ordination Committee (ECC). The committee
submitted its draft report with specific recommendations for how to meet
future energy demands. For the first time since India’s independence the
draft report tried to address the country’s energy issues from a holistic
prospective and develop an energy policy that reflected the aspiration of an
independent country.
302
The study reveals that from 1990 to 2002 India failed to achieve any
noteworthy progress in the management and development of its energy
sector, especially in the areas of cleaner and renewable energy. Moreover,
water, air and land pollution has increased significantly. The absence
of a holistic energy policy and increasingly greater reliance on road
transportation are worsening the situation. Imposition of increased road
taxes for transport vehicles appears necessary. More funds need to be
allocated to rapid upgrading and expansion of India’s railway
infrastructure.
To ensure the effective use of renewable energy sources, which has
tremendous potential in a vast country like India, a ‘passionate intent’ from
the leadership is urgently required. The public sector oil distributing
companies such as Indian Oil Corporation Ltd. and Hindustan Petroleum
Corporation Ltd., which have huge distribution network all over the
country including in the remotest villages, should be asked to distribute
renewable energy items like solar lanterns, solar panels etc.
In line with the Telecommunication Mission of 1980s, Energy
Technology Missions on (i) coal technology; (ii) solar technology; (iii) bio
fuels; (iv) bio mass plantation; and (v) community biogas plants should be
implemented immediately.
Deforestation, soil erosion, desertification, air pollution from
industrial effluents and vehicle emissions, water pollution from arsenic,
raw sewage runoffs of agricultural pesticides are some of the important
environmental issues which demand immediate attention.
Greenhouse Gas
GHG(CO2 equivalent) 1994 1,228,540 Giga gram Per Year (Gg)
Per capita GHG (1994) 1.3 tones
Main Constituent of GHG CO2 (65%), CH4 (31%), N2O (4%)
(1994)
Main Contributors of GHG Energy Sector 61%. Agriculture 28%,
Industrial Process 8%, Waste 2%, Land Use
and Land Use Change and Forestry
(LULUCF) 1%
303
Source: MoEF, (June 2004), India’s Initial National Commitments to the

United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, Govt. of India.
Electronic waste has become a new environmental menace. India

generates around 1,050 tones of electronic scrap each year. A Silicon
Valley Toxics coalition report predicts that 500 million computers will
become obsolete by 2007 resulting in 6.32 billion pounds of plastic and
1.58 billion pounds of lead. 50% to 80% of US e-waste collected for
recycling is sent to Asia-mainly to China, India, and Pakistan. A recent
report on this suggests that e- waste recycling has become a lucrative
business. However toxic materials like lead, cadmium, mercury etc., make
e-waste a health hazard.
Agriculture:
The integration of agriculture with land and water management, and
with ecosystem conservation is essential for both environmental
sustainability and agricultural production. An environmental perspective
must guide the evaluation of all development projects, recognizing the role
of natural resources in local livelihoods. This recognition must be informed
by a comprehensive understanding of the perceptions and opinions of local
people about their stakes in the resource base.
To ensure the sustainability of the natural resource base, the
recognition of all stakeholders in it and their roles in its protection
and management is essential. There is need to establish well-defined and
enforceable rights (including customary rights) and security of tenure,
and to ensure equal access to land, water and other natural and
biological resources. It should be ensured that this applies, in particular,
to in d i ge n o u s c o mmun i tie s , wo me n and o th e r
disadvantaged groups living in poverty. Water governance
arrangements should protect ecosystems and preserve or restore the
ecological integrity of all natural water bodies and their catchments.
This will maintain the wide range of ecological services that healthy
ecosystems provide and the livelihoods that depend upon them.
Biomass is, and will continue for a long time to be, a major source of
fuel and energy, especially for the rural poor. Recognizing this fact,
appropriate mechanisms must be evolved to make such consumption
304
of biomass sustainable, through both resource management and the

promotion of efficient and minimally polluting technologies, and
technologies which will progressively reduce the pressures on
biomass, which cause environmental degradation.
The traditional approaches to natural resource management such as
sacred groves and ponds, water harvesting and management systems, etc.,
should be revived by creating institutional mechanisms which recapture
the ecological wisdom and the spirit of community management inherent in
those systems.
Considering environment as a global good, a unified production
system, especially for food, may be worked out by addressing the dual
objectives of maximizing food production with minimum damage to the
environment. Given the broad patterns of natural resource endowment as
well as the technology-environment interface for food production in the
North and South, this could possibly be achieved by rearranging the
world food production system where the North, by and large, specializes in
production of water-intensive cereal crops whereas the South may specialize
in production of water-saving crops mainly, oil seeds, dry land
horticulture and livestock. But, this kind of reorganization of the food
production system may not work owing to the fact that Southern countries
may not have requisite purchasing power to pay for the cost of food
imports at the price at which Northern countries would like to sell. On the
other hand, Southern countries have serious reservations about being
food-dependent, as it may have adverse political implications.
Another set of constraints emanate from the relative factor
endowment in terms of labour and capital. Neither Northern economy
have the requisite labour force to be employed for managing extensive
farming nor, do countries in the South have adequate capital for
enhancing the productive capacities of the depleted land and water
resources. Thus, working out a world over. Nevertheless, it does
indicate possible directions by which a unified system of food production
could be explored. It is however, pertinent that attempts to explore
avenues for sustainable agriculture must have a bearing on the
contemporary debate regarding the role that trade liberalization could play
305
in enhancing sustainable development for all, especially in the context of a

large agrarian economy like India, should form an integral part of the
policies for promoting agriculture growth, which is employment
generating, spatially broad based, economically efficient and
environmentally sustainable. Promoting agriculture production in the
North have a significant bearing on agricultural growth and thereby
natural resource use in the South. The trade framework therefore,
should address issues of natural resource sustainability on the one hand,
and the livelihood of people depending on agriculture (as main user of
natural resources) on the other. It is hoped that the analysis may help the
exploring policy options for promoting sustainable agriculture in the
context of the recent developments in trade liberalization and WTO-
negotiation.
Health Sector:
Human health in its broadest sense of physical, mental and spiritual well-
being is to a great extent dependent on the access of the citizen to a healthy
environment. For a healthy, productive and fulfilling life every individual
should have the physical and economic access to a balanced diet, safe
drinking water, clean air, sanitation, environmental hygiene, primary
health care and education.
Access to safe drinking water and a healthy environment
should be a fundamental right of every citizen. Citizens of developing
countries continue to be vulnerable to a double burden of diseases.
Traditional diseases such as malaria and cholera, caused by unsafe
drinking water and lack of environmental hygiene, have not yet been
controlled. In addition, people are now falling prey to modern diseases such
as cancer and AIDS, and stress-related disorders. Many of the widespread
ailments among the poor in developing countries are occupation-related,
and are contracted in the course of work done to fulfill the consumption
demands of the affluent, both within the country and outside. The strong
relationship between health and the state of the environment in
developing countries is becoming increasingly evident. This calls for
greater emphasis on preventive and social medicine, and on research in
both occupational health and epidemiology. Because of the close link,
306
there needs to be greater integration between the ministries of Health

and environment, and effective coordination and cooperation between
them. Basic health and educational facilities in developing countries
need to be strengthened. The role of public health service must give
preventive health care equal emphasis as curative care. People should
be empowered through education and awareness to participate in
managing preventive health care related to environmental sanitation
and hygiene. Most developing countries are repositories of a rich
tradition of natural resource-based health care. This is under threat, on
the one hand from modern mainstream medicine, and on the other
from the degradation of the natural resource base. Traditional medicine
in combination with modern medicine must be promoted while
ensuring conservation of the resource base and effective protection of
IPRs of traditional knowledge.
Developing countries should also strive to strengthen the capacity
of their health care systems to deliver basic health services and to
reduce environment-related health risks by sharing of health awareness
and medical expertise globally.
Suggestion for Strengthening Sustainable Development:
1. Effective management of resources requires participation by
all stakeholders. At the local level, strengthening democratic
institutions generally leads to better and more sustained
management of natural resources. To enhance effectiveness of
people’s participation in local governance, committees comprising
both elected and executive members of local bodies and
representatives of community groups, must be formed. Appropriate
capacity building would enable them to undertake local development
activities according to community priorities, monitor project
implementation and manage community assets. Where the conditions
for such community empowerment have already been created, as in
India through the 73rd and 74th amendments of its constitution,
effective implementation of the provisions should be ensured.
2. All members of society are the stakeholders of sustainable
development. Women make up half of this group. Affirmative
action to ensure representation and power to women in local
307
governance, and appropriate capacity building, are necessary to make

them effective and equal partners in the development process.
3. Social groups which have been traditionally discriminated must be
represented in local governance and empowered to ensure that
they become effective in mainstream partners in development.
4. Children are a valuable asset of every society. It is the
responsibility not only of the parents but of the community that
children realize their potential fully, growing up in a healthy,
enriching and fulfilling environment. Ensuring the provision of
such an environment is a major challenge of governance at the
local level.
5. The occupational, cultural and economic heterogeneity of population is
on the whole a major asset in making development sustainable; but
there are times of crisis when the same heterogeneity can become the
basis of conflict and social insecurity. It is imperative to evolve
participatory mechanisms of governance involving citizen groups and
local authorities which will provide effective means of conflict
resolution.
6. Sustainable development is achieved through optimizing
gains from several variables, rather than maximizing those from a
single one. This requires government departments, by convention
organisation, to work together, or in some cases as a single multi-
disciplinary authority. For this joint planning, transparency and
coordination and implementation are required.
7. The richness of skills available in society must be employed
through partnerships involving institutions in civil society, such as
NGOs, CBOs, corporate (including private) bodies, academic and
research institutions, trade unions, etc., which must be made an
integral part of planning and implementation for sustainable
development.
Conclusion:
There is on the one hand a surfeit of laws, many of them outmoded
and irrelevant. On the other hand, effective enforcement is lacking in
respect of laws relevant to contemporary concerns and conducive to
governance. This calls for a thorough review of laws, elimination of those
308
which are outmoded, and simplification of the procedures for implementing

those which are relevant. Internal reviews as well as learning’s from
international experience should be the basis of identifying and filling gaps in
existing laws. It must, however, be recognized that laws in themselves do not
provide solutions, unless there are mechanisms to effectively enforce them.
There are many traditional systems and practices whose value and validity
needs to be recognized and brought into the mainstream of governmental
development thinking and policy. Appropriate mechanisms for integrating
them need to be created. In Sustainability and replicability the Role of
Panchayati Raj institutions is very important unless the local communities
have a sense of ownership of the knowledge management centers, it will be
difficult to sustain them. It is only a user driven and managed system that
will be replicable and capable of developing a self-propelling momentum.
Women’s groups should be fully involved it the management and also
enabled to operate distance education courses. The programme should be
people oriented and not just project-centred. Affordable methods of cost
sharing should be introduced in consultation with local communities.
Sustainability and replicability should be the bottomline in the development
of the National Action Plan for the “every village a knowledge center”
movement. In this context Panchayati Raj institutions, in which one-third of
the members are women, could provide the needed space for the location of
the rural knowledge centre. The Gram Sabha and the Gram Panchayats could
both play a key role in ensuring that the knowledge centers become
instruments for triggering a prosperity revolution based on gender and social
equity.
There is both a need and a scope for regional and global
cooperation in sustainable development. Some of the areas of common
concern are marine and riparian issues, transboundary environmental
impacts, and management of bio resources, technology sharing and sharing
of sustainable development experiences. Efforts must be made, especially
by developing countries, to work towards synergizing experiences and
raising shared regional concerns as a strong united front in international
forums. Mechanisms must be put in place to facilitate such international
exchange of domestic and global experiences in sustainable development.
There must be mechanisms for monitoring the compliance of countries
309
to their obligations under various environmental agreements. Currently there

is a multiplicity of institutions with fragmented responsibilities. Many
policies were framed either before sustainable development became a major
concern or in a sectoral perspective. These need to be reviewed from the
point of view of sustainable development. All future policies must be guided
by considerations of sustainable development. Areas lacking policies should
be identified and adequate policies compatible with the imperatives of
sustainable development framed, taking into account successful examples of
policies and initiatives in similar areas. A better governance regime is
required to ensure cooperation and compliance.
Reference:
 B.N. Goswami,V.Venugopal, D.Sengupta,M.S.Madhusoodanam., Increasing
Trend of Extreme Rain Events Over India in a Warming Environment.,
Prince K. Xavier, Science, 314, 1442 (2006).(page 15)
 Bolin, B. and Sukumar, R., Global perspective. In Land use, Land use Change
and Forestry (eds Watson, R. T., Noble, I. R. and Bolin, B.),
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Cambridge University Press,
Cambridge, 2000.
 Bruce, J. P., Lee, H. and Hates, E. F., Climate Change 1995: Economic and
Social Dimensions of Climate Change, Contribution of Working Group III
to the Second Assessment Report of Intergovernmental Panel on Climate
Change (IPCC), Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1996.
 Bidwai Praful 2006, India: Sacrificing sovereignty, Frontline, February 16.
 Chaudhury P.D., 2003, Rail and Road in Intercity Transport – Energy and
 Environmental Impact, Economic and Political Weekly, October 13
 Environmental Performance Measurement (EPM) Project (Yale University) and
The Center for International Earth Science Information Network (Columbia
University), 2005 Environmental Sustainability Index: Benchmarking National
Environmental Stewardship, http//www: yale.edu/esi/
 Ghosh S., Sustainable Energy Policies for Clean Air in India, CII, New Delhi.
 Gundimeda H, 2005, Can CPRs Generate Carbon Credits without Hurting the
Poor? Economic and Political Weekly, May 5,
 Ministry of Environment and Forest (MoEF), GoI, Annual Report, 2004-
 Mishra N, Chawla R, Srivastava L, Pachauri R K, 2005, Petroleum Pricing in
India – Balancing efficiency and equity, The Energy and Resources Institute,
New Delhi.
 Planning Commission (GoI), 2005, Draft Report of the Expert Committee on
 Integrated Energy Policy, New Delhi, December.
310
 Reddy A, 2002, In Support of a People’s Plan for Power Sector Reform,

November 2-9, The Economic and Political Weekly.
 Reddy S, Balachandra P, 2002, A Sustainable Energy Strategy for India
 Revisited, December 28, The Economic and Political Weekly, Mumbai.
 Reddy A K N, 1999, Goals, Strategies and Policies for Rural Energy,
December 4, The Economic and Political Weekly, Mumbai.
 Shankar T L, 2002, Towards a People’s Plan for Power Sector Reform,
October 5, The Economical Political Weekly, Mumbai
 Shiva V, 2004a, Super Highways – Lines on the palm or tattoos of
dictatorship on the land, Znet, February 19.
 Shiva V, 2004b, The impact of globalisation on India’s environment - Global
 Ecology, May 7.
 Venkitaramanan S, 2002, Unemployment Problem: Bitter Remedies, July 22,
The Hindu Business Line, Chennai.
 United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change 1992
(UNFCCC), Geneva, Switzerland, United Nations Environment Program
Information Unit on Climate Change, 1992.
 Tenth Plan Document, Planning Commission, New Delhi, 2002.
311
27
Multiple Disadvantages of Women Domestic Workers:

The Existing Perspectives
Pradeep K.D
Abstract
The nature of domestic work is multifaceted and it involves a wide
range of domestic activities. At the same time these activities fall under the
purview of less paid labour. Treating these activities as a gainful profession is
considered beyond the elite and middle class dignity. As a result, the present
paper argues that most women who come to this profession belong to the
groups which face multiple disadvantages. This state of affairs leads to the
further marginalization and social exclusion of deprived groups especially
women. It also aggravates the existing gender, caste and other social
imbalances and reinforces the feminization of poverty. The paper concludes,
without governmental intervention, the existing situation of domestic
workers cannot be overcome.
Introduction
Domestic work has a long history going back to the ancient times. It is
also a very important profession for a large number of women throughout
the world. It has its roots in the history of slavery, colonialism and other
forms of servitude (Fauve, A. 2004). In its modern form, domestic work is a
312
global phenomenon that reinforces the hierarchies based on race, ethnicity,

indigenous status, nationality, caste, colour and gender (Andall, J. 2000).
There are several studies (Diner,1983; Castro,1986; Glenn,1986;
Gamburd,2002; Mehta,1960;Ravichandran,1979; Kanungo,1981;) on domestic
work in developed, developing and underdeveloped countries which offers
us wide range of theoretical and empirical facts related to different aspects of
domestic workers. These studies point out that domestic work is a profession
in which workers are generally drawn from socially and economically
underprivileged section of the society. Researchers focus on many issues like
modes of recruitment, migration, ethnicity, gender, health, literacy and
various other aspects. However it is seen that in a country like India domestic
workers are those who suffer multiple disadvantages. Firstly it is women
who are preferred for domestic work because of the gendered division of
labour; and being woman is a disadvantage in a patriarchal society. Secondly
most of these women are from economically deprived groups located on the
fringes of main stream society. Thirdly caste and community backgrounds
play a vital role in the choice of domestic labour. Most women in the
domestic labour market belong to socially excluded communities likes dalits,
tribals and so on. Fourthly the literacy level of these women is comparatively
less. It is rare to find domestic workers who have gone beyond primary
school education. Besides, many women endure other challenges like
widowhood, domestic violence etc. These women opt for domestic work not
by choice but by force. The result is that it intensifies the existing
feminization of poverty. Existing studies take note of these multiple
disadvantages. But they do not identify this multiple disadvantage as the
central problem for the further social and economic exclusion and
feminization of poverty. This paper is an attempt to address this problem. It
also argues that the presence of women in domestic labour is not natural but
it is the manifestation of gender, caste and class in a patriarchal society.
Domestic Work: A significant work

Domestic work is one of the oldest and significant works. It is an
indispensable and invisible work in the economy of many countries.
Domestic work is a global phenomenon in many countries. It plays a vital
role in the economy outside the household function. The domestic service
313
sector is characterised by heterogeneous working conditions, where some

domestic workers work full-time, others are only employed part-time.
International Labour Organisation revealed that there are over 100 million
people working in domestic services around the globe (ILO, 2008; p.13). It is
estimated that more than 80% of people working as domestic work sector are
women and the use of child labour is widespread and that a large part of
domestic labour is made up of migrant workers (ILO, 2003).
It is estimated that there are twenty million people working as

domestic workers in China alone (ILO, 2009; p.2). In India, official data
reveals that 4.75 million workers are employed in private households (ILO,
2010a, p.1). According to Human Rights Watch, Saudi Arabia is the biggest
labour market for domestic workers in Gulf countries. It revealed that 1.2 to 2
million domestic workers are working in Saudi Arabia (Human Rights
Watch, 2007, pp. 15-16). In Chile, 310,351 workers were employed in private
households in 2002; in Brazil, 6,732,000 persons. The studies concluded that
‘the higher the development of the country, the more important is the
domestic service sector’(Tokman, 2010, p. 3). The situation of African
continent is more or less same. In Ethiopia, 248,600 people were employed in
the domestic work sector during 2005. In Egypt, the total number of domestic
workers in 2007 was 51,600. In domestic work, 103,900 people were
employed in Mali. In South Africa, the domestic work sector employs more
than 1.2 million (ILO, 2010; P.5). These statistics shows the significance of
domestic work in the economy of the modern world. It can indeed be said
that this constitutes an invisible economy.
Feminisation of Domestic Work

In 2003, ILO research confirmed that domestic work is mainly
performed by women. The official sources revealed that in most of the
countries, women comprise the large majority of domestic employees in the
domestic service sector. In China and in Spain, more than 90% of domestic
workers are female (ILO Office for China and Mongolia, 2009, p.1). The
situation is similar in most of the Latin American countries: 96.4% in Bolivia
and 90.8% in Chile are female . In Namibia, of 24,100 domestic workers
20,000 are women, i.e. 83.0%, whereas in Mauritius 88.5% of persons
314
employed by private households are female. Domestic work in the

Philippines is performed also mostly by women; 84.8% of domestic
employees are women. Even though in some countries household employees
are predominantly male, as in Tajikistan, where in 2004 a total of 2,400 men
were employed in private households as against 1,000 women (LABORSTA),
this is only an exception; domestic workers are mostly female. In the Middle
East, female migrants alone make up 6 million domestic workers (ICFTU,
2002, p. 2).
Persons Employed by Private Households in selected countries
Country Total Men Women Percentage of Female DWs as %
Total of female
Employment employment
Saudi Arabia 876,596 319,794 556,802 11.0% 49.7%
(2008)
Spain (2008) 752,600 53,000 699,600 3.7% 8.2%
Malaysia (2008) 253,000 29,400 223,600 2.4% 5.9%
Namibia (2004) 24,100 4,100 20,000 6.3% 11.9%

Canada (2008) 72,800 2,500 70,300 0.4% 0.9%
Brazil (2007) 6,732,000 418,000 6,313,000 7.4% 16.4%
(Source: ILO. International Domestic Workers Network, 99th session, 2010)

The above figures explain the gendered nature of domestic work. The
domestic work done by women is considered in popular perception as
biologically determined. Segmentation of occupation on the basis of worker’s
sex is thus an important labour market phenomenon which has an adverse
impact over the status of working women, especially those belonging to
domestic labour market.
Existing perspectives
There has been a tremendous increase in the demand for care work in
recent decades. Several factors are responsible for this growing demand.
These include 1) increasing participation of women in the labour force, 2)
changes in the work organization, 3) intensification of work, 4) lack of
policies reconciling work and family life, 5) the decline in state provision of
care services, 6) the feminization of international migration and 7) the ageing
315
of societies. But domestic work continues to be underestimated. It is looked

down upon as unskilled due to the fact that the women have traditionally
been considered as capable of doing the work, and the skills they learn from
other women at home are seen as coming to them naturally. Payments and
other incentives are therefore never lucrative. But workers themselves
consider their work as dignified, as shown by many studies. It is necessary to
provide greater recognition and respect to domestic work as a profession.
The study conducted by Diner (1983) focused on the migration of Irish
women to United States of America during 19th century. This migration was
the result of circumstances like poverty, landlessness, and change from
socioeconomic feudal society to an industrial capitalist society. These
conditions were aggravated by the famine in 1840’s, and also by Irish systems
like single inheritance and single dowry system. As a result, Ireland
increasingly became the home of the ‘unmarried and the late married’. The
Irish migration had a gender dimension; more than half of the Irish
immigrants to the US were women. Latter the magnitude of migration
increased till it became a female mass movement. Denir’s Study revealed that
the root cause of this migration was the social and economic conditions in
Ireland which were such that Ireland became a country that held out few
attractions to women as it had limited chances for marriage and employment.
This can be understood in terms of what the sociologists define as the
‘interlocking’ relationship of ‘land-family-marriage’, which is believed to
bring about the preponderance of women in the migration flow. The study
found that for Irish women, to join a religious order or migration were the
only options to escape from family and spinsterhood. This eventually shifted
to a kin chain migration, in which young, single women brought over other
women- sisters, mothers, nieces, aunts, and friends to the US. The major
consequence of this migration was the majority of female and single Irish
women were absorbed in to domestic service.
Another study was conducted by Mary Garcia Castro during 1986 on
Irish migrant women. The study revealed the reasons for the massive
enrollment of Irish women in domestic services. It was found that the
domestic work was an occupation in which there was a ‘labour vacuum’,
because others did not want to such work. The Anglo Saxon protestant
women who resided at United States considered domestic work demeaning.
316
Other migrant or poor women who were married felt that domestic work
interfered with their family life. Another reason for the massive enrollment
was the working environment of domestic work. The work environment was
comparatively healthier and safer than that of a factory. This job allowed
women to be employed even in times of severe economic recession; the
environment exposed the women faster to middle- class standards and life
styles.
Glenn’s study (1986) focused on the three generations Japanese women
who engaged in Domestic services. This study reflects the issues of
occupational segregation based on sex. It comes up with the fact that labour
market allocates particular jobs to certain types of people on the basis of
gender, colour, and class; reserving unskilled, unprotected, poorly paid jobs
for women and people of colour.
Amartya Sen (2000) discusses the market exclusion and discrimination
for a particular group of people. Sen describes the distinction between
situations were some people are being kept out (at least left out) and where
some people are being included- may even be forced to be included- in
deeply unfavorable terms. He describes the two situations as ‘unfavorable
exclusion’ and ‘unfavorable inclusion’ respectively. Sen’s argument is that
‘unfavorable inclusion’ particularly of those with unequal treatment or
unacceptable arrangement may carry the same adverse effect as the
unfavorable exclusion. This concept is quiet close to the concept of ‘economic
discrimination’. The recent economic literature pertaining to economic
discrimination focuses on race and gender, which recognize participation or
access but with unequal treatment in the labour and other market. The real
relevance of an exclusionary perspective is that it is dependent on the nature
of the process of deprivation.
Becker (1971) adds a different dimension to it by introducing the
concept of ‘a preference of discrimination’. He is of the view that employers
show the tendency to make discriminations based on race, age, gender,
disability and so on. This, according to Becker, will lead to lesser cost
because only few people from these groups will be employed. Richard Anker
(2002) criticizes this hypothesis. He argues that the employment of these
groups should actually be profitable to employer because of the low wages
paid to them. The discrimination, according to Anker, is a result of long
317
standing social values and stereotypes about these groups. This argument
can be extended to women domestic labour also.
Michele Ruth Gamburd’s study (2002) explores the link between the
local, national, and international movement of people, commodities, and
ideas. It deals with female migration from Naeaegama on the south-west
coast of Sri Lanka to the Middle East. Since the early 80’s widespread
unemployment and poverty have forced numerous Sri Lankan women to
migrate and seek employment as housemaids in the Middle East. The study
reveals that the transnational movement has enhanced the standard of living
of the migrants, giving them greater say in family matters. It also enhanced
their prestige in the village and recognition of their work, besides the power
to improve the destiny of their family members. Several women from
Naeaegamma turned to money lending after their return from the Middle
East. This enabled them to create patron-client network within the village
boundaries which changed the local notions about the gender division of
labour. But caste continued to be influential even after this social mobility.
Aban Mehta (1960) draws connection between the institution of
domestic service and slavery. This historical survey traces the origins of
domestic service in primitive slavery through the domestic slavery of the
ancient Greece, Sparta, and Rome, and its forms in pre-modern China and
ancient and medieval India. It is based on a sample of 500 live- in and live-
out domestic servants in Mumbai. The sample size covered both men and
women, from the Christian, Gujarati, and Marathi community. The survey
covers aspects of servants marriage and family life, their housing conditions,
wages, hours and conditions of service, overall economic level, educational
status, and modes of relaxation. Mehta’s study revealed how the functions
and services performed in the households by slaves in bondage were
gradually taken over by domestic servant who belongs to the class of free-
wage labour.
E. Ravichandran’s study (1979) on women domestic workers in
Chennai slums found that the socio-economic conditions of women domestic
workers were deplorable. The study found that 60% of women workers
belonged to scheduled caste. Over half of them were illiterate and the
remaining had just only primary education. Rupees 20 was the lowest salary
318
paid to them while the maximum was 70 Rs. Health problems were common
in more than half of the respondents.
Another study on domestic workers in Chennai is that of Alphonse
Mranda and Wdya Mahadevan (1988). It focuses on the socio-economic and
health aspects of women Domestic Workers. More than 50 per cent of the
employed women were part timers. A number of them were employed in
more than two houses. These women reportedly faced stomach ailments,
menstrual problems, anemia and general weakness.
J. Kanungo (1981) conducted a study on girl domestic workers in
Orissa. The study bring the fact that out of 50 girl respondents, 70 percent –
that is 35 girls – were working as full timers. 2 percent of them were below 9
years. Out of all part time domestic workers only 60 percent were literate
who could just read and write, and 20 percent of them had received formal
schooling of 2 to 3 years. About 48 percent were recruited by their parents, 40
percent through middlemen and 12 percent by self approach. The part timers
worked for more than 9 hours whereas the full timers had no fixed hours.
Their work often went on till 11 in the night. The average income was Rupees
30 to 60 per month. The health condition of the respondents was not
satisfactory and a good number of them suffered stomach problems due to
irregular food.
Apart from the situations of everyday life, domestic workers face a
wide range of problems due to macro-economic processes. These includes
the New Economic Policy 1991 (NEP 1991), structural adjustment policy
(SAP), the policy of liberalization (1990’s), globalization and privatisation.
According to Vinita Singh (2007, p.18) these macro-economic processes
function in two ways. Firstly, it opens up new job opportunities for the
technically educated. Secondly, it reinforces the marginalisation of the ‘poor’
(especially women) who have to struggle harder to support the falling
incomes of their households. Most domestic workers are forced into labour
market, not by choice, but by sheer necessity to supplement their family
income as we have seen in the studies of feminist economists (Nirmala
Banergy,1985, U. Kalpagam 1994, Jayati Ghosh (1996) and Ela Bhatt (2001).
Gender division of labour
319
The above studies very clearly indicate that domestic work is mostly
carried out by women. It is almost rare although not impossible to find men
employed as domestic workers. Domestic work is therefore a specifically
gendered profession. Studies from different parts of the world including the
U.S, Ireland, Japan, Sri Lanka and India show that this has been a universal
phenomenon in the modern world. Why is this so?
Rosalind O’ Hanlon (1994) argues that during the colonial period
India witnessed major changes in gender roles and gender division of labor.
She holds that the emergence of a workplace different from the traditional
space of the household created a distinction between the two. The workplace
was assigned to men while the household was considered to be the place for
women labour. This argument need not be unique to colonial India. The rise
of capitalist industries created similar distinctions between work place and
households in Europe, US and other parts of the world.
This distinction was indeed tenuous. The capitalist world employed
women on a large scale because it brought greater profit due to the lesser
wages involved. As a result the distinction between workplace and domestic
space was contested and not free from friction. Particularly during and after
the First World War, a large number of women entered the industrial and
bureaucratic labour market because of the economic and social freedom it
promised. Whether or not the promise was delivered is a different question.
But it certainly created tensions in the belief that the household alone was the
legitimate domain for women.
While the monopoly of men in the workplace was thus contested, the
assignment of domestic space to women became far more aggravated due to
the choice of women for domestic labour. Men rarely preferred domestic
labour because it was not compatible with the notions of masculinity and the
ideals of “man” (Foucault, 1971) which arose as part of Enlightment and
industrial capitalism. Even when they opted for domestic labour it was
considered as socially degraded and deplorable. The result was that the
gendered division of domestic labour came to be associated overwhelmingly
with women.
The above discussion clearly indicates that the gender division of
labour is socially constructed and not natural or biological. This is also
confirmed by several studies which includes the pioneering work of Ann
320
Oakley. Oakley (1972) has shown that in many tribal societies men and
women perform social roles which are not compatible with the gendered
division of labour familiar to modern societies. Margaret Mead arrives at a
similar conclusion. She writes that “primitive materials, therefore, give no
support to the theory that there is a “natural” connection between conditions
of human gestation and appropriate cultural practices” (quoted in ibid, p174.)
The Nature of Discrimination

Existing studies often highlight the multiple disadvantages faced by
women employed as domestic workers. But none of them present this as the
central problem faced by them. Our position is that the problem of domestic
workers cannot be adequately addressed without placing multiple
disadvantages as the core determinant factor involved in it. The feminisation
of poverty seen in the contest of domestic labour is primarily an outcome of
these multiple disadvantages.
In most modern societies patriarchy produces gendered divisions of
labour which are most profitable under prevailing capitalist conditions. We
have already seen in the previous section how this was produced and
consumed in the modern period. Not only did the new division of labour
reinforce patriarchy, it also strengthened it to the disadvantage of women. As
most domestic workers were women, gender appeared as their primary
disadvantage. Class played another crucial role. The modern notions of
dignity and respectability prevented women from elite and middle classes
from accepting domestic labour as a profession. Most women employed in
this profession came from poor economic backgrounds. With the advent of
globalization more and more from economically advantageous groups were
able to find white collered employments. This created newer markets for
domestic work. The result was that the increase in the number of domestic
workers and white collered workers created two tiers within the working
women’s class. Domestic workers fell under the lower of the two tiers.
Community and ethinic back grounds forms another important source of
disadvantage. In most cases there is a preference for women belonhing to
deprived communities and ethinicities in the domestic labour market. In a
country like India, caste place am equally important role. Vinita Singh’s
study (ibid p.109) has shown that in the city of Ranchi, 69.5 percent of the
321
domenstic workers belonged to scheduled tribes while 9 percent came from

scheduled castes. 20 percent were from backward castes. Only the remaining
1.5 percent were from general category. Similarly Ravichandran(1979) shows
that 60 percent of the domestic workers in Chennai belonged to scheduled
castes. These statistics very clearly show that there is a caste dimension to the
choice of the domestic labour market. Illiteracy is another disadvantage.
According to Singh’s (ibid p.110) statistics, 38 percent of women domestic
workers were illiterate and 37 percent primary school dropouts. 50 percent
of the women studied by Ravichandran (1979) in Chennai were illiterate.
Another serious but invisible disadvantage faced by women domestic
workers is that they are victims of several gendered social traumas like
widowhood, domestic violence and other gender based violence. These
multiple disadvantages need to be taken in to consideration as the central
issue faced by women domestic workers if we are to have a sustainable
understanding of the problem.
From margin to centre

The previous section has argued that the question of multiple
disadvantages must be brought the margins to the central stage of the debate.
But this can only help us to understand the problem better. It cannot in itself
offer any solution to the problems faced by the women domestic workers.
The problem can only be addressed with the aim of offering remedies only if
the problem itself is brought from the margins to the centre of current socio-
economic processes.
Existing studies acknowledge the fact that women domestic labour is

not only a neglected area but is almost invisible as a gainful employment
activity. It figures nowhere in the planning initiatives of the state. Various
legislative provisions pertaining to labour laws have also consistently
ignored this vital economic activity. Domestic labour does not offer any of
the incentives of the formal employment sector like insurance, job security,
wage assurance, provident fund, pension gratuity and other welfare
incentives related to health, education etc. The informal nature of domestic
work will not allow any large scale transformations in the working
conditions as a result of any individual or philanthropic initiatives. It is a
322
major socio-economic problem which can be addressed only through

constructive legislative interventions on the part of the state.
Bibliography
 Andall, J. (2000) Gender, Migration and Domestic Service: The Politics of Black
Women in Italy. Aldershot: Ashgate.
 Anker, Richard. (2002) Theories of Occupational Segregation by Sex: An
Overview in Martha Fetherolf Loutfi (ed.) Women, Gender and Work: What is
Equality and How Do We Get There?(pp.129-155). Rawat: Jaipur.
 Banerjee, Nirmala. (1985) Women Worker in the Unorganized Sector: The
Calcutta Experience. Hyderabad: Orient Longman.
 Becker, Gary S. (1971) The Economics of Discrimination. Chicago University
Press: Chicago.
 Bhatt, Ela. (2001) Moving Towards a People Centered Economy. Ed. Amitabh
Kudu & Alakh Nath Sharma. New Delhi: Manohar.
 Castro, Mary Garcia. (1986) Work Versus Life, Columbian Women in New
York, in J Nash, H. Safa Hadley, Mass: Bergin & Garvey (eds.) Women and
Change in Latin America. New Jersey.
 Denir, H.R. (1983) Erin’s Daughters in America: Irish Migrant Women in the
Ninety Century. Baltimore: John Hopkins University Press.
 Fauve, Antoinette (2004) Domestic service and the formation of European identity:
Understanding the globalization of domestic work, 16th–21st centuries. Bern, Peter
Lang.
 Foucault, Michel. (1970) The Order of Things: An Archaeology of The Human
Sciences. Pantheon: New York.
 Gamburd, Michele Ruth. (2000) Nurture for sale: Sri Lankan House Maids
and the Work of Mothering in Adams & Dickey (eds.) Home and Hegemony:
Domestic Service and Identity Politics in South and South-East Asia (pp.179-205).
Ann Arbor: University of Michigan.
 Ghosh, Jayati. (1996) Micro-economics Trends and Female Employment in India
and Asian Countries. Paper presented at the seminar on Gender and
Employment, Recent Trends, Pattern and making options, organized by
Indian Society for Labour Economics and Institute of Economic Growth,
Dew Delhi.
 Glenn, E.N. (1986) Three Generations of Japanese American Women in Domestic
Service. Philadelphia: Temple University Press.
 Human Rights Watch (2007). “As If I Am Not Human”. Abuses against
Asian Domestic Workers in Saudi Arabia. Retrieved March 29, 2010, from
<http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/docid/487329a12.html.>
 ICFTU. “Women Migrant Domestic Workers: Bringing the Sector into the
Open”. Trade Union World. 2002. Retrieved April 21, 2010, from
<http://www.icftu.org/www/pdf/domestic_en.pdf>
323
 ILO (2010a). Decent Work for Domestic Workers. Retrieved March 18, 2010,
from <http://www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/-- -asia/---ro-
bangkok/documents/publication/wcm_041954.pdf>
 ILO “Date, place and agenda of the 99th Session (2010) of the International
Labour
Conference”.Geneva,2008.April.21,2010,from<http://www.ilo.org/wcmsp5
/groups/public/---ed_norm/---elconf/documents/meetingdocument/
wcms_090361.pdf.>
 ILO Office for China and Mongolia. “Fact. sheet: Domestic Workers in
China”. Beijing, 2009 (March 18,
2010)<http://www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/---asia/---ro-
bangkok/documents/publication/wcms_114256.pdf.>
 ILO. (2010) Domestic Workers World Wide: Summary of Available Statistical Data
and Estimates. Jeneva.
 ILO (2003) Domestic work, conditions of work and employment: A legal
perspective, in J.M. Ramirez-Machado: ILO Conditions of Work and
Employment series No. 7. Geneva.
 Kalpaga, U. (1994.) Labour and Gender: The Analytics of Work and Survival in
Urban India. New Delhi: Sage.
 Kanungo, J. (1981) The Young Girls Helping Us in Our Household Work, in
Rehabilitation of Child Labourers in India. R. N Patil (ed.) New Delhi: Ashish.
 Loutfi, Martha Fetherolf (2002) (ed.) Women, Gender and Work: What is
Equality and How Do We Get There? Rawat: Jaipur.
 Mehta, Aban.(1960) The Domestic Servant Class. Mumbai: Popular.
 Miranda, Alphonse & Wadya Mahadevan. (1988) Socio-economic Survey of
Families in Tank Bund Road Slum. Unpublished thesis, Chennai: Loyola
Institute of Development Studies.
 O’, Hanlon Rosalind. (1994) A Comparison between Women and Men in Tarabai
Shinde and the Critique of Gender Relations in Colonial India. OUP: New Delhi
 Oakely, Anne.(1972) Sex, Gender and society London: Temple Smith.
 Ravichandran, E.(1979) A Study on the Socio-Economic Conditions of Women
Domestic Workers Residing in Slums. Unpublished thesis, Chennai: Loyola
College.
 Roger, Barbara. (1980) The Domestication of Women: Discrimination in
Developing Societies. London: Tavistock.
 Sen, Amartya. Social Exclusion- Concept, application and scrutiny. ABD
Working paper,
 Thorat, Sukhadeo, Aryama & Prashant Negi.(2005) Reservation and Private
Sector: Quest for Equal Opportunity and Growth. Jaipur: Rawat.
 Thorat, Sukhadeo. (2009) Dalits in India: Search for a Common Destiny. New
Delhi: Sage.
324
28
Tourism and Inclusive Growth in India
Harisha N and Dr Jayasheela
ABSTRACT
Tourism is considered as a multidimensional activity with its multiple
economic impacts. It generates employment at all skill levels. This paper presents
how tourism has come out as a big employment generator for world economy as
well as Indian economy in an inclusive manner. Further, this paper made an
attempt to evaluate the initiative taken to skill development for more opportunities
in employment generation in India. It is evident that there has been a rapid increase
in the employment contribution of travel and tourism, and thereby addressing the
problem of unemployment in India. It is observed that tourism contributes about
12.36 percent of total employment for the country in the year 2013. The employment
contribution of travel and tourism can be classified into: direct contribution, indirect
and induced contribution. It has been identified that the impact of tourism on
employment in India was lower compared to China, UK, France, US, and higher
compared to Japan, Canada, Saudi Arabia and Germany in 2011 and there is a big
gap between demand and supply of human resource in this sector. This paper made
an attempt to prescribe some policy suggestions to the future development of the
tourism industry in India and contribute to the economy in inclusive growth.
Introduction:
325
The travel and tourism industry has emerged as one of the rapidly
growing service sectors contributing significantly to global economic growth
and development. In developing countries like India tourism has become one
of the important sectors of the economy, contributing to a large proportion of
the national income and generating huge employment opportunities. It has
become the rapidly growing service industry in the country with great
potentials for its further expansion and diversification and inclusive growth.
The employment and tourism is co-related to each other as it has long-term
socio-economic impacts on the host economy and community. According to
World Travel and Tourism Council (2013) Travel and Tourism directly
supported 10,08,94,000 jobs (3.4% of total employment). This is expected to
rise by 2.0% pa to 126,257,000 jobs (3.7% of total employment) in 2024 at
world. In India the number of domestic tourist visit during the year 2013
were 1145 million, showing a growth of 9.59% over year and the foreign
tourist arrivals during the 2014 were 77.03 lakh with growth rate of 10.6
percent over 2012. The different types of tourism development require a huge
number of labours, skilled and semi-skilled both to meet the requirements of
tourists. Against this background following objectives are framed.
OBJECTIVES AND METHODOLOGY
The main objectives of this paper are:
 To review the types of employment contribution from tourism sector
for the inclusive growth;
 To review the growth of tourism industry and contribution to inclusive
growth through employment generation in the world economy;
 To analyse the role of tourism industry in boosting employment in
inclusive manner in India;
This paper is based on the information gathered through available
secondary sources and literature reviews. The secondary sources include the
reports collected from Ministry of Tourism Govt of India (MOTGI), socio-
economic reviews, various articles at state, national and international level.
Types Of Employment Contribution For Inclussive Growth
Tourism is an important economic activity in most countries around
the world contributing in terms of foreign exchange earnings, GDP,
employment, exports etc, both directly and indirectly. According to the
326
WTTC (World Travel and Tourism Council), the employment and GDP
contribution of travel and tourism can be classified into: direct contribution,
indirect and induced contribution as illustrated.
Direct Contribution: The direct contribution of travel and tourism to
GDP and job support reflects the ‘internal’ spending on travel and tourism
(total spending within a particular country on travel and tourism by
residents and non-residents for business and leisure purposes) as well as
government 'individual' spending - spending by government on travel and
tourism services directly linked to visitors, such as cultural (e.g., museums)
or recreational (e.g., national parks) (WTTC, 2012). In addition to throes
involved in management, there are a large number of specialized personal
required to work as accountants, housekeepers, waiters, cooks etc, who in
turn need large number of semi-skilled workers such as porters,
chambermaids, kitchen staff, gardeners, etc. In this way tourism results in
providing employment to the persons from bottom to top level jobs.
Indirect Contribution: The indirect contribution includes the GDP and jobs
supported by travel and tourism investment spending. It is an important
aspect of both current and future activity that includes investment activity
such as the purchase of new aircraft and construction of new hotels, which
helps travel and tourism activity in many different ways as it is made on
behalf of the community at large (WTTC, 2014) – For example tourism
marketing and promotion, aviation, administration, security services, resort
area security services, resort area sanitation services, etc. Domestic purchases
of goods and services by the sectors dealing directly with tourists, for
example, purchases of food and cleaning services by hotels, of fuel and
catering services by airlines, banking and IT services by travel agents.
Induced Contribution: Induced contribution measures the GDP and jobs
supported by the spending of those who are directly or indirectly employed
by the Travel and Tourism industry. The total contribution of travel and
tourism includes its ‘wider impacts’ (i.e., the indirect and induced impacts)
on the economy. The construction industry is another very big source of
employment through tourism. The basic infrastructure roads, airports, water
supply and other public utilities and also construction of hotels and other
accommodation units-create jobs for both skilled and unskilled.
327
Employment Generation And Inclussive Growth At Global Level

According to the WTTC (2012), for every $1 million in Travel and
Tourism spending, 407 jobs are supported (258 direct, 94 indirect, and 55
induced). This compares favorably to the average of the economy, which
generates 599 jobs per $1 million in spending. Going by major industries, in
financial services: 329 jobs; in auto manufacturing 315 jobs; in
communications 381 jobs and in chemicals: 231 jobs are generated per $1
million spending.
The data provided in Figure 1 indicate the impact of tourism on
employment in top 20 countries of the world in 2011. The data show that the
total employment contribution of tourism was reported to be higher in
Australia with 16.2 per cent, Mexico with 14.8 per cent, Spain with 12.7 per
cent and India with7.5 per cent. The impact of tourism on employment in
India was lower compared to China, UK, France, US, and higher compared to
Japan, Canada, Saudi Arabia and Germany in 2011.
Table 1: Share of Contribution of Travel and Tourism to Employment in
Selected Countries in 2011 (%)
Direct Contribution to Total Contribution to
Major Employment Employment
Countries % Share Ranking % Share Ranking
Cambodia 19.2 30 8.0 26
Malaysia 12.9 50 6.3 40
Thailand 11.4 64 5.0 53
Vietnam 8.6 89 4.7 58
China 8.1 95 3.7 82
India 7.8 102 3.0 96
Indonesia 7.7 104 2.9 105
Sri Lanka 7.5 110 2.7 117
Pakistan 6.4 125 2.6 119
Bangladesh 4.1 159 1.9 144
World
Average 13.6 5.3
Source: WTTC (2012).
The data indicate that the annual growth rate of direct contribution to
employment was estimated to be higher in China with 9.7 per cent and
ranked at10th position, followed by India with 7.6 per cent and ranked at 24th
328
position in 2011. The annual growth rate of both direct and total
employment contribution of travel and tourism in Indonesia, Bangladesh, Sri
Lanka, Pakistan and Thailand was estimated to be quite lower. This implies
that India is going to be one of the top destinations of global tourism in the
days to come. In the long-run, the annual growth rate of employment
contribution of travel and tourism in India is expected to increase quite
significantly.
TOURISM AND EMPLOYMENT GENERATION AND INCLUSSIVE
GROWTH IN INDIA
The data provided in Figure 1 indicate the direct employment
generation of travel and tourism in terms of man-days in India. The total
number of man-days of employment generated was estimated at 5.50 million
in 1990-91 and slowly increased to 24.96 million in 2010-11. The increase was
relatively faster since 2003-04, mostly due to the better initiation of the travel
and tourism policy in India. It is evident that there has been a rapid increase
in the employment contribution of travel and tourism, and thereby
addressing the problem of unemployment in India.
Figure 1: Trends in Direct Employment Generation from Travel and

Tourism in India (Million)
Source: WTTC (2011).

Note: * Estimated; the data for 2011 from WTTC.
Source: Facts for You February 2003.p.16; WTTC, 2011
329
To assess the specific contribution of tourism Tourism Satellite Account

(TSA) is used. As per the 2nd TSAI- 2009-10 and subsequent estimation for the
three years namely 2010-11, 2011-12 and 2012-13 the contribution of tourism
to total Gross Domestic Product (GDP) and employment of the country were
given below.
Table 2: Contribution of Tourism to Total Gross Domestic Product

(GDP) and Employment
Year Contribution of Tourism in Contribution of Tourism in
GDP of the Country (%) Employment of the Country
(%)
Direct Indirect Total Direct Indirect Total
2009 3.68 3.09 6.77 4.37 5.80 10.17
2010 3.67 3.09 6.76 4.63 6.15 10.78
2011 3.67 3.09 6.76 4.94 6.55 11.49
2013 3.74 3.14 6.88 5.31 7.05 12.36
Source: Tourism Annual report 2014-15, Ministry of Tourism Government
of India.
Policy Prescriptions:
1. There is a need to encourage HRD in Tourism: In India provision of
additional training institutes, enhancing capacity of existing ones along
with introduction of short term courses providing specific skills
directed at hospitality and travel trade sector employees may be
required for catering to the increased manpower and skill
requirements. Hence government has to introduce tourism course in
every universities and colleges, which will improve the employment
share in tourism sector.
2. Need to develop international level infrastructure: Infrastructure like hotel
room stare level as well as budget level and connectivity and basic
infrastructure like water, health and toilet facilities have to be
improved. For this government have to tie up with private sectors is
urgent.
3. Government has to play major Role: Government has to make concerted
efforts towards increasing the safety and security of tourists in India.
330
There is a significant need for improvement in ensuring sound health

and hygiene standards as compared for world economies. To get the
maximum dividends from tourism taxes levied on tourism industry
should be unified, rationalized and made globally competitive. More
than this budget allocation for tourism sector to be increased.
4. Attract more and more foreign tourists with effective packages: Foreign
tourist in India is low comparing to top fifteen countries. So
Government of India concentrate simplify the visa procedure and
launch free visa in the line of festivals and cricket tournament.
5. Education and Awareness: There is a need to spread education and
awareness on the importance of tourism sector and increase
stakeholder participation involving the government, private sector and
the community at large. Marketing campaigns like ‘Atithidevo Bhava’
may be implemented at regular intervals. Tourism awareness
programs and workshops may be organized to enhance educational
awareness on tourism.
Conclusions:
In concluding remark, it can be said that tourism is recognized as a
powerful engine for economic inclusive growth and employment
generation. The tourism sector is the largest service industry in the
country, its importance lies in being an instrument for economic
development and employment generation, particularly in the remote
parts of the country. Major constraints are low share in employment in
tourism sector in India, manpower not being qualified resulting in poor
quality of service, creation of big gap between demand and supply of
human resource in tourism industry. As per the working strategy for the
12th Five Year Plan, the Ministry of Tourism has adopted a ‘pro-poor
tourism’ approach which could contribute significantly to poverty
reduction and inclusive growth. More than half of Tourism Ministry’s
Plan budget is channelized for funding the development of destinations,
circuits, mega projects as also for rural tourism infrastructure projects.
These are the areas where, tourism policies to be reformed and made it
employment friendly.
331
References:
 Corporate Catalyst (India) Pvt. Ltd (2015): A Brief Report on Tourism In
India, New Delhi.
 Dayananada K. C (2014): Tourism and Employment: Opportunities and
Challenges in Karnataka- Special Reference To Kodagu District, IOSR
Journal Of Humanities And Social Science (IOSR-JHSS), Volume 19(11)
 Government of India (GoI) (2011): India Tourism Statistics at a Glance 2011,
Ministry of Tourism, Government of India, New Delhi
 Government of India (GoI) (2014): India Tourism Statistics at a Glance 2014,
Ministry of Tourism, Government of India, New Delhi
 Government of India (GoI) (2015): Annual Report 2014-15, Ministry of
Tourism, Government of India, New Delhi
 Jesim Pais (2006): Tourism Employment an Analysis of Foreign Tourism in
India, Working paper, Institute for Studies in Industrial Development,
New Delhi.
 Loka Sabha Secretariat(2013): Tourism Sector in India, Members
Reference Service, Paliment Library and Reference, Research,
Documentation and Information Service (LARRDIS).
 Pallavi. S. Kusugal (2014): Opportunities For Employment in Tourism
Sector: An Analysis, Indian Journal of Research, Volume No 3(2).
332
29
Rashtriya Swasthya Bima Yojna (RSBY) in Karnataka:

An Overview
Dinesha P T and Ramachandra Murthy K
Introduction
To ensure “Health for all” is a huge challenge that confronts the
authorities in India, given the country’s size and the diversity of its
population in socio-economic, regional, and cultural terms. Adequate
provision for health financing is essential for strengthening healthcare. In
India, expenditure on health is a mere 4 per cent of GDP, of which public
spending is 17 per cent and the rest is private. In terms of healthcare, 1.22
billion Indians can be categorized as rural and urban, upper, middle and
poor class, or above poverty and below poverty line. The upper or middle
class generally residing in urban areas has access to quality healthcare.
However, those residing in interior rural areas and living below the poverty
line have limited or no access to healthcare. Besides overall lack of health
infrastructure, the second most influential factor in healthcare in India is high
out of pocket (OOP) health spending, and a large population lacking medical
insurance coverage.
While the government is committed to providing health for all,
adequate financing is critical to ensure it. The government has decided to
increase its health spending to increase demand for healthcare and ensure
equity in access to healthcare. To accomplish this in the wake of high out of
333
pocket health spending is a challenging task. This in turn requires alternative

security measures for those who cannot pay for healthcare. Coverage by
other public and private health insurance is limited in India. Hence, to
provide universal health coverage in a country like India, where most people
are either unemployed, or employed informally in the unorganized sector, is
not only challenging but also expensive. These challenges are further
intensified due to the disparity in urban and rural health systems. In recent
years, the government has recognized the need for effective risk-pooling
systems in order to reduce OOP health spending, especially among the poor
and those residing in rural areas.
Objectives and Methodology

The present study was designed with the objective of gaining insight
into assess the status of Rashtriya Swasthya Bima Yojna (RSBY) in Karnataka.
In this direction the secondary data has been collected from several Reports
and documents of the Karnataka state such as the Suvarna Arogya Suraksha
Trust Report, Health and Family Welfare Report, Karnataka Government
Reports. The literature has also been gathered from published articles, books
and Government reports.
The Government of Karnataka introduced the RSBY, a Central
Government scheme, in the year 2009-10. The scheme is operated by the
Department of Labour, Government of Karnataka with the objective of
improving “access of BPL families to quality medical care for treatment of
diseases involving hospitalization and surgery through an identified network
of health care providers”. In the first phase, the scheme was implemented in
five districts of the state viz., Bangalore Rural, Belgaum, Dakshina Kannada,
Mysore and Shimoga. Currently, there is a plan to extend this scheme to all
districts of the state gradually. Out of 338,931 BPL families in these districts
as identified by the planning commission norms, 157,405 have enrolled
themselves in the scheme during the first year of programme i.e. 2010-113.
Enrolment in the scheme is on the basis of the identification as a BPL family
by the Department of Rural Development and Panchayat Raj, Government of
Karnataka as per the Planning Commission norms. Beneficiaries are issued
biometric smart cards, which facilitate identification at 179 designated
334
network hospitals in the state4. An IRDA registered third party administrator

implements the scheme.
RSBY has two fold objectives: 1.To provide financial protection against
catastrophic health costs by reducing out. 2. To improve access to quality
health care for below poverty line households of pocket expenditure for
hospitalization and other vulnerable groups in the unorganized sector.
The beneficiary has to pay an annual registration fee of Rs.30. The
premium of up to Rs.750 per annum is wholly subsidized by the Central and
State Government on a 75:25 sharing basis. The limit for insurance cover is
Rs. 30,000 per annum for a family of five members, on a floater basis. The
benefit package provides cover for hospitalization and day-care surgeries
that do not require post-operative hospitalization. All pre-existing diseases
are covered and there is a provision for transport allowance subject to a cap
of Rs. 1,000 per annum. Cashless and paperless transactions are envisaged.
Portability is ensured through a novel provision for obtaining a split card in
the event of a member’s migration that can be used at any of the empanelled
hospitals across the country. The RSBY, conceived as a business model,
claims to provide incentives to all stakeholders and incorporates provisions
to ensure transparency and accountability.
Details of the RSBY Scheme

 The beneficiaries under RSBY are entitled to hospitalization coverage up
to Rs. 30,000/- per annum on family floater basis, for most of the diseases
that require hospitalization. The benefit will be available under the
defined diseases in the package list.
 The government has framed indicative package rates for the hospitals for
a large number of interventions. Pre- existing conditions are covered
from day one and there is no age limit.
 The coverage extends to maximum five members of the family which
includes the head of household, spouse and up to three dependents.
Additionally, transport expenses of Rs. 100/- per hospitalization will also
be paid to the beneficiary subject to a maximum of Rs. 1000/- per year
per family.
335
 The beneficiaries need to pay only Rs. 30/- as registration fee for a year
while Central and State Government pays the premium as per their
sharing ratio to the insurer selected by the State Government on the basis
of a competitive bidding.
 At every state, the State Government sets up a State Nodal Agency (SNA)
that is responsible for implementing, monitoring supervision and part-
financing of the scheme by coordinating with Insurance Company,
Hospital, District Authorities and other local stake holders.
The RSBY scheme is not the first attempt to provide health insurance to
low income workers by the Government in India. The RSBY scheme,
however, differs from these schemes in several important ways.
Empowering the beneficiary: RSBY provides the participating BPL

household with freedom of choice between public and private hospitals and
makes him a potential client worth attracting on account of the significant
revenues that hospitals stand to earn through the scheme.
Business Model for all Stakeholders: The scheme has been designed as a
business model for a social sector scheme with incentives built for each
stakeholder. This business model design is conducive both in terms of
expansion of the scheme as well as for its long run sustainability.
Insurers: The insurer is paid premium for each household enrolled for RSBY.
Therefore, the insurer has the motivation to enroll as many households as
possible from the BPL list. This will result in better coverage of targeted
beneficiaries.
Hospitals: A hospital has the incentive to provide treatment to large number
of beneficiaries as it is paid per beneficiary treated. Even public hospitals
have the incentive to treat beneficiaries under RSBY as the money from the
insurer will flow directly to the concerned public hospital which they can use
for their own purposes. Insurers, in contrast, will monitor participating
hospitals in order to prevent unnecessary procedures or fraud resulting in
excessive claims.
336
Intermediaries: The inclusion of intermediaries such as NGOs and MFIs

which have a greater stake in assisting BPL households. The intermediaries
will be paid for the services they render in reaching out to the beneficiaries
Government: By paying only a maximum sum up to Rs. 750/- per family per
year, the Government is able to provide access to quality health care to the
below poverty line population. It will also lead to a healthy competition
between public and private providers which in turn will improve the
functioning of the public health care providers.
Information Technology (IT) Intensive: For the first time IT applications are
being used for social sector scheme on such a large scale. Every beneficiary
family is issued a biometric enabled smart card containing their fingerprints
and photographs. All the hospitals empanelled under RSBY are IT enabled
and connected to the server at the district level. This will ensure a smooth
data flow regarding service utilization periodically.
Safe and foolproof: The use of biometric enabled smart card and a key
management system makes this scheme safe and foolproof. The key
management system of RSBY ensures that the card reaches the correct
beneficiary and there remains accountability in terms of issuance of the smart
card and its usage. The biometric enabled smart card ensures that only the
real beneficiary can use the smart card.
Portability: The key feature of RSBY is that a beneficiary who has been
enrolled in a particular district will be able to use his/ her smart card in any
RSBY empanelled hospital across India. This makes the scheme truly unique
and beneficial to the poor families that migrate from one place to the other.
Cards can also be split for migrant workers to carry a share of the coverage
with them separately.
Cash less and Paperless transactions: A beneficiary of RSBY gets cashless
benefit in any of the empanelled hospitals. He/ she only needs to carry his/
her smart card and provide verification through his/ her finger print. For
participating providers it is a paperless scheme as they do not need to send
all the papers related to treatment to the insurer. They send online claims to
the insurer and get paid electronically.
337
Robust Monitoring and Evaluation: RSBY is evolving a robust monitoring

and evaluation system. An elaborate backend data management system is
being put in place which can track any transaction across India and provide
periodic analytical reports. The basic information gathered by government
and reported publicly should allow for mid-course improvements in the
scheme. It may also contribute to competition during subsequent tender
processes with the insurers by disseminating the data and reports.
Table 1 shows that the RSBY had better success in Karnataka. Out of 1,
13,46,934 HHs, only 67,31,881 were aware about the scheme and 59.32% were
enrolled during the period of 2014–2015. Kolar district has Highest
Households (412410) reported that they were enrolled in the state and
Kodugu district 59891 HHs reported at least of the enrolled in the state.
According to the table, it is quite clear that, the RSBY enrolled Status in the
State is better. The percentages of Enrolled are very low even though there is
lot of Health insurance programmes. Hence, the government has to
formulate awareness about RSBY scheme as reaching directly to benefit on
health problems.
Enrollment of Beneficiaries in RSBY -2014

SI District Year of Premium Total Target Families Hospital
N Policy (e.g. (With Empanelled
o First, Service tax) Total Enrolled Private Public
Second)
1 Bagalkot 2 219.00 380847 238916 38 5
2 Bangalore Rural 3 173.00 210345 168824 8 9
3 Bangalore Urban 2 173.00 427804 319654 39 38
4 Belgaum 3 219.00 810955 387271 23 11
5 Bellary 2 163.00 399420 219786 14 3
6 Bidar 2 163.00 323084 191305 10 7
7 Bijapur 2 219.00 449177 271413 18 5
8 Chamrajnagar 2 173.00 164167 86438 9 4
9 Chikballapur 2 173.00 302529 193238 13 5
10 Chikmagalur 2 219.00 212585 128179 8 8
11 Chitradurga 2 173.00 453524 230033 14 15
12 Dakshina 3 173.00 316260 138383 19 11
Kannada
338
13 Davangere 2 173.00 307990 307990 29 6

14 Dharwad 2 219.00 358985 180514 13 4
15 Gadag 2 219.00 239753 140660 8 7
16 Gulbarga 2 219.00 537481 239743 22 8
17 Hassan 2 219.00 461291 246093 14 22
18 Haveri 2 219.00 362681 225138 20 7
19 Kodagu 2 219.00 116296 59891 2 9
20 Kolar 2 173.00 712398 412410 21 4
21 Koppal 2 163.00 292415 188577 7 6
22 Mandya 2 173.00 474775 284740 23 19
23 Mysore 3 173.00 628340 386155 27 9
24 Raichur 2 163.00 416623 164371 12 13
25 Ramanagara 2 173.00 315746 178087 11 2
26 Shimoga 3 219.00 341646 222470 28 8
27 Tumkur 2 173.00 652011 494975 32 7
28 Udupi 2 219.00 149699 105068 16 2
29 Uttara Kannada 2 219.00 275584 186947 13 10
30 Yadgir 2 163.00 252523 134612 1 4
Total 11346934 6731881 512 268
Source: RSBY, Government of India
Conclusion
Government of India launched the Rashtriya Swasthya Bima Yojana
(RSBY) scheme to provide financial protection from catastrophic health
expenses to below poverty line households (HHs). However, it is found from
the study that though this health insurance scheme provide health security,
they are not succeeded upto a satisfactory level to deliver benefits equally to
all the sections of the society. In this direction there is an urgent need to
evaluate the existing health insurance schemes to suit to the needs of poorest
sections. Besides that currently, public health services are weak and
inefficient, save for a few selected pockets; private health care is unregulated
and voluntary health care is scattered, unstructured, unregulated and has a
limited reach. Hence, health care provision needs to be strengthened and
streamlined if health insurance for the poor is to be developed in a big way.
Since health is a state subject, involvement of the state government is
339
essential in achieving this. For successfully running health insurance like

RSBY for the poor, coordination among multiple agencies is needed.
References:
 Thakur, H. (2015). Study of Awareness, Enrollment, and Utilization of Rashtriya
Swasthya Bima Yojana (National Health Insurance Scheme) in Maharashtra,
India. Frontiers in public health, 3.
 Rajasekhar, D., Berg, E., Ghatak, M., Manjula, R., & Roy, S. (2011). Implementing
health insurance: the rollout of Rashtriya Swasthya Bima Yojana in
Karnataka. Economic and Political Weekly, 46(20), 56-63.
 Devadasan, N., Seshadri, T., Trivedi, M., & Criel, B. (2013). Promoting universal
financial protection: evidence from the Rashtriya Swasthya Bima Yojana (RSBY)
in Gujarat, India. Health Research Policy and Systems, 11(1), 1.
 Aiyer, A., Sharma, V., Narayanan, K., Jain, N., Bhat, P., & Mahendiran, S. (2013).
Rashtriya Swasthya Bima Yojana (A Study in Karnataka). Centre for Budget and
Policy Studies (CBPS), Bangalore, India.
 Williams, G., Mladovsky, P., Dkhimi, F., Soors, W., & Parmar, D. (2014). Social
exclusion and social health protection in low-and middle-income countries: an
introduction.
 Seshadri, T., Ganesh, G., Anil, M. H., Kadammanvar, M., Elias, M., Pafi, M. K., ...
& Devadasan, N. (2014). Karnataka case study summary. Towards equitable
coverage and more inclusive social protection in health, 73.
 Gill, H. S., & AK, S. (2010). Rashtriya swsthya bima yojna in India-
Implementation and impact. Int J Multidiscip Res, 2, 155-73.
 Kamath, R., Sanah, N., Machado, L. M., & Sekaran, V. C. (2014). Determinants of
enrolment and experiences of Rashtriya Swasthya Bima Yojana (RSBY)
beneficiaries in Udupi district, India. International Journal of Medicine and
Public Health, 4(1), 82-87.
 Ganesh, G., Seshadri, T., Mh, A., Kadammanavar, M., Elias, M., Mladovsky, P.,
& Soors, W. (2014). What generative mechanisms excluded indigenous people
from social health protection? A study of RSBY in Karnataka. Studies in Health
Services Organisation & Policy (SHSOP), 32, 2014 Series editors: B. Criel, V. De
Brouwere, W. Van Damme and B. Marchal© ITGPress, Nationalestraat 155, B-
2000, Antwerp, Belgium.
340
30
Disparities in Literacy Rate in Karnataka: An Overview
Somashekar C.L
Introduction:
With its wide diversities in physiography, history, demography and
sociology, India has been characterized by regional disparities in socio-economic
development not only between states but also between districts of a state and
between areas (rural-urban) and social groups within districts. It is quite
understood that regional disparities has become a major drawback for having
effective planning process in India since independence and Karnataka is not an
exception to it. Hence, right from the inception of the planning era, problems of
regional disparity had attracted the attention of various commissions, policy
makers, economists, planners, politicians etc in Karnataka. While efforts to reduce
regional disparities were not lacking, achievements were not often commensurate
with these efforts.
In Karnataka major disparities are seen in Human Development, Educational
level, Economic infrastructures, Health Infrastructure, Literacy Level and in Income
Level. Among this, disparity in literacy rate is one the most debated topic since it is
a constitutional right of every citizen. Disparity in education or literacy rate will
lead to disparity in human development as well as economic development. In the
back drop of inclusive growth strategy of India, it is necessary to understand the
regional disparity in educational development (Premakumar and Ahmed, 2010).
Since, literacy plays an important role in overall development of a human being and
studies revealed that there is a positive correlation between literacy rate and human
development, income level, health, information, confidence, dignity, empowerment
341
and independence. Therefore, on the one hand there is an urgent need for reduction
in the disparities in literacy level and on the other there is a need to improve the
overall literacy level. All the states including Karnataka have given special
prominence to education, which has been an integral part of economic planning.
However, disparities in literacy level still exists and the conditions in backward
districts still worse.
Against this background the present study discusses some important
perspectives on the regional disparities in literacy rate existing in Karnataka. The
objectives of the study are; to understand the magnitude of district wise, gender
wise and region wise disparity in literacy rate in Karnataka; To highlight the
measures taken by the government to address regional disparity; To suggest
suitable policy alternatives. The paper is based on the secondary sources of data
and it was gathered from publications of state and central government for different
time periods, journals, books etc.

The regional imbalances within a state are more crucial than those of inter-
state in the view point of “Inclusive Development”. Hence, during the last five
decades, the government of Karnataka has made several efforts to achieve rapid
growth through investments in education, agriculture, industry, infrastructure and
other sectors. However, this development has not been inclusive with 25 percent of
the State's population living below poverty line with the sharp North-South divide
existing in the State (GoK, 2014). Among the regions Hyderabad-Karnataka Area
(Gulbarga Division) continues to be the most excluded and deprived area in
Karnataka in various sectors including literacy levels (Shiddalingaswami and
Raghavendra, 2010). According to the Dr. D.M. Nanjundappa committee (2002)
report 114 out of 175 taluks in Karnataka were declared backward, of which 59 were
from North Karnataka. Besides that 7 out of 8 districts having Human development
Index (HDI) lower than India’s HDI level of 0.621 are in North Karnataka, whereas
all 7 districts having HDI greater than the State average of 0.65 are in South or
Coastal Karnataka and they are Bangalore Rural, Bangalore Urban, Dakshina
Kannada, Kodagu, Uttara Kannada, Shimoga and Udupi (GoK, 2008, GoK, 2005).
All these factors played a major role in literacy rate of their respective districts.
District wise disparity in Literacy Rate:

After the several initiatives taken by the government of Karnataka, the state
is witnessing constant increase in the Effective Literacy Rate (The effective Literacy
rate has been defined as the percentage of total number of literates among the population
342
aged 7 years and above) over the past decades. However, data clearly depicts that
even though the variations over the years have reported a declining trend, wide
inter-district variations in the literacy rate still exists. According to the Census of
India 2011 the Literacy Rate of the State has increased from 66.64 per cent in 2001 to
75.36 per cent in 2011 with an improvement of 8.72 per cent. Data also reveals that
among the districts, Dakshina Kannada District with overall Literacy rate of 88.57
per cent retains its top position, closely followed by Bangalore District (87.67 per
cent) and Udupi District (86.24 per cent). The lowest overall Literacy rate of 51.83
per cent is recorded in the newly created Yadgir District, preceded by Raichur
District which has recorded 59.56 per cent. Apart from these two districts, all the
remaining 28 districts have registered more than 60 per cent Literacy rates. Data
also shows that across the districts, the lowest gain in literacy rate across districts
was seen in Kodagu with increase of 4.62 per cent, which is then followed by Udupi
4.99 per cent, and so on. The highest growth in the literacy rate was seen in Koppal
with increase of 13.99 per cent points in 2011, followed by Yadgir with 11.93 per
cent and so on.
Table 1: District wise Distribution of Literacy Rate (in Percent)
District 2001 2011 Growth District 2001 2011 Growth
01 Belgaum 64.21 73.48 9.27 16 Chikmagalur 72.20 79.25 7.05
02 Bagalkot 57.30 68.82 11.52 17 Tumkur 67.01 75.14 8.13
03 Bijapur 57.01 67.15 10.14 18 Bangalore 82.96 87.67 4.71
04 Bidar 60.94 70.51 9.57 19 Mandya 61.05 70.40 9.35
05 Raichur 48.81 59.56 10.75 20 Hassan 68.63 76.07 7.44
06 Uttara 76.60 84.06 7.46 21 Dakshina 83.35 88.57 5.22
Kannada Kannada
07 Gadag 66.11 75.12 9.01 22 Kodagu 77.99 82.61 4.62
08 Dharwad 71.61 80.00 8.39 23 Mysore 63.48 72.79 9.31
09 Koppal 54.10 68.09 24 Chamarajanag 50.87 61.43
13.99 ar 10.56
10 Haveri 67.79 77.40 9.61 25 Gulbarga 54.34 64.85 10.51
11 Bellary 57.40 67.43 10.03 26 Yadgir 39.90 51.83 11.93
12 Chitradurga 64.45 73.71 9.26 27 Kolar 65.84 74.39 8.55
13 Davanagere 67.43 75.74 28 Chikkaballapu 59.24 69.76
8.31 ra 10.52
14 Shimoga 74.52 80.45 29 Bangalore 69.59 77.93
5.93 Rural 8.34
15 Udupi 81.25 86.24 4.99 30 Ramanagara 60.71 69.22 8.51
Karnataka 66.64 75.36 8.72
Source: Census of India, 2011
343
Gender wise disparity in Literacy Rate:

According to the Census of India 2011, the Literacy rate Male has increased
from 76.10 per cent in 2001 to 82.47 per cent in 2011 with an improvement of 6.37
per cent and on the other hand Female Literacy rate has increased from 56.87 per
cent in 2001 to 68.08 per cent in 2011 with an improvement of 11.21 per cent. The
gender gap in literacy rates in the state got declined by 4.84 percent over the period
2001-2011. Among the male population Koppal district has registered highest
growth with 10.12 percent followed by Yadgir district with 10.09 percent and so on.
Data also shows that Bangalore Urban district has shown least growth i,e 3.09
percent followed by Dakshina Kannada district with 3.43 percent. With respect to
female population is concerned once again Koppal district has registered highest
growth with 17.94 percent followed by Bagalkot district with 14.84 percent and so
on. However, Kodagu district has shown least growth i,e 5.88 percent followed by
Bangalore Urban district with 6.53 percent and so on. The data clearly shows that
female literacy rate is growing faster than the male literacy rate in almost all the
districts of Karnataka state.
Table 2: Gender wise Distribution of Literacy Rate (in Percent)

District 2001 2011 Growth 2001 2011 Growth
Male Female
01 Belgaum 75.70 82.20 6.5 52.32 64.58 12.26
02 Bagalkot 70.88 79.23 8.35 43.56 58.40 14.84
03 Bijapur 69.94 77.21 7.27 43.47 56.72 13.25
04 Bidar 72.46 79.09 6.63 48.81 61.55 12.74
05 Raichur 61.52 70.47 8.95 35.93 48.73 12.8
06 Koppal 68.42 78.54 10.12 39.61 57.55 17.94
07 Gadag 79.32 84.66 5.34 52.52 65.44 12.92
08 Dharwad 80.82 86.37 5.55 61.92 73.46 11.54
09 Uttara Kannada 84.53 89.63 5.1 68.47 78.39 9.92
10 Haveri 77.61 84.00 6.39 57.37 70.46 13.09
11 Bellary 69.20 76.64 7.44 45.28 58.09 12.81
12 Chitradurga 74.66 81.37 6.71 53.78 65.88 12.1
13 Davanagere 76.37 82.40 6.03 58.04 68.91 10.87
14 Shimoga 82.01 86.07 4.06 66.88 74.84 7.96
15 Udupi 88.23 91.41 3.18 75.19 81.58 6.39
16 Chikmagalur 80.29 85.41 5.12 64.01 73.16 9.15
17 Tumkur 76.78 82.81 6.03 56.94 67.38 10.44
18 Bangalore 87.92 91.01 3.09 77.48 84.01 6.53
19 Mandya 70.50 78.27 7.77 51.53 62.54 11.01
344
20 Hassan 78.37 83.64 5.27 59.00 68.60 9.6

21 Dakshina 89.70 93.13 3.43 77.21 84.13
Kannada 6.92
22 Kodagu 83.70 87.19 3.49 72.26 78.14 5.88
23 Mysore 70.88 78.46 7.58 55.81 67.06 11.25
24 Chamarajanagar 59.03 67.93 8.9 42.48 54.92 12.44
25 Gulbarga 66.18 74.38 8.2 42.06 55.09 13.03
26 Yadgir 51.35 62.25 10.9 28.32 41.38 13.06
27 Kolar 75.99 81.81 5.82 55.46 66.84 11.38
28 Chikkaballapura 69.80 77.75 7.95 48.33 61.55 13.22
29 Bangalore Rural 78.99 84.82 5.83 59.67 70.63 10.96
30 Ramanagara 69.88 76.76 6.88 51.22 61.50 10.28
Karnataka 76.10 82.47 6.37 56.87 68.08 11.21
Rural Urban disparity in Literacy Rate

According to the table 3 in the year 2001 rural Karnataka had a literacy rate
of 59.33 percent and in the year 2011 it has gone upto 68.73 percent. And we can see
that there was hike of 9.4 percent. The Table also reveals that during 2001, Urban
Karnataka had a literacy rate of 80.58 percent and it has slightly improved to 85.78
percent. According to the Census of India, during 2001 the rural-urban gap in the
literacy rate was 21.25 percent and it reduced to 17.05 percent during 2011 and we
can see an improvement of 4.2 percent. During 2011, the rural-urban gap in literacy
rate across districts has reduced to some extent, as in the year 2011 the highest
rural-urban gap was recorded in Yadgir district with 24.96 per cent, while the
lowest rural-urban gap was seen in Haveri district with 7.7 per cent. Koppal district
had recorded considerable improvement in the rural literacy rate (15.04 percent),
followed by Bagalkot district with 12.97 percent. While Kodagu district saw least
improvement i,e 4.99 percent followed by Dakshina Kannada District (5.61 percent).
Table 3: Rural Urban disparity in Literacy Rate (in Percent)
State / District 2001 2011
District Rural Urban Gap Rural Urban Gap Reduction Improvement
In Gap in Rural
Literacy
Belgaum 58.85 80.66 21.81 69.28 85.56 16.28 5.53 10.43
Bagalkot 51.23 71.75 20.52 64.20 78.58 14.38 6.14 12.97
Bijapur 51.97 74.59 22.62 62.81 81.33 18.52 4.1 10.84
Bidar 56.71 75.14 18.43 66.73 81.81 15.08 3.35 10.02
Raichur 42.49 66.86 24.37 54.11 75.12 21.01 3.36 11.62
Koppal 51.01 69.14 18.13 66.05 78.03 11.98 6.15 15.04
Gadag 61.55 74.40 12.85 71.86 80.94 9.08 3.77 10.31
345
Dharwad 60.77 80.31 19.54 72.09 85.92 13.83 5.71 11.32

Uttara Kannada 72.65 86.27 13.62 81.31 90.73 9.42 4.2 8.66
Haveri 65.91 74.98 9.07 75.69 83.39 7.7 1.37 9.78
Bellary 50.29 70.24 19.95 61.81 76.63 14.82 5.13 11.52
Chitradurga 60.72 81.14 20.42 70.68 85.89 15.21 5.21 9.96
Davanagere 62.75 78.08 15.33 71.77 84.02 12.25 3.08 9.02
Shimoga 69.61 83.60 13.99 76.37 87.79 11.42 2.57 6.76
Udupi 79.35 89.47 10.12 83.91 92.13 8.22 1.9 4.56
Chikmagalur 69.59 82.87 13.28 76.95 87.93 10.98 2.3 7.36
Tumkur 63.39 81.80 18.41 71.66 87.32 15.66 2.75 8.27
Bangalore 70.24 84.65 14.41 78.21 88.61 10.4 4.01 7.97
Mandya 57.74 78.39 20.65 67.78 83.24 15.46 5.19 10.04
Hassan 65.23 84.43 19.2 72.79 88.36 15.57 3.63 7.56
Dakshina 79.72 89.10 9.38 85.33 92.12 6.79 2.59 5.61
Kannada
Kodagu 76.10 89.74 13.64 81.09 91.48 10.39 3.25 4.99
Mysore 51.84 82.80 30.96 63.29 86.09 22.8 8.16 11.45
Chamarajanagar 47.24 70.88 23.64 57.95 78.39 20.44 3.2 10.71
Gulbarga 46.14 71.64 25.5 58.09 78.61 20.52 4.98 11.95
Yadgir 34.88 63.59 28.71 47.05 72.01 24.96 3.75 12.17
Kolar 58.88 82.58 23.7 69.08 86.13 17.05 6.65 10.2
Chikkaballapura 55.20 76.16 20.96 66.39 81.57 15.18 5.78 11.19
Bangalore Rural 67.23 77.71 10.48 75.16 85.37 10.21 0.27 7.93
Ramanagara 57.15 74.42 17.27 65.26 81.54 16.28 0.99 8.11
Karnataka 59.33 80.58 21.25 68.73 85.78 17.05 4.2 9.4
Efforts initiated by the Government of Karnataka:

As above discussions clearly revealed that both Gulbarga division (Bellary,
Bidar, Gulbarga, Koppal, Raichur, Yadgir) and Belgaum division (Bagalkot,
Belgaum, Bijapur, Dharwad, Gadag, Haveri, Uttara Kannada) shown lesser growth
in literacy rate is considered. Hence, Government of Karnataka has taken several
measures to address regional disparity in literacy rate in the state. As a part of it
Hyderabad Karnataka Area Development Board (HKADB) came into existence on
1991, with an intension to provide extra and supportive assistance for the
development of the most backward region of the state then comprising Gulbarga,
Bidar, Raichur, and Bellary districts. However, the impact of HKADB on the
balanced regional development is negligible and invisible. Next, major step by the
government was, appointment of The High Powered Committee on Redressal of
Regional Imbalances popularly known as Dr. Nanjundappa Committee, it
submitted its report in June 2002. The Committee has recommended a policy mix of
resource transfer, fiscal incentives and special programmes for development of the
346
114 backward taluks in the State. The Committee has also recommended
establishing an appropriate institutional setup to accelerate the process of
development in different sectors. Government has implemented one of the
recommendations of HPC for the redressal of regional disparity, namely, Eight year
Special Development Plan (SDP) in 2007-2008. It is indeed disheartening to note
that the regional development disparity has not decreased as expected during the
period of the implementation of SDP (2007-08 and 2012-13). Finally, in order to
improve socio and economic development of the State's backward regions, the 118th
Constitutional amendment has facilitated Article 371 (J) that provides Special Status
to Hyderabad- Karnataka Region comprising Gulbarga, Bidar, Yadgir, Raichur,
Koppal and Bellary districts, by Government of India (GoK, 2014). These are some
of the measures adopted by the government to address regional imbalance.
Concluding Suggestions:
Following are the some of the suggestions for addressing chronic disparities in
literacy rate existing in Karnataka.
Focusing More on Gulbarga and Belgaum divisions
Since, Gulbarga and Belgaum divisions are more backward compared to
Mysore and Bangalore divisions, there is a need to increase the allocations
substantially especially to the districts of Hyderabad-Karnataka region to bring
about a significant transformation. The focus needs to be on education, health and
nutrition, because health and education are closely related. If we improve socio-
economic condition literacy can be automatically improved. Besides that,
formulation and effective implementation of development programmes tailored to
the needs of the region are required to meet the challenges of these regions. Article
371-J may provide the necessary impetus for development of the region and it
should be implemented correctly.
Not neglecting the backward districts of Mysore and Bangalore Division

No doubt, north Karnataka as a whole has to be taken care of but a special
attention should also be given to south’s backward districts like Chamarajnagar and
Mandya. Their literacy rate is far less than that of some northern districts. Besides
this is need to frame of a regional development policy to address regional disparity
as a specific problem and ensure equitable development.
Creating additional Infrastructure

In order to address the district wise disparities in literacy rates, the
infrastructure available in the schools of backward districts especially Gulbarga and
347
Belgaum Division, should be well-developed and numbers of rural schools has to

be increased with easy accessibility for better enrolment rates.
Student retention Strategies

For addressing gender wise disparity in literacy rate the government should
focus more on student retention strategies in general and female students in
particular in schools. So that the retention rates of females in the school can be
improved and drop out rate can be reduced. Awareness should be created among
male regarding female literacy is concerned.
Government of Karnataka has taken several measures to improve the literacy
rate in both rural and urban areas of Karnataka especially female literacy. There has
been a good improvement in literacy rate of Karnataka in last 10 years but there is
still a long way to go. Disparities in literacy rate reflect essentially the inadequacies
of the development strategy followed since independence and its failure to correct
the distortions brought about by colonial rule. This has brought to sharp focus the
need of better understanding of the pattern of regionalization, the nature of
regional imbalances and their changing structure over time. Hence, balanced
regional development in all sectors including literacy levels is necessary for the
harmonious growth of Karnataka.
References:
 Census of India (2011): Provisional Population Totals, Paper 2, (Karnataka, Series
30), Vol. 1. 2011, Government of India, New Delhi
 GoK, (2005): Karnataka Human Development report 2005, Karnataka State
Planning Board, Karnataka.
 GoK, (2008): Karnataka A Vision for Development, Karnataka State Planning
Board, Karnataka
 GoK, (2014): Economic Survey of Karnataka 2013-14, Directorate of Economics and
Statistics, Government of Karnataka.
 Mohammed Ashfaq Ahmed and. Honakeri (2012): Regional and Gender Disparities
of Literacy Rates in Karnataka – Evidence From Census 2001 And 2011, Indian
Streams Research Journal, Vol.2, Issue.3.
 Shiddalingaswami and V. K. Raghavendra,(2010): Regional Disparities In
Karnataka: A District Level Analysis Of Growth And Development, CMDR
Monograph Series No. 60, Dharwad.
348
349

Rediscovery of Inclusive Growth by Dinesha P T

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Rediscovery of Inclusive Growth by Dinesha P T

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Dr.

Ramachandra Murthy K, is Though, India is one of the fastest growing

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced, stored,

First Published in December 2016

Printed at: Sri Annapurna Offset Printers, Mysore, Karnataka

DR. S MAHENDRA KUMAR

Inclusive growth is necessary for sustainable development and

DR. S. MAHENDRA KUMAR

Inclusive growth is a concept that advances equitable opportunities

1 Status of Tribal Women: A Case Study in Karnataka 1-9

2 Analysis Of Beneficiaries Response Towards Public 10-31

3 Impact Of Reservation On Higher Education In India 32-45

4 Gender Disparity And The Possibility Of Inclusive Growth: 46-60

5 Constitutional Regime on Affirmative Action in Public 61-75

6 Agriculture And Sustainable Development 76-93

8 Excluded Among The Scheduled And Strategies For inclusive 108-116

9 Contextualizing Tribal Redistribution Amidst 117-133

10 New Strategies for Sustainable Agriculture Development 134-149

11 A Pragmatic Case Study Of The Impact And Intricacies Of 150-166

12 Problemes In Inclusive Growth In India 167-177

13 Urban India And Environmental Degredation - Is Inclusive 178-188

14 Gender Disparities in Karnataka: Need for an Effective 189-205

15 Challenges Of First Generation Students 206-211

16 Career Opportunities In Agribusiness Management 212-224

18 Economic Empowerment Of Women: A Measure Towards 234-243

19 Women Empowerment through Skills Development: 244-248

21 Agriculture Credit Reform and Financial Inclusion in India 257-266

22 Empowering Rural Women: An Impact Assessment of Selp 267-279

23 Social Exclusion a Study on Child Labour 280-284

24 Green Schools for Green Economy and Inclusive Growth 285-289

25 Inclusive Development of Scheduled Caste and Scheduled 290-298

26 Discourse On Sustainable Development In India 299-311

28 Tourism And Inclusive Growth In India 325-332

30 Disparities in Literacy Rate in Karnataka: An Overview 341-348

 B.B.Ballari Dr., Asst Prof (Gf) University Law College. Bangalore

 Siddaraju V.G, Associate Professor, Centre for Study of Social

 Somashekar C.L, Asst. Professor, DOS in Public Administration,

 Suchismita Sur, Department of Anthropology, University of

Status of Tribal Women: A Case Study in Karnataka

societies. The conceptual framework to analyse women’s status comprise the

Widespread use of modern technology, a joint failure of medical ethics

Limitations Of The Study

Socio-Economic Status of Tribal Women:

background of respondents. Nevertheless, these variables could help us to

Women’s Role in Economic Sphere

Women’s Role in Social Sphere

Women’s Role in Religious Sphere

Concept of Women’s Space

Equal Rights to Men and Women

implementation as well as culture resistance gave rise to more gender

Significance of the study

Objectives of the study

Results and Discussions

Figure1: Category of Ration Card holders

Table 2: Age of the respondents

Figure 5.2: Age of the respondents

Table 3: Occupation of the respondents

Figure 3: Occupation of the respondents

In the survey most of the respondents were of labors, majority were of

Table 4: Income of the Card holders

Figure 4: Income of the card holders

Table 5: Family size of the respondents

Figure 5: Family size of the respondents

Table 6: Education status of the respondents